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Equations of Motions
Performance analysis
hinges on knowledge of
the airplane drag polar.
It is a graph or an
equation that accounts
for all types of drag in
an airplane and how it
relates to lift.
Induced drag
Zero-lift drag
Drag due to lift
Wave drag
Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal
Drag Types
Form Drag (Drag due to flow separation) Induced Drag Wave Drag
1
C D C D ,0 (r 2
)C L
eAR
2
CL
CD CD,0
πeAR
Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal
Drag polar of a complete airplane
2
C
CD CD , 0 C D , 0 C D ,i L
eAR
induced drag
parasite drag coefficient
Oswald’s coefficient at
efficiency zero lift
factor
Lockheed C-141A
(C L C Lmin drag ) 2
C D C D ,min
πeAR
NOTE:
TR D Thrust Required
is a function of
velocity.
It has two
components.
It has a minimum.
TR D
2
1 1 1 CL
TR D V SC D V S ( C Do C Di ) V S ( C Do
2 2 2
)
2 2 2 eAR
2
L
(1 / 2) V S
2
1
TR V S ( C Do
2 )
2 eAR
2
1 W 1
TR V SC Do (
2
)( )
2 1 V S eAR
2
2
Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal
Thrust Required for Level, Unaccelerated Flight
2
1 W 1
TR V SC Do (
2
)( )
2 1 V S eAR
2
2
zero-lift lift-induced
thrust required thrust required
1/ 2
2 1 W
VTR ,min
C Do eAR S
TR D
W
Since L W TR
TR C D
CL / CD
W CL
W W
TR
CL / CD L / D
Wingspan = 35.8 ft
Wing area = 174 ft2
Normal gross weight = 2950 lb
Fuel capacity: 65 gal of aviation gasoline
Power plant: one-piston engine, 230 hp (SL)
Specific fuel consumption= 0.45 lb/(hp)(h)
Parasite drag coefficient CD,o = 0.025
Oswald efficiency factor, e = 0.8
Propeller efficiency = 0.8
Cessna Skylane
Wingspan = 53.3 ft
Wing area = 318 ft2
Normal gross weight = 19,815 lb
Fuel capacity: 1119 gal of kerosene
Power plant: two turbofan engines of 3650-lb thrust each at sea level
Specific fuel consumption = 0.6 lb of fuel/(lb thrust)(h)
Parasite drag coefficient CD,o = 0.02
Oswald efficiency factor e = 0.81
Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal
Example
derived: eAR
Thus, C L / C D C D , 0eAR / 2C D , 0 eAR / 4C D , 0
and this is a maximum
because an (L/D)max is simultaneous with a TRmin.
Thus,
CL eAR / 4C
C
D max
D,0
to to
1 W 2
1 W
TR V SC Do (
2
)( ) TR
1 V S eAR
2 CL
2 C
2 D
1/ 2
2
2 1 W
VTR ,min
Lower C Do eAR S
1/ 2
2 1 W
VTR ,min
Higher C Do eAR S
W
TR ,min
CL
C
D max
Propeller-Piston Engine
Jet Engine
The intersection
of the TA and TR
curve gives Vmax at
a certain altitude.
1
T W A
W T
2
4C 2
A
D,0
W max S S W max eAR
Vmax
CD,0
A
W max S S W max eAR
Vmax
CD ,0
A
W max S S W max eAR
Vmax
CD ,0
P
TA max
Vmax
TA P 1 34.305
W max W Vmax Vmax
PR = TRV∞
Power Required is
a function of
velocity.
It has two
components.
It has a minimum.
Get f’(V∞).
Equate to zero.
Solve for V∞ in f’(V∞)=0 to get VPR,min.
Substitute V∞ in f(V∞) to get PR,min.
V , PR ,min
3C D , 0eAR S
1
2 1 W
2
V , PR ,min
3C D , 0eAR S
2
3 2
2W C D 1
2W PR a
V SCL 3
CL
3/ 2
SCL CD
3 2
2W C D
PR
SCL 3
2W 3 1
PR ,min
S C 32
L
CD
max
PR TRV
3
C 2 1 3eAR
3
3 4
L 3C eAR 4
D , 0
CD 4 C
4 CD,0 3 1
max D,0
At PRmin
3C D , 0 C Di
Thus,
3
C 2
3
3eAR 4
L 1
CD 4 C 13
max D,0
V , PR ,min
3C D , 0eAR S
2W 3 1
PR
S C 32
L
CD
C D , 0 C D ,i 3C D , 0 C Di
3C D , 0eAR
3
CL eAR / 4C C 2 1 3eAR
3 3 4
4
C L
D max CD 4 C D , 0 13
D,0
max 4C D , 0
1/ 2
2 W 2
1
W
2
1 1
VTR ,min V , PR ,min
C Do eAR S
3C D , 0eAR S
T D W sin
L W cos
TV DV
V sin
W
R / C V sin
TV DV
R/C
W
Where:
3
Z 1 1
L / D 2max T / W 2max
Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal
Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal
What is a Ceiling?
