Enggphys Modules - Student Copy - ST 2022

MODULE IN
PHYSICS for ENGINEERS (LECTURE)
ENGGPHYS
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING Department
SCHOOL of ENGINEERING and ARCHITECTURE

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ENGR. MYLENE M. OCASION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents
TITLE PAGE …………………………………………………………………………………………………….i
TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................................................................1

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES…………………………………………………………………………...2
COURSE OVERVIEW .........................................................................................................................................3

MODULE 1: VECTORS ......................................................................................................................................6
MODULE 2: KINEMATICS.............................................................................................................................. 24
MODULE 2 UNIT 1: MOTION ON A STRAIGHT LINE................................................................................. 24
KINEMATICS UNIT 2: MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS ............................................................................ 34
MODULE 3: DYNAMICS ................................................................................................................................ 41
MODULE 4: WORK, ENERGY and POWER ................................................................................................ 53
MODULE 5: IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM ................................................................................................... 69
MODULE 6: ROTATING BODIES................................................................................................................... 76
MODULE 6 UNIT 1: ROTATIONAL MOTION ............................................................................................... 76
MODULE 6 UNIT 2: DYNAMICS OF ROTATION ........................................................................................ 85
MODULE 6 UNIT 3: ELASTICITY .................................................................................................................... 93
MODULE 7: OSCILLATIONS.......................................................................................................................... 98
MODULE 8: WAVES ..................................................................................................................................... 105
MODULE 9: FLUIDS AT REST........................................................................................................................ 118
MODULE 10: HEAT TRANSFER .................................................................................................................... 124
MODULE 11: ELECTROSTATICS.................................................................................................................. 131
MODULE 12: ELECTRICITY .......................................................................................................................... 142
MODULE 13: MAGNETISM ......................................................................................................................... 155
MODULE 14: OPTICS ................................................................................................................................... 163
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, 1
ENGG PHYS
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Demonstrate knowledge of physics
concepts and principles by
describing everyday phenomena
and analyze problems on vectors,
one- and two-dimensional motion
and Newton‘s laws.
and analyze problems on work,
energy and power, impulse and
momentum and dynamics of
rotation.
and analyze problems on simple
harmonic motion, fluids at rest, heat
transfer, mechanical waves,
PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS electricity, magnetism, and optics.
4. Demonstrate ability to use
(CALCULUS – BASED LECTURE)
mathematical tools, including
calculus in solving problems
involving physics concepts and
principles.
“Physics is essentially an intuitive and concrete science.
Mathematics is only a means for expressing the laws that
govern the phenomena”
Albert Einstein
COURSE OVERVIEW
Dear Future Chemical Engineers,
In this course, you will learn about physics as a core component of engineering
analysis and computations. This course will enable you to understand and solve problems
applied to engineering principles by applying calculus and basic mathematics.
Your academic experience as Chemical Engineering student will be utilized in this

course. To ensure that you will demonstrate the above cited course learning outcomes at
the end of the semester, this module is divided into the following:
MODULE 1: VECTORS – This aims to give you an overview of vector quantities. It will enable
you to differentiate scalar quantities to vector quantities. It will enable you to perform
mathematical operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) of vectors
1) graphically and 2) analytically to solve corresponding application problems.
MODULE 2: KINEMATICS – This aims to give you an overview on motion along a straight
line and in two dimensions. It will enable you to Describe rectilinear motion using graphs,
diagrams, equations; and, in terms of distance/displacement, average/instantaneous
speed, velocity, and acceleration. This module will help you solve problems on rectilinear
motion with constant acceleration and free fall as well as two-dimensional motion in
general and particularly projectile motion.
MODULE 3: DYNAMICS – This aims to give you an overview on forces and Newton‘s Laws of
Motion. It will enable you to apply Newton‘s Laws of Motion to analyze and solve problems
involving a body in equilibrium or a body in acceleration.
MODULE 4: WORK, ENERGY AND POWER – This aims to give you an overview on the concept
of work, energy and power and work – energy relation. It will enable you to Solve problems
on work done by a constant or by a varying force, as well as problems in mechanics,
applying the concepts of gravitational potential energy, kinetic energy, work-energy
theorem, and mechanical power.
MODULE 5: IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM – This aims to give you an overview on the concepts
of impulse and momentum. This will enable you to Solve problems related to momentum,
impulse, and conservation of momentum.
MODULE 6: ROTATING BODIES – This aims to give you an overview on the basic concepts of
rotational motion particularly angular displacement, angular velocity and angular
acceleration, dynamics of rotation particularly torque and the rotation of rigid bodies and
elasticity particularly Hooke‘s law and Young‘s modulus of elasticity. This will enable you to
Solve problems on rotational motion, dynamics of rotation, and elasticity.
MODULE 7: OSCILLATIONS – This aims to give you an overview on simple harmonic motion
(simple pendulum and spring-mass systems). It will enable you to Solve problems on SHM
involving horizontal spring system, vertical spring system, and simple pendulum.
MODULE 8: WAVES– This aims to give you an overview on the properties of waves and the
types mechanical of waves. It will give you an idea on the mathematical representation of
waves and the modes of vibration. It will enable you to Solve problems on the
mathematical representation of a wave and problems related to the modes of
mechanical waves.
MODULE 9: FLUIDS AT REST – This aims to give you an overview on the basic concepts of
fluids at rest. This module will also enable you to Solve problems on the application of
Archimedes‘ Principle.
MODULE 10: HEAT TRANSFER – This aims to give you an overview on the basic concepts of
heat energy and heat transfer and to solve problems on heat transfer.
MODULE 11: ELECTROSTATICS– This aims to give you an overview on the basic concepts of
electrostatics and methods of charging. This module will also include discussions on electric
force and charging. It will enable you to solve problems involving the different methods of
charging and electric force.
MODULE 12: ELECTRICITY – This aims to give you an overview on Electricity specifically
current, voltage and resistance. This module will also include laws on electricity such as
Ohm‘s Law. This module also includes series and parallel circuits. It will enable you to Solve
basic problems involving current, resistance, and voltage in circuits that contain DC
sources and resistors in series and/or parallel.
MODULE 13: MAGNETISM – This aims to give you an overview on the basic concepts of
magnetism specifically magnetic field, magnetic field intensity and magnetic flux. It will
enable you to solve problems involving magnetic field, magnetic field intensity and
magnetic flux.
MODULE 14: OPTICS – This module will give you an overview of the basic concepts on the
nature and properties of light. It will enable you to solve problems involving the nature of
light, refraction, and reflection.
Sincerely,
Engr. Mylene M. Ocasion

Course Facilitator
MODULE 1: VECTORS
ENGAGE
Where can you apply physical quantities in your daily activities?
What is the difference between scalar and vector quantities?
Which method is more accurate in solving vector sums (graphical or analytical method?)
What is the difference between DOT and CROSS products?
EXPLORE
Read Module 1: Introduction and Vectors (pp 6 – 14)
EXPLAIN
PHYSICS
 Physics is the most fundamental science
- basis or the foundation of other physical sciences like chemistry, geology, and
astronomy
- most principles or laws of the other sciences are based on the principles of physics
 Physics is the study of the basic laws of nature
- basic concepts and laws of physics govern most of the things that happen around
us
 Physics is an experimental science
- physics is a science of measurement
Physics and its importance in the field of engineering:

Basically, physics is involved with the study of energy and its different forms. It
therefore serves as a foundation to engineering which is primarily involved with the design,
construction and operation of devices, machines, structures, and systems which in various
ways utilize these different forms of energy.
Physics is a quantitative science. It involves a lot of measurements and
computational analyses. It is therefore imperative that the student of physics should have
extensive proficiency with mathematical concepts, principles, and operations. Student
should have considerable knowledge on algebra, trigonometry, analytic geometry, and
calculus.
Basic Concepts of Physics:

1. matter – anything that occupies space and has weight
- it possesses inertia
- it is subject to gravity
2. mass – the amount or quantity of matter in a body
3. motion – the displacement of a body with reference to another body
4. force – that which is capable of changing the condition of rest or motion of a
certain body
BRANCHES OF PHYSICS
1. Classical physics
- Branch of physics that deals with objects moving less than the speed of light
- All branches established before 1900‘s
Sub-branches: (some)
o Mechanics – oldest branch of physics; deals with the behaviour of objects
subjected to forces and/or motion
 Statics – study of matter at rest, and forces in equilibrium
 Dynamics – deals with forces and their relation to motion
o Acoustics – deals with the behaviour and properties of sound waves
o Thermodynamics – deals with the relation of heat and other forms of energy
2. Modern physics
- Branch of physics that deals with objects at Extreme events
Sub-branches: (some)
o Nuclear physics – physics of atomic nuclei and their interactions
o Theory of relativity
o Quantum physics – describes nature at smallest scale of energy of atoms and
subatomic particles
Physical Quantities:
The study of Physics involves dealing with a lot of physical quantities. These physical
quantities are used to define all physical characteristics of matter such as length, mass and
time. In Mechanics, we have the basic quantities and all others are considered as derived
quantities because they are obtained or defined by simple relations between the basic
ones.
Table 1.1 Basic Quantities
Basic Length, Mass, Time, Temperature, Luminous Current, Amount of
Quantities L m t T Intensity I Substance
Metric (SI) m kg sec oC Cd A Mole
English ft slug sec oF lbMole
Table 1.2 Derived Quantities

Derived Quantities Combination of two or more basic quantities
area Length length
acceleration Length time
Force Mass acceleration
pressure Force area
In the proper expression of physical quantities, it should have magnitude. There

should at least be a number (to indicate how large or how small the quantity is) and the
unit (to indicate the nature and type of the quantity).
SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITY:

Many physical quantities have magnitudes only but no directions. These are called
scalar quantity. Examples are mass, time, density, temperature, etc. There are, however,
many physical quantities such as force, velocity, displacement, etc. which have directions
as well as magnitude and these aspects always have to be indicated when expressing
these quantities. They are called vectors.
In physical computations and analyses, we have to be aware of the difference

between vectors and scalars because the mathematical treatments are not the same. For
example, we add scalars arithmetically, but we cannot do the same to vectors. Special
methods are used.
BASIC CONCEPTS ABOUT VECTORS

A. Vector notation
 Vectors are typically represented by a CAPITAL BOLD LETTER or drawing an ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
above the symbol. The arrow is used to convey direction and magnitude.
F or ⃗ = a vector of magnitude|⃗ |or F and in a certain direction
⃗ = 30N due south
Direction
Magnitude
B. Graphical representation of a vector
 Vector quantity is represented graphically by an arrow
Tail or foot tip or head (direction)
Magnitude
 the length represents magnitude
 the arrowhead faces the direction of motion
C. Specifying directions of vectors – There are two common methods being used:
Method 1: Using the angle Ɵ that the vector makes with the ―zero-degree reference
line‖.
Ex: A = 10 m 40o
A
B = 10 m 140o B o
140
o
40
Method 2: Using geographic directions. N

Ex. C = 30 km 500 N of E C
D = 10 km 60o W of S F
F = 20 km N 40o W 40
o
o
50
W o
E
D 60
S
OTHER CONCEPTS ON VECTORS:
o COLLINEAR – parallel vectors which lie on the same straight line irrespective of
their magnitudes and direction
o COPLANAR – vectors acting in the same plane, e.g. two vectors parallel to the x-
y plane or any plane
o CONCURRENT – vectors which passes through the same point
Collinear Coplanar Concurrent
VECTOR ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION
Vector addition is the process of combining two or more vectors into one. The
combination is called the RESULTANT of the vectors. Subtraction is just like addition. In
vector subtraction, the negative of one vector is added to the other. For example, if two
vectors A and B are to be added, the operation is indicated as A + B. However, if vector B
is to be subtracted from vector A, the operation is indicated as A – B which is the same as
A + (-B). The negative of vector B is added to vector A. The negative of a vector is a vector
of the same magnitude but in the opposite direction. For example, if vector A = 50 units
30oN of W, its negative or –A = 50 units 30oS of E.
METHODS OF DETERMINING RESULTANT:
1. Algebraic Method (for co-linear vectors only).

o Resultant vector, R= algebraic sum of the vectors
o ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
2. Parallelogram Method
o Applied if only 2 vectors are given
o 2 vectors are joined tail to tail, forming a parallelogram (such for the name of the
method)
o a diagonal represents either the resultant or the equilibrant (depending on its
direction)
 STEPS:
1. Draw vectors on same point of origin (use a
scale) A’
2. Form a parallelogram, identify parallels with (‗) B
3. Connect the origin to the intersection of the
parallel lines R
4. The line formed from the origin to the intersection
represents the RESULTANT of the vectors B’
5. The line formed from the intersection to the origin A
represents the EQUILIBRANT
6. Measure the length (magnitude), and the angle
for the direction
** EQUILIBRANT – vector which when added to a set of vectors will result to zero, thus
resulting to an equilibrium or balance, it is exactly equal to the magnitude of the resultant
but directly opposite in direction
3. The Triangle Method (for two coplanar vectors at a time)

 STEPS:
1. Draw the vectors by joining them head to tail
2. Draw the resultant vector by completing the triangle
**(direction is from the origin)
3. Determine the value of the included angle of the given vectors
4. Solve for the value of the resultant (magnitude and direction)
5a. If the triangle formed is a right triangle, solve R by using Pythagorean Theorem
and the trigonometric identities.
Pythagorean Theorem: c2 = a2 + b2 c
Direction: ( ) b
θ
a
5b. If the triangle formed is not a right triangle, solve R using sine and cosine law.
Cosine Law:
Sine Law:
4. The Polygon Method (graphical method) – Tip to tail method

- suggested to be used for two or more vectors which are non-collinear but coplanar
The goal is to draw a mini version of the vectors
to give an accurate picture of the magnitude and
direction.
Steps:
1. Pick appropriate scale.
2. Using ruler and protractor, draw the first
vector to scale in appropriate direction.
3. Draw the second vector starting from the
head of the first vector.
4. All vectors must be connected in head-to-tail fashion.
5. To determine the resultant vector, connect the tail of the first vector to the head of
the last vector drawn.
6. Measure the magnitude of R with a ruler and convert this length to its actual amount
and unit.
7. Measure the direction of R with a protractor and add this value along with the
direction after the magnitude.
5. The Component Method (used for any number of vectors which are non- co-linear)
Steps:
1. Resolve the vectors into their x- and y-components.
y – component When the angle  is measured from the horizontal
 When the angle  is measured from the vertical

 
x – component 
2. Add the x- and y-components of each vector to determine the components Rx

and Ry of the resultant vector, R.
3. To get the magnitude R of the resultant, use the Pythagorean theorem:
√
4. To get the direction of the resultant:
Angles: Direction
N of E or Nof W or
θ Y of X
S of E or S of W
W of N or E of N or
ϕ X of Y
W of S or E fo S
UNIT VECTORS
– is a vector having a magnitude of unity with no units. Its purpose is to describe a direction
in space. y
+j
Let i = unit vector pointing in the + x-axis
j = unit vector pointing in the + y-axis x
k = unit vector pointing in the + z-axis
+k +i
i.e.
Vector Ax = Axi Bx = Bxi
In terms of its components A = Axi + Ayj B = Bxi + Byj
VECTOR SUM:
Vector sum of unit vectors
( ) ( )
If vectors do not lie in the x-y plane, then a third component is needed.
Then:
( ) ( )
PRODUCTS OF VECTORS:
Since vectors are not ordinary numbers, ordinary multiplication is not directly
applicable to vectors.
a) SCALAR PRODUCT – is also called dot product. It is a scalar quantity and it may be
positive or negative.
If
B
(Scalar product of two perpendicular
ϕ vectors is always zero)
A
Using unit vector representation:
`
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
If vectors are parallel to each other, ϕ = 0o; cos 0o = 1

If vectors are perpendicular to each other, ϕ = 90o; cos 90o = 0
b) VECTOR PRODUCT – also called cross product. It is a vector
quantity with a direction perpendicular to the plane of the
vectors A & B and a magnitude given by ABsinθ. AxB
B
| | | || |
BXA A
=-AxB
Using unit vector representation:
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Another method on how to solve cross product is by using the method of determinants.
i j k i j
+
 same as the above

equation
ELABORATE
Directions:
Determine the equivalent directions for the following:
1. 15o S of E 2. 30o N of W 3. Due South
Solution:
N
75o E of S = S 75o E = E 15o S 60o W of N = W 30o N = N 60o W From E (0°) = 270°
From E (0°) = 345° From E (0°) = 150°
Algebraic Method:
1. For the given vectors: A = 50 km due east, B = 20 km due west, C = 30 km due west,
D = 25 km due east, E = 60 km due west. Determine (a) their resultant, (b) C – D and
(c) D – A – B.
E C B D A
60 30 20 25 50
Solution:
 For sign convention of vectors: to the right is positive, to the left is negative.
a)
Therefore, R = 35 km due West
b)
C – D = 55 km due West
c)
D – A – B = 5 km due West
Parallelogram Method:
1. Determine the resultant for the given vectors by using parallelogram method.
A: 15 km, 33o N of E B: 10 km, 27o S of E
Solution:
Scale: 10km: 2 cm
B’ Measured R = 4.4 cm
A Measured θ = 10°
R
Therefore,
A’
B
TRIANGLE METHOD:
1. Given two vectors A = 70 m 60o N of E and B =35 m 30o N of W. Determine their resultant
(magnitude and direction).
Solution: First step is to draw the triangle formed by the two vectors, that is by connecting
the two vectors head/tip to tail and by drawing the resultant by completing the triangle
(from origin to the head of the second vector).
Since the triangle formed by the two vectors is a right Δ, therefore, use Pythagorean
theorem to solve for the magnitude of R.
7
o
30
For the direction:
( ) ( )
7
o
α θ Hence, o
Therefore, R = 78.2624 m 86.5651o N of E

o
60
POLYGON METHOD:
1. Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant for the given vectors. Use
polygon method.
A: 2 kph 45o N of E; B: 2.8 kph 58o E of S; C: 5.1 kph W 28o S; D: 3.2 kph N 18o W
Solution:
Scale: 1cm:1kph
A B Measured R = 1.8 cm
R Measured θ = 18o
D therefore
*For polygon method, you may start with any vector and you will still arrive with the same
result. For practice, you may try solving this problem with different pattern 
COMPONENT METHOD:
1. A sailor in a small boat encounters shifting winds. She sails 8 km south, then 15 km 30o E
of N, and then 12 km 25o N of W. Use component method to determine the magnitude
and direction of her resultant displacement.
SOLUTION:
N
Bx
A = 8 km
Ax = 0 By
Ay = - 8 km
S o
30
E
N
Cy
O
Cx = C x cos 25o = 12 km x cos 25o Bx = B x sin30o = 15 km x sin30o
25
W Cx = - 10.8757 km Bx = + 7.5 km
Cx
Cy = C x sin 25o = 12 km x sin 25o By = B x cos30o = 15 km x cos30o
Cy = + 5.0714 km By = + 12.9904 km
To solve for the resultant of the three displacements, simply follow the steps stated above.
7 7 7 7
Therefore, by using Pythagorean theorem:

7 7
For the direction:

Ry R ( ) ( )
7 7
7 o
θ Therefore
Rx
 The solution for component method may also be presented on a tabular form.
Take note that angle θ should be the angle the vector makes with zero-degree
reference line.
Vector Angle,θ X-comp = vector x cosθ Y-comp = vector x sinθ
A = 8 km 270o 0 -8 km
B = 15 km 60o 7.5 km 12.9904 km
C = 12 km 155o -10.8757 km 5.0714
( )
o
7
2. A spelunker is surveying a cave. He follows a passage 180 m straight west, then
210 m in a direction 45o E of S, and then 280 m at 30o E of N. After a fourth
unmeasured displacement, he finds himself back where he started. Determine
the magnitude and direction of the fourth displacement by using component
method.
SOLUTION:
From the statement ―he finds himself back where he started‖ means that the resultant of
the four displacements is equal to zero. To solve for the fourth unmeasured displacement,
D, simply use the tabular solution.
Vector Angle, θ X-comp = vector x cos θ Y-comp = vector x sin θ
A = 180 m 180o -180 m 0m
B = 210 m 315o 148.4924 m -148.4924 m
C =280 m 60o 140 m 242.4871 m
D =? θ =? Dx =? Dy =?
R=0m 0o 0 km 0 km
To solve for D, apply Pythagorean theorem:
But, solve first for Dx and Dy.
From the equation:
7
(means West) m (means South)
Hence: 7
Dx
For the direction: ( ) ( )
θ
o
Dy D Therefore: o S of W
UNIT VECTORS:
1. Given three vectors A = -2i + 3j + 4k, B = 3i + 1j – 3k and C = 3i -4j + 2k, do the following:
a) Find the magnitude of each vector
b) Write an expression for the vector sum A + B using unit vectors
c) Write an expression for the vector difference A – C using unit vectors
d) Find the scalar product
e) Find the cross product
f) Find the angle between A and B
g) Find
GIVEN:
A = -2i + 3j + 4k → Ax = -2; Ay = 3; Az = 4
B = 3i + 1j – 3k → Bx = 3; By = 1; Bz = -3
C = 3i -4j + 2k → Cx = 3; Cy = -4; Cz = 2
3i
B
4k
3j -3k -4j
1j
A 3i
2i C
2k
-2i
SOLUTION:
a) Magnitude of each vector
To solve for the magnitude of each vector, simply apply Pythagorean theorem
b) Vector sum A + B using unit vector
c) Expression for the vector difference A – C using unit vectors
d) Find the scalar product A. B

