Stages of Man’s Cultural Development

Using culture as a tool, early humans have evolved rapidly. They have modified their
biological evolution alongside with cultural evolution, and in the process, have
progressed simultaneously.

The following key developments can be attributed to cultural evolution:

1. Dispersal of human beings across the earth’s surface

2. Adaptation to nearly all biotic and physical situations by human.

3. A world population growth of 7.8 billion (worldofmeters.info 2020)

Paleolithic

Paleolithic period, also called the Old Stone Age lasted from 500,000 BC to 8,000 BC.
During this era, the Java, Peking and Neanderthal man existed. This stage of cultural
development was characterized by collecting of food, hunting and collecting of wild
fruits, nuts and berries. The descendants of the Paleolithic generation revealed that
during the time, labor was divided according to sexual orientation. Men are tasked to
hunt, fish and provide protection to the group while women are designated to gather
wild plants, prepare for food, gather woods to process as household object and to take
care of the children. Both shared tasks of rearing children towards adult life, creating
ornaments and building houses for the family.

Art forms were developed during the late Paleolithic period and it was believed to be
the highest achievement of this era. The art ranges from realistic paintings of animals in
the shades of black, red, yellow and brown color.

Mesolithic

About 10,000 BC, Paleolithic men adjusted to the new environment and developed a
new culture as animals became extinct because of glaciers. The Mesolithic period or
the Middle Stone Age, is characterized by transition from Paleolithic to Neolithic.
Mesolithic people lived along the coast and have learned to fish and gather shell fish.
Those who have lived inland, continued hunting but with more developed tools made
to devised skis, sleds and dugout canoes. Mesolithic devices were made of
manufactured small chipped stones or flint called “microliths” which could be used as
arrow points. Men started domesticating dogs during this time.

Neolithic

Neolithic also called the New Stone Age, is the final stage of development in the
prehistoric evolution. Archeological finds provided evidences that this period marked
the shift from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to the practice of agriculture and semi-
permanent to permanent settlements. Stone tools were used for grinding and polishing,
thus, the period being referred to as “polished stone age”. The transition allowed for the
introduction of farming, domestication of animals, invention of pottery, building of dug-
outs, production of boats and other signs of earlier civilization.

Changes during the Neolithic Period

It was important to highlight the innovations that were brought about by the
development of Neolithic culture. The following observations were noted.

1. The introduction of agriculture led to forest clearance, cereal cultivation and

development of farming technologies such as plows and irrigation system.

2. A more complex social and political organization were developed as population

gradually increase

3. Awareness of territoriality increased

4. Evidences of inter-communal conflicts were revealed

5. Widespread production of stone tools revealed networks of exchange and

cultural interaction

6. Social organizations became more evident as humans started permanent

settlement.

The Emergence of Civilization

The earliest Neolithic societies did not differ much in wealth, prestige and power. But
based on burial finds, the later societies reflected inequality in life as per special objects
noticeable in tombs.

Archeologists believed that the rise of the state evolved around 3,000 BC in greater
Mesopotamia, the area shared by Southern Iraq. The ancient Mesopotamia was a
diverse, disorganized collection of city states. It was unified by the religion shared
among the members of the state. The emergence of earlier civilization in Mesopotamia
made an impact on writing, technology, language, trade and forms of government.

Features of Civilization

To distinguish, advanced societies from the pre-historic societies, the term civilization
was used. The following are considered the features of civilization

1. Cities

Civilization developed in cities. As food become abundant through large-scale farming,

more people opted to live a more complex life in the city. Cities were larger and they
had palaces, religious temples, markets and houses.

2. Writing

For the government officials, religious leaders and merchants to carry out their duties,
they developed form of writings. This also enabled human to preserve, establish and
develop their knowledge and accurately record important matters.
 3. Specialization

Based on developments, people started to use a new social structure, were

specialization became apparent. Specialization encouraged trade and trade
encouraged idea-sharing. Special artisan, merchants, priests, record –keepers,
government officials and farmers dominated the society.

4. Government

The need to organize human activity soon led to the creation of government to provide
for efficient interaction in the society and the formation of army groups to defend the
people. Rulers started issuing laws and officials are tasked to carry them out. Several
projects related to construction of buildings, roads, irrigations and bridges were
mobilized. The government also started collecting taxes to execute the projects and
provide salaries to its officials.

5. Religion

Religions are developed to explain the forces of nature and divine power. Civilizations
were then characterized by organized religious groups which gave priests extraordinary
powers over the people.

Enculturation and Socialization

As we grow we adapt to our surroundings, we acquire necessary learning and act

accordingly.

Socialization is a learning process wherein a child learns the behavior of his

surroundings, and in any case whether it is a certain situation or age of an individual.
(Charon 1987). It is a life-long process through which a person develops self-identity and
skills necessary for his own survival.

Enculturation on the other hand, is the manner in which a child is being trained or raised
to a specific culture. Through experience and observation, an individual acquire their
group’s culture. To become a fully functional member of society, one must develop the
understanding and skills required to participate in the cultural practices.