R/C 0
h2
dh
t
h1
R/C
Altitude, H
H0 dh ( R / C ) max
t
( R / C ) max,0 0 H 0 H H0
H0 H0
t ln
( R / C ) max,0 H 0 H
sin D
cos L
1
tan
L
D
L
D max
10,000 ft
10,000 ft L
Rmax h( ) max 10000(13.61)
D
136,000 ft
10,000 ft L
Rmax h( ) max 10000(136.9)
D
169,000 ft
1 At (L/D)max
L W cos V SC L
2
2 C L2
CD,0 C D ,i
eAR
2 cos W C L C D , 0eAR
V
CL S
C L (0.025) (0.8)(7.37)
CL corresponding to (L/D)max C L 0.634
dW dW f
dt dt
W W f
lb of fuel lb of fuel
SFC TSFC
BHPhour lb of thrust hour
dW f dW f
W f dt W f dt
c ct
P P T T
V
ct c
pr
lb of fuel lb of fuel
SFC
HP hour (HP) mile V
lb of fuel SFCHP
( SFC)TR
mile V
pr L
W0 structures
R ln and materials
propulsion c D W1
To maximize range:
Fly at largest propeller efficiency
Lowest possible SFC
Highest ratio of W0 to W1 (fly with the largest fuel weight)
Fly at maximum L/D (minimum TR)
pr L
W0
Rmax ln
c D max W1
Normal gross weight = 2950 lb
Fuel capacity: 65 gal of aviation gasoline
Specific fuel consumption= 0.45 lb/(hp)(h)
Parasite drag coefficient CD,o = 0.025
Oswald efficiency factor, e = 0.8
Propeller efficiency = 0.8
pr L W0 0.8 2950
Rmax ln 7
(13.62) ln 6.38 x 10 6
ft 1207 mi
c D max W1 2.27 x 10 2583
TR 1 2W 1
S CD 1
V 2 SCL CL 2
CD
c D W
W0 t ct S CD
12
2 2 CL
R (W0 W1 )
12 12
ct S CD
To maximize range:
Fly at minimum TSFC
Maximum fuel weight
Maximum L1/2/D
Fly at high altitudes (low density)
f ' (C )
C D,0 KC L (1 / 2)C L
2
1 / 2
C L (2 KC L )
1/ 2
0
L
C D,0 KC L
2 2
C D,0 KC L (1 / 2)C L
2
1 / 2
C L (2 KC L ) 0
1/ 2
C D , 0 3KC L 3C D ,i
2
C D , 0 3C D ,i C D ,i (1 / 3)C D , 0
C D C D , 0 (1 / 3)C D , 0 (4 / 3)C D , 0
CL
1/ 2
C D , 0 3K
1/ 2
27
1
1/ 4
C 3
D max (4 / 3)C D , 0 256 K (C D,0 )
1/ 4
CL 1/ 2
27 1
C D , 0 3C D ,i
C 256 K (C ) 3
D max D,0
3
C 2 1
3 4
L
3
CD 4 KC D , 0 13 3C D , 0 C D ,i
max
Where K 1 / πeAR
Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal
Example
Estimate the maximum range for the CJ-1.
2 CL
12
2
Rmax (W01 2 W11 2 )
ct S C D max
2 CL
12
2
Rmax (W0 W1 )
12 12
ct S C D
max
2 2
Rmax 4
(23.4)(19815 12352 )
12 12
1.667 x 10 0.001184(318)
lb of fuel
a (SFC)(PR )
hour
CL SC L dW
W0
P DV / E cC
W1 D 2 W32
dW
E W0 W0
dW
E dt
CL
2 S 1 2 W11 2 W0 1 2
32
0 W1
cP W1 c DV E
c CD
V 2W SC L Assumptions made: level, unaccelerated flight
with constant SFC, η and L3/2/D.
Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal
Endurance: Piston-Propeller
CL
W
32
E 2 S
12
1
1 2
W0
1 2
c CD
To maximize endurance, fly at:
Largest propeller efficiency, η
Lowest possible SFC
Largest fuel weight
Fly at maximum CL3/2/CD
Flight at sea level
c C D max
3
C 2 3
4
L 1 3eAR 12.81
CD 4 1
max C
D,0
3
1 2 1
(12.81)2(0.002377)(174)
0.8 1
E 7
1/ 2
2583 2950
1/ 2
2.7 x 10
E 5.19 x 10 4 s 14.4 h
lb of fuel
TSFC
lb of thrust hour
lb of fuel
a (TSFC)(TA )a (TSFC)(TR )
hour
E W1
dW Assumptions made:
E dt level, unaccelerated
0
cT
W0 t A
flight with constant
W1
TSFC and L/D.