There are two equations to solve for , these are
and
Use the second equation since angle ϕ between the two vectors is not given.
e) Cross product A x B
There are two equations to solve for A x B, these are

and
Use the second equation since angle ϕ between the two vectors is not given.
Solution 1:
( ) ( )
{ } { } { }
Solution 2:
i j k i j
+
-2 3 4 -2 3
3 - 1 -3 3 1
Magnitude of √
Magnitude of
f) Angle ϕ between A and B
There are two equations to solve for the angle between the two vectors A and B.
These are: and
Using Using
Final o
AxB
B B
A
θ
A
 To solve for the angle between the two vectors, it is better to use the dot product
equation because it will give the exact answer for the angle . The angle obtained
from the cross product equation can sometimes be the exact angle, but in some cases
it should be deducted from 180o (i.e. if is negative) because the final answer is the
supplementary angle of the angle that is obtained from cross product equation.
g) (A x C) . B
A = -2i + 3j + 4k → Ax = -2 ; Ay = 3 ; Az = 4
B = 3i + 1j – 3k → Bx = 3 ; By = 1 ; Bz = -3
C = 3i -4j + 2k → Cx = 3 ; Cy =-4 ; Cz = 2
Find first A x C by using the method of determinants.
i j k i j
+-2
AxC= -2 3 4 -2 3
_
3 -4 2 3 -4
+ 16i + 4j
EVALUATE
1. Determine the equivalent directions for the given vectors.
a. 35 N of E c. S 40 E
b. 20 W of S d. N 65 W
2. Determine the equilibrant of the given vectors by (a) parallelogram method and (b)
triangle method. Use an accurate scale for your answer.
C = 10 kph, 12 N of W E = 15 kph, 83 S of E
3. Determine the resultant of the given vectors by component method. Summarize your
answers in the given table.
VECTORS  from 0° X – component Y - component
E 23 km 11 N of E
N 25 km 24 E of S
G 19 km 18 S of W
R 27 km 58 W of N
4. Given are the vectors A = 30 N 45o N of W and B = 45 N 75o S of E. Determine a) their

resultant and b) their vector difference B – A.
5. A sailor in a small boat encounters shifting winds. She sails 8 km south, then 15 km 30o E
of N, and then 12 km 25o N of W. Use polygon method to determine the magnitude and
direction of her resultant displacement.
6. Solve for the required using the given vectors

A = 3i – 8j + 6k B = 4 j + 9k – 5i C = 7k – 2
a. b. c. d.
MODULE 2: KINEMATICS
MODULE 2 UNIT 1: MOTION ON A STRAIGHT LINE
ENGAGE
Based on your learning from module 1, how can you apply vectors and scalar quantities in
the study of motion?
EXPLORE
Read Module 2 Unit 1: Motion on a straight line (pp 24 – 27)
EXPLAIN
MOTION
 Change in position of an object in a given time interval
 A continuous change in position
KINEMATICS
 A branch of mechanics concerned with the motion of objects regardless of the
cause of motion.
PARTICLE
 ―Idealized model‖ representing a moving body; no rotation or change in shape
occurs during motion
COORDINATES (Rectangular)
 The mathematical method of locating points in a space or plane will also be used
for locating bodies as they move
MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE (RECTILINEAR MOTION)

We start our study with the simplest type of motion a body can undergo. This is
called rectilinear motion or motion along a straight line. For the analysis, we will be
considering the line of motion as a coordinate axis, i.e. the x-axis if the line of motion is
horizontal or inclined or the y-axis if the line of motion is vertical.
BASIC CONCEPTS:
1. Position, x
o indicates the location of the body at any time as it moves

o the distance from a given reference point along the path at any time
o usually given as a function of time like X = (10 m/s2) t2 or X = (5 m/s) t + 10 m, etc.
o The form of the equation depends on how the body moves along the line.
 In cases where the line of motion is the y-axis, position is denoted by (y).
2. Displacement (x)
o the change in position of a body during a certain length of time or time interval
 Displacement is different from distance travelled in the sense that displacement is a

vector quantity directed from the initial to the final position. Distance is the length of
a path followed by a particle. However, in one directional rectilinear motion, the
magnitude of the displacement is the same as the distance travelled.
3. Time instant (t) vs time interval (t)

time instant (t)
 A point in time, i.e. at the time 3 secs after starting or time 5 secs before stops,
etc.
time interval (t)
 a length of time, i.e. during the first 5 secs, or during the time from t1 = 4 secs to
t2 = 7 secs, etc.
4. Speed vs velocity
Speed – defines how fast an object moves
Velocity (V) – the rate of change in position of an object; the speed of a body
including its direction of motion
a. Average velocity (Vave)

 velocity of a body taken during a time interval, or between two points along its
path
b. Instantaneous velocity (V)

 velocity of an object at a specific time, or specific point along its path
Where x is the position of the given as a function of time

*velocity is the derivative of displacement
5. Acceleration – the rate of change in velocity of an object; a body is said to be

accelerating when the velocity is changing
a. Average acceleration (a ave)

 acceleration of a body taken during a time interval, or between two points
along its path (displacement)
b. Instantaneous acceleration (a)

 acceleration of an object at a specific time, or specific point along its path
*acceleration is the derivative of velocity AND the 2nd derivative of the

displacement
UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED RECTILINEAR MOTION (UARM)

 A very common and simple type of one-dimensional motion where the acceleration is
constant.
 In such a case, at any instant within the interval, and the velocity changes at the same
rate throughout the motion.
BASIC KINEMATIC EQUATIONS for UARM:

**To simplify the equations,
it will be assumed here that at time t = 0, the position xi = 0, Thus the time interval Δt will
be the same as time instant t (Δt = t) because ti = 0 and tf = t.
The displacement Δx will also become same as position x (Δx = x) because xi = 0 and
xf = x at time instant t.
Derivation:
Take Vf from Eq 3.a and substitute in Eq 2
Equating Eq a and Eq b
Take Vi from Eq 1.a and substitute in Eq 2

Eq 1 can be written as
Take t from Eq 1.a and substitute in Eq 2

From acceleration:
( ) ( )
FREE FALLING MOTION

 A freely falling body is one that moves vertically in air under the action of its weight
alone. Air resistance is neglected and there is no external additional factor that is
causing the body to move except gravity.
The specific equations for free fall are the following (based from Basic equations of
UARM:
From UARM  Free Fall Sign convention:

1. 1. Y is positive (+) if measured above the
starting point. It is negative (-) if measured
2. 2. below the starting point.
Vi and Vf are positive (+) if directed
upward, negative (-) if directed
3. 3.
downward.
Time t is always positive (+).
4. 4.
g is always negative (-):
5. 5. (g=-9.8 m/s2; -980 cm/s2; -32 ft/s2)
ELABORATE
HORIZONTAL MOTION
1. The motion of a particle along the x –axis is described by the equation
( ) ( ) . Determine the following:
a. Position of the particle 3 seconds after e) Average acceleration during the
starting second 3 seconds
b. Displacement from t1= 2 sec to t2= 5 f) Acceleration at t = 5 secs
sec g) Time the particle moves at 20m/s
c. Average velocity during first 5 seconds h) The acceleration and velocity at start
d. Velocity at t= 4secs of motion
SOLUTION:
Given: ( ) ( )
a) The position of the particle 3 secs after starting

 To solve for the position of the body at any time t, simply substitute the value of t in
the given equation.
Therefore at t = 3 secs ; ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
b) The displacement during the time interval from 2 secs to 5 secs

 Displacement is the change in the position of the body. That is . But
before can be solved, the values of and should be solved first from the
equation of X.
Let t1 = 2 sec, and x1 = distance travelled at time 2 seconds
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Let t2 = 5 sec, and x2 = distance travelled at time 5 seconds

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Therefore:
(occurs between t1 and t2)
c) The average velocity during the first 5 secs
 Average velocity is the velocity of the body taken during a time interval. That is
 The term during the first 5 secs means that the body starts from t1 = 0 s and ends at t2
= 5 s.
Solve first for the values of and from the equation of X.
At t1 = 0 sec; ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
At t2 = 5 sec; ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Therefore:
d) The velocity at time t = 4 secs

 Instantaneous velocity is the velocity of the body at a specific point in time. To get its
value, first determine the equation of instantaneous velocity by getting the
derivative of X with respect to time, and then simply substitute the value of time in
the derived equation.
*( ) ( ) +
( )
Therefore at t = 4 sec; ( ) ( )
e) The average acceleration during the second 3 seconds

 Average acceleration is the acceleration of the body taken during a time interval.
That is
The term during the second 3 secs means that the body starts from t 1 = 3 s
and ends at t2 = 6 s.
Solve first for the values of and from the equation of V.
At t1 = 3 s; ( ) ( )
At t2 = 6 s; ( ) ( )
Therefore:
f) What is the acceleration at time t = 5 secs?

 Instantaneous acceleration is the acceleration at a specific point in time. To get its
value, first determine the equation of instantaneous acceleration by getting the
derivative of V with respect to time, and then simply substitute the value of time in
the derived equation.
* ( ) +
( )
 Therefore, at t = 5 secs; ( ) ( )
g) At what time was it moving at 20 m/s?
 Given is an instantaneous velocity. Use the equation of instantaneous
velocity to solve for the value of time.
( )
( )
h) What are the acceleration and velocity when it started?

 The term ―when it started‖ means time t = 0. To solve for the value of acceleration
and velocity at t = 0, use the equation of instantaneous acceleration and
instantaneous velocity, respectively.
At t = 0 s; ( )
At t = 0 s; ( )
UARM:
1. A car starting from rest moves with constant acceleration. after 10 sec, the velocity is
now 30 m/s. Compute for (a) acceleration, (b) distance travelled after 10 sec, (c) time
it took to travel 100meters, and (d) its velocity after travelling 50 meters.
SOLUTION: First step of the solution is to identify the given values. Draw a simple diagram
representing the given.
Given:
a) the acceleration
 To solve for the acceleration, choose an equation wherein the given values can
be substituted directly. Given are the Vi, Vf and t. Therefore, use equation (2).
b) the distance travelled after 10 secs

 To solve for the distance travelled given again Vi, Vf and t, choose equation (1)
c) the time it took to travel 100 meters

 This time the value of acceleration can be used to solve for the time the car took
to travel 100 m since the car is moving at constant acceleration. Given now are
Vi , X and . Therefore, use equation (3) to solve for t.
( ) ( )
d) its velocity after traveling 50 meters.
 Use equation (5) to solve for Vf after traveling 50 m since the given are X, Vi and
( )
2. A subway train starts from rest at a station and accelerates at a rate of 1.6 m/s 2 for 14 s.
It runs at constant speed for 70 s and slows down at a rate of 3.5 m/s 2 until it stops at the
next station. Find the total distance covered.
GIVEN:
REQUIRED: Total distance traveled by the subway train, XT

SOLUTION:
The total distance traveled by the train is the sum of the distances it has traveled in the
different situations it has encountered.
Let X1 = distance traveled at =1.6 m/s2
X2 = distance traveled at constant velocity
X3 = distance traveled at = -3.5 m/s2
Therefore,
Solve for : Given , t and Vi , use equation (3) to solve for X1.
( ) ( )
Solve for : Before can be solved, the value of the constant velocity(let it be V1) should
be solved first.
Given =1.6 m/s2 ,t = 14 s and Vi = 0 m/s, use equation (2) to solve for V1.
( )
At constant velocity, the only equation that is applied is
( ) 7
Solve for : Given = -3.5 m/s2 , and Vf = 0, use equation (5) to solve for .
( ) ( ) ( )
Solving for : = 156.8 m + 1568 m + 71.68 m 
FREE FALL
1. A stone is thrown vertically downward with a velocity of 5 m/s from a window 50 meters
above ground level. (a) How much time will it take to travel to the ground? (b) With
what velocity will it strike the ground? (c) How far did it fall in 2?
Given: Solution:
a) Time for the stone to reach the ground
 Given are Vi, Y and g, hence, use equation (3) to solve for
the value of t, but don‘t forget to use proper sign convention.
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Use quadratic formula to solve for the values of t:
√
b) Velocity with which the stone strikes the ground

 Use equation (5) to solve for Vf.
( )
2. A ball is thrown vertically upward from the roof of a building. It just misses the roof on its
way down and passes a point 30 m below its starting point 5 s after it leaves the
thrower‘s hand. Air resistance may be ignored. (a) What is the initial speed of the ball?
(b) How high does it rise above its starting point? (c) What is its velocity 5 s after it leaves
the thrower‘s hand?
Given: Solution:
a) Initial speed of the ball
 Use equation (3) to solve for Vi, since Y, t
and g are given.
b) Height, Y, the ball reached above its starting point

 When the ball reaches its highest point its velocity becomes zero. Knowing the
values of Vi, Vf and g, use equation (5) to solve for the value of Y.
( ) ( ) ( )
c) Velocity of the ball 5 s after it leaves the thrower’s hand

 Use equation (2) to solve for the velocity, Vf, of the ball 5 s after it leaves the
thrower‘s hand, since the given are Vi, t and g.
( )
( - ) negative means velocity is downward
3. A stone is dropped from a building 50 m high. At what time will the stone reach the
ground? What is the stone‘s velocity upon hitting the ground? What is the stones
velocity at 1 sec? what is the stones position at t=2 secs and t= 3 secs?
4. At what velocity must an object be thrown vertically up to reach its maximum height in
2.5 seconds? How high is the peak from the starting point?
EVALUATE
UARM:
1. A car is moving at uniform acceleration. Its velocity after traveling for 2 seconds is 4m/s
and is found 12 meters from where it started. If the car‘s velocity at 5 seconds is 10 m/s,
determine (a) the car‘s acceleration, (b) its displacement at t = 5 seconds measured
from its starting point and (c) its velocity at the start.
2. A ball is rolled on a flat surface with an initial velocity of 2 m/s. what is the ball‘s
acceleration if it was found 15 meters away from its starting position after 5 seconds?
What is the ball‘s velocity at a distance 20m? how long will the ball travel to achieve a
velocity of 20 m/s?
FREE FALL:
1. If the stone in example problem 3 was initially thrown downwards at 4 m/s, how much
time will it take to reach the ground? At what velocity will it hit the ground? At what
time will it reach a velocity of 12m/s? Where is the stone at v=6 m/s?
2. Resolve practice problem number 1, if the stone was thrown upwards instead. Use the
same given values. How high will the stone reach?
KINEMATICS UNIT 2: MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS

ENGAGE
From Module 2 Unit 2, what concepts can be applied in two- dimensional motion?
What factors would affect the motion of objects in two dimensions?
EXPLORE
Read Module 2 Unit 2: Motion in Two Dimensions (pp 34 – 37)
EXPLAIN
MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS

Motion in two dimensions can be modelled as two independent motions in each of
the two perpendicular directions associated with the x and y axes. That is, any influence in
the y direction does not affect the motion in the x direction and vice versa.
 PROJECTILE MOTION
o A curvilinear motion which moves under the sole effect of gravity. Air resistance is
neglected just like in free falling motion. The difference is that for a projectile, the
initial velocity called the velocity of projection is not vertical. It is directed either
horizontally, at an angle below the horizontal, or at an angle above the
horizontal.
o the path is that of an inverted parabola, symmetric about a vertical line that
passes thru the vertex (highest point)
TRAJECTORY
o curved path followed by a projectile and is always in the form of an inverted
Parabola
HORIZONTAL COMPONENTS VERTICAL COMPONENTS

Displacement R = range = X Y
Velocity Vx = constant (Vix = Vfx) Vy (under free fall)
acceleration ax=0 ay = g = -9.81 m/s2
Equations for Projectile Motion:

Vertical: Sign convention:
1. Y is positive (+) if measured above the starting point. It is negative
(-) if measured below the starting point.
2.
Viy and Vfy are positive (+) if directed upward, negative (-) if
directed downward.
3.
Time t is always positive (+).
4. g is always negative (-). (g=-9.8 m/s2; -980 cm/s2; -32 ft/s2)
5.
Horizontal:
6.
x and y components of Initial Velocity
𝒗𝒊𝒚 𝒗𝒇𝒙 𝒗𝒙
𝒗𝒊 √
𝛉
θ
𝒗𝒇𝒚 𝒗𝒇
𝒗𝒊𝒙
CASES:
1. Projectile launched HORIZONTALLY
θ at initial is zero
vi = vix = vx = vfx
Y is negative
2. Projectile launched at an angle BELOW the horizontal
vi = vix = vx = vfx
Viy is negative
Y is negative
3. Projectile launched at an angle ABOVE the horizontal
vi = vix = vx = vfx
Viy is positive
V approaches zero as it
reaches Ymax
ELABORATE
1. A ball is thrown horizontally with a velocity of 30 m/s from a window 40 m above
ground level. Solve for (a) the time it takes to travel to the ground, (b) the velocity
2 secs after being thrown, (c) the horizontal displacement or range.
Given: SOLUTION:
a) The time it takes to travel to the ground
Use equation (3) to solve for the time the ball
takes to travel to the ground since , Y and g
are given. But is zero since is horizontal.
b) The velocity 2 secs after being thrown

To solve for the velocity after 2 s, use the equation
To solve for at t = 2 s use equation (2) since Vi , t and g are given. But is again
zero since is horizontal.
( )
Therefore: √ √
c) the horizontal displacement or range

Range is the maximum horizontal displacement traveled by the ball. Use equation
(6) to solve for the range. Time t in equation (6) is the time it takes to travel to the
ground.
7
2. An airplane was diving at an angle of 30o below the horizontal when it dropped a
bomb from a height of 1000 meters. The bomb hits the ground 5 sec later. (a) What
was the velocity of the airplane? (b) With what velocity did the bomb hit the ground?
Given: SOLUTION:
a) The velocity of the airplane
 The velocity of the plane V is the same as the initial
velocity of the bomb Vi which is dropped from the plane
with an initial velocity that is 30o below the horizontal. To
solve for Vi of the plane use equation (3) since Y, t and g
are given. Use the correct sign convention.
b) With what velocity did the bomb hit the ground
But
Use equation (2) to solve for Vfy.
( ) ( )
√( 7 )
3. A cannonball is fired with a velocity of 40 m/s 30o above the horizontal from the top of a
cliff 50 meters high. (a) How much time will it take to travel to ground level? (b) What is
the highest point reached measured from ground level? (c) What is the range of the
cannonball? (d) With what velocity did the cannonball strike the ground?
Given: SOLUTION:
a) Time t the cannonball will take to travel to ground
level
 Use equation (3) to solve for t since Y, Viy and g are
given :
( ) ( )
Use quadratic formula to solve for the value of t:
b) the highest point reached measured from ground level
 The height reached by the cannonball measured from the ground level, Yt, is the
sum of 50 m and height Y as shown from the diagram. To solve for the value of Y, use
equation (5). The velocity
y-component Vy of the cannonball at the highest point is zero.
( )
Solving for the total height Yt from the ground level:
c) The range of the cannonball

( )
d) The velocity the cannonball strikes the ground, Vf
To solve for use equation (5):

( )
√ √ 7
4. During a fireworks display, a shell is shot into air at an initial speed of 70 m/s at Angie of
75 above the horizontal. The shell ignites once it reaches its highest point. (a) Calculate
the height at which the shell explodes. (b) how much time has passed between the
launch and explosion? (c) What is the horizontal displacement of the shell at explosion?
EVALUATE
1. In a game war, one team sets base on a cliff 15m high and 60m away from the
opponent‘s base. At what velocity must the attack be launched so that the lower base
will be hit? The initial launch is at 20 degrees below the horizontal?
2. A baseball is hit at a velocity of 100fps at an angle 20 above the horizontal. Will the ball
hit a fence 20ft high and 200ft away from the batter‘s plate? How far will the ball land
from the fence?
3. A boulder rolls over a 50m high cliff. How fast was the boulder moving if it was found 180
m on the ground? At what time did the boulder hit the ground? At what velocity was it
approaching the ground?
4. Graph the trajectory of a particle for every 1 sec, if it is moving at an initial velocity of 25
m/s from a height of 20 m, if (a) it is launched horizontally, (b) it is launched 15 above
the horizontal, and (c) it is launched 10 below the horizontal. Mark the highest point it
reaches, and its maximum horizontal displacements.
MODULE 3: DYNAMICS
ENGAGE
Enumerate and differentiate the three (3) laws of Newton
What happens when a force is subjected to an object?
EXPLORE
Read Module 3: Dynamics (pp 41 – 45)
EXPLAIN
KINEMATICS vs DYNAMICS
Kinematics is the language for describing motion of an object which includes its position,
velocity, and acceleration but there was no consideration of what might influence that
motion.
Dynamics studies the causes of motion. The two main factors we need to consider to
answer question about why the motion of an object will change are the forces acting on
an object and the mass of the object. We begin our study of dynamics by discussing the
three basic laws of motion, which deal with forces and masses and were formulated by
Isaac Newton.
LAWS OF MOTION
o Physical laws that are the foundation of classical mechanics
o Describes the relation between massive bodies and the interaction of forces
o According to Sir Isaac Newton, there are three laws governing motion
1ST LAW: LAW OF INERTIA

 ―Every object in a state of uniform motion tends to remain in that state of motion
unless an external force is applied‖
 When the vector sum or resultant of the forces acting on a body is equal to
zero, the body will remain at rest if it is initially at rest or remains in uniform
motion along a straight line if it is initially in motion.
PARTICLE IN EQUILIBRIUM
 If the acceleration of an object that can be modelled as a particle is zero, the
object is said to be in equilibrium. A body in equilibrium is a body that is either at
rest or a body that is moving at uniform velocity. Mathematically, the net force
acting on the object is zero.
∑
That is
Inertia and Mass

Inertia - The tendency of an object to resist any attempt to change its velocity
Mass - is that property of an object that specifies how much resistance an object
exhibits to changes in its velocity: a measure of the inertia of an object.
2ND LAW: LAW OF FORCE AND ACCELERATION

