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Numerical modelling and simulation for extrusion-based 3D concrete printing: The

underlying physics, potential, and challenges

Shoukat Alim Khan, Muammer Koc

PII: S2590-048X(22)00085-1
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rinma.2022.100337
Reference: RINMA 100337

To appear in: Results in Materials

Received Date: 23 March 2022

Revised Date: 1 October 2022
Accepted Date: 19 October 2022

Please cite this article as: S.A. Khan, M. Koc, Numerical modelling and simulation for extrusion-based
3D concrete printing: The underlying physics, potential, and challenges, Results in Materials (2022), doi:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rinma.2022.100337.

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 Credit Author Statement

Shoukat Alim Khan: Original draft preparation, Data calculation, Methodology, Writing- Reviewing and
Editing, Analysis, Muammer Koc: Visualization, Review, Conceptualization, Supervision.

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 Numerical modelling and simulation for extrusion-based 3D concrete

printing: the underlying Physics, Potential, and Challenges

Shoukat Alim Khan, Muammer Koc

Division of Information and Computing Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Qatar

Foundation, Doha, Qatar.

Abstract

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The trending methodology in 3DCP is accompanied by extensive trial and error methods, leading to the

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final product's more expensive and time-consuming development. The specific printable combination of

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design, materials properties, and process parameters for successful 3D concrete printing (3DCP) process
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resembles a "secret recipe". This study explores the design capabilities of numerical tools for 3DCP,
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understands its limitations and challenges, and provides an overview for future research direction. Different
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analytical and numerical models have been developed in the literature as a function of material properties,

printing parameters, and the geometry of the final printed structures. These models serve to optimize the
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printing parameters and predict the performance of the printed product and rheological responses, hence,
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offering a safer and more economical solution. The analytical models provide the first-degree

approximation and can be used for simple shapes such as straight or tilted walls; however, numerical

methods are needed for more complex structures. The literature review shows an apparent delay in the

progress of computational technology to catch the pace of interest of the construction industry in 3DCP.

The prediction of 3DCP structure performance is not straightforward for complex geometries, variable

process parameters, or multi-materials printing. Due to involving multi-physics phenomena at each sub-

process, the developed numerical models are limited to a specific sub-process range. The study presents a

plan to integrate different sub-processes to build a single computational model from material mixing to

final buildability.

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Keywords: Additive manufacturing, Concrete 3D printing; Numerical simulation; Extrusion-based

printing; Concrete Modelling.

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 1. Introduction

3DCP is one of the key focus points of digitalization in the construction industry, with better quality control,

lower cost, construction time, and un-paralleled aesthetic under the "construction 4.0" [1,2]. In the last one

to two decades, "3D-printing" techniques have been developed to shape the concrete without the traditional

formwork. The name "3D printing" is because of its reference to additive manufacturing techniques by final

printing from a digital 3D model [3]. The process is also called "digital manufacturing" or "automated

construction" due to automation techniques for final printing. In many parts of the world, such as The

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United Kingdom, the Middle East, China, and the US, regulations and public measures encourage the

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adoption of 3DCP [4].

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Additive manufacturing (also known as 3D printing) use digital data to produce final product using layer
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by layer addition technique form a 3D model [6]. The primary design technique for digital prototypes is
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computer-aided design, which will be printed in layers to create astonishingly tiny cross-sectional regions.

The CAD model is then provided to the printer along with printing material, which help to create the whole
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structure by addition of layers defined in the provided CAD file. This method permits the creation of
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intricate surfaces and geometries that are difficult to create using standard tools [7]. Technology is
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becoming more and more ingrained in the construction industry, in last decades, to address difficulties

including hostile conditions, safety, a skilled labor scarcity, and material waste.

1.1 Extrusion based 3DCP

The field of 3DCP has been under development for the last decade, with more than 30 research groups

engaged worldwide [5]. The current research of these groups focuses on various issues of concrete 3D

printing, including material science, design of final printed structure and printing systems, and improving

mixing, delivery, and printing processes by experimentation and modelling techniques. However, a

substantial attraction of the general public and construction industry can be seen in the printing of large-

scale construction [2].