1 L dW
E
c D W
W0 t
1 C L W0
E ln
ct C D W1
To maximize endurance, fly at:
Minimum TSFC
Maximum fuel weight
Maximum L/D
1 CL W0
Emax ln
ct C D max W1
1 19815
Emax 4
(16.9) ln
1.667 x 10 12352
E 4.79 x 10 s 13.3 h
4
Equations of Motions
dV F
F ma m ds Vdt tdt
dt m
s t
F F F t2
dV dt s ds' t ' dt '
m 0 0
m m 2
V t 2
F F F Vm 1 V 2 m
V dV ' dt ' t s
0 0
m m m F 2 2F
Rolling resistance
mr = 0.02 relatively smooth paved surface
mr = 0.10 grass field
F T D R T D mr W L m
dV
dt
Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal
Coefficient of Rolling Friction
V 2m
s
2F
F T D m r W L
1
L V SC L
2
2
1 CL
2
D V S C D0
2
2 eAR
16h b 2
1 16h b
2
16h b
2
1 16h b
2
1 C
2
D V S C D0
2 L
2 eAR
F T D m r W L constant?
2
VLO (W g )
sLO
2 Feff
1.44W 2
sLO
g SC L ,max {T [ D m R (W L)]ave }
2
1.44W
sLO
g SC L ,maxT
Lift-off distance:
Is very sensitive to weight; varies as W2
Depends on ambient density
May be decreased by:
Increasing wing area, S
Increasing CL,max
Increasing thrust, T
16h b
2
0.764
1 16h b
2
2
1 C
2
D V S C D0
2 L
2 eAR
1 1.0 2
(0.002377)(160.3) (318) 0.02 0.764
2
520.7 lb
2 (0.81)(8.93)
1.44(19815) 2
sLO
32.2(0.002377)(318)(1.0){7300 [520.7 (0.02)(19815 9712)]}
sLO 3532 ft
ground roll
A+B
Additional distance travelled such that
Distance up to V1 the distance required to clear an obstacle
equals
the distance required for a full stop
sa R sin
Where, 6.96(Vstall ) 2
R
g
h
cos (1 )
1
R
h is the obstacle height.
Ft 2 force just as we
sL did in takeoff
m 2 performance?
2
V m
sL
2F
Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal
Landing Roll
0 0
F T D R T D m r W L m
dV
dt
F ( D R) [ D m r W L ] m
dV
dt
Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal
Landing Roll
F [ D m r W L ] m
dV
dt
Assume a constant
effective force,
Feff [ D m r W L ]ave
2W
VT 1.3Vstall 1.3
SCL ,max
1.69W 2 0
sL
g SCL ,max [TR D m R (W L)]0.7VT
with spoilers
with reverse thrust
2W 2(12353)
VT 1.3Vstall 1.3 1.3 148.6 ft/s
SCL ,max 0.002377(318)(2.5)
1 1
D V SCD0 90.002377)(104) 2 (318)(0.022) 89.9 lb
2
2 2
1.69W 2
sL
g SCL ,max ( D m RW ) 0.7VT
1.69(12353) 2
sL 842 ft
32.2(0.002377)(318)(2.5)[89.9 0.4(12352)]
D T W sin
D T 1 T
sin
W W L D W
h f R R cos
Vf
2
50 h f
R sa
0.2 g tan
from pull up maneuver analysis
Aircraft Performance | AERO BOARD PREP 2016 | LF Banal
Flare Distance
s f R sin
L Turn Rate
n Load Factor
W d V g n 2 1
dt R V
Fr W n 2 1
V2
Fr m
R
1
K
eAR
LT
nmax
D W max
V∞ is constrained by stall.
2 W n
Vstall
ρ S C L ,max
4 K (W / S )
(V ) Rmin
(T / W )
V2
R
4 KC D , 0 g n2 1
nRmin 2
(T / W ) 2
4 K (W / S )
Rmin
g (T / W ) 1 4 KC D , 0 /(T / W ) 2
T / W CD,0
1/ 2
max q
W / S 2 K K
V2
m L W
R
V2
R
g n 1
g n 1
V
V2
R
g n 1
g n 1
V
V2
R
gn
gn
V
2 W
Rmin
gCL ,max S
C L ,max nmax
max g
2(W / S )
Equations of Motions