 When the vector sum or resultant of the forces acting on a body is not
equal to zero, the body will move with an acceleration that is:
1) in the same direction as the resultant of the forces
2) directly proportional to the resultant of the forces
3) inversely proportional to the mass of the body.
Mathematically represented as:
∑
If an object that can be modeled as a particle experiences an acceleration, there must

be a nonzero net force acting on it.
3RD LAW: LAW OF ACTION AND REACTION

 ―For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction‖
 Between any two bodies (A and B) exerting force on each other, the force
exerted by one body (body A) on the other body (body B) is always of the
same magnitude but in the opposite direction to the force exerted by body B
on body A.
BASIC RELATED CONCEPTS:

1. FORCES, F
o Any interaction between objects, which when unopposed will result to a change
in motion
o Defined as either a push or a pull exerted on a body
o Expressed as Newton (N) in the metric system
TYPES OF FORCES
a. Contact Forces – interactions between objects that involves physical contact
e.g. applied forces, frictional forces
Figure 3.1 When a coiled spring is pulled, as in Figure a, the spring stretches.
When a stationary cart is pulled, as in Figure b, the cart moves. When a
football is kicked, as in Figure c, it is both deformed and set in motion. These
situations are all examples of a class of forces called contact forces.
b. Non-Contact Forces – also called field forces; attracts or repels from a distance
or through empty space; no physical contact is required
e.g. magnetic force, gravitational force
Figure 3.2 The gravitational force of attraction between two objects with
mass, illustrated in Figure d, the electric force that one electric charge exerts
on another, shown in Figure e (such as the attractive electric force between
an electron and a proton that form a hydrogen atom), and the force a bar
magnet exerts on a piece of iron (Figure f) are some examples of field forces.
2. Mass, m and WEIGHT, W

Mass
o amount of matter contained in a body
o A scalar quantity
o Remains constant wherever it is
Weight
o Or the force due to gravity; the gravitational force exerted on the body
by the earth (if the body is on or near the surface of the earth)
o Concentrated weight is considered as acting on the center of gravity of a body
and always directed (vertically)downward;
o Its value varies based on its location
o simply defined as the product of the mass of the object and the gravitational
acceleration (where the object is placed)
o Always directed downwards (no matter what its position or location is

*NOTE:
the weight of a man standing is directed downward, same when the man is sitting
or lying down or face down.
The mass of a person is the same whether he is on earth or on mars or on the moon,
but his weight would vary depending on his location, that‘s why a person is not fat/heavy,
he is just in the wrong planet! 
Figure 3.3 direction of weight is downward no matter what the orientation of the object is
3. TENSION, T
o A pulling/ stretching force acting from opposite ends applied axially through the
strings, cables, rope, etc.
4. COMPRESSION, C
o Balanced inward force on a material or structure
o Occurs when a physical force presses inward on an object causing it to become
compacted.
5. NORMAL FORCE, Nf and FRICTIONAL FORCE, f

Whenever two surfaces in contact move or tend to move past each other, the two
surfaces will always exert two forces on each other.
NORMAL FORCE
o Support force exerted upon an object that is in contact with another object
o Always perpendicular and directed towards the surface of contact
FRICTIONAL FORCE, f
o The interaction between surfaces; a force resisting the relative motion between
surfaces; always present whenever a body is in contact with a surface (whether
the body is moving or not)
o Always opposite the direction of motion or impending motion and is always
parallel to the surface of contact
2 Types of Friction (based on the motional relation between surfaces in contact)
a. Static friction, fs
 Acts when motion is just impending or when there is no relative motion
between the surfaces in contact
b. Kinetic friction, fk
 Acts when one or both the surfaces are in motion
 Usually lesser compared to static friction
6. COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION,
o The ratio between the force required to move one surface over another and the
pressure between surfaces
o Depends on the surfaces in contact and are nearly independent of the area of
contact
a. Coefficient of Static friction, s b. Coefficient of Kinetic friction, k

o The ration between the static o The ration between the kinetic
friction and normal force friction and normal force
7. FREE BODY DIAGRAM, FBD

 A diagram representing all forces (magnitude and direction) acting on a body in
question isolated from the other parts of the system
 Its construction is an integral part of the analysis of systems using Newton‘s laws of
motion
** STEPS in illustrating an FBD:

Choose one object, and draw an arrow to represent each force acting on it.
Include every force acting on that object. If the problem involves more than one
object, a separate free-body diagram is needed for each object. We consider for
now, the likely forces that could be acting are gravity and contact forces (one
object pushing or pulling another, normal force, friction).
ELABORATE
FBD:
1. Given the system below, draw the FBD of the blocks A
A and B, if block B will move downward and the
coefficient of friction between block A and the µ
incline is 0.3. B
System Diagram
Solution:
FBD of block A FBD of block B
T
T
V
f
Nf WB
WA
Problem Solving Strategy

1. Draw a sketch of the situation.
2. Consider only one object (at a time) and draw a free-body diagram for that object,
showing all the forces acting on that object. Include any unknown forces that you
have to solve for. If several objects are involved, draw a free-body diagram for
each object separately.
3. The Laws of Motion involve vectors, and it is usually important to resolve vectors into
components. Choose x and y axes in a way that simplifies the calculation.
4. For each object, apply Laws of Motion to the x and y components separately.
5. Solve the equation or equations for the unknown(s).
NEWTON’S FIRST LAW:

1. For the system to be in equilibrium, determine the tension in each cord.
45°
C
60°
B A
80 kg
Solution:
Draw the FBD of the 80 kg suspended object
To solve for the tension in cord A, TA, apply the equation ∑
TA
∑  Sign Convention of
80kg Forces:
( ) +
W 7
- +
–
To solve for the tension in cord B and C, draw FBD at the intersection of the 3 cords.
Apply
Tc
45°
30°
TB Apply
TA
7
Solving the two equations simultaneously, the values obtained are:
2. A man pushes a block of mass 25 kg so that it slides at constant velocity along a level
floor. Calculate the magnitude of the force if the coefficient of kinetic friction between the
block and floor is 0.20.
Given:
V=k Draw FBD of the block:
F
f
W Nf
μk=0.2
20
To solve for the magnitude of force F To solve for N, apply the equation
applied by the man on the block use
the equation since force F is
horizontal.
N
f Therefore:
3. A man pushes a block of mass 20 kg so that it slides at
constant velocity up a ramp that is inclined at 11o.
Calculate the magnitude of the force parallel to the incline
applied by the man if a) the incline is frictionless; b) the
coefficient of kinetic friction between the block and incline
is 0.25.
Solution:
a) Magnitude of force F parallel to the incline applied by the man if the incline is
frictionless
Draw the FBD of the block.

Y
X
F
11o
Nf
W
For a body placed on an inclined plane, the incline itself is the X-axis and the line
perpendicular to it is the Y-axis.
To solve for magnitude of force F parallel to the incline applied by the man use
because force F is directed along the X-axis.
( )
b) Magnitude of force F parallel to the incline applied by the man if the coefficient of
kinetic friction between the block and incline is 0.25.
Draw FBD of the block
Y
f X
F
o
11
Nf
W
To solve for magnitude of force F parallel to To solve for N, apply the equation
the incline applied by the man use
because force F is directed along the X-axis.
Therefore:
( )
NEWTON’S SECOND LAW:

1. A 15 kg load of bricks hangs from one end of a rope that passes over a
small, frictionless pulley. A 28 kg counterweight is to be suspended from the
other end of the rope. The system is released from rest. a) Draw two free
body diagrams, one for the load of bricks and one for the counterweight. b)
What is the magnitude of the upward acceleration of the load of bricks? c)
What is the tension in the rope?
SOLUTION:
a) FBD of the loads of bricks and counterweight
FBD of load of bricks FBD of counterweight
T T
𝒂
𝒂
Wbricks Wcw
b) The magnitude of the upward acceleration of the load of bricks
Consider the FBD of the load of bricks to solve for its upward acceleration by using
Newton‘s second law of motion equation. That is .
For the sign convention of the forces, this time

the direction of the acceleration has to be
considered. A force that is in the same
direction as the acceleration is positive,
otherwise the force is negative. 7N
Looking at equation (1), there are two

unknowns and to solve for two unknowns
there should be two equations. To determine
the second equation, the FBD of the
counterweight is now considered by applying 7 N
.
Since there is only one rope connecting the load of bricks and the counterweight, the
tension T in the two equations are basically the same. Solving now the two equations
simultaneously, the answers obtained are:
c)
2. Block A has a mass of 4.0 kg, and block B has a = 2 m/s2

mass 12.0 kg. The coefficient of kinetic friction B
between block B and the horizontal surface is
0.25. a) What is the mass of block C if block B is µK = 0.25
moving to the right and speeding up with an
acceleration 2 m/s2? b) what is the tension in
each cord when block B has this acceleration? A C
SOLUTION:
a) Mass of block C
To solve for the mass of block C, draw first the FBD of block C and apply the equation
. Since the three blocks are interconnected they have the same acceleration.
i.e.
FBD of Block C Let TBC be the tension in the cord connecting blocks B
TBC and C and mc be equal to the mass of block C.
a = 2 m/s2
( )
WC 7
Looking at the equation to solve for the mass of block C, mC, the value of the tension
connecting block B and C, TBC, is still unknown. So therefore, it has to be solved first. To solve
now for TBC, block B has to be considered. Draw FBD of block B and apply the equation
FBD of Block B Let TAB be the tension in the cord connecting blocks A
and B and f be the friction between block B and the
horizontal surface.
N
Solving for : but (from ΣFy =0)
Nf
To solve for TAB consider FBD of block A and apply the equation .
FBD of Block A
TAB
a = 2 m/s2
Solving for TBC : N

7 N N N
WA
Therefore:
b) Tension in each cord
EVALUATE
1. A 25kg wooden plate is held in place by two strings attached to the ceiling and the
wall. The string attached to the ceiling makes an angle 40 with the horizontal and
the string attached to the wall makes 90 with the wall. Determine the force in each
string.
2. A block 4kg in mass rests on a horizontal plane. What value of horizontal force is
required to (a) move the block, (b) maintain the motion of the block once it is
moved? The coefficients of static and kinetic friction are 0.23 and 0.18, respectively.
What will the force be, if the force is instead applied 25 above the horizontal?
3. A block has a mass of 6kg and rest initially on a plane inclined at 35. What value of
force is required to stop the block from sliding if (a) the plane is frictionless, (b) the
plane has coefficients of fractions static and kinetic equal to 0.20 and 0.18
respectively? What will the value of the force be if the velocity is constant and is
directed upward parallel the incline?
4. In the figure, blocks A and B have masses 40 kg and 20 kg,
respectively. (a) Determine the minimum weight of block C
to keep A from sliding. The static and kinetic coefficient of
frictions between block A and the table are 0.18 and 0.15,
respectively. (b) What is the acceleration of block A?
5. A block of mass 5 kg starts to slide down a frictionless

plane, inclined at 25 as shown in figure 2. The block
moves from rest at the top. The length of the incline is 2.0
m. Find (a) the acceleration of the block, and (b) its
speed when it reaches the bottom of the inclined.
MODULE 4: WORK, ENERGY and POWER
ENGAGE
From your learnings in kinematics and dynamics, what do you think causes work?
from kinematics and dynamics, will work have a direction? Explain.
EXPLORE
Read Module 4: Work, Energy and Power (pp 53 – 58)
EXPLAIN
The study of Physics is primarily involved with understanding energy in its different
forms. Many systems operate on the principle of conservation of energy which state that
energy of all forms possessed by an isolated system remains constant. The importance of
understanding the concept of energy stems from this principle and in this module, we will
be looking at the applications of the energy idea on a wide range of physical phenomena
from the simple case of a body being pushed along a surface to the operation of
machines.
We will be concentrating on Mechanical energy, which is that form of energy
associated with the motion of the body and the forces acting on it. We will start by
considering the concept of work and its relation with the two forms of mechanical energy
i.e. potential and kinetic energy and finally consider the concept of power which is an
indication of the rate at which work is done or the rate at which energy is transferred in or
out of a system.
WORK
 a measure of the amount of change (in a general sense) that a force produces
when it acts on a body
 The change may be in the velocity of the body, in its position, or in its size or shape
 By definition, the work done by a force acting on a body is equal to the product of
the force and the distance through which the force acts, provided that F and d are
in the same direction. Thus,
F F
d
Note that WORK is a scalar quantity, no direction is associated with it. If F and d are not
parallel but F is at the angle θ with respect to d, then
F cos θ F cos θ
Where :
 = angle between the force and displacement
 Force applied is in the same direction as its displacement, WORK

DONE IS POSITIVE
 Force applied is perpendicular with the direction of its

displacement , NO WORK IS DONE
 Force applied is in the opposite direction as its displacement,

WORK DONE IS NEGATIVE
UNITS OF WORK:
UNITS SI CGS ENGLISH
Force, F Newton, N Dyne Pound, lb
Displacement, d Meter, m Cm Ft
Work, W N. m or Joule, J Dyne.cm or Erg lb. ft
WORK DONE BY VARYING FORCE:

Example: Work done to stretch or to compress a spring.
Where: k = force constant of the spring
x = maximum elongation or compression of the spring
ENERGY
- property of an object that enables it to do work
 It is given to an object when a force does work on the object
 The amount of energy transferred to the object equals the work done
 The more energy an object has, the more work it can perform. Two general
categories of energy are kinetic energy and potential energy.
**NOTE: Since energy is equal to work, the units of energy is the same with work: Joule, erg,
and foot-pound
2 GENERAL CATEGORIES OF ENERGY:

1. Potential energy, PE or U
- The energy a body has by virtue of displacement or position

a. Gravitational Potential Energy, Ugrav or PEgrav
o Energy stored by virtue of vertical position or height
o Energy stored as the result of gravity (weight) on the object
Work done by gravity = -ΔU

Work done by external force = ΔU
Where: m = mass; g = gravitational acceleration; h = height or position
b. Elastic Potential Energy, Uspring , PE spring or Uel

o Energy stored in elastic materials as a result if stretching or compressing
o Uspring is proportional to the square of the amount of stretch or compression
2.Kinetic Energy
The energy a body has by virtue of motion
Where: KE = kinetic energy; m= mass of object; v = velocity
WORK and KINETIC ENERGY

vi vf
F F
m
Note: The work done by the external forces acting on a body (except its weight)
contributes to the change of kinetic energy of the body, assuming ΔU = 0.
ALGEBRA DERIVATION CALCULUS DERIVATION
( )
∫ ( )
*Work Energy Theorem: States that the work done by the sum of all forces acting on a
particle equals the change in the kinetic energy of the particle
*MECHANICAL ENERGY, E - the mechanical energy of an object is equal to the sum of its
kinetic energy and potential energy, that is
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY:

o States that in an ISOLATED SYSTEM:
a. “energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it may only be transformed”
b. “the total amount of work done is equal to the change in the total energy”;
c. Assuming that the work done is equal to ZERO:
 ―the total energy is constant”
 “the energy gained is equal to the energy loss”
o The total amount of energy in the universe is constant. A falling stone provides a simple
example: More and more of its initial potential energy turns to kinetic energy as its
velocity increases, until finally all its kinetic energy has become potential energy when it
strikes the ground. The kinetic energy of the stone is then transferred to the ground as
work by the impact.
Work done (by non-conservative forces) on an object is equal to the sum of the change
in object‘s KE and change in object‘s PE
IN GENERAL: If there is NO NON-CONSERVATIVE force, then
** Conservative forces – are those forces that do work that can be recovered. Ex.
Gravitational force, elastic forces, magnetic and electric field forces
**Non-conservative or dissipative forces – are those forces which do work that can‘t be
recovered. Ex. Friction and other externally applied forces
POWER
o Rate of how much work is done; or rate of how much energy is used/consumed
the more power something has, the more work it can perform in a given time
UNITS OF POWER
FORCE DISPLACEMENT WORK/ ENERGY POWER
METRIC Newton, N, Meters, m N.m, Joules (J) J/s = Watts, W
kg .m/s2 Dynes.cm (ergs) Horsepower, hp
dynes, g.cm/s2
ENGLISH Pound, lb Foot, ft Lb.ft Lb.ft/s
*1N = 105 dynes *1J = 107
ergs *1hp = 746 watts
*1hp=550 lb.ft/s *1Watt = 1 J/s = 1.34 x 10-3 hp
When a constant force F does work on a body that is moving at the constant velocity v, if F
is parallel to V the power involved is
Since d/t= v, then Power = Force x velocity
ELABORATE
WORK:
1. A 30-N block is pulled up a plane inclined at 30o to the horizontal by a force P of 20 N
acting parallel to the plane. A frictional force of 5 N opposes the motion of the block. If
the block travels 15 m along the incline, calculate the following: (a) Work done by the
force P. (b) Work done by the gravity force. (c) Work done by the normal force. (d)
Work done by friction. (e) Total work done on the block.
SOLUTION:
P
First step is to draw a simple diagram
representing the given data.
Afterwards, draw a free body diagram f=5N
P = 20 N
FBD. Nf
W
30o
a) Work done by the force P c) Work done by the normal force

To solve for the work done by force
P, use the equation WP = P.d cosθ
θ is the angle between the force
and displacement * work is ZERO since Nf and d are
perpendicular
N d) Work done by friction
* θ = 0° since P and d are in the N

same direction
* work is NEGATIVE since friction d are
b) Work done by the gravity force
opposite in direction
e) Total work done on the block
N
7
* work is NEGTIVE since
component of W along the
incline and d are opposite in
direction
2. A force of 100 N is observed to stretch a certain spring a distance of 0.4 m. (a) What
force is required to stretch the spring of 0.1 m? To compress the spring 0.2 m? (b) How
much work must be done to stretch the spring 0.1 m beyond its unstretched length? (c)
How much work must be done to compress the spring 0.2 m from its equilibrium
position?
GIVEN: SOLUTION:
Solve first for the force constant of the
spring by using Hooke‘s Law:
N N
a) Force required to stretch the spring of

0.1 m
x = 0.4 m ( )
Force to compress the spring 0.2 m
N
( )
F = 100 N
b) Work that must be done to stretch c) Work that must be done to compress
the spring 0.1 m beyond its unstretched the spring 0.2 m from its equilibrium
length position
N N
( ) ( )
ENERGY
1. A 1.5-kg book is held 60 cm above a desk whose top is 70 cm above the floor. Find the
potential energy of the book (a) with respect to the desk, and (b) with respect to the
floor.
Given: Solution:
m = 1.5 kg a) Potential energy of the book with respect to
the desk
60 cm ( )
b) Potential energy of the book with respect to

70 cm the floor
( )
2. A 1.50-kg book is sliding along a rough horizontal surface. At point A it is moving at
3.21 m/s, and at point B it has slowed to 1.25 m/s. (a) How much work was done on the
book between A and B? (b) If a work of -0.750 J is done on the book from B to C, how
fast is it moving at point C? (c) How fast would it be moving at C if of work of +0.750 J
were done on it from B to C?
m = 1.5 kg
A B C
VA=3.21 m/s VB=1.25 m/s
Solution:
a) Work done on the book between A and B
Use work-kinetic energy relation to solve for the work done on the book between A and
B.
b) Velocity of the book at point C if a work of -0.750 J is done on the book from B to C
Use work-kinetic energy relation to solve for the velocity of the book at point C.
c) Velocity of the book at point C if of work of +0.750 J were done on it from B to C

Use work-kinetic energy relation to solve for the velocity of the book at point C.
3. A baseball is thrown from the roof of a 22.0-m-tall building with an initial velocity of
magnitude 12.0 m/s and directed at an angle of 53.1° above the horizontal. (a) What is
the speed of the ball just before it strikes the ground? Use energy methods and ignore
air resistance. (b) What is the answer for part (a) if the initial velocity is at an angle of
53.1° below the horizontal?
Given: Solution:
Vi=12m/s a) Speed of the ball just before it strikes
the ground by using energy methods
53.1o and ignoring air resistance
 Since the force acting on the
baseball is only its weight which is
22 m
a conservative force, therefore
Vf=? the equation that can be
applied is the Law of
Conservation of Mechanical
Energy.
( ) ( )
b) Answer for part (a) if the initial velocity is at an angle of 53.1° below the
horizontal
 If the initial velocity of the baseball is at an angle of 53.1o below the horizontal, still
the force acting on the ball is only its weight which is a conservative force,
therefore the equation that can be applied is the Law of Conservation of
Mechanical Energy.
( ) ( )
 Whether the ball is thrown horizontally, at angle below or above the horizontal or
vertically upward or downward(freefall), still the Vf will be the same because the
values of Vi, hi, hf, g and mass remain constant.
4. A small rock with mass 0.20 kg is released from rest at point A, which is at the top edge
of a large, hemispherical bowl with radius R = 0.50 m. Assume that the size of the rock is
small compared to R, so that the rock can be treated as a particle, and assume that
the rock slides rather than rolls. The work done by friction on the rock when it moves
from point A to point B at the bottom of the bowl has magnitude - 0.22 J. (a) Between
points A and B, how much work is done on the rock by (i) the normal force and (ii)
gravity? (b) What is the speed of the rock as it reaches point B?
GIVEN SOLUTION:
m = 0.2 kg a) i) Work done on the rock between
Vi or VA = 0 points A and B by the normal force
 Always remember that the work

Wf A-B = - 0.22 J
done by normal force is always zero,
Vf or VB
because N and d are always
perpendicular with each other.
a) ii) Work done on the rock between points A and B by gravity