Enculturation varies, for not every individual is enculturated in exactly the same way;
culture changes and so do norms. It helps develop an individual into a suitable
constituent of society and in the end, it unifies the society (Baba, 1989).

Consciously or unconsciously, the influences made by parents, older adults and

acquaintances shape an individual, as a part of the enculturation process. It teaches
the individual the boundaries and limits of the acceptable behaviors and values within
the context of the reference society.

Learning takes place through observation and imitation. In the process of

enculturation, two major aspects are present:
 1. Child-Training (informal enculturation process) which is effected in the
environment of family and friends by way of social feedback you received as a
child and years beyond.

2. Education (formal enculturation process) which is implemented in the learning

institutions (Hesselgrave, 1976)

Both are significant to the process and a balance of both results to different
personalities.

Norms and Values

In order to guide and direct their behavior, norms are essential to human beings. It
brings order to the society. Values are general guidelines while norms are identifiable
rules that should be followed in various social situations.

Norms are usually in the form of rules, standards or prescriptions and socially shared
expectation that define appropriate ways of behaving in a specific situation. It pertains
to the society’s standard of what is proper, moral, ethical and legal. Abiding by social
norms typically involves awards and sanctions.

Types of Norms

1. Folkways

These are simply the way people do things. Folkways are rules that are informal and
they are expected to be followed. It serves a compelling guide or conduct and there
are no feeling of right or wrong attached to it. You will be regarded as weird or crazy
upon violation of it but it will not constitute for considering you a criminal offender or
immoral

Example: table manners, dress codes, forms of greetings

2. Mores

Mores are norms that people consider important to their most cherished values. On the
other hand, failure to follow or its violation results to severe punishments and sanctions.

Example: Entering a church without clothes on will offend most people in a culture and
this violation may lead to an offender to be beaten, detained and locked-up in a
mental hospital

3. Sanctions

To enforce compliance with social norms, sanctions are adopted as mechanisms of

social control. Sanctions can either be positive (rewards) or negative (punishments). It
may also be formal and informal.

 Informal Sanctions- may be in a form of gossip, favorable or unfavorable opinion,

ridicule or praise, affection or hate, disapproval, sarcasm etc. For example, if you
 are inside a church, you are not supposed to swear because doing so, you will
receive a disapproving look or verbal warnings.

 Formal Sanctions- Punishments and rewards generally approved by officials and

backed by formal documentation. Merits, awards, citations, fines, jail sentence,
death penalty and others are considered formal sanctions. For example,
cheating for an exam may cause you to be kicked out from the school. If you
return a valuable thing out of honesty, you will receive a commendation.

4. Laws

A law is a norm that is formally signed by the government, which provide for a
systematic application of force and rules to enforce organization within the society.
Roscoe Pound defined it as “a regime of social control”. Law enforcers are given legal
rights by the government to control the overall behavior of the society.

Example: Violation of a traffic violation will require you to pay fine as set by the laws.

Values

Values are conceptual view of what is significant and worthwhile. We make use of it as
a standard of judgment of what is considered good or bad; right or wrong; acceptable
and not acceptable. Values are deeply embedded in our culture and may differ from
culture to culture. As an individual, we place a high regard for respect, honesty, love of
God, fairness, giving back to community, cleanliness, patriotism etc.

Filipino values can be translated as buti, pamantayan, halaga and ganda. It is

generally centered at maintaining harmony in society and the desire to be accepted
as a member of society.

Brainstorm: Socialization through Role and Status

Status refers to any of the full array of socially defined positions within a large group or
community, from the lowest to highest. It states where you are standing in position with
other members of the group. This is accorded with all the cultural patterns and
expectations linked with the status.

Types of Status

1. ASCRIBED – the statuses of which are assigned to a person by birth. This is a result
of being born into a family, the most universal of which is sex and age. This is
something we don’t decide. For example, being a prince by birth or being a
middle child or being born a female.

2. ACHIEVED- the statuses being made possible through efforts, choice and
competition. Through special talents or performance, one achieves a status. For
example, being an artist, a professional, a married woman etc.
Role is a set of expectations matching the given position or status. This is the part that a
society requires us to play. One must learn about the roles he/she has to fill as part of
the community. Membership in a social group provides us with a set of different roles
depending on our unique relationships with other people.

Role learning involves two aspects:

1. We must learn to perform the duties and claim the privileges of the role

2. We must acquire the attitudes, feelings, expectations appropriate to the role

Social Control

Social control is the basic means of social solidarity and conformity rather than
deviance (Farooq, 2012)

To achieve social control, Black (1976) identified four key styles.

1. Penal Social Control

-functions by prohibiting certain social behaviors and responding to violations with

punishment

2. Compensatory Social Control

-obliges an offender to pay a victim to compensate for a harm committed

3. Therapeutic Social Control

-involves the use of therapy to return individuals to a normal state

4. Conciliatory Social Control

-aims to reconcile the parties of a dispute and mutually restore harmony to a social
relationship that has been damaged

Deviant Behavior

Despite the endeavors of the society, there are cases in point when members of the
community break the usual norms and go astray. Depending on the degree of
deviance, it may be tolerated, approved or disapproved. When a behavior goes
beyond certain limits of what is considered conventional or normal against the
standard set by the society, it is called deviant behavior or non-conformity.