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There are several types of construction systems used for 3DCP, Table 1, however; the most common

technique for concrete printing is extrusion-based printing. Extrusion-based printing is like Fused

Deposition Melting (FDM) or Inkjet printing technique, where the material is deposited in layer-by-layer

technique with pump-pipe-nozzle system. The major difference of 3DCP with inkjet or FDM is the type of

printed material. In extrusion-based printing, the substantial material is selectively deposited to create a

layer of selectively sliced geometry [8,9].

Extrusion-based 3DCP system fixed on of gantry or a robotic arm that precisely positioned the printing

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material filament through a nozzle [11–13], examples of few such commercially available printers are

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shown in Table 1. The material with typically high cement contents is used to either make standalone

components or free assembly, walls or columns, or the permanent shuttering with structural elements cast

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conventionally. The addition of external support or removable material or corbeling can be added for
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structures with large overhang angles. A few examples of extrusion-based 3DCP designs can be seen in
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Figure 1.
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(i) [14] (ii) [15]

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 (iii) [16] (iv) [17]

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(v) [18] (vi) [19]

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Figure 1: Few real-life practical applications of extrusion based 3D concrete printing technology. (i) 3D-Printed
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Multi-Story Apartment, Winsun [14], (ii) First 3D-Printed Office in Dubai [15], (iii) Europe’s First 3D-Printed
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Building (The BOD) [16], (iv) Double-Story Administrative Building in Dubai [17], (v)3D Housing 05, Milan [18],

(vi) Woven Concrete Benches (XtreeE) [19,20].

Table 1: commercially available Concrete 3D printers.

Manufacturer Model Process Type of System Materials Capacity (m) Origin

BETABRAM P1V2 Extrusion Gantry Based Concrete 16 x 8.2 x 3 Slovenia [21]

Denmark
COBOD BOD2 Extrusion Gantry Based Concrete 1.9 x 2.1 x 1.5*
[22]

Constructions-3D Maxi Printer Extrusion Robotic Arm Concrete 13 x 13 x 10 France [23]

CYBE RC 3DP Extrusion Robotic Arm Concrete Netherlands

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 ICON Vulcan II Gantry Based Concrete 8.5 x 8.5 x 2.6 America [24]

3D Printer 664 1.8 x 1.8 x 1.2

3D Printer 10108 3 x 3 x 2.4

3D Printer 18189 5.5 x 5.5 x 2.7

MUDBOTS 3D Printer 25259 Extrusion Gantry Based Concrete 7.6 x 7.6 x 2.7 America [25]

3D Printer 252512 7.6 x 7.6 x 3.6

3D Printer 50509 o

3D Printer 501009 15 x 30 x 2.7

Stroy Bot 6.2 10 x 20 x 6

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Concrete,
Stroy Bot 7.1 10 x 20 x 4
TOTAL KUSTOM Extrusion Gantry Based Polymer, America [26]

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Labyrinth 3D 5x5x3
Ceramics

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Architect's Printer 1 x 0.5 x 0.5

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based,
WASP Crane WASP Extrusion Delta Ø 6.3 x 3 Italy [27]
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concrete,

Geopolymer
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*Custom Configurations offered

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Another technique used for 3DCP is particle bed processes. In concrete extrusion methods, aggregate,
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binder, and activator—such as sand, cement, and water, respectively—are combined prior to deposition.

Particle-bed procedures, in contrast, simply combine the source elements on the construction platform.

Here, a dry coating of particles is initially built up. After that, a fluid is applied selectively so that some of

the particles are bound together [10]. Every layer is finished one after the other as you continue this process.

The printed product is then made visible by clearing away any stray materials that may be recycled. The

method offers several advantages including a reduced restriction on overhang and a minimum thickness.