( ) = 0.98 Joule
b) Speed of the rock as it reaches point B

 The rock encounters friction as it travels from point A to point B. Since
friction is non-conservative force, therefore to solve for the velocity of the
rock at point B use the equation:
( )
( )
5. A 60.0-kg skier starts from rest at the top of a ski slope 65.0 m high. (a) If frictional forces
do -10.5 kJ of work on her as she descends, how fast is she going at the bottom of the
slope? (b) Now moving horizontally, the skier crosses a patch of soft snow, where
µk = 0.20. If the patch is 82.0 m wide and the average force of air resistance on the skier
is 160 N, how fast is she going after crossing the patch?
Given:
Solution:
a) Velocity V2 of the skier at the bottom of the slope if frictional forces do -10.5 kJ of work
on her as she descends
 The skier encounters friction as she descends the slope. Since frictional force is non-
conservative force, to solve for the velocity of the skier at the bottom of the slope use
the equation
WNC = ΔKE + ΔU.
( )
( ) ( )
b) Velocity of the skier after crossing the patch

 The skier encounters friction and air resistance as she crosses horizontally a
patch of snow. Therefore, to solve for her velocity after crossing the patch of
snow use the equation
WNC = ΔKE + ΔU
( )
( )
7 ( ) ( )
6. A block of mass m= 2.00 kg is attached to a spring of force
constant k =500 N/m as shown in Figure below. The block is
pulled to a position xi = 5.00 cm to the right of equilibrium
and released from rest. Find the speed the block has as it
passes through equilibrium if (a) the horizontal surface is
frictionless and (b) the coefficient of friction between block
and surface is µk = 0.350.
Solution:
a) Speed of the block as it passes through equilibrium if the horizontal surface is
frictionless
 No friction is acting between the block and the horizontal surface, so it means
there is no non-conservative force acting on the system. Therefore, to solve for
the speed of the block as it passes through the equilibrium (X = 0), use the law of
conservation of mechanical energy. Since there is spring in the system, elastic
potential energy will be included.
0m 0m 0 m/s 0m
 The block has no initial and final height since it is placed on a horizontal surface,
its initial velocity is zero, and the final elongation of the spring is zero because at
equilibrium X = 0.
N
( )
b) Speed of the block as it passes through equilibrium if the coefficient of friction

between block and surface is µk = 0.350
 This time there is non-conservative force acting on the system which is friction.
To solve for the speed of the block as it passes through the equilibrium (X = 0),
use the equation,
=
( )
 The block has no initial and final height since it is placed on a horizontal
surface, its initial velocity is zero, and the final elongation of the spring is zero
because at equilibrium X = 0.
( )
N ( )
N
( ) ( )
7. A block with mass 0.50 kg is forced against a

horizontal spring of negligible mass,
compressing the spring a distance of 0.20 m
as shown in the figure below. When released,
the block moves on a horizontal tabletop for
1.00 m before coming to rest. The spring
constant k is 100 N/m. What is the coefficient
of kinetic friction µk between the block and the tabletop?
SOLUTION:
Coefficient of kinetic friction µk between the block and the tabletop
 There is non-conservative force acting on the system which is friction. To solve for the
coefficient of kinetic friction µk between the block and the tabletop, use the
equation,
=
( )
 The block has no initial and final height since it is placed on a horizontal surface, its
initial velocity and final velocity is zero, and the final elongation of the spring is zero
because it will go back to its unstretched length (X= 0).
N
N
( ) ( )
POWER
1. A 40-kg woman runs up a staircase 4 m high in 5 s. Find her minimum power output.
( )
2. A tandem (two-person) bicycle team must overcome a force of 165 N to maintain a

speed of 9.0 m/s. Find the power required per rider, assuming that each contributes
equally. Express your answer in watts and in horsepower.
( N )
3. Working Like a Horse. Your job is to lift 30-kg crates a vertical distance of 0.90 m from
the ground onto the bed of a truck. (a) How many crates would you have to load onto
the truck in 1 minute for the average power output you use to lift the crates to equal
0.50 Hp? (b) How many crates for an average power output of 100 W?
SOLUTION:
a) Number of crates to be loaded onto the truck in 1 minute for the average power
output used to lift the crates be equal to 0.50 Hp
 Let N be equal to the number of crates
N
7 N ( )
b) Number of crates to be loaded onto the truck in 1 minute for the average power
output used to lift the crates be equal to 100 W
N
N ( )
EVALUATE
WORK:
1. A 10 N force is applied to push a 20 N block across a frictionless Surface for a
displacement of 5.0 m to the right. What are the forces doing work on the object? What
is the amount of work done by each force? How much work is done on the object?
2. If the object in problem 1, is set on a surface with 0.25 coefficient of friction, how much
work is done?
3. How much work is done by an applied force to lift a 15 N block 3.0 meters vertically at
constant speed?
4. How much work is done on a 5 kg block if it is to be moved on a ramp 30 above the
horizontal and height of 1 meter? What are the values of work done by each force?
ENERGY
1. A 3000 kg car accelerates from rest to 15 m/s. determine the network done on the car.
2. Determine the potential energy for each position in the given figure. Determine the
mass of the ball if the height of each step is 10m.
3. Solve for the Kinetic energy and velocity at each position for problem 3, if the velocity
initial is (a) 0 m/s; (b) 2 m/s.
4. Determine the potential and kinetic energy for each position.
KE=0 J
PE=35 000 J
5. An object accelerates from 4 m/s to 9m/s. determine the mass of the object if the net
work done is 350 Joule.
6. a 2kg mass is attached to a spring. If the elongation of spring is 4cm. how much
potential energy is there in the spring?
7. The potential energy of an elastic spring when elongated 12 cm is 3.5 Joule. Determine
the spring constant. What is the potential energy and force of the spring if its elongation
is 10 cm?
8. A 2 kg mass is attached to a spring. If the elongation of the spring is 4 cm, determine

the potential energy of the spring. What is the value of the spring constant? How much
force is required to elongate the spring by 5 cm?
9. A spring has a force constant of 3N/m. How much force is required to compress the
spring by 2 cm? If a pulling force of 3N is applied how much is the spring‘s deformation?
POWER
1. A 60 kg person runs up the stairs 12 meters high for 3 minutes. Determine the power.
2. Determine the mass of a person climbing a tree 5 meters high in 9 seconds with power
of 450 Joule
3. Determine the energy used by a rotary pump with power of 400 watts. The pump works
for a period of 5minutes and rotates 5 rounds.
4. Determine the power required by an 80kg man to run down a slope from 1.0 m/s to 2.0
m/s in 2 seconds.
5. a 95 kg running back runs accelerates from 5.0 m/s to a final velocity. determine his
final velocity given that the power is 200 Joule/sec and the running was done for 5
seconds.
6. How long would it take to go for a pulley to move a 50 kg sack with a power of 250
Joule/second. The sack moves from 3m/s to 5m/s.
MODULE 5: IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM
ENGAGE
From your learnings of Newton‘s 2nd and 3rd law, what concepts could be derived for
impulse and momentum?
EXPLORE
Read Module 5: Impulse and Momentum (pp 70 - 72)
EXPLAIN
LINEAR MOMENTUM AND COLLISIONS

Another conservation principle worth looking at is the Law of conservation of
momentum. Many physical phenomena can also be analyzed using this law. In fact, in
several situations, it is even simpler to use it than the law of conservation of energy or
Newton‘s laws of motion. Specific cases are impacts and collisions wherein large forces are
applied for short times and cause changes in the motion of the bodies in the system. In
addition to momentum, another concept called impulse will be introduced. Based on
Newton‘s laws, these two concepts are related, and we will see how these relations apply
in many areas of physics and mechanics.
IMPULSE (J) – Impulse of a force is defined as the product of a force and the time during
which it acts. (in some books impulse is also denoted as I)
Impulse is a vector quantity whose direction is the same as the direction of the force,
i.e. the impulse of a force directed upward is directed upwards. Its units are N.s in the SI.
If the force varies with time, then
Where F is given as function of time t
LINEAR MOMENTUM (p) of a body is the product of its mass (m) and velocity (v):
Linear momentum = (mass of body) (velocity of body)
Momentum is a vector quantity whose direction is that of the velocity. The units of
momentum are kg-m/s in the SI, and can be expressed in component form:
Newton’s Second Law and Momentum
Newton‘s Second Law can be used to relate the momentum of a particle to the
resultant force acting on it.
∑
The time rate of change of the linear momentum of a particle is equal to the net force
acting on the particle.
The momentum of a system changes if a net force from the environment acts on the
system.
IMPULSE-MOMENTUM THEOREM
The change in the momentum of a particle is equal to the impulse (I) of the new
force acting on the particle.
Impulse = change in momentum
∑
Therefore,
∑
Impulse is a vector quantity whose direction is that of the force. Its units are N-s in the SI.
CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM:

If the net external force acting on a system of objects is zero, the vector sum of the
momenta of the objects will remain constant.
IN COLLISIONS AND EXPLOSIONS:

the vector sum of the momenta just before the event equals the vector sum of the
momenta just after the event. The vector sum of the momenta of the objects involved
does not change during the collision or explosion.
Thus, when two bodies of masses m1, and m2 collide,

Total momentum before impact = Total momentum after impact
Where
u1 and u2 are the velocities before impact, and
v1 and v2 are the velocities after.
Types of Collision:
PERFECTLY INELASTIC
ELASTIC COLLISION INELASTIC COLLISION
COLLISION
 The bodies stick together
after collision and move  Bodies separate  Bodies somewhat
with a common velocity completely after collision separate after collision
v
 Linear momentum is  Linear momentum is  Linear momentum is
conserved conserved conserved
= =
Before:
Before: Before:
m1 m2
m1 m2 m1 m2
u1 u2
u1 u2 u1 u2
After After:
After:
V1 m1 m2 v2
m1 m2
m1 m2 v
v1 v2
 Total Kinetic Energy is  Total Kinetic Energy IS  Total Kinetic Energy is
NOT conserved conserved NOT conserved
 e=0  e=1  0<e<1
A PERFECTLY ELASTIC COLLISION is one in which the sum of the translational kinetic energies
of the objects is not changed during the collision. In the case of two bodies,
COEFFICIENT OF RESTITUTION: For any collision between two bodies in which the bodies
move only along a single straight line (e.g., the x-axis), a coefficient of restitution e is
defined. It is a pure number given by
where
u1x and u2x are values before impact, and
v1x and v2x are values after impact.
Notice that | | is the relative speed of approach and | | is the relative

speed of recession.
ELABORATE
IMPULSE
1. A force of 100 N to the right is applied to a body for 2 s. What is the impulse of the
force?
Solution:
N
2. A force directed to the right has a magnitude that varies according to the equation
F= (0.4 N/ s2) t2. It is applied to a body from t1 = 2 s to time t2 = 5 s. What is the impulse
of the force during the time interval from t1 to t2?
Solution:
N N N
∫ ∫ + * + ( )
7
N( )
MOMENTUM
3. A 10 kg block is initially moving to the right at 20 m/s. Determine the change in
momentum if (a) finally the body is moving at 10 m/s to the left and (b) the body is
finally moving at 5 m/s downward.
SOLUTION:
a.
b.
IMPULSE-MOMENTUM THEOREM
1. A 2-kg brick is moving to the right at a speed of 6m/s. How large a force F is needed to
stop the brick in a time of 7x10-4 s?
SOLUTION: Using impulse momentum relation,
∑ 7 7N
7
∑
2. A 0.25-kg ball moving in the +x-direction at 13m/s is hit by a bat. Its final velocity is 19m/s
in the –x-direction. The bat acts on the ball for 0.01 s. Find the average force exerted on the
ball by the bat.
SOLUTION: Using impulse momentum relation,
∑
7 7
∑ N
∑
CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM

1. A 16-g ball is moving in the +x-direction at 30cm/s while a 4 g ball is moving in the –x-
direction at 50cm/s. They collide head on and stick together. Find their velocity after
the collision.
GIVEN:
m1=16 g
u1=30 cm/s
m2=4g
u2 =50 cm/s  Since the two balls will stick together
after the collision, therefore their final
SOLUTION: velocities will be the same, i.e. v1=v2
Use Law of conservation of momentum
equation:
Total momentum before impact = Total
momentum after impact
( ) ( )
2. A 1-kg ball is moving to the right at 12m/s collides head-on with a 2-kg ball moving in
the opposite direction at 24 m/s. Determine the motion of each after impact if (a) e = 2/3,
(b) the collision is perfectly elastic and (c) the balls stick together.
GIVEN:
m1=1k g
u1=12 m/s
m2=2 kg
Using coefficient of restitution:
u2 =24 m/s 
( )
SOLUTION:
(a) Velocity of each ball after impact if
e= 2/3
Use Law of conservation of momentum

equation: Substitute Eq2 in Eq1:
Total momentum before impact = Total ( )
momentum after impact
( ) ( )
(b)Velocity of each ball after impact if collision is perfectly elastic.

Applying Law of conservation of momentum gives the same Eqn (1)
For a perfectly elastic collision, e = 1
Using coefficient of restitution equation: Substitute Eqn 3 in Eqn 1:
( )
Express v2 in terms of v1:
(c) Velocity of each ball after impact if the balls stick together.
Applying Law of conservation of momentum gives the same Eqn (1)
Since the two balls will stick together after the collision, therefore their final velocities will be
the same, i.e. v1=v2.
Therefore, in Eqn (1):
EVALUATE
1. A 3kg object travels with a velocity 4 m/s to the east. It then changes direction and
moves 3 m/s to the west. Determine the impulse given to the object.
2. An 8-g bullet is fired horizontally into a 9-kg cube of wood, which is at rest, and sticks in
it. The cube is free to move and has a speed of 40cm/s after impact. Find the initial
velocity of the bullet.
3. A ball has a mass of 4 kg and velocity of 8m/s to the north. Impulse is given at point,
changing its velocity to 6 m/s east. Determine the impulse and the change in
momentum.
4. Car A is 3000N moves at velocity 3 m/s east. A car B 2500 N approaches car A at
velocity 4m/s west. Determine the velocity of car A if (a) the two cars get stuck
together after collision; (b) car B moves 5m/s west; (c) car B moves 3m/s east
5. A 50 kg mass is sitting on a frictionless surface. An unknown constant force pushes the

mass for 2 seconds until it reaches a velocity of 3m/s. (a) what is the initial momentum
of the mass? (b) what is the final momentum of the mass? (c) what is the value of the
force acting on the mass? (d) what is the impulse acting on the mass?
MODULE 6: ROTATING BODIES
MODULE 6 UNIT 1: ROTATIONAL MOTION
ENGAGE
What is rotational motion? Cite an example of rotational motion.
What is the difference between translational and rotational motion?
What are the characteristics of rotational motion?
Can objects move in circular motion while moving linearly? Cite an example
EXPLORE
Read Module 6: Rotational Motion (pp 76 - 80)
EXPLAIN
ROTATIONAL MOTION
 Refers to motion of objects about a fixed axis
 It is also called angular motion or circular motion
 The earth‘s revolution (and other planets as well) around the sun may be treated as
circular but is not an example of rotational motion as planetary orbits are elliptical in
reality
 An object may experience rotation while also experiencing linear motion, for example,
a football spinning like a top as it arcs through the air when passed, or a wheel rolling
down a street
 Treatment of objects under both rotational and linear motion are done separately,
though the two types of motion are analogous
RADIAN
Consider a planar object rotating about an axis perpendicular to its plane. the position
of a point on the object is described by the coordinates r and θ, where θ is measured
with respect to the x-axis, as in Figure 1. When the object turns through an angle θ, the
point moves a distance s along the arc. We define the angle θ in radians as or
. 1 radian is an angle subtended at the center of the circle by an arc of length
equal to the radius of the circle.
You can see that if θ is doubled, the arc length s will also be
doubled. Since θ is the ratio of two lengths, it is a dimensionless
quantity. The circumference of a circle is so θ for a full
circle is 2π. Thus 2π rad = 360 . It is easy to convert radians to
o
degrees or degrees to radians using a ratio

FIGURE 1
RPM
means revolutions per minute (rev/min). One revolution is equal to 2π rad or 360o.
Sometimes the angular velocity of a rotating body is expressed in RPM.
ROTATIONAL MOTION vs TRANSLATIONAL (LINEAR) MOTION

In physics, any quantity that can be described linearly can also be described in angular
terms
LINEAR ROTATIONAL
Position x Angular position , rad
Displacement x, meters angular displacement  , rad
Velocity Angular velocity
Acceleration Angular acceleration
Average angular velocity,

Average angular velocity of the body in the time
interval is the ratio of the angular displacement
to .
Instantaneous angular velocity,
The angular velocity of a rotating body may be constant, may be increasing or
decreasing. At one particular moment, the angular velocity of the body is called the
instantaneous angular velocity. It is the limit of the average angular velocity as
approaches zero, i.e., the first derivative of with respect to time.
Angular acceleration,
If the angular velocity of a rotating body changes, there is an angular acceleration. It is
understood that the angular velocity of the body either increases or decreases.
Average angular acceleration
Instantaneous angular acceleration
Take note that a particle moving with constant angular velocity has a tangential velocity,
vt in the direction perpendicular to r. even if the magnitude of vt is constant the direction of
its vector is continuously changing.
Since the vt is always changing, a centripetal acceleration, ac will exist, which is directed
inward toward the rotation axis
Vt
ac
Magnitude
unit
formula
circumferential velocity = tangent
vc = vt
velocity at P
radial acceleration = acceleration
ac towards the center (centripetal
acceleration)
circumferential acceleration =
at
tangent acceleration at P
DERIVATION OF FORMULAS:
tangential velocity:
Substitute x in v

x = r
From linear velocity: Where
Circumferential acceleration:
But
But Therefore:
radial acceleration:
Aporoximate the arc = chord
From linear velocity:
By similar triangles:
Equate  :
from linear acceleration:
Or since
MOTION WITH CONSTANT ANGULAR ACCELERATION

Whenever a body rotates with constant angular acceleration, its change of angular
velocity is constant for equal time interval. For example, a body which is initially at rest,
rotates with constant acceleration of 4 rad/s2. When time is 0, the angular velocity of the
body is 0, after 1 sec its angular velocity is 4 rad/s, after 2 sec (from starting time), its
angular velocity is 8 rad/s, after 3 sec (from starting time), its angular velocity is 12 rad/s,
etc.
Since, angular motion is analogous to linear motion, linear equations may also be applied
using angular quantities:
From linear motion  Angular motion
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
4. 4.
5. 5.
ELABORATE
RADIANS and RPM
1. What angle in radians is subtended by an arc 3 m in length, on the circumference of a
circle whose radius is 2 m?
S N
2. What angle in radians is subtended by an arc of length 78.54 cm on the circumference

of a circle of diameter 100 cm? What is the angle in degrees?
7
S N
( )
3. The angle between the two radii of a circle of radius 2 m is 0.60 rad. What length of arc
is intercepted on the circumference of the circle by the two radii?
S N
4. What is the angular velocity (in rad/s) of the crankshaft of an automobile engine that is
rotating at 4800 RPM?
S N
ANGULAR QUANTITIES
1. A merry-go-round is being pushed by a child. The angle the merry-go-round has turned
through varies with time according to the equation ( ) ( )
b) Calculate the angular velocity of the merry-go-round as a function of time.
c) What is the initial value of the angular velocity?
d) Calculate the instantaneous value of the angular velocity at t = 5 s and the average
angular velocity for the time interval t = 0 to t = 5 s.
SOLUTION:
a) The angular velocity as a function of time is the first derivative of θ with respect to
time.
( ) ( )
( )
b) The initial value of the angular velocity is taken when time t = 0.
( )
c) When the time t = 5 s, the instantaneous angular velocity is
( )
For the average angular velocity for the time interval from t = 0 to t = 5 s, first calculate the
value of θ at time t = 0, then at time t = 5 s.
When t1 = 0 s; ( ) ( )
When t2 = 5 s; ( ) ( )
2. A rigid object rotates with an angular velocity that is given by ( )

a) Calculate the angular acceleration as a function of time.
b) Calculate the instantaneous angular acceleration at t = 2 s and the average
angular acceleration for the time interval t = 0 to t= 2 s.
SOLUTION:
a) The angular acceleration as a function of time is the first derivative of with respect
to time.
* ( ) +
( )
b) When the time t = 2 s, the instantaneous angular acceleration is

( )
For the average angular acceleration for the time interval from t = 0 to t = 2 s, first calculate
the value of at time t = 0, then at time t = 2 s.
When t = 0; ( )
When t = 2 s; ( )
3. A room fan is switched from medium to high speed. The blades accelerate at 1.5
radians per second squared for 1.5 seconds. Determine the final angular speed of the
blade (in rps) of the initial angular speed of the fan is 3.0 radians per second.
Given: Solution:
Required:
Final angular speed
4. An average car tire has a radius of 0.35 meters. If the car accelerates in a straight line
from rest at 3.15 m/s2, calculate for the angular acceleration of the front passenger tire.
Given: Solution:
R = 0.35 meters
a = 3.15 m/s2
vi = 0 m/s Angular acceleration is to the left when
Required: facing the direction in which the car
= angular acceleration moves (by right-hand rule)
5. A merry-go-round has an angular acceleration of 0.35 radians per second squared. At

what angle does the merry-go-round rotate after acceleration from rest for 3 seconds?
Given: Solution:
= 0.35 rad/sec 2
Use equation 3,
Δt= 3.0 seconds
ωi= 0 ( )
Required: Angle of rotation
6. An electric motor is turned off, and its angular velocity decreases uniformly from 1000
RPM to 400 RPM in 5 sec.
a) Find the angular acceleration of the motor.
b) Find the number of revolutions the motor made in the 5-s interval.
c) After the 5-s interval, how many more seconds are required by the motor to
come to rest?
SOLUTION:
7
a)
7 7
( )
b)
c)
7 ( )
7. The angular velocity of a bicycle wheel is 4 rad/s at t = 0, and its angular acceleration is
constant and equal to 2 rad/s2. A spoke OP on the wheel is horizontal at t =0.
a) What angle does this spoke make with the horizontal at time t = 3 s?
b) What is the wheel‘s angular velocity at this time?
SOLUTION:
a) The angle θ is given as a function of time by the equation
Since the spoke initially positioned horizontally,