Classification of Deviance

John Hagen (1994) classified deviant act in terms of their perceived harmfulness, the
degree of consensus concerning the norms violated and the severity of the response to
them.

1. Consensus Crimes- These are considered serious crimes or act of deviance which
there is near-unanimous public agreement. Crimes like murder and rape are
considered inexcusable, damaging and should be penalized.
 2. Conflict Crimes- are deviances that are deemed illegal but there is a
considerable public argument as to its seriousness. Acts like prostitution and
smoking marijuana are argued upon because other may find it serious while
others believe that it is not serious at all.

3. Social Deviations – are acts that are not illegal but regarded as harmful or
serious. Members of the community agree that official intervention is required in
these situations. Abusing serving staff and trespassing are examples of social
deviations.

4. Social Diversions- are provocative way of violating norms which are generally
regarded as distasteful but harmless, and

As cliché as it is, there is a truth to the saying that “No man is an island”. We can never
be truly self-sufficient, because no matter how able, a person relies on the company of
others to achieve or accomplish something.

Concept of Groups

A group is comprised of two or more people who regularly interact, guided by a set of
norms. They share a common identity and they exist on the basis of mutual outlooks as
a member of the same group.

The Importance of Groups

1. It is a transmitter of culture.

As a member of the group, an individual relate to others to learn about socially

acceptable means of behaving, thinking, doing things along with habits and
capabilities.

2. It is a means of social control.

A person gets approval and acceptance to a group, through compliance with

approved policies as a standard for membership. The group not only shapes the
individual but the strong pressure on his activities instills discipline on him.

3. It socializes the individual.

Groups introduce partnership and companionship apart from material and basic
necessities. This is where one learns to work together with other members and be aware
of shared responsibilities and duty to the group.

4. It serve as sources of fundamental social ideas.

There are instances when a group influences the members to modify and adjust their
thoughts and behavior which could be favorable or unfavorable.
 5. It trains the individual to communicate.

By way of communication with other members of the group, an individual acquires

information, making the group a “communication network”.

Kinds of Groups

1. According to Interaction or Relationship

2. Primary Group

According to Charles Cooley, primary groups are small intimate groups, the first groups
we belong to and they are so important in our social life. It is characterized by strong
and intimate emotional ties such as the relationship found among peers, family
members and associates.

Kinds of Primary Groups

-Family

-Neighborhood

-School Groups

1. Secondary Group

These are groups that are more impersonal in nature. Most of the time, these groups
are larger in seize, often for a relatively short time and are physically or spatially distant.
As oppose to primary group, members of secondary group feel less emotionally
attached to each other as the relationship is more businesslike or casual.

Kinds of Secondary Group

 Religious

 Business

 Governmental

 Civic Group

According to Membership

2. In-Group

The members of the in-group take pride in belonging to them. The group exhibit
solidarity, camaraderie and protective feeling towards other members. They share
common activities and goals, thus, the existence of the “we” feeling.

Out- Group

This is commonly referred to as the outsiders or “the others”. This is a group which one
will avoid due to feeling of indifference, dislike or hatred.
Reference Group

A reference group is a group where people identify themselves physically and

emotionally. They set a standard for one’s behavior and attitudes. Some of our
reference groups are those we do not belong to, but we want to be a part of. For
example, an older member of a family may serve as our reference network so we act
so as not to upset them. Your friends can also serve as a reference group, if we try to
act or dressed like them simply because you like them or you would like to be a part of
their group.

Peer Group.This is a social group whose members share the same level of interests, age
or social standing. The group influences each other’s behavior and beliefs.

3. According to Nature/ Form or Objectives

4. Formal Group

Formal group are established to achieve specific, clearly stated goals. These are big
social groups with organized structures and functions to accomplish legitimate
objectives. As a member of the society, we deal with these formal organizations in
correlation with work, food, travel, health care and security.

1. Informal Group

Informal groups are created with no explicit rules and specific objectives. They are
spontaneously formed out of member’s interaction. The members of the group shares
feeling of intimacy and sense of belonging and are bound by emotions.

4. According to Communal (Community) Relationship

5. Gemeinschaft (community)

This is a traditional society in which social relationships are based on kinship, friendship
and intergenerational stability. It is broadly characterized by division of labor, strong
family ties, strong individual commitment and moderate division of labor.

1. Gesellschaft (society or association)

This is a large, urban society characterized by impersonal and specialized relationships,

with self-interest as the primary justification for memberships. A modern business is an
example of Gesellschaft.

Networks

A social network is a set of links between individuals and other social units, such as
bureaucratic organizations or units. (Andersen and Taylor, 2004) These days, these
connections are made possible by new society that emerged through channels of
rapid communication such as television, telephone, fax, social media, websites, and
micro blogging. Social networks involvement may have favorable consequence for
many aspects of your life.