RUDDER

GEOMETRY , HYDRODYNAMICS & DESIGN

Why do we need a rudder ?

 Rudder is a control surface which is used for

steering the ship in the horizontal direction and
also to maintain a straight course .
 It is used as a roll motion stabilizer .
 It is used in braking the ship .
Rudder action
Types of Rudder

 Balanced rudder
A rudder with between 20 and 40% of
its area forward of the stock is balanced
since there will be some angle at which
the resultant moment on the stock due
to the water force will be zero. 
 Unbalanced rudder .
If the rudder has its entire
area aft of the rudder stock
then it is unbalanced 
 Semi-Balanced rudder.
Most modern rudders are of the
semi-balanced design. This
means that that a certain
proportion of the water force
acting on the after part of the
rudder is counter acted by the
force acting on the for'd half of
the rudder; hence, the steering
gear can be lighter and smaller
Types of rudders
Rudder geometry
Notations :

 Chord ( c ) length of chord from leading edge to trailing edge

 Span ( S ) overall length of lifting surface
 Plan area ( A ) span mean chord
 Root chord ( CR ) length of chord at root
 Tip chord ( CT ) length of chord at tip
 Taper Ratio (TR) CT / CR
 Mean chord (c – ) ( CT CR )/2, or Area/Span, A/S
 Aspect ratio (AR) span/mean chord, S/c , or span 2 /plan area, S2 / A
Forces generated on the rudder :
 Lift force generated by the rudder .

where, L = lift force

ρ = density of the water in which the rudder is operating
A = effective rudder area
V = free ship stream velocity
 Drag force generated by the rudder .

where, D = drag force

ρ = density of the water in which the rudder is operating
A = effective rudder area
V = free ship stream velocity
 Normal force generated .

where, N = normal force

ρ = density of the water in which the rudder is operating
A = effective rudder area
V = free ship stream velocity
 = angle of attack
 RUDDER DESIGN
 Input rudder parameters
(i) Number of rudders
The number of rudders will depend on the ship type and service, or yacht or boat size and purpose.
In motor-propelled vessels, the number of rudders will generally follow the number of propellers. In
sailing yachts, the number will depend on the required total rudder area and performance
requirements

(ii) Rudder type

The rudder type chosen will often be related to the ship type and stern arrangement. There are,
however, circumstances where alternatives may be available, such as the choice between an all
movable spade-type rudder , a full- skeg rudder, or a semi-balanced skeg rudder .Typical reasons
for choosing the alternatives include hydrodynamic performance, structural design, layout and
maintenance.
1. All moving rudder

2. Balanced rudder with fixed structure

3. All moving rudder with flaps

(iii)Area
A suitable rudder area for a given hull form can be selected to satisfy desired degrees of
dynamic stability and maneuvering performance in calm water. Since full-form ships are
generally less stable, relatively more rudder area for these ships is helpful for meeting
stability requirements. The final determination of rudder area should reflect the fact that
relatively large rudders provide superior performance under adverse conditions of wind and
wave.
(iv) Aspect ratio
For example, if there are any draught limitations, then maintaining a required rudder area
will lead to an increase in rudder chord length and decrease in aspect ratio. Such low
aspect ratios can be seen on shallow draught in land is important in that it affects the aspect
ratio used for the performance predictions.
#NOTE: An increase in aspect ratio for a spade rudder can lead to conflicting outcomes
since it will lead to an increase in rudder root bending moment , increase in root thickness
for structural reasons and a consequent decrease in hydrodynamic performance.
(v) Profile shape: taper ratio and sweep

Profile shape tends not to have a significant influence on hydrodynamic performance.