( ) ( )
 The body turns through three complete revolutions plus an additional 0.3423
rev ( ). The line OP thus turns through 123.228o and
makes an angle of 56.772o(180o-123.228o) with the horizontal.
b) At time t = 3 s
( )
EVALUATE
PRACTICE PROBLEM:
1. An object is attached to a 1meter string and completes 5 rotations in 1 second. Find
the (a) tangential velocity, (b)angular velocity of the object and (c) angular
acceleration.
2. An object moving in uniform motion has a centripetal acceleration of 12m/s2. If the
radius of the motion is 3cm, what is the frequency of the motion?
3. The angular position of a particle is given by the equation .
Determine the angular velocity and angular acceleration as a function of time.
What is the angular position, angular velocity, and angular acceleration of the
particle at the start if motion?
4. Calculate the centripetal acceleration for an object on the surface of radius 4000
km and, and the day is equal to 120 000 seconds.
5. A particle is moving along a circular path of radius 1.5 m and has an angular
velocity of 10 rad/s. What is the particle‘s radial acceleration? What is the particle‘s
tangential velocity?
6. An object sweeps out a central angle of π/2 radians in 0.50. seconds as it moves
along a circle of radius 2 m. Find its linear and angular speed over that time period.
7. An object travels a distance of 30 ft in 3 seconds as it moves along a path of radius
3ft. calculate for the linear and angular speed over the time period.
MODULE 6 UNIT 2: DYNAMICS OF ROTATION
ENGAGE
As discussed in module 3: dynamics, a force applied to an object would cause linear
motion. Will this notion be applicable to rotational motion?
how are you going to compare the torques on an object caused by various forces?
EXPLORE
Read Module 6 Unit 2: Dynamics of Rotation (pp 86 -88)
EXPLAIN
TORQUE, τ (or MOMENT of a FORCE, M)

o A measure of the effectiveness of the force in producing rotation about an axis
o Sometimes called ―twisting‖ or torsional force
o Causes an object to acquire angular acceleration; it is the product of the force F
and the distance of its action form the axis of rotation (lever arm)
o Where:
o F = torsional force applied
o = lever arm = moment arm = perpendicular distance of the force to the
point of rotation
o note: cross multiplication is applied to the force and distance. Thus the resulting product
is a VECTOR. The direction of the torque is perpendicular to the plane formed by F and
d.
STATIC EQUILIBRIUM
o the net force on a particle is zero; there is no translational or rotational motion, thus
o ∑ o ∑
 ∑ ;∑ ;∑  ∑ ;∑ ;∑
CENTER OF GRAVITY
- The center of gravity (cg) of an object is the point at which the entire weight of the
object may be considered concentrated
- A single vertically upward force of the same magnitude as the weight of an object will
keep the object in equilibrium when applied through its center of gravity (try holding
your notebook at the center with your index finger, the point where you can balance
your notebook is the cg of the notebook! Try other things to appreciate  )
DYNAMICS OF ROTATION
LINEAR MOTION ROTATIONAL MOTION
R m R m
a 
 Force is required to cause linear  Torque is required to create
acceleration rotational/angular acceleration
 From Newton‘s 2nd law:  From Newton‘s 2nd law:
o o 
Since ; But
where = R = distance of force to  (from angular acceleration)
the axis of rotation So,
substituting,

Therefore,
Moment of Inertia, I
 Also known as Rotational Inertia
 Quantity that expresses the tendency of an object to resist rotational acceleration
 Moment of inertia of a particle:

 Moment of inertia of a system : ∑
Moment of inertia of composite sections
AREA – MOMENT OF INERTIA MASS – MOMENT OF INERTIA
∑( ̅ ) ∑( ̅ )
∑( ̅ ) ∑( ̅ )
̅
̅
MOMENT OF INERTIA OF RIGID BODIES
ELABORATE
TORQUE
1. A weightlifter is holding a 50.0 lb weight with his forearm as
shown in the figure. His forearm is positioned at =60 with
respect to his upper arm. The forearm is supported by a
contraction of the bicep muscles, which causes a torque
around the elbow. Assuming that the tension in the biceps
acts along the vertical direction, what tension must the
muscle exert to hold the forearm at the position show what is
the force on the elbow joint? Assume that the forearm‘s
weight is negligible.
Solution:
Draw an FBD of the forces first, with E (elbow) as the pivot point
From the FBD, equilibrium equations are
∑
∑
And
∑
Substitute value of rt=1.5in and rw=13 in to Eq3
So we get,
Therefore,
( )
Substitute T in in any of Eq 1 or Eq2
From Eq1:
From Eq2:
**
2. The given plate in the figure is is fixed at point O and is O +

allowed to rotate at this point. Find the total torque applied
2m
by the forces? If the fixed point was instead at point A,
determine the corresponding torque of the forces. If F1 is F1 = 4N
2m
moved at A, will the torque change? If the F2 is moved at A A B
will the torque change? 3m F2 = 5N
F3 = 6N
Solution:
a. forces that would cause rotation about O are F1 and F2, F3 will not cause rotation as it
passes through O
∑
b. if F1 is moved at A, the total torque will change since the lever arm (moment arm) is
increased
∑
3. Three masses are attached to a uniform meter stick as

shown. The mass of the meter stick is 150.0 g and the
masses are to the left of the fulcrum are m1 = 50.0 g
and m2 =75.0 g. Find the mass of the third mass that
balances the system when attached to the right end
of the stick.
Solution: m
20cm
Draw an FBD of the forces
CG
For uniform or regular objects, center of mass is at 70 cm

midpoint or middle, therefore for the meter stick given 40 cm 30 cm
its
mass acts on the center of mass at 50cm.
To solve for the mass of m3, take moment about the support at 70cm from left.
∑ 7
7 7
MOMENT OF INERTIA
4. A 100-gram ball connected to one end of a cord with a length of 30 cm. What is the
moment of inertia of ball about the axis of rotation AB? Ignore cord‘s mass.
Given:
Mass = 100 gram = 0.10 kg
Distance between ball and axis of rotation, r = 30 cm = 0.30 m
Required:
Moment of inertia of the ball
Solution:
5. Two masses m1 and m2 are connected by a rod of length 60cm. m1 and m2 are
100grams and 150 grams respectively. Determine the moment of inertia of the masses
about the axis of rotation AB at the center of the rod. Ignore the mass of the rod.
Given:
m1 = 100g = 0.10 kg
m2 = 150g = 0.15 kg
R1 = 30cm = 0.30m
R2 = 30cm = 0.30m
Solution:
∑
Required:
Moment of inertia of the two masses
6. What is the moment of inertia of a 1.5 kg uniform rod with length of 2m and radius
10cm? the axis of rotation is located at the center of the rod.?
Given: Solution:
Mass of rod = 1.5 kg
Length = 2m
Required:
Moment of inertia
EVALUATE
PRACTICE PROBLEM:
1. Three forces act on a beam with length 6meters as shown. What is the net torque that
rotates the beam about the point O. Figure 1.
2. Determine the moment of a force about the axis of rotation at point A for the given
system. The angle = 30 and AB = BC = 1meter. Figure 2
3. Determine the magnitude and direction of Ra, Rb and Rc for the truss shown. Figure 3
4. The uniform beam shown in figure 4 weighs 500N and supports a 700N load. Find the
tension in the tie rope.
5. The arm shown in the figure 5. supports a 4kg sphere. The mass of the hand and forearm
together is 3kg and its weight acts at a point 15 cm from the elbow. Determine the
force exerted by the biceps muscle.
6. The mobile shown in figure below hangs at equilibrium. It consists of objects held by
vertical strings. Object 3 weighs 1.4N, while each of the identical uniform horizontal bars
weighs 0.5N. Find (a) the weights of objects 1 and 2, and (b) the tension in the upper
string.
7. If the masses in sample problem 5 are at 200 grams and 100grams respectively, and the
axis of rotation is located at mass2, calculate for the moment of the inertial of the
masses/ ignore mass of rod
8. Four (4) masses 150 grams each are connected by 4 cords forming a rectangle. The
length of the cords are 60 cm and 40 cm. determine the moment of inertial of the
masses about the axis of rotation AB (a) if AB is located at the center of longer cords,
(b) AB is located at the center of shorter cords. Ignore the mass of rod.
9. What is the moment of inertial of a 3kg uniform rod with length 2 meters and radius
20cm, if the axis of rotation is located at (a) one end of the rod, (b) at the center of the
rod and (c) through the center?
10. A 9 kg solid cylinder has a radius 0.10m and thickness 5 cm. the axis of rotation is
located at the cneter of the cylinder. Compute for the moment of inertia.
11. a uniform sphere has a radius of 0.10 m. the moment of inertia of the sphere when axis
of rotation is located at its center is 0.08 kg-m2, find the mass of the sphere.
12. A 2 kg rectangular thin plate has length of 0.5 m and width 0.20. the moment of inertia
of the plate is 0.29 kg-m2. Where is the location of the axis of rotation?
FIGURE 2
FIGURE 1
FIGURE 3 Figure 4
Figure 5 figure 6
MODULE 6 UNIT 3: ELASTICITY
ENGAGE
What does it mean when an object is said to be elastic?
What factors would affect the elasticity of an object?
Is the work required to stretch the spring equal to the potential energy in the spring?
EXPLORE
Read Module 6 Unit 3: Elasticity (pp 94 – 97)
EXPLAIN
A rigid body is an example of an object that does not deform under the actions of
external forces. The extent to how an object is perceived as rigid depends on the physical
materials to which the object is made. As discussed in dynamics, forces cause motion but
aside from motion, forces could also cause changes in an object such as its length, and
volume, this change is known as the deformation.
Deformation is experienced by objects through the application of external force

such as twisting (Torque), shear, tension and compression. When an object experiences
deformation, the forces on the objects are describe by the stress and strain
STRESS - the measure of the forces that causes the deformation; it is the applied
force perpendicular on the area.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
 tensile stress,σ is when a force pulls and object causing it to elongate (figure a)
 compressive stress, σ is when a force causes compression and the object shrinks
(figure b)
 bulk (volume) stress, P is the stress experience when an object is compressed
from all sides, usually experienced by objects in fluids
 shear stress, τ the stress experience when deformation is caused by tangential
forces to the surface
UNITS for Stress:

Metric English
N/m2 = Pascal, Pa Pound per square inch, psi
(1kPa= 1kN/m )
2 (1psi = 6895 Pa)
atm (atmosphere) often used for bulk stresses
(1atm = 14.7psi = 1.013x 105 Pa)
STRAIN - the quantity that describes the deformation;

- it is a fractional change in either length (tensile/compression), or volume
(bulk) or shape (shear)
- it is a dimensionless value
- classified into three types, formulas are in table below
Type of strain Symbol Formula definition

Linear
Shear
Volume (bulk)
ELASTICITY
- ability of a deformed material body to return to its original shape and size when the
forces causing the deformation are removed
HOOKE’S LAW
- discovered by English scientist ROBERT HOOKE in 1660
- a principle of physics states that for a relatively small deformation of an object, the
displacement or deformation is directly proportional to the deforming force or load
- mathematically expressed as
Where
ELASTIC MODULI
- the coefficient that relates a particular type of stress to the resulting stress
Elastic modulus Stress Strain
Young modulus, Normal force to area, σ Linear deformation,
shear modulus, S Tangential to area, τ Angular deformation, γ
Bulk modulus, Normal to all surface areas, P Volume deformation, θ
YOUNG’S MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

- quantity that describes a material‘s response to stress applied to area
- it can be defined simply as the stiffness of a solid material
- young‘s modulus states that the stress applied to the body is directly proportional to the
strain induced on the body, that is
Note: Hooke‘s Law may also be stated in the same relation as Young‘s Modulus where
―the strain in a solid body is directly proportional to the applied stress within the
elastic limit of the solid body‖
STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
ELABORATE
ii. How much force is needed to pull a spring with a spring constant of 20 N/m for a
distance of 25 cm?
Given: Solution:
iii. A nylon string has a diameter of 3mm and is pulled by a force of 150N. determine the
stress.
Given: Solution:
D = 3mm = 0.003m A = πD2/4 = π(0.003)2/4 = 7.068 x10-6 sq. m
F = 150 N N
7
iv. A string 4 mm in diameter has original length of 2m. the string is pulled by a 200N force.
If the final length of the spring is 2.02m determine (a) stress (b) strain (c) young‘s
modulus
Given: Solution: (a)
D = 4mm, R = A = πR2 = 0.00001256 sq. m
(b)
2mm ΔL = Lf – Lo = 2.02m – 2m =
F = 200N 0.02m
Lo = 1m
Lf = 2.02m a.
v. A concrete has a height of t meters and has unit area of 3 square meters supports a
mass of 30,000 kg. determine (a) the stress (b) strain (c) change in height. Young‘s
modulus of concrete is 20Gpa.
Given: Solution:
Y = 20 x 10 N/m
9 2 (a) stress, σ = F/A
ho = 5 m
σ = 294, 300N/ 3 m2 = 98 100 N/m2 = 98.1
A = 3 sq. m
kPa
W = mg = 30 000 kg x 9.81 m/s/s = 294,300
N (b) Strain, ϵ = σ/Y
ϵ = 98.1kPa/20 x 106 kPa = 0.000004905
(c)Δh = ϵ ho
Δh = 0.000004905 (5m) = 0.000024525 m
Δh =0.024525 mm
EVALUATE
1. A spring is pulled to 12 cm and held in place with a force of 450 N. what is the spring
constant of the spring? How much force is required compress back the spring to 2 cm?
2. A 5cm2 cord has original length of 120cm is pulled by a 20N force. The change in length
in the cord is 5mm. find the strain, stress and elastic modulus.
3. A string has a diameter of 1cm and original length of 200 cm. the string is pulled by a
force 2kN. Determine the change in length of the string given that the young‘s modulus
of string is 7.5GPa
4. A material is 250 cm long, 8 cm wide and 10 cm deep. The material is subjected to an
axial force of 4500kN resulting to an expansion of 3cm. calculate for stress, strain, and
the young‘s modulus of elasticity for the material
5. An object has a Young‘s modulus of elasticity of 14.5Gpa. determine the stress and
strain experienced by the object if it is 200cm by 200cm x 200cm and elongates by
5cm. what is the magnitude of the force that acts on the object?
MODULE 7: OSCILLATIONS
ENGAGE
How is oscillations or vibrations related to circular/rotational motion?
What are the conditions for an object to oscillate with SHM?
How does a pendulum oscillate?
EXPLORE
Read Module 7: Oscillations (pp99-102)
EXPLAIN
PERIODIC MOTION
Vibratory motion or vibration is a type of motion where the particle undergoes to
and fro motion. It could be regular vibration which repeats itself over and over during a
given length of time (like the motion of a simple pendulum or the piston of a gasoline
engine) or irregular vibration (like the shaking of a building when there is an earthquake).
CHARACTERISTICS OF A BODY UNDERGOING PERIODIC MOTION:

1. Equilibrium position – that position of the body when the forces acting on it have
zero resultant. This is actually the position the body takes when it is at rest.
2. Restoring force, F – the force that brings back (restores) the body to its equilibrium
position. It is always directed towards the equilibrium position.
3. Displacement, x or y – the distance of the body from the equilibrium position at any
instant.
4. Amplitude, A – the maximum displacement from the equilibrium
5. One cycle of motion or one vibration – that part of the motion that is repeated
6. Period, T – the time it takes for a displaced object to make a complete oscillation
back and forth about its equilibrium position. (sec)
7. Frequency, f – the reciprocal of period, the number of oscillations per second
(cycles/sec or vib/sec or Hertz(Hz))
8. Angular frequency (or speed), ω = rate of change of an angular quantity that is

always measured in radians
ω = 2πf rad/s
When we are confronted by a condition wherein the restoring force is directly
proportional to the displacement then we have SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION.
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

 Simplest type of periodic motion
 Restoring force is directly proportional to displacement
 Velocity of the body is inversely proportional to displacement
 Acceleration of the body is directly proportional to the negative of the
displacement
 To help us visualize the concepts, we will be using as models body attached to a spring
and the simple pendulum.
EQUATIONS FOR SHM:

1. MASS ATTACHED TO A SPRING
 If a body attached to a spring is displaced from its equilibrium position, the spring
exerts a restoring force on it, which tends to restore the object to the equilibrium
position.
Mathematically, the restoring force F is given by
where k is the spring constant (N/m), and x is

the displacement from the equilibrium position (in
m).
At equilibrium position, the mass has momentum because of the impulse that the restoring
force has imparted. Therefore, the mass continues past the equilibrium position,
compressing the spring. A net restoring force then tends to slow it down, until
its velocity vanishes, whereby it will attempt to reach equilibrium position again. As long as
the system has no energy loss, the mass will continue to oscillate.
Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion

By Law of Conservation of Energy: the total energy of a vibrating body is constant.
where:
K = kinetic energy: m = mass of the body
v = velocity of the body
U = potential energy: k = spring constant
x=displacement of the body
Consider the body at the extreme position or at its maximum displacement (x = A):
v = 0:
Consider the body at equilibrium position:
The instantaneous VELOCITY of the vibrating body is determined via the above energy
equation as:
√ √ √
The instantaneous ACCELERATION is determined via Hooke‘s Law, F = -kx, and F = ma;
Equating these two expressions for F gives:
From the equations of angular frequency, ω = 2πf and ω = √ , other equation to solve for
frequency and period are as follows:
Frequency √ Period √
Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration as a Function of Time, t
1. Displacement:
2. Velocity:
3. Acceleration:
2. SIMPLE PENDULUM
 Consists of a point mass suspended by a weightless,

unstretchable string in a uniform gravitational field whose path is
not a straight line but an arc.
 If the pendulum swings with a small angle with the
vertical, its motion is simple harmonic.
The restoring force is the net force on the bob, equal to the component of the weight, mg,
tangent to the arc:
 Small angle approximation:
 The displacement of the pendulum along the arc is given by
This equation fits Hooke's law, F = -kx. The effective force constant is
Angular frequency: Frequency: Period:
√
√ √ √
Where: = length of the string

g = acceleration due to gravity
 Laws of the simple pendulum (for small displacements)

1. The angle of swing (amplitude) does not affect the period.
2. The mass of the body does not affect the period.
3. The period is directly proportional to the square root of its length.
4. The period is inversely proportional to the square root of the acceleration.
ELABORATE
1. A 7.00-kg object is hung from the bottom end of a vertical spring fastened to an
overhead beam. The object is set into vertical oscillations having a period of 2.60 s. Find
the force constant of the spring.
SOLUTION:
An object hanging from a vertical spring moves with SHM. To solve for the force
constant of the spring use the equation:
7
√ √
2. A 0.500-kg object attached to a spring with a force constant of 8.00 N/m vibrates in
simple harmonic motion with an amplitude of 10.0 cm. Calculate the maximum value
of its (a) speed and (b) acceleration, (c) the speed, (d) the acceleration when the
object is + 6.00 cm from the equilibrium position and (e)the total energy possessed by
the object.
SOLUTION:
k = 8 N/m m = 0.5 kg
a) Find first for the angular frequency .