However due to limitation like higher post-processing for a better level of strength, requirement of entirely

filled with particles, the construction area is often more constrained than compared to concrete extrusion

procedures.

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1.2 Need for Numerical modelling and simulation

The numerical simulation of the printing process in the virtual environment can increase the chances of

successful and cost-effective printing [4]. The current methodology of 3DCP goes along with conservative

designs and intensive trial and error methods, partially due to the lack of reliable simulation tools. However,

the procedure is more expensive for printing at a structural scale, where the failure leads to the incredible

loss of resources and time.

Simulation of the printing process can help predict the structural behaviour during printing and calculate

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premature failure. It allows the printing team to modify the printing strategy by changing the material,

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revising the design (e.g. for structures with excessive overhangs), and adjusting the print settings such as

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slayer dimensions, print speed, and choice of infill [2]. This reduces the waste of material and time, printing

setup occupation, and machine wear. The results can also be used to optimize for print speed to maximize
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production. The simulation can also predict the deviation from the intended structure that can be
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compensated by changing the appropriate parameters. Likewise, a reliable simulation tool can be used to
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calculate the required material properties and printing parameters for a specific design.
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Another critical application of 3DCP simulation is recently reported by Vantyghem et al. [28], to find the
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unknown properties of printing materials by inverse material characterization technique. The method

compares the experimental and simulation results of the trained numerical model to calculate the strange

properties of the printing material. However, a precision modelling of the material properties is essential

for an accurate simulation model.

1.3 Current Status

Studies in the literature are focused on numerical modelling of 3DCP, including analytical frameworks and

computational methods for printability and buildability of 3DCP. The printability is related to the

rheological and mechanical properties of the material and represents the ability to print fresh printing

material successfully [9]. At the same time, buildability represents the ability to print the final structure by

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adding the printing layer before the collapse or significant deformation of the printing component.

Analytical models help predict the failure mode by assumption, while computational models help to govern

the mechanism of failure based on material properties [29–31].

1.4 Objective of the study

This study aims to provide an overview of the technical issues and a detailed analysis of numerical

modelling and simulation techniques applied in the literature for 3DCP. The specific objectives of the study

are:

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1. Analyze the current status and recent progress and identify the critical area of research in numerical

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modelling and simulation for 3DCP.

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2. Provide an insight into the anticipated features and design capabilities of numerical modelling and
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simulation tools for 3DCP.
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3. Understand the limitation and challenges of the field

4. Provide an overview and future research direction of the field.

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The first part of the paper focused on an overview of the numerical and analytical modelling techniques
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applied in literature for extrusion-based 3DCP and their underlying physics, challenges, and limitations.
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The following parts of the study provide a detailed review of the numerical modelling and simulation

techniques applied in the 3DCP process, followed by the conclusion, research gap in the field, and future

recommendations.

2. Modelling Parameters in extrusion-based 3DCP

Due to the nature of the involved phenomena at each step, the 3DCP process can be classified into three

main categories/stages: mixing and delivery, Material deposition (printed filament scale), and structure

level.

For the desired properties of the final mechanical structure, the mixing process is significantly essential.

The mixing energy directly influences the characteristics of the materials, such as the crushing of the

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ingredients, and hence both fresh material and final structure properties. At the same time, the material

delivery models can be further divided into material pumping and deposition. Current practices of 3DCP

consider the onsite preparation of concrete material. However, the long-distance pumping of factual

material can be an essential parameter for more practical applications shortly [4]. The material

characteristics and process parameters are the critical parameters in the pumpability of the concrete. The

prediction of required pumping pressure and extrusion pressure is the main challenge addressed in

modelling the delivery of concrete material during 3D printing.

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The goal of modelling the filament deposition is to predict the filament geometry after the extrusion.