Small amounts of taper and sweep tend to be the norm. Further adjustments to shape may
occur to suit particular stern arrangements

(vi) Chord wise section shape and thickness

The choice of chord wise hydrodynamic performance. Standard aerofoil type section shape
will follow design requirements for sections are used in most cases, but specialized sections
may be employed where increased lift curve slope, delayed stall, low drag or the avoidance
of cavitation is sought.
(vii) Position of stock, balance

Balance can be fundamental to the rudder design since it influences tiller forces and steering
gear size. As the centre of action of the forces (centre of pressure) moves aft with increase in
incidence, it is generally not possible to fully balance a rudder or control surface over a range
of incidence.

(viii) Rudder location relative to hull

The top of the rudder should be kept as far below the water surface as possible. Shiba (1960)
indicates that the depth of submergence (I) to the midspan of the rudder should be not less
than about 0.9 of the span (b) to avoid the deleterious effects of the free surface on rudder lift.
If the submergence ratio is less than 0.9, the effect on the rudder normal force coefficient is
reduced .
(ix)Rudder location relative to propeller
Locating rudders at the stern in the propeller race takes advantage of the added velocity of
the race both at normal ahead speeds and at zero ship speed. This advantage is significant
and may not require any increase in propulsion power over what would be required if the
rudder were not in the race. The reason for this fortunate circumstance is that a properly
shaped rudder in the race can recover some of the rotating energy of the race which would
otherwise be lost.
#NOTE: A rudder should not be located in the center line of propeller in high speed vessels
as the hub sheds a vortex or cavitation cone which tends to erode a rudder located directly
abaft the hub. Because of this effect, twin rudders of high-speed ships are sometimes
displaced a short distance athwartships from the center line of the propeller shaft, but are
nevertheless still substantially in the propeller race.
 Input flow conditions
(i) Effective inflow velocity

In the case of a sailing craft, or a twin screw motor ship with a rudder not in way of the
propellers, the effective inflow velocity will be estimated by taking into account the slowing
down effect of the hull. In the case where the rudder is operating downstream of a propeller,
this will amount to estimating the slowing down effect of the hull on the propeller, together
with the accelerating effect of the propeller on the flow into the rudder. Where performance
data are available for the rudder operating downstream of a propeller, the data are entered
at the appropriate propeller thrust loading, KT / J2 . Alternatively, the propeller induced
velocity is applied directly to the free-stream rudder data.
(ii) Effective rudder incidence

The effective inflow incidence on a control surface is likely to be different from the set incidence.
For a sailing craft, the rudder can often be operating in the downwash of the keel. For a ship or a
boat just entering a turn, the hull develops a drift or leeway angle which decreases the effective
rudder angle, whilst the hull and the propeller have flow straightening effects, which increase the
effective angle. These factors will be taken into account in manoeuvring simulations and may be
considered in the preliminary rudder design process.
 Output data
(i) CL over range of incidence
(ii) CD over range of incidence
(iii) CL max
(iv) α stall
(v) Centre of pressure
(vi) Pressure (load) distribution
INPUT Effective DESIGN PARAMETERS
ShipType, Dimensions, Geometric
Aspect Profile shape/taper
Speed and Particulars. RUDDER AREA Aspect
Rudder type, No. of
Ratio ARE ratio/sweep
Ratio ARG
rudders ( kARG) Section shape/thickness
ratio
Stock location
Empirical:
Function of
Calculated:
Stern layout: Stern layout:
ship
Required lift End shape? Rudder position and size
and drag Draught
dimensions
limitation? Free surface? relative to propeller: X/D,
Y/D, Z/D,

Propeller Thrust Loading

Coursekeeping.
Manoeuvring Simulation Inflow Velocity
Effective Angle of Attack

Torque, Stock Location,Rudder

Steering Gear
Bearing friction Balance Free Stream
Data

Structural Calculations RUDDER DATA

Stock Diameter Bending Moment CL, CD, CLmax ,  stall, Rudder-Propeller
Torque CPc, CPS Interaction Data

Structural Calculations Load/Pressure

Scantlings Detailed Loadings LIFT, DRAG, Distribution Data
Finite Element Analysis CENTRE OF
PRESSURE