N
√ √
The maximum speed of the object attached to a spring occurs at the equilibrium
position, ep
From the equation √ , this becomes maximum if x = 0. Therefore,
b) From the equation of acceleration, Therefore, the maximum

acceleration is at the amplitude ( + is at the right of ep, - is at the left of ep).
( )
c) Solve for the speed when the object is +6 cm (+ means at the right of ep) from
the equilibrium position using
√ ( )√
d) Solve for the acceleration when the object is +6 cm (+ means at the right of ep)
from the equilibrium position using
( ) directed towards ep
e) To solve for the total energy possessed by the object, we can use any of the
three equation in solving for energy.
( )
( ) ( )
3. The position of a particle is given by the expression , where x is in meters
and t is in seconds. Determine (a) the frequency and (b) period of the motion, (c) the
amplitude of the motion, and (d) the position of the particle at t = 0.250 s.
SOLUTION:
The equation given x = 4.00 cos(3.00π t), where x is in meter and t in sec, is in the form
, an equation of displacement x as a function of time. To determine the
values of frequency, period, and amplitude of the motion, simply inspect the given
equation of x.
Therefore,
To solve for the position of the particle at t = 0.250 s, simply substitute the value of t in the
equation of x.
 Remember! To solve for the value of cos the calculator should be in

mode radian.
4. A simple pendulum has a mass of 0.250 kg and a length of 1.00 m. It is displaced

through an angle of 15.0° and then released. Using the analysis model of a particle
in simple harmonic motion, find (a) the period of vibration of the bob, (b)the
maximum speed of the bob, (c) its maximum angular acceleration, and (c) the
maximum restoring force on the bob.
SOLUTION:
a) To solve for the period of vibration use the
suspension point equation:
θ
L (measured to the
√ √
midpoint of the mass)
mass m
b) Since 15o is small enough that (in radians)
A (15o = 0.2618 rad), therefore it can be modelled
mgsingθ as SHM. Solving for the angular frequency,
mgconsθ
W = mg
7
The amplitude as a distance

( )
c) ( )
d) To solve for restoring force, apply Newton‘s second law:
EVALUATE
1. A body in simple harmonic motion has a velocity of 8cm/s when its displacement is 2cm
and a velocity of 2 cm/s when the displacement is 8 cm. what is the amplitude of the
oscillation?
2. The equation of motion of a particle started at t=0 is given by x = 10sin(10t+π/3) where x

is in centimeter and t in second. (a) at what time will the particle come to rest?, (b) the
time it will have a zero acceleration, and (c) the maximum speed.
3. A mass 2.5 kg is suspended through a vertical spring experiences simple harmonic

motion with period 6 seconds. If the oscillations are stopped and the body hangs in
equilibrium, determine the potential energy stored in the spring.
4. What period would you expect from a pendulum of length 0.5 m on the moon where g
= 1.6 m/s2? will the period be the same when the pendulum is on earth? What is the
value?
5. A 2kg mass is attached to one end of a spring with spring constant of 2kN/m. the period
of the spring is twice as the as the period when it is considered as a simple pendulum.
What is the length of the of spring?
MODULE 8: WAVES
ENGAGE
How can you relate oscillations to waves?
Cite objects that could produce waves
Why do guitar strings have different pitch and tone?
What is your concept and understanding regarding the production of sound and the
process of hearing?
EXPLORE
Read Module 8: Waves (pp 106 – 112)
EXPLAIN
WAVE
-any disturbance from an equilibrium condition that propagates or travels from one region
to another.
Examples: water wave, sound wave, light wave, heat wave
Two Classifications of wave:

1. Electromagnetic wave
– wave wherein the disturbance can travel through empty space or vacuum.
Examples: radio wave, TV signal, microwave, X-ray
2. Mechanical wave
– wave wherein the disturbance travel through a medium through the mechanical
vibration of the particles in the medium.
Examples: wave travelling through a vibrating string, sound wave
Two types of mechanical waves:
1. Longitudinal or Compressional wave- the particles of the medium vibrate parallel to
the direction of the wave. When longitudinal wave travels through a medium, at
each instant, there are alternate compression points and rarefaction points in the
medium.
Examples are waves travelling thru liquids, air, metal bars or rods
2. Transverse wave –the particles of the medium vibrate perpendicular to the direction
of wave.
Examples are waves travelling through any flexible material like strings, wires or
cords.
Figure 1. Longitudinal Waves
Figure 2. Transverse Waves
PROPERTIES OF WAVE:
1. Amplitude, A
– the maximum displacement of a particle in the medium.
2. Wavelength, λ
– the distance between two consecutive, identical points along the repeating wave
in the same phase.
3. Frequency, f
– the number of waves that pass through a point in the medium per second. It is
equal to the vibration made by a particle in the medium per second.
4. Speed of propagation, v
– the distance travelled by the wave through the medium per unit time.
GENERAL EQUATION:
MATHEMATICAL DESCRIPTION OF A TRAVELLING SINUSOIDAL WAVE
A wave cannot be analyzed completely unless its mathematical description or
equation is used. Just like any other curve, a wave is also expressed by means of an
equation. Ordinarily, the equation is a simple sine or cosine function but since it is a
traveling wave, consideration is made on the distance it travels thru the medium during a
time, t.
General Equation:
where: A = amplitude
ω = 2πf = angular frequency
k= = wave number or propagation number
y = the displacement of a particle in the medium during a time t which is at a
distance x from the source
ωt = (+) when wave is moving in the -x direction; (–) if moving in the +x
direction
Note: Y, x, t are the variables of the equation while A, ω, and k are the constants. Y is the
displacement at any time t of a particle in the medium which is at a distance x from the source
(x=0).
STATIONARY (STANDING) WAVES

Stationary or standing waves formed when two component waves (i.e. incident and
reflected waves) of similar properties travel in opposite directions though the same
medium.
(a) Five snapshots of a wave traveling to the right, at the times t indicated below part (c)
(T is the period of oscillation). (b) Five snapshots of a wave identical to that in (a) but
traveling to the left, at the same times t. (c) Corresponding snapshots for the
superposition of the two waves on the same string. At t = 0, ½ T, and T, fully
constructive interference occurs because of the alignment of peaks with peaks and
valleys with valleys. At t = 1/4T and 3/4T, fully destructive interference occurs because
of the alignment of peaks with valleys.
As the waves move through each other, some points never move (nodes) and some
move the most (antinodes).
From the figure, we can derive a wave function for that specific standing wave by
adding the wave functions :
where:
(incident wave traveling to the right)
and
(reflected wave traveling to the left)
The principle of superposition gives, for the combined wave (stationary wave):
*Review:
magnitude - gives amplitude at position x

Asw = amplitude of the standing wave
MODES OF VIBRATION
 Modes – frequencies of waves associated with their wave patterns
 Harmonics – a note of which the vibration rate is a whole number
- a note whose frequency is a multiple of the fundamental frequency
 Overtone – a term preferred by musicians instead of
harmonics
I. Modes of Vibration of a String Fixed at Both Ends:
Fundamental freq. or 1st harmonic freq. 2nd harmonic freq. or 1st overtone freq.
3rd harmonic freq. or 2nd overtone freq.
Since both ends of the string are fixed in position, the ends must be nodes in the standing
waves; we can observe from the figures that the length L of the string must be an integer
number of half wavelength.
For the fundamental frequency:
For the general equation:

Let n = harmonic number
x= overtone number
n = x+1
But the VELOCITY of Where: T = tension on the string/cord/wire, Newton

wave traveling thru μ = mass per unit length of the string = m/L ,
vibrating strings, cords kg/m
or wires is: μ = linear density = ρA
where: ρ = density of string = SG x mass density of
√ water
A = cross-sectional area of string
*For string fixed at both ends, the harmonic number is the same as the number of
segments.
II. Modes of Vibration of a Rod Clamped at One End:
 It will always be a node at clamped end and an antinode at the free end.
Fundamental Freq. or 1st Harmonic Freq. 3rd Harmonic Freq. or 1st Overtone
5th Harmonic Freq. or 2nd Overtone

Let n = harmonic no.
x = overtone no.
n = 2x + 1 7
The VELOCITY of wave traveling thru metal rods is:
√ where: Y = Young's modulus of elasticity, Pa
ρ = density of rod or bar

Young's modulus of elasticity
Y = stress/strain
Stress = Force / cross-sectional area = F/A
Strain = elongation / original length = e/Lo
III. Modes of Vibration of a Rod Fixed at Midpoint:

 It will always be a node at midpoint and antinode at the ends.
Fundamental Freq. or 1st Harmonic Freq. 3rd Harmonic Freq. or 1st Overtone
5th Harmonic Freq. or 2nd Overtone

x = overtone no. 7
n = 2x + 1
IV. Modes of Vibration of an Air Column:

Pipes can either be open on both ends or on only one end. The open ends act as free-end
reflectors (producing antinodes) and the closed ends act as fixed-end reflectors
(producing nodes).
A. OPEN PIPE
In general:
𝑣
f= *L =λ/2, λ = 2L
λ
f = v/2L
𝒏𝑽
fn = n=1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ,...
𝟐𝑳
For the general equation: 7

x = overtone no.
n=x+1
The VELOCITY of wave traveling thru air is:
where: T = temperature in OC
B. CLOSED PIPE
x = overtone no.
n = 2x + 1
n = 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, …
ELABORATE
EXAMPLES:
1. A transverse wave on a string is described by the wave function y = 0.120 sin( )
where x and y are in meters and t is in seconds. What are (a) the wavelength, (b) the
frequency, and (c) the speed of propagation and the direction of this wave?
Determine (d) the transverse speed at t = 0.2s for an element of the string located at x =
1.60 m.
SOLUTION:
We use the traveling wave model. We compare the given equation with
.
The given wave function is y = 0.120 sin( ). Thus we find and
.
a) From the equation:
b) From the equation:
c) From the general equation of wave:

The wave is directed to the left because in the wave equation it is (+)
d) The particle transverse speed is:

( )
( )
Therefore, the transverse speed at t = 0.2s for an element of the string located at
x = 1.60 m is: ⌈ ⌉ *Take note calculator should be in rad
2. Transverse waves travel with a speed of 20.0 m/s in a string under a tension of 6.00 N.
What tension is required for a wave speed of 30.0 m/s in the same string?
SOLUTION:
The equation for the speed of transverse wave on a string under tension can be used if
we assume that the linear density of the string is constant. Then the ratio of the two
wave speeds can be used to find the new tension.
The two wave speeds can be written as:
√ and √
Dividing the equations sets up the proportion
√ √
√ √
Therefore, * + [ ]
3. A 2-m-long wire having a mass of 0.1 kg is fixed at both ends. The tension in the wire is
maintained at 20 N. (a) What are the frequencies of the first three allowed modes of
vibration? (b) If a node is observed at a point 0.400 m from one end, in what mode and
with what frequency is it vibrating?
SOLUTION:
a) The first three modes of vibration of a wire fixed at both ends are the fundamental or
first harmonic frequency, 2nd harmonic and 3rd harmonic frequency.
To solve for the fundamental frequency use the equation:
√
√
Second harmonic frequency,

Third harmonic frequency,
b) The length of the wire is 2 m. If a node is observed at a point 0.4 m from one end, it
means that the length of 1 segment is 0.4 m. To get the total number of segments
formed in the wire, simply divide the length of the wire to the length of 1 segment,
i.e. . Therefore, the wire vibrates in its fifth harmonic
frequency.
4. A 2m long rod clamped at one end has a diameter 0.5cm and a specific gravity of 9. It
elongates by 2mm when acted upon by a tensile force of 500 N. (a) What is the speed
of sound thru the rod? (b) What would be the frequency of the waves if the rod forms
an equivalent of 3.5 segments every time?
SOLUTION:
a) To solve for the speed of sound thru the rod, use the equation:
√
⌈ ⌉
Solving for v: √ √
b) When rod forms an equivalent of 3.5 segments, it means that the rod is vibrating in its
7th harmonic frequency.
7 7
7
5. An aluminum rod 1.60 m long is held at its center. It is stroked with a rosin-coated cloth
to set up a longitudinal vibration. The speed of sound in a thin rod of aluminum is 5,100
m/s. What is the fundamental frequency and the first two overtone frequency of the
waves established in the rod?
SOLUTION:
The fundamental frequency of a rod fixed at its center is computed as:
The first two overtone frequency when rod is fixed at its center are the third harmonic
and fifth harmonic frequency.
7
and
7
6. A 1.2m long rod is fixed at midpoint and free at both ends. It produces a 2 nd
overtone of frequency 6,000Hz. Solve for the speed of the wave.
SOLUTION:
Second overtone is fifth harmonic frequency.
7. A pipe open at both ends has a fundamental frequency of 300 Hz when the
temperature is 0°C. (a) What is the length of the pipe? (b) What is its 2nd overtone
frequency at a temperature of 30°C?
SOLUTION:
a) The velocity of air in the pipe at 0oC is:
To solve for the length of the pipe we can use the equation of the fundamental
frequency when pipe is open at both ends, i.e.:
b) 2nd overtone frequency is third harmonic frequency :

But v at 30oC is :
Therefore:
8. A closed pipe has a fundamental frequency of 300 Hz when the temperature is 0°C. (a)
What is the length of the pipe? (b) What is its 2nd overtone frequency at a
temperature of 30°C?
SOLUTION:
a) The velocity of air in the pipe at 0oC is:
To solve for the length of the pipe we can use the equation of the fundamental
frequency of a closed pipe, i.e.:
b) 2nd overtone frequency is fifth harmonic frequency:

But v at 30 oC is :
Therefore:
EVALUATE
1. A rope is held tightly and shook until the standing wave
pattern shown in the diagram at the right is established
within the rope. The distance A in the diagram is 3.27
meters. The speed at which waves move along the rope is
2.62 m/s. (a) Determine the frequency of the waves
creating the standing wave pattern (b)Determine the
number of vibrational cycles which would be measured in
20.0 seconds.
2. the frequency of a mechanical oscillator is

adjusted in order to vibrate a 1.5 m length of elastic
cord at one of its harmonic frequencies. The cord
vibrates with the pattern shown below when the
frequency is set to 75 Hz. Determine the speed of the waves in the elastic cord.
3. A 1.6meter long rope creates a wave which travels at 2.4 m/s and has a frequency of
1.5 Hz. What would be the new wavelength and speed if they double the frequency of
vibration of the cord?
4. A standing wave is created through a 246-cm long rope. Vibrations travel within the
rope at speeds of 22.7 m/s. Determine the frequency of vibration of the rope.
5. On a six string guitar, the high E string has a linear density of 3.09×10−4kg/m and the low
E has a linear density of 5.78×10−3kg/m (a) determine the speed of the wave if the
tension on the string is 60N if the high E string is plucked (b) the linear density of low E is
approximately 20 times greater that high E string. should the tension in low E strings be
increased (or decreased?) in order for waves to travel the same speed as waves in high
E? (c) what should be the tension of the low E string to travel the same speed as in the
high E.
6. A copper wire has a density of 8920 kg per cubic meter, a radius of 1.5mm and an
unknown length. The wire is held under a tension of 12N. transverse waves are sent
through the wire, (a) determine the linear density of the wire, (b) determine the speed
through which wave travel through the wire.
7. A rod is fixed at midpoint with both ends free. The rod produces a 3rd overtone of
7500Hz. The speed of the wave is at 3000 m/s. determine the length of the rod and the
fundamental frequency.
8. Resolve problem 7 if the rod is fixed at one end and free at the other end?
9. A pipe is open at both ends and has a 2nd overtone of 353 Hz and speed of 353 m/s.
Determine (a) the temperature to which the wave is traveling, (b) length of the pipe (c)
the fundamental frequency of the wave?
10. Resolve problem 9 if the pipe is closed at one end and open at the other?
11. Determine the speed and the first three overtones of the pipe in problem no. 10 if the
temperature is increased by 5 degrees Celsius.
MODULE 9: FLUIDS AT REST
ENGAGE
what would happen to objects when they are submerged or immersed in fluids?
what forces do you think are responsible in your answer in the first question?
In recreational diving, divers can only reach 40 meters, why is this so? Explain the concept
behind this?
what causes ships and boats to float on water?
why do you think Jack did not ride the plank of wood with Rose when the Titanic sank?
EXPLORE
Read Module 9: Fluids at Rest (pp 119 – 121)
EXPLAIN
Fluids are materials that can flow. They have no definite shape and they can be
liquids or gases. Gases are highly compressible but liquids are practically incompressible.
Fluid statics is the study of fluids at rest while Fluid dynamics is the study of flowing fluids.
Basic concepts:
1. Density (ρ) of a substance is the mass per unit volume thus in SI system it is expressed
in kg/m3.
2. Specific gravity (SG) is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of water.
Sometimes it is called ―Relative density‖. It has no unit.
 The density of water is 1 g/cm3 or 1000 kg/m3
3. Fluid Pressure
Pressure at any point in a fluid is equal to the force per unit area of a surface
placed at the point.
 Pressure has a unit of N/m2 or Pascal, Pa in SI.
It can also be shown that because of the weight of the fluid above a certain point, the
pressure varies with the depth as given by the formula
Pa
Where Pa is the pressure at the surface = Atmospheric pressure. Also
called Barometric pressure because it is measured by a barometer.
At sea level: Pa = 14.7 psi = 76 cm Hg = 1 atm = 101325 Pa
 It is less at higher elevations.
𝝆𝒈𝒉 = gage pressure because this is what is measured by pressure
measuring devices like Hg manometers, Bourdon pressure gage, etc.
P = absolute pressure
Pascal’s Principle
―Any pressure applied to a confine fluid will be transmitted undiminished to all
parts of the fluid‖
4. BUOYANCY
Buoyancy is a phenomenon wherein a body immersed in a fluid experiences
an upward force called the buoyant force which tends to lessen its weight in the
fluid compared to its weight in air.
Archimedes’ Principle
―Whenever a body is immersed fully or partially in a fluid, a buoyant force will
act on the body that is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced‖.
Buoyant force
Thus,
 If the weight of the object is greater than the buoyant force, the object will sink (but
still it experiences a buoyant force, which is why a rock does not feel heavy when it
is submerged as it does when it is lifted out of the water). If the weight of the object
is less than the buoyant force, it will experience a net upward force and will float to
the surface. Some of the object will protrude above the surface, so that the portion
still submerged will displace a weight of fluid equal to the weight of the object.
ELABORATE
FLUID PRESSURE:
A diving bell is designed to withstand pressure of sea water at a depth of 600 meters.
(a) What is the gage pressure at this depth? (b) What is the absolute pressure? (c)
What total force acts on a circular glass window 15 cm in diameter if the pressure inside
the diving bell is atmospheric? Assume density of seawater is 1030 kg/m3
SOLUTION:
a) The gauge pressure at a depth of 600 meters is:
b) Absolute pressure,
c) Net pressure on the glass surface = Poutside – Pinside

= 77
* +
PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE
1. Find the minimum gauge pressure which must be supplied to an automobile lift pump
with a piston of area 120 in2 to lift an automobile and piston weighing 3,000 lb.
SOLUTION:
Net force = net gauge pressure x area
3,000 lb = p x 120 in2
P = 25 lb/in2
2. Calculate the force that must be exerted on the master cylinder of a hydraulic system
to lift a 10,000 kg truck with the slave cylinder. The master cylinder has a diameter of
1.50 cm and the slave has a diameter of 30.0 cm.
SOLUTION:
Solving for the area of the master cylinder:

( ) 7 7
Solving for the area of the slave cylinder:

( ) 7 7
Solving for the force applied to the slave cylinder:
Solving for the force applied to the master cylinder:
7 7
BUOYANCY
1. An object weighs 12 N in air and 10 N when immersed completely in water. Find the
volume of the object and its density.
SOLUTION:
N N
Therefore,
2. A man fishing in the Aegean See hooks an ancient gold crown. The density of gold
is19.3 x 103 kg/m3, and the density of seawater is 1030 kg/m3. While he is pulling up the
treasure, the tension in his line is 20 N. What will be the tension when he lifts the object
out of the water?
SOLUTION:
Using Newton‘s first law equation .
Tension in the line, T=20 N
Buoyant force, Bf
N ( ) ( )
7
Weight, mg = ρVg
If the object of weight mg is

pulled up slowly, it is in
equilibrium.
When the object is in air, the tension is equal to the weight of the gold
T
7
EVALUATE
1. A cylinder contains a fluid at a gauge pressure of 350 kN/m2. Express this pressure in
terms of a head of (a) water (ρwater = 1000 kg/m3) and (b) mercury (relative density
13.6kg/m3). What would be the absolute pressure in the cylinder if the atmospheric
pressure is at 101.3 kN/m2?
2. Determine the water gauge pressure at a house
at the bottom of a hill fed by a tank of water 8.0m 8m
deep and connected to a house by a pipe that is
120m long and at an angle of 50° from the 120m
horizontal. Assume the tank is full.
50°
3. A piece of metal weighs 10 g in air, 9.20 g in water, and 8.93 g when immersed in
gasoline. a) What is the density of the metal? b) What is the density of the gasoline?
4. A block of wood with the dimensions 0.15 by 0.35 by 0.4 cubic meters floats along a
river with the broadest face facing down. The wood is submerged to a height of 6cm.
What is the mass of the piece of wood?
5. A car‘s weight is given as 20kN. F

Determine the external input force F for the
given diagram.
A Aa=75 cm2
Ab=3500 cm2 B
6. The hydraulic lift has a large cross section and a small cross section. Large cross-
sectional area is 25 times the small cross-sectional area. If on the small cross section is
given an input force of 50 N, then determine the output force.
MODULE 10: HEAT TRANSFER
ENGAGE
How is heat transferred?
How do you explain the heat transfer processes in cooking using an electric stove?
Cite simple situations where you can observe heat transfer.
What do you think happens to objects when they transfer heat?
EXPLORE
Read Module 10: Heat Transfer (pp125 – 128)
EXPLAIN
HEAT TRANSFER
- The movement of energy from a warmer object to a cooler object.
HEAT
- Form of energy transferred from one body to another due to difference in
temperature
- usually measured by the temperature (Celsius, C; Fahrenheit, F; Kelvin, K)
FACTORS that affect Energy gained or lost by an object during heat transfer:
o Mass
o specific heat
o change in temperature
*3 Processes by which heat is being transferred from one body to another:

1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation
CONDUCTION
 The transfer of thermal energy between neighboring molecules in a substance
due to a temperature gradient.
 Temperature gradient – is the rate of change of temperature with
distance.
 It is a process by which heat energy is transferred from particle to particle by
collisions or direct interactions.
** For example, if you hold one end of a long metal bar and insert the other end into
a flame, you will find that the temperature of the metal in your hand soon increases.
The energy reaches your hand by means of conduction.
INSULATORS VS CONDUCTORS:
INSULATORS – these are materials that do not transfer heat well
e.g. Air, wood, wool
CONDUCTORS – materials that transfer heat well
e.g. Silver, fiberglass, tile
EQUATIONS FOR CONDUCTION:
where: = heat conducted (cal,J)

= area (cm2, m2)
= temperature difference (°C) =
= time (sec)
= thickness (cm, m)
= coefficient of thermal conductivity ( )
= power (watts)
CONVECTION
 It is the transfer of heat by the motion of a volume of hot fluid from one place to
another.
 Heat transfer by the actual movement of the heated material itself.
** 2 Process:
Force Convection – if the heated substance is forced to move by a fan or pump.
Natural Convection - the change in density that takes place when a fluid is heated.
*example: Airflow at a beach
EQUATIONS for CONVECTION:
where: = heat transfer coefficient ( )

= area (m2)
= temperature difference between the surface and the bulk of the fluid away
from the surface (K)
= rate of convective heat flow (watts)
Value of h applies to natural convection of air at atmospheric pressure:

1. Horizontal plate with air passing the top surface
2. Horizontal plate with air passing the bottom surface
3. Vertical plate
4. Horizontal plate or vertical pipe of diameter D
( )
RADIATION
 It takes place by means of electromagnetic waves which require no material
medium for their passage.
 It consists of electromagnetic waves which transmit energy from a source to an
absorber.
EQUATION for RADIATION
where: = Stefan Boltzmann constant = 7

= emissivity = 0, ideal reflector; 1, ideal absorber
= surface temperature (K)
= area (m2)
= power (watts)
Figure 10.1 In a fireplace, heat transfer occurs by all three
methods: conduction, convection, and radiation. Radiation is
responsible for most of the heat transferred into the room. Heat
transfer also occurs through conduction into the room, but at a
much slower rate. Heat transfer by convection also occurs
through cold air entering the room around windows and hot air
leaving the room by rising up the chimney.
ELABORATE
CONDUCTION:
1. when you hold one end of an iron rod while the other end is in direct contact with a
flame. Heat will transfer through the metal by conduction.
2. The knives and forks use a wooden handle to break with the conduction of heat.
3. When you pour hot coffee to the cup containing it. Hot liquids transfer the heat to the
container containing them, causing the latter to warm up a bit.
4. Compresses (hot water bags) used to relax muscles. The heat is transferred from the
compress to the skin and from there to the muscles.
5. An ice cube melts when placed on a person‘s hand. The heat from the skin is
transferred to the ice cube causing it to melt.
CONVECTION:
1. The heat transfer of a stove.
2. Hot air balloons, which are held in the air by hot air. If it cools, the balloon immediately
begins to fall.
3. When the water vapor fogs the glass of a bath, by the hot temperature of the water
when bathing.
RADIATION
1. The transmission of electromagnetic waves through the microwave oven.
2. The light emitted by an incandescent lamp.
3. The emission of gamma rays by a nucleus.
COMPUTATION EXAMPLES:
CONDUCTION:
1. The wall of shed in which ice is stored consists of an outer layer of wood 2cm and an
inner layer of rock wool 3cm thick. Find the heat conducted through 50m 2 of the wall in
1hr. When the outer wood surface is at 20°C and the inner rock wool surface is at 5°C,
find the temperature of the wood-rock wool interface. (kwood = 3 x 10-4 ;
)
Solution
Let T be the temperature of the interface. The heat conducted through both layers is
the same, so that:
[ ] [ ]
For yields 7 , the temperature of the interface. If we put this value into the
equation for , we obtain:
( ) 7
[ ]
CONVECTION:
1. A Bathroom is heated by a floor-to-ceiling steam pipe that is 10cm in diameter. The
ceiling height is L=3.0m and the temperature of the bulk of air in the room is 22°C. If the
pipe surface is at 90°C, what is the rate of convective heat transfer?
Solution:
7 7
 For vertical pipe of diameter D
( )
[ ( )]
RADIATION:
1. A copper ball 2cm in radius is heated in a furnace to 400°C. If the emissivity is 0.3, at
what rate does it radiate energy?
Solution
The surface area of the ball is
and its absolute temperature is 7 7

= Stefan Boltzmann constant = 7
( 7 ) 7
2. The sun‘s surface has a temperature of about 5800K, and the radius of the sun is about
7x108m. Calculate the total energy radiated by the sun each day, assuming the
emissivity is e=1. By way of comparison, the total energy consumed worldwide each
year by humans is about 1021J.
Solution
7 7
( 7 ) 7
EVALUATE
1. Identify the word/s defined in each item
b. the measure of the amount of energy in matter
c. he movement of energy from a warmer object to a cooler object
d. Materials that do not transfer energy (heat) easily
e. The transfer of heat through empty space
2. Identify whether the given situations are examples of conduction, convection or

radiation.
a. Solar ultraviolet radiation, precisely the process that determines the Earth‘s
temperature.
b. Ironing of clothes
c. When you walk barefoot on the hot street, and it burns your toes.
d. The heat transferred by hand or hair dryer
e. When teaspoons get hot when placed in hot coffee
f. The heat transfer generated by the human body when a person is barefoot.
g. The heat emitted by a radiator.
h. A thermometer works because the liquid in it contracts when heated.
3. Answer the following questions as either TRUE or FALSE
a. the Sun directly heat the air in our atmosphere
b. higher temperature means faster moving molecules
c. Air a great conductor of heat
d. Heat always comes from cooler temperature to warmer temperature
e. The transfer of heat When the warmth of the sun heats rocks is an example of
radiation
f. A thermometer works because the liquid in its contracts when heated which is
an example of conduction
g. temperature is a measure of total kinetic energy
MODULE 11: ELECTROSTATICS
ENGAGE
What happens when two atoms of like charges are near each other? (i.e. both are
positively charged)
An electron is negatively charged particle of an atom. What happens when an atom loses
an electron?
What happens to the force between two atoms when they are placed too far from each
other?
When a rubber comb is run through the hair and is then placed near small pieces of paper,
the pieces of paper are attracted to the rubber comb. Explain why?
EXPLORE
Read Module 11: Electrostatics (pp 132 -135)
EXPLAIN
Electrostatics
- Branch of physics that deals with the study of charges at rest
- "Electrostatic" pertains to electric charges at rest or to fields or phenomena
produced by stationary charge(s)
- Static electricity is the accumulation of electrical charges on the surface of a
material; may result in sparks, shocks or materials clinging together.
Electric Charges
- one of the basic properties of the elementary particles of matter giving rise to all
electric and magnetic forces and interactions.
There are two types of electric charges: positive and negative

these charges are commonly known as protons (+) and electrons (–)
Atomic Structure:
Particle Charge Mass (kg)
-1.6 x 10-19 C or
Electron (e) 9.1094 x 10-31
-4.8 x 10-10esu (or statC)
+1.6 x 10-19 C or
Proton (p) 1.6726 x 10-27
+4.8 x 10-10esu (or statC)
Neutron (n) 0 1.6749 x 10-27
*1C = 3 x 109statC
ELECTRON THEORY:
1. A neutral body is one that has exactly as many electrons as there are protons.
2. When a neutral body gains electron from an outside source, it acquires a negative
charge.
Hence, a negatively charged body has more electrons than protons.
3. When neutral body loses some of its own electrons, it acquires a positive charge.
Hence, a positively charged body has fewer electrons than protons.
LAWS OF ELECTROSTATICS:
1. INTERACTION OF CHARGES:
a) Like charges repel: a) positive and positive repel, b) negative and negative repel
b) Opposite charges attract: positive and negative attract
c) Charged and neutral attract: a) positive and neutral attract, b) negative and neutral
attract
Example: a charged comb (ran through the hair) attracts bits of uncharged
(or neutral) bits of paper
+ - -
- - +
Figure 11.1 Direction of interaction of Charges
 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF CHARGE
- The algebraic sum of the electric charge in any closed system remains constant
- charge is always conserved
- When all objects involved are considered prior to and after a given process, the
total amount of charge among the objects is the same before the process starts as
it is after the process ends.
ELECTRIFICATION (CHARGING OF BODY):

- The process of gaining or losing electron (transfer of electrons from one material to
the other)
Methods of Electrification/ Charging:

1. Friction
- results in a transfer of electrons between two objects that are rubbed
together
2. Conduction
- charging a neutral body by bringing into contact with a charged body
- (also known as charging by contact) involves the contact of a charged
object to a neutral
3. Induction
- The charging body is brought near the neutral body, thus inducing it to have
an opposite charge as that of the charging body
- object is charged without actually touching the object to any other charged
object
The Triboelectric Series
- a list of materials showing which have a greater tendency to become positive (+)
and which have a greater tendency to become negative (−)
- atoms of different materials hold on to their electrons with different strengths
-the materials would acquire the same amount of charge (but opposite type
or sign)
-the greater the separation in the series, the greater the exchange of charges
**OTHER PROCESSES:
Polarization is the process of separating opposite charges within an object. The

positive charge becomes separated from the negative charge. By inducing the
movement of electrons within an object, one side of the object is left with an excess
of positive charge and the other side of the object is left with an excess of negative
charge. Charge becomes separated into opposites.
Grounding
: the process of removing the excess charge on an object by means of the transfer
of electrons between it and another object of substantial size. When a charged
object is grounded, the excess charge is balanced by the transfer of electrons
between the charged object and a ground.
Ground: an object that serves as a seemingly infinite reservoir of electrons; the
ground is capable of transferring electrons to or receiving electrons from a charged
object in order to neutralize that object. (ex. ground or earth)
2. COULOMB’S LAW OF ELECTROSTATICS (CHARLES AUGUSTIN DE COULOMB)

- The electric force F between two electric charges is directly proportional to the
product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them.
ELECTRIC FORCE
- The attractive or repulsive interaction between any two charged objects; an
action-at-a-distance force
- hold atoms together; makes possible the existence of material things, human
activities, and properties and attributes (tasting, smelling, thinking, etc.)
COULOMB’S LAW
| || | Where:
F = force between the charges; N or dynes
q1& q2 = magnitude of the charges; C
r = distance between them; m or cm
k = Coulomb‘s constant
Where:
N
N
ELABORATE
ELECTRIFICATION: (Amounts of charge given are fictitious and given for purposes of
illustration only)
CHARGING BY FRICTION:
1. What type of charge would each material acquire for each of the following pairs
rubbed together?
Assume they are all initially uncharged or neutral.
a) acetate and wool
b) paper and polyester
2. Which pair would acquire higher amount of individual charge?

Answer:
CHARGING BY CONDUCTION:
1. Initially, object A is positively charged 2. A is brought in contact with B. Since A is

with +8μC; object B is neutral positively charged, electrons in B are
attracted towards A.
Then the A and B are pulled apart.
3. B loses electrons; so, it becomes positively charged. A gains those electrons lost by B; so,
A becomes less positively charged.
As shown in no. 1 and 3, by conservation of charge:

4. The total charge in the system of charges is the same before and after the charging
process.
CHARGING BY INDUCTION
1. Initially, object A is negatively 2. A is brought close to but not in contact with
charged with -15μC; objects B and B. Since A is negatively charged, electrons in
C are neutral B are repelled and move as far away as
possible from A. These electrons transfer to C.
Then the A and B are pulled apart.
3. B loses electrons; so, it becomes positively charged C gains those electrons lost by B; so,
C becomes negatively charged. A retains its original charge
As shown in no. 1 and 3, by conservation of charge:

4. The total charge in the system of charges is the same before and after the charging
process.
POLARIZATION:
1. Initially, object A is negatively charged 2. Since A is negatively charged, electrons
with -10μC, and B is neutral. on the left edge of Bare repelled and
move as far away as possible from A.
There are no other objects these
electrons can go to. So, they
accumulate at the right edge of B.
3. B neither loses nor gains electrons; the electrons only move to a different part of the
object. So, B remains in its initial state which is being neutral.
4.
GROUNDING
(Amounts of charge given are fictitious and given for purposes of illustration only)
a. Neutralizing a positively b. Neutralizing a negatively charged object
Object A being negatively

charged repel electrons at
the surface of the ground.
These electrons move as far
away as possible from A.
The surface of the ground
charged object
now becomes positively
Object A is brought in contact with charged. In turn, electrons
ground, which has abundance of from object A are
electrons. Electrons from ground attracted to the ground.
are attracted to A because this When enough electrons
object is positively charged (means have transferred out of A, A
that it has ―electron vacancies‖). becomes neutral.
When enough electrons have
transferred into A (or filled up the
―electron vacancies‖), A becomes
neutral.
1. Identify the following particles as being Particle A:
charged or uncharged. If charged,
indicate whether they are charged
positively or negatively. There are more electrons than protons.
(n = neutron, p = proton, e = Particle A is negatively charged.
electron)
Particle B:
There are equal number of electrons and

protons.
Particle B is neutral.
Particle C:
There are more protons than electrons.

Particle B is positively charged.
How to calculate amount of net charge or , total number of protons
total charge on an object: : charge on a single proton,
: total number of electrons
( )( )
: charge on a single electron,
2. b) 3.12 x 1014 protons and 4.5488 x 1016
a) 8.25749 x 1017 protons and 5.26 x 1014 electrons; the charge on this object is ____ C.
electrons; the charge on this object is ____
C. +
7
+
COULOMB’S LAW:
Given: Solution:
located at (+0.2 m,0) : force exerted by on
located at (+0.6 m,0) : force exerted by on
Determine the magnitude and direction of Magnitude of force: (exclude the signs of
the force on each charge. the charges)
| || |
Medium is not specified. Assume it to be

free space or air; so,
N
N
Draw the charges along a line.
and have opposite types of charge;
N
so, they are attracted to each other.
is pulled by is pulled by
Force on :
The force vector of each charge is
directed toward the other charge:
Force on :
Given:
located at (0,+0.3 m)
located at (0, -0.2 m)
Determine the magnitude and direction of

the force on each charge.
Solution: Medium is not specified. Assume it to be

Draw the charges along a line. free space or air; so,
and have same type

of charge; so, they repel
each other.
is pushed away from
is pushed away from
The force vector of each : force exerted by on

charge is directed away : force exerted by on
from the other charge:
Force on :
Magnitude of force: Force on :

(exclude the signs of the charges)
| || | ⃗
EVALUATE
1. Three charged particles are aligned along the x axis as shown. Find the electric force at
(a) the position (2m, 0) and (b) the position (0, 2 m).
2. Three point charges are located on a circular arc as shown. (a) Find the electric force
that would be exerted on a 5nC point charge placed at P.
3. Two particles, with charges of 20nC and -20nC, are placed at the points with
coordinates (0, 4cm) and (0, -4cm) respectively. A particle with charge 10nC is located
at the origin. Find the electric force exerted on the 10 nC charge located at the origin.
MODULE 12: ELECTRICITY
ENGAGE
In your opinion, how does electricity work, does it move from positive to negative or
otherwise?
Why is it important to follow the electric specifications on chargers and appliances?
A small amount of current is generated by putting your tongue to a 9V battery, however

the amount of current cannot be felt by holding 9V battery using your dry hands. What is
the concept behind the difference between the amount of current generated?
EXPLORE
Read Module 12: Electricity (pp143 – 148)
EXPLAIN
CURRENT, RESISTANCE AND ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
I. ELECTRIC CURRENT
 charges in motion
DC (Direct Current)
: is a constant flow between two points having a different electrical potential and
the charge flow is one way (ex. cell or battery)
AC (Alternating Current)
:the charge flows alternately backwards then forwards in a circuit many times every
second (ex. power plant, generator, mains supply)
 Direction of Current
CONVENTIONAL FLOW
ELECTRON FLOW
A conventional current is treated In a metallic conductor, the
as a flow of positive charges moving charges are electrons
(would move from the positive — but the current still points in
battery terminal and toward the the direction positive charges
negative terminal). would flow.
`
The motion of positive charge carriers in one direction has the same effect as the
actual motion of negative charge carriers in the opposite direction. So for historical
reasons, however, we use the following convention:
A current arrow is drawn in the direction in which positive
charge carriers would move, even if the actual charge carriers
are negative and move in the opposite direction.
 Current as the rate of flow of electric charge through a conductor connected

between two points of different potentials
where:
I = current, Ampere (amp or A)
t = time, s
Q = total charge that flows, coulomb
* Note that for a metallic conductor, charges that flow are electrons
Q= Nq
where:
N = number of electrons that flow during a time t
q = charge of an electron, |qe| = 1.6x10-19 C
 Current in Relation to the Drift Velocity of the Charges

When an electric field ⃗ is established in a conductor, the charge carriers (assumed
positive) acquire a drift speed in the direction of ⃗ ; the current is related to the drift
speed by
where: A = cross sectional area of conductor (m2)

n = free electron(conduction electron) density or concentration of particles
= the number of carriers per unit volume (n = N/V)
 (nq) = carrier charge density
 Current Density in a Conductor, J
 It is the current per unit cross-sectional area.


II. RESISTIVITY AND RESISTANCE

 Resistivity,
 The quantitative measure of a material‘s opposition to the flow of current. It is an
intrinsic property of the material (metal element) which depends only (if
temperature is constant) on the chemical composition of the material and
temperature, not its shape or size.
 Good conductors have small resistivity; good insulators have large resistivity.
 Resistance, R
 It is the obstruction or opposition offered by the material (conductor) in the flow
of current through it. It is the extrinsic property of the material which depends
upon the amount of material present (shape and size).
OHM’S LAW: For many materials (including most metals), the ratio of the current density to
the electric field is a constant that is independent of the electric field producing the
current.
Materials and devices that obey Ohm‘s Law are said to be ohmic
Resistance: the ratio of the potential Resistance of a block of material along

difference across a conductor to the the length :
current in the conductor
Resistance and Temperature

Over a limited temperature range:
 Temperature Dependence of Resistivity
 The resistivity increases when the temperature
increases except for some materials like carbon
Slope = m =
Where:
ρ0 and ρ= resistivity at temperature T0 and
T1respectively
[ ]
Where:
= = temperature coefficient of the material
Since , then:
III. ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE, emf or ℰ

 Not a force but an energy-per-unit-charge quantity that is imparted by an energy
source.
 The maximum potential difference between two electrodes of a galvanic or
voltaic cell
 energy per unit electric charge that is imparted by an energy source such as
an electric generators, or any kind of cells or battery.
Sources of Electrical Energy: burning oil or coal, hydroelectric plant, geothermal, wind,
solar, nuclear, natural gas, hydrogen, biofuel, biomass, fruits and vegetables with
moderate to high levels of acidity, cell
IV. OHM’S LAW

 Georg Simon Ohm (1787 – 1854), a German physicist, is credited with finding the
relationship between current and voltage for a resistor.
 The voltage across a resistor is directly proportional to the current, I flowing through
the resistor.
 Ohm further defined the constant of proportionality for a resistor to be the

resistance, R.
 Thus, the resistance, R is the ability of an element to resist the flow of electric current;
measured in ohms (Ω).
 The power dissipated by a resistor is given by:
( )
V. SERIES RESISTORS AND VOLTAGE DIVISION

 What is Series?
- Two or more elements are in series if they exclusively share a single node and
consequently carry the same current.
- The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected in a series is the sum
- of the individual resistances.
I
∑
- For the given figure:

V
- The current in a series circuit is the same for each of
the elements or resistors.
I
- The total voltage in a series circuit is equivalent to
the summation of all resistance voltages or voltage
drops in the circuit
V
 To determine the voltage across each resistor;

Ohm‘s Law I
,
Substitute
- Note that source voltage is divided among

the resistors in direct proportion to their resistances
- This is regarded as the principle of voltage division
- In general, if a voltage supply has resistors in series with the source voltage , the
th resistor can be expressed as:
VI. Parallel Resistors and Current Division

 What is Parallel?
- Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to the same two nods
and consequently have the same voltages across them.
- The equivalent resistance o 2 parallel resistors is equal to the product of their
resistance divided by their sum.
I
I1 I2
- Generally, the equivalent resistance of a

circuit with resistors in parallel is:
-
- The current in a parallel circuit is equivalent to the summation of all branch currents
in the circuit
- The resistance voltages are each equal to the source voltage of the parallel circuit.
 To determine the current through each resistor

Ohm‘s Law
Substitute
- Note that the total current is shared by the resistors in inverse proportion to their
resistances.
- This is regarded as the principle of current division
Generally
ELABORATE
CURRENT, RESISTANCE and EMF
1. Suppose you wish to fabricate a uniform
wire from 1.00 g of copper. If the wire is to
have a resistance of 0.500 Ω and all the
( )* +
copper is to be used, what must be a) the
length and b) the diameter of this wire?
Density of copper g/cm3, and
resistivity 7 Ω·m.
a) Substitute (2) in (1)
Assuming that the wire is 7

cylindrical:
b) Substitute (3) and in (2)

For a cylindrical wire, cross- ( )
section is a circle:
2. a) A 34.5 m length of copper wire at 20.0°C has

a radius of 0.25 mm. If a potential difference of
9.00 V is applied across the length of the wire,
determine the current in the wire. b) If the wire
is heated to 30.0°C while the 9.00 V potential
difference is maintained, what is the resulting
current in the wire? Temperature coefficient of 7
resistivity is Resistivity is 7
.
a) The given and are at a reference temperature
b)
* ( ) +
From part a)
at
3. A toaster has a heating element made of nichrome wire