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Filament scale modelling addresses wear and tear, cracks, longitudinal buckling and compression, stress

generation, and shape deviation due to gravitational shear. Homogeneous material properties are considered

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from the previous step of mixing and delivery, and the final geometry of the extruded filament is designed
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as a function of these material properties and process parameters such as nozzle geometry and printing
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speed.
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While the structural level modelling focuses on the performance prediction of the final element after the
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printing, the key focus of these models is the prediction of failure modes of the final geometry as a function
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of material properties, finally printed geometry and process parameters. The gradual increase in the self-

weight with the deposition of each new layer at the structural level can lead to plastic collapse due to

material yielding or elastic buckling due to structural instability failure.

Accurate mechanistic models are essential to predict the performance of the final predicted structure and

help optimize the printing process in terms of printing materials and time. Different material properties such

as curing characteristics and heterogeneous strength and stiffness, printing velocity, an imperfection in

printing, and geometrical features of the printed structures are needed for optimized printing conditions.

This section provides an overview of the modelling parameters and techniques (both analytical and

numerical) performed in literature for 3DCP.

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2.1 Rheological properties

The resultant shapes of materials in nature are the outcome of various forces or energies; for example, the

shape of a water droplet is the consequent effect of gravity and surface tension [3]. Similarly, in concrete

poured into the formwork, the solid boundaries of the formwork equilibrate the gravitational forces at the

borders and give a specific shape to the material [32]. The lack of formwork increases a strict control of the

rheological properties of printing materials to provide it with a particular form.

For numerical modelling and simulation at filament scale, visco-plastic is a critical behaviour to consider

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appropriately, while at structural scale, elastic-plastic behaviour is the basis [33–35]. Printable cementitious

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material behaves as visco-plastic Bingham material that is solid at low stresses and flows at stresses higher

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than a threshold called yield stress (Ƭc). The viscosity at flow, plastic viscosity, is proportional to the stress

above the yield stress. Below the yield stress, these materials act as elastic material with the shear elastic
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modulus (G)= Ƭc/Ƴc, where Ƴc is the critical shear strain at flow onset. Except for the short interval of
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pumping and deposition, the material is mostly at rest throughout the printing process and behaves as
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elastoplastic material. Hence more than visco-plastic behaviour, their elastoplastic is essential to consider.
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A key feature to consider is building up the internal structure at rest (thixotropy) and increasing yield stress
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and elastic modulus. When deposited, the material has an initial yield stress of Ƭc0, initial critical shear

strain Ƴc0, and an initial elastic shear modulus of G0. With material at rest, these rheological parameters

evolve and result in Ƭc(t), Ƴc(t), and G0(t). With time, the material resulted in higher yield stress (stronger)

and higher elastic modulus (rigid) while lower yield strain, Figure 2. The structuration rate (Athix ) could be

used to find the yield stress of material after resting time (t) by Ƭc(t)= Ƭc0 + Athix*t. The structuration rate

varies from material to material, and it can be constant [33,36,37], exponential [38], or more complex

models [39] for some other materials. The properties' stiffness and strength are rapidly required at the

structure level to prevent failure due to self-weight.

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Figure 2. The evolution in Yield stress and critical shear strain as a function of resting time [3].

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For the stability of a printed layer, the initial yield stress should sustain the gravitational forces induced by
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its deposition. For a typical height h0, the induced shear stresses due to gravitational forces are dominant
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and in the order of ρgh0. In very thin layers, the magnitude of stress due to surface tension also affects the
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final shape of the printed layer. The surface tension stress, calculated by Ƴ/h0, can compete with

gravitational stresses for the layer thickness (h0)<sqrt(Ƴ/ρg) [3]. The studies also described two ideal flow
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regime, first, the very stiff concrete with the deposited layer have the same cross-section as the printing
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nozzle, while the other is very flowable concrete where the final is shaped by gravity-induced stresses,

similar to the slump test [3,40].