(resistivity is 150x 10-8Ω·m and temperature coefficient of
resistivity is 0.4x10-3/°C). When the toaster is first connected
to a 120 V source (and the wire is at a temperature of
20.0°C), the initial current is 1.50 A. The current decreases
as the heating element warms up. When the toaster
reaches its final operating temperature, the current is 1.20 at
A. Find a) the power delivered to the toaster when it is at at
its operating temperature b) the final temperature of the
heating element
a)
b) The given and are at a reference temperature
{[( ) ] }
SERIES CONNECTION
4. Given 4 resistors connected in series, R1=2Ω, R2=1Ω, R3=4Ω and R4=8, connected to a 30 Vol
source, find for a) Total Resistance b) Total Current and c) Voltage drops across each resistor.
a)
b) ⁄
c) By Ohm‘s Law:
By Voltage Divider:
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
PARALLEL CONNECTION
5. If the resistors in Problem 4 are connected in parallel, find for the a) Total Resistance, b) Total
Voltage and c) Currents through each resistor.
o Total Resistance
o
o By Current Ohm‘s Law
⁄ ⁄
( ⁄ )
( ⁄ )
( ⁄ )
( ⁄ ) 7
( ⁄ ) 7
SERIES-PARALLEL COMBINATION
Problem 1
By combining the resistors in the given circuit, find
(–) denotes Series and // denotes Parallel
From the right:
Rx = (4 – 5 – 3)
Equivalent Curcuit:
Equivalent Curcuit:
Resistor
Equivalent Curcuit:
Thus,
Equivalent Curcuit:
Thus,
Problem 2 Then gives .
Find for the circuit shown:
Solution:
and
and are in series giving
Equivalent Circuit:
Then gives .
and are in series, gives .
Therefore,
EVALUATE
1. A steady current of 2.5 A exists in a wire for 4.0 min. (a) How much total charge passed
by a given point in the circuit during those 4.0 min? (b) How many electrons would this
be?
2. A 200-km-long high-voltage transmission line 2 cm in diameter carries a steady current

of 1000 A. If the conductor is copper with a free charge density of 8.50 x 1028 electrons
per cubic meter, how many years does it take one electron to travel the full length of
the cable?
3. An 18-gauge copper wire (ρ = 1.72x10-8 .m) has a diameter of 1.02 mm and a cross-
sectional area of 8.20x10-7m2. It carries a current of 1.67 A. Find (a) the electric-field
magnitude in the wire; (b) the potential difference between two points in the wire 50m
apart; (c) the resistance of a 50m length of this wire.
4. A certain lightbulb has a tungsten filament with a resistance of 19 V when at 20°C and
140 V when hot. Assume the resistivity of tungsten varies linearly with temperature even
over the large temperature range involved here. Find the temperature of the hot
filament. (αTungsten = 4.5 x 10-3/OC)
5. When an external resistance of 10 ohms is connected to a source, a current of 0.5A

flows, when the resistance is changed to 20 ohms, the current becomes 0.3 amperes.
What are the open circuit emf and the internal resistance of the source?
6. A battery has an emf of 15.0 V. The terminal voltage of the battery is 11.6 V when it is
delivering 20.0 W of power to an external load resistor R. (a) What is the value of R? (b)
What is the internal resistance of the battery?
7. Find the voltage needed so that a current of 10 A will

flow through the series circuit shown in the figure.
8. Find the voltage across each resistor in the circuit

of Problem 7. Show that the voltage drop equals
the applied voltage of 100V.
9. For the given circuit, find (a) the total

resistance, (b) each branch current, and (c)
the total current.
10. Find I3 in the parallel circuit using current divider.
MODULE 13: MAGNETISM
ENGAGE
In your opinion, do you use electromagnetism in your daily lives? Can you cite example
where you apply or use them?
How do compass (navigation) work?
In your opinion, what is the importance of the earth‘s magnetic field?
EXPLORE
Read Module 13: Magnetism (pp156 – 161)
EXPLAIN
ELECTROMAGNETISM
Many applications of electricity are based on the fact that electric current passing
thru a conductor produces a magnetic field around the conductor or vice versa, i.e. when
a conductor moves thru a magnetic field, an electromotive force (emf) is generated and
hence current could flow if there is a complete loop. This is called electromagnetism. The
operation of such devices or machines like the electric motor, generator, the transformer,
the inductor coils, etc. are all based on this phenomenon.
A. The Magnetic Field

It is a region in space wherein a force acts on a charge moving through it.
Ex. The space around a magnet
The space around a current-carrying conductor
One characteristic of a magnetic field is its direction which is usually indicated by a

set of lines drawn in the magnetic field called magnetic field lines (also called magnetic
lines of force or lines of induction).
Figure13.1 Different Examples of Magnetic field
Note: When the lines are curved, the magnetic field is non-uniform and the direction at
any point is taken by the tangent to a line passing through that point.
Figure13.2 Magnetic field taken at point P
B. Magnetic Flux ( )
A set of magnetic field lines or a group of lines taken or computed as one
C. Magnetic Flux Density ( ) at a point

Magnetic flux passing per unit area of a surface placed at the point perpendicular
to the magnetic field.
Note: 1. If the surface area A is PERPENDICULAR to β then, = βA
2. If the surface area A is NOT PERPENDICULAR to β then, = βAcosθ
Magnetic flux density is a vector quantity and its direction is the same as the direction of
the magnetic field at a point.
SOURCES OF MAGNETIC FIELD

I. MAGNETIC FIELD OF A MOVING CHARGE
When a charge moves through a portion of space, a

magnetic field is created around the charge.
To obtain the magnetic field produced by a charge, q,
moving at velocity v, at a point located at a
displacement r from charge, we need a mathematical
expression the field in terms of q, v and r.
where: β = magnetic field at any point ―P‖ near the moving charge (Tesla or Gauss)
q = electric charge (Coulomb, statcoulomb)
v = speed of the electric charge (m/s, cm/s)
r = distance of the point from the charge
θ = angle between r and v
μ0 = permeability of free space (Permeability is the measure of the ability of a
material to support the formation of a magnetic field within itself.)
= 4π x 10-7 T.m/A
Direction: RIGHT HAND RULE Thumb: velocity, v
4 fingers: magnetic field, β
NOTE: If the point charge is negative, the directions of the field and field lines are the
opposite with that of positive charge.
II. MAGNETIC FIELD at any POINT NEAR a STRAIGHT CONDUCTOR

a) Short Straight Conductor
The magnetic field due to the electric current in a straight wire is
such that the field lines are circles with the wire at the center.
Where: βP = magnetic field at a point P away from the

conductor
I = current through the conductor
r = perpendicular distance between point P and conductor
θ1 & θ2 = angles it make at the point with the conductor
USING RIGHT HAND RULE:

Thumb: current, I
4 Fingers: magnetic filed,
b) Long Straight Conductor
For infinite/long straight conductor, θ1 & θ2 = 90O and sin(90O) = 1, so the equation
now becomes
III. MAGNETIC FIELD of a CIRCULAR COIL or LOOP

The field depends on the distance x along the axis from the center of the loop to
the field point.
Where: βP = magnetic field at a point P along the axis

of the coil
N = number of turns
I = current in the coil
a = radius of the coil
r = distance from the point P to the radius of
coil
Note: At the center of the coil (r=a),
IV. MAGNETIC FIELD due to a SOLENOID

A long coil of wire consisting of many loops is called a solenoid and each loop
produces a magnetic field. Between any two wires, the fields due to each loop
tend to cancel. Toward the center of the solenoid, the fields add up to give a
field that can be fairly large and fairly uniform.
Let ―P‖ be any point along the axis of solenoid
Where: βP = magnetic
field at a point P along the axis of the
solenoid
N = number of turns
I = current in the solenoid
L = length of the solenoid
ELABORATE
Magnetic Field:
1. The figure below is a perspective view of a flat surface with area 3cm2 in a uniform
magnetic field. The magnetic flux through this surface is +0.9 mWb. Find the magnitude
of the magnetic field.
( )
θ can be 60° or 120°, using 60° will
yield a positive answer in this case
( )
2. Determine the flux that passes through the area as shown on the figure below.
( )
3. A pair of point charges, q1 = 5µC and q2 = -3µC are moving in a reference frame as
shown. At this instant, what are the magnitude and direction of the net magnetic field
produced at the origin? v1 = 6x105 m/s and v2 = 8x105 m/s.
( ) ( )
[ ]
( )
4. A coil consisting of 25 turns has a radius of 20cm and carries a current of 8 Amp.
Determine the magnetic field at (a) its center and (b) a point on its axis 10cm from its
center. Draw a diagram to indicate the current and the magnetic field. (The coil is
along the x-z plane whose current is moving from the z to the x-axis.)
N N N
EVALUATE
5. A +6µC point charge is moving at a constant speed of 8x106 m/s in the +y-direction,
relative to a reference frame. At the instant when the point charge is at the origin of this
reference frame, what is the magnetic-field it produces at point with coordinates
x=0.5m and y=0.5m?
6. Two infinitely long wires carrying 12A and 8A in opposite directions are laid parallel in air
10 cm apart. Find the resultant magnetic field at a point
a) midway between the wires.
b) 2cm from 8A and 12cm from 12A.
c) 8cm from 8A and 10cm from 12A.
7. In the figure, solve for the resultant magnetic field

at point ―O‖.
Coil 1: I1 = 2A
N1 = 30 turns
a1 =
Coil 2: I2 = 4A
N2 = 25 turns
a2 =
8. A solenoid is positioned with its axis on the y-

axis as shown. The current I = 10 A and its
radius is 0.1m. It has 100 turns. Solve for the flux density at point ―O‖.
MODULE 14: OPTICS
ENGAGE
What is the difference between refraction and reflection?
What is the difference between transparent, translucent and opaque objects?
How is it that when you raise your right hand in front of a mirror your image raises its left
hand?
Why is the word Ambulance is spelled backward in front of the vehicle?
Why do a spoon placed on a glass with water looks like it is broken?
If you can see the face of a friend who is under water can your friend also see you? Justify
your answer.
EXPLORE
Read Module 14: Optics (pp164 – 170)
EXPLAIN
OPTICS — NATURE OF LIGHT
Optics – branch of physics that deals with the study of the behavior and properties of light
*Light – a transverse wave, and it is the only visible wave/ray among the electromagnetic
spectrum. It can travel through a vacuum and many other media. In a vacuum, the
speed of light is a constant, c = 3 x 108 m/s. Light will travel slower through different
media.
REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF LIGHT
A light ray that encounters a change in media will: reflect, and/or refract (pass through),
and/or be absorbed.
Reflection of Light – the return or bouncing of light wave from a surface

A reflection can occur in an organized way (smooth surface) or in a random way
(rough surface).
* Reflection off of a smooth surface is called specular reflection.
* Reflection off of a rough surface is called diffuse reflection.
Law of Reflection: The angle of incidence with respect to the normal of the reflecting
surface θi, equals the angle of reflection θr:
The amount of energy that is reflected compared to the amount incident is called the
reflectivity of the surface. This also is called albedo. The reflectivity of a mirror is about 96%
(albedo = 0.96).
Refraction of Light
When light travels from one medium to another, part of the light can be transmitted
across the media surface and refracted.
a) Refraction means that the light beam bends.
b) b) This bending takes place because the light beam‘s velocity changes as it goes
from one medium to the next.
 If the light goes from the medium of high velocity to the one of low velocity, it is bent
toward the normal to the surface
 If the light goes the other way, it is bent away from the normal.
 Light moving along the normal is not deflected.
The index of refraction of a transparent medium is the ratio between the speed of light in
free space or vacuum, c and its speed in the medium, v:
N N
* The greater its index of refraction, the more a beam of light is deflected on entering a
medium.
Law of Refraction (Snell’s Law):

According to Snell‘s law, the angles of incidence θi and refraction θr are related by the
formula
where v1 and n1 are, respectively, the velocity of light and index of refraction of the first
medium and v2 and n2 are the corresponding quantities in the second medium. Snell‘s
law is often written
THIN LENSES
The most familiar and widely used optical device (after the plane mirror) is the lens. A
lens is an optical system with two refracting surfaces. The simplest lens has two spherical
surfaces close enough together that we can neglect the distance between them (the
thickness of the lens); we call this a thin lens.
There are 2 basic types of lenses:

a) Convex Lens (Converging lens):
i) Lens thicker at center than edges.
ii) Light rays are refracted towards the focal point, F, on the other side of the lens.
b) Concave Lens (Diverging lens):

i) Lens thinner at center than edges.
ii) Light rays are refracted in a direction away from the focal point, F, on the inner side
of the lens.
Thin Lens Equation:

Just as we had for mirrors, the thin lens equation is
Where: Di = Image distance

Do= Object distance
f = Focal length
f = (+) for convex lens; (–) for concave lens
Graphical Methods for Lenses
We can determine the position and size of an image formed by a thin lens by using a
graphical method very similar to the one we used for spherical mirrors.
1. A ray parallel to the axis emerges from the lens in a direction that passes through the
second focal point of a converging lens, or appears to come from the second focal
point of a diverging lens.
2. A ray through the center of the lens is not appreciably deviated; at the center of the lens
the two surfaces are parallel, so this ray emerges at essentially the same angle at which it
enters and along essentially the same line.
3. A ray through (or proceeding toward) the first focal point emerges parallel to the axis.
MIRROR
A mirror is a surface that can reflect a beam of light in one direction instead of either
scattering it widely in many directions or absorbing it.
A. Plane Mirrors.
Images formed by plane (i.e., flat) mirrors have the following properties:
 The image is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front.

 The image is unmagnified, virtual, perverted and upright.
*Perverted means that the image is flipped about the vertical,
i.e. when you raise your right hand in front of a plane mirror, your image raises its left hand
i.e. when you have a mole on your left cheek, your image will have its mole on the right
B. Spherical Mirrors.
Spherical mirrors have the shape of a segment of a sphere.
 Concave mirror: Reflecting surface is on the ―inside‖ of the curved surface.
 Convex mirror: Reflecting surface is on the ―outside‖ of the curved surface.
Focal Length and Focal Point

The focal point of a mirror is the point where parallel rays converge after reflection from
a concave mirror (converging mirror), or the point from which they appear to diverge after
reflection from a convex mirror (diverging mirror). The distance from the focal point to the
vertex is called the focal length, denoted as f.
If the radius of curvature of the mirror is R, the focal length f is R/2. For a concave mirror,
f is positive, and for a convex mirror, f is negative.
Mirror Equation
When an object is a distance Do from a mirror of focal length f, the image is located a
distance Di from the mirror, where:
This equation holds for both concave and convex mirrors.
Graphical Methods for Mirrors

We can also determine the properties of the image by a simple graphical method.
1. A ray parallel to the axis, after reflection, passes through the focal point F of a concave
mirror or appears to come from the (virtual) focal point of a convex mirror.
2. A ray through (or proceeding toward) the focal point F is reflected parallel to the axis.
3. A ray along the radius through or away from the Radius of curvature R intersects the
surface normally and is reflected back along its original path.
4. A ray to the vertex V is reflected forming equal angles with the optic axis.
ELABORATE:
REFRACTION:
1. A layer of oil (n = 1.45) floats on water (n = 1.33). A ray of light shines onto the oil with an
incidence angle of 40o. Find the angle the ray makes in water.
SOLUTION:
40o
At the air-oil interface, Snell‘s law gives

𝑜
𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝜃
𝑜
𝜃
At the oil-water interface, Snell‘s law gives

𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝜃 𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝜃
𝜃 𝜃
Therefore;
THIN LENSES:
1. An object OO’, 4 cm high, is 20 cm in front of a thin convex lens of focal length + 12
cm. Determine the position and height of its image II’ (a) by computation and (b)
by construction (ray diagram)
SOLUTION:
a) The position of the image or image distance can be determined by using the Thin
lens equation:
To solve for the height of the image, use the linear magnification equation.
b) The following two convenient rays from O will locate the image.
1) A ray OP, parallel to the optical axis, must after refraction pass through the focus
F.
2) A ray passing through the optical center c of a thin lens is not appreciably
deviated. Hence ray OCI may be drawn a straight line.
The intersection I of these two rays is the image of O. Thus II’ represents the position
and image of OO’.
 The image is real,

inverted and enlarged.
I
Do Di
2. An object OO‘, is 9 cm high, is 27 cm in front of a concave lens of focal length -18
cm. Determine the position and height of its image II‘ (a) by computation and (b)
by construction (ray diagram).
SOLUTION:
a) The position of the image or image distance can be determined by using the
Thin lens equation:
b) The following two convenient rays from O will locate the image.
1. A ray OP, parallel to the optical axis, is refracted outward in the direction D as
if it came from the principal focus F.
2. A ray passing through the optical center of the lens is drawn as a straight line
OC.
 The image is virtual, upright

and diminished.
MIRRORS
1. An object OO’, 5 cm high, is 25 cm from a concave mirror of radius 80 cm.
Determine the position and the relative size of the image II‘ (a) by the use of the
mirror equation and (b) by construction.
SOLUTION:
mirror equation:
( )
(- means the image is behind the mirror or virtual

image)
b) Two of the following rays from O locate the image.

1) A ray OA, parallel to the principal axis, is reflected through the focus F, 40 cm
from the mirror.
2) A ray OB, in the line of the radius COB, is normal to the mirror and is reflected
back on itself through the center of curvature C.
3) A ray OD, which passes through F, is reflected parallel to the axis.
 The image is virtual,

upright and magnified.
Do
Di
2. An object OO’ 6 cm high is located 30 cm in front of a convex spherical mirror of
radius 40 cm. Determine the position and height of its image II’ by (a) use of the
mirror equation and (b) construction.
SOLUTION:
mirror equation:
( )
(- means the image is behind the mirror or virtual image)
b) Use two convenient rays coming from O:

1) A ray OA, parallel to the principal axis, is reflected in the direction AA’ as if it
passed through the principal focus F.
2) A ray OB, directed toward the center of curvature C, is normal to the mirror
and is reflected back on itself.
 The image is virtual, upright

and diminished.
Do Di
EVALUATE
1. the speed of light in an unknown medium is measured to be 2.76 x 10 8 m/s. (a) What is
the index of refraction of the medium?
2. Optical fibers are generally composed of silica, with an index of refraction around
1.44. (a) How fast does light travel in a silica fiber, and (b) How long will it take for that
light to travel from Baguio to Manila (distance between the two cities 128miles)
3. Light travels from fiber optic cable into diamond with an angle of refraction (θ r) of 36.1
°. if the refractive index of fiber optic cable is 1.6 and the refractive index of diamond is
2.4, determine (a) the angle of incidence(θi); (b) critical angle; (c) the speed of light in
each material.
4. A light ray strikes a reflective plane surface at an angle of 58° with the surface. (a) Find
the angle of incidence. (b) Find the angle of reflection.(c) Find the angle made by the
reflected ray and the surface.(d) Find the angle made by the incident and reflected
rays.
5. If the reflective surface in problem no. 4 is placed at an angel 10° above the horizontal.
Calculate all required values.
6. A ray of light is reflected by two parallel mirrors (1) and (2) at points A and B. The ray
makes an angle of 30° with the parallel line between the two mirrors. Calculate for (a)
the angle of reflection at the point of incidence A; (b) the angle of reflection at the
point of incidence B (c) the approximate number of reflections made by the two mirrors
if the distance between the two mirrors id d = 4 cm and the length L of the two mirror
system is 3 meters, (d) In a real system, at each reflection, there are losses of the light
energy travelling between the two mirrors. If L and d are fixed, what can be done to
decrease the number of reflections on the mirrors and hence the energy lost by
reflection?
30°
7. An 2cm object is placed 20 cm from a concave mirror. The focal length is 10 cm.
Determine (a) The image distance (b) the image size (c) magnification and (d)
describe the image formed
8. An image formed by a concave mirror is 3 times greater than the object. If the radius of
curvature 20 cm, determine the object distance in front of the mirror and describe the
image formed
9. The focal length of a convex mirror is 10 cm and the object distance is 15 cm.
Determine (a) the image distance (b) the magnification of image (c) the image size of
the object is 3 cm tall and (d) describe the image formed
10. A biker sees the image of a motorcycle behind it 1/6 times its original size when the
distance between the biker and motorcycle is 30 meters. Determine (a) the radius of
curvature of the rear-view mirror (b) the image distance (c) describe the image formed

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MODULE IN

PHYSICS for ENGINEERS (LECTURE)

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING Department

SCHOOL of ENGINEERING and ARCHITECTURE

TITLE PAGE …………………………………………………………………………………………………….i

TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................................................................1

COURSE OVERVIEW .........................................................................................................................................3

Dear Future Chemical Engineers,

Your academic experience as Chemical Engineering student will be utilized in this

Engr. Mylene M. Ocasion

What is the difference between scalar and vector quantities?

What is the difference between DOT and CROSS products?

Physics and its importance in the field of engineering:

Basic Concepts of Physics:

Table 1.2 Derived Quantities

In the proper expression of physical quantities, it should have magnitude. There

SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITY:

In physical computations and analyses, we have to be aware of the difference

BASIC CONCEPTS ABOUT VECTORS

Method 2: Using geographic directions. N

Collinear Coplanar Concurrent

METHODS OF DETERMINING RESULTANT:

1. Algebraic Method (for co-linear vectors only).

3. The Triangle Method (for two coplanar vectors at a time)

4. The Polygon Method (graphical method) – Tip to tail method

 When the angle  is measured from the vertical

2. Add the x- and y-components of each vector to determine the components Rx

3. To get the magnitude R of the resultant, use the Pythagorean theorem:

If vectors are parallel to each other, ϕ = 0o; cos 0o = 1

 same as the above

75o E of S = S 75o E = E 15o S 60o W of N = W 30o N = N 60o W From E (0°) = 270°

From E (0°) = 345° From E (0°) = 150°

Therefore, R = 35 km due West

Therefore, R = 78.2624 m 86.5651o N of E

Therefore, by using Pythagorean theorem:

For the direction:

Vector Angle,θ X-comp = vector x cosθ Y-comp = vector x sinθ

B = 15 km 60o 7.5 km 12.9904 km

C = 12 km 155o -10.8757 km 5.0714

From the equation:

b) Vector sum A + B using unit vector

d) Find the scalar product A. B

There are two equations to solve for A x B, these are

Find first A x C by using the method of determinants.

4. Given are the vectors A = 30 N 45o N of W and B = 45 N 75o S of E. Determine a) their

6. Solve for the required using the given vectors

MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE (RECTILINEAR MOTION)

o indicates the location of the body at any time as it moves

 Displacement is different from distance travelled in the sense that displacement is a

3. Time instant (t) vs time interval (t)

a. Average velocity (Vave)

b. Instantaneous velocity (V)

Where x is the position of the given as a function of time

5. Acceleration – the rate of change in velocity of an object; a body is said to be

a. Average acceleration (a ave)

b. Instantaneous acceleration (a)

*acceleration is the derivative of velocity AND the 2nd derivative of the

UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED RECTILINEAR MOTION (UARM)

BASIC KINEMATIC EQUATIONS for UARM:

Take Vi from Eq 1.a and substitute in Eq 2

Take t from Eq 1.a and substitute in Eq 2

FREE FALLING MOTION