The Rheological properties, in the case of fresh concrete, are considered essential to prevent the concrete

from choosing its shape freely in the absence of formwork. Deep understanding and requirement of

Rheological requirements of concrete material during 3D printing are significantly crucial due to its varying

properties during extrusion and layer-wise construction stages [41]. Mechtcherine et al. [42] performed a

detailed review of the underlying physics through the production process of 3DCP and reported rheology

as a determining factor for successful printing at each stage [43]. To calculate the elastic modulus and yield

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stress requirement for successful printing, buckling stability criteria and analytical strength have been used

in the literature.

2.2 Process Parameters and Design

All the numerical and analytical models for 3DCP are developed based on material properties, process

parameters, and printing geometry. The material properties are a critical parameter for the modelling at

each stage, from homogeneous mixing to the final structure behaviour prediction. For all the three stages

of 3DCP, the process of parameters changes, such as mixing speed and machine specification for mixing,

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pumping and extrusion pressure, nozzle size, printing speed, layer height, etc. The Geometry of the final

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structure plays an integral part in the successful application of 3DCP for a specific project.

2.3 Analytical Modelling of 3DCP

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At the mixing scale, the analytical models available in the literature focused on homogenous mixing of the
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concrete material and accelerator material. The stator or kinetic printhead is commonly used for the

homogenous admixture of material in the printhead. In practice, the mixing kinetics is measured by the
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electrical energy used. The Jézéquel and Collin [44] gave an analytical equation of colorimetric index
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measurement of traces particles to ensure a homogenous mixture. The characteristic dispersion time
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reported by the study is 1 to 10 min depending on parameters like material yield stress, mixer speed,

crushing, erosion and diffusion, and fitting parameters for materials and mixing machines. The

experimental verification of the model is vital; hence, the print head system is currently designed by trial

and error method [42]. This increases the importance of numerical modelling and simulation techniques for

the homogenous mixture process; a recent review on the addition of accelerator and its better homogenous

mixture has been published by Tao et al. [45].

Material delivery models focused on pumping and extrusion of concrete materials. The pumping models

mainly focused on the required pumping energy to deliver the mixture. Due to Shear Induced Particle

Migration (SIPM), the required energy for the concrete delivery is 2-5 times lower than the Buckingham

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Reiner equation, which is traditionally used for complex suspensions. Several consider the effect of

developed lubrication layer and slip flow of concrete material, analytical models have been reported in the

literature [46–48].

However, the applicability of these models to predict the pumping power is limited due to the complex

rheological properties of concrete and lubricating layer phenomena. Hence, simplified approaches such as

SLIPER (Sliding pipe rheometer, have been suggested for pressure prediction approaches. Extrusion is

associated with the material delivery through a printhead near the nozzle. Benbow and Bridgwater [49]

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work, basically developed for ceramic materials, is generally used as a base for calculating extra pressure

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required to shape the material through the nozzle. The required pressure is the function variable like nozzle

diameter, yield stress, shear yield stress, flow rate behaviour of the material, and its average velocity.

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Basterfield et al. [50] modified the model to predict extrusion force based on rheological measurement. The
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extrusion pressure combines the friction required to overcome at the extruder wall and the energy required
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to reshape the concrete material, such as (plastic work). Many authors have contributed to addressing the
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modelling of extrusion phenomena with analytical modelling [51,52]. Nevertheless, all these models are

based on the assumption of homogenous material and limited to symmetric shapes as for non-symmetrical
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geometries, the development of an analytical model is very challenging [4].

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For analytical modelling, homogeneous and isotropic material is generally considered with the deposition

geometry between the "infinite brick extrusion" and "free flow" deposition [3]. For simple approximation,

analytical models considering the deposited material to withstand the nozzle pressure and its weight can be

considered. After the extrusion, the flow ceases If the yield stress is greater than the applied (gravitational

and nozzle) stresses. Care should be taken to consider the dynamic and static stresses depending upon the

conditions used. Researchers have tried to predict the behaviour of the printed concrete filament using

analytical approaches [38,53,54]. Researchers have also developed models to predict other parameters

during extrusion, such as the height of the printed layer [55–58]. Researchers have also addressed the issue

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of layer height with the discrepancy between the real model and the actual change in the layer height due

to printing velocity, the extrusion speed effect on layer height [47].

Roussel [3] presented a set of analytical equations for overall printable concrete structures, including overall

buckling stability. Although both models Roussel [3] and Suiker [59] models give a good approximation

of buildability, the first one describes the rheological requirement of the material while the latter calculates

for elastic buckling. Also, Jeong et al. [30] developed the rheological requirement for the linear structure to

prevent plastic collapse and verified the results with CFD analysis. Likewise, Kruger et al. [60] developed

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an analytical model based on rheological parameters to predict the buildability of the printed structures.

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The absence of formwork in extrusion-based 3DCP causes structural failure[61–65]. Different analytical

models have been developed in the literature for the development of material strength [66–69], the optimum

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build-up rate for a plastic collapse based on the layer instantaneous strength of base layer and a load of
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weight, the maximal printing velocity and height limit for elastic buckling limit [70]. However, these
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models are independent of the object's geometry, the variation in printing parameters, or the gradient of
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material properties during the printing process.

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Due to limitations of analytical models such as lack of an analytical model to accurately predict the
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homogeneous mixture and required pumping power, the limitation of available models to symmetrical

shapes for extrusion pressure estimation, assumption of continuous deposition of printed filament with

constant dimension in deposition modelling, and limitation of the available analytical models for structure

failure mode prediction to simple geometries lead to the need of numerical methods with a multiphase

approach to address these challenges.

2.4 Numerical modelling of 3DCP

In the traditional concrete structure process, optimization of the process itself and the standardization of

required Rheological properties are the main objectives of numerical modelling and simulation techniques.

Numerical modelling and simulation techniques have been used for several concrete applications, including

its flow phenomena [71–73], flow related to its aggregates segregation[73–75], concrete pumping [76],

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through reinforcement flow of concrete [77–79], and fibre-reinforced concrete flow [80,81]. In earlier

research of the field, the Finite Element Method (FEM) is commonly applied to simulate concrete materials

[55,82–84]. In contrast, Finite Volume Methods (PVM) is later being used in the research due to its

availability in most well-established CFD codes such as FLUENT, PHOENICS, FLOW-3D, CFX, ANSYS,

and OpenFOAM [40,75,77,85]. However, few FDM techniques can also be found in the literature [86,87].

Meshless approaches, including Discrete Element Method (DEM) and Dissipative Particle Dynamics

(DPD) [71,88,89], are also applied with time, along with some more advanced techniques. Since the paper

focus on numerical models and simulation of the 3DCP process, a brief overview of the numerical tools

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applied in the field is also presented. The details of the numerical and simulation models for 3DCP will be

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represented in the next section.

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3. Numerical Modelling and Simulation
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Due to the diverse nature of the involved phenomena and multi-physics, the majority of these studies have

limited scale and focused on a specific sub-section of the 3DCP process such as mixing, pumping, extrusion,
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etc. Hence the numerical modelling and simulation techniques in 3DCP processes can be divided into three
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main phases: (i) mixing and pumping scale, (ii) extrusion and filament scale, and (iii) structural or printed
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element scale. However, it is worth noting that in all these processes, the models are developed

independently from the previous process by considering the ideal homogeneous properties of the material

from the previous step. For example, the material is considered a homogeneous mixture with single-phase

and homogeneous properties throughout the material for pumping concrete material. It is worth noting that

the numerical simulation techniques found in the literature for the mixing and pumping phase are primarily

developed for the typical concrete application, but the techniques can be equally applied to the material

mixing and pumping for 3DCP. However, the filament scale and structure scale modelling are specifically

performed for concrete 3D printing. In addition, the importance of numerical tools increases as we move

towards the larger scale due to the economic factor attached. Therefore the top to bottom approach has been

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applied in this study to review these techniques, such as structural scale to filament scale, to pump, and

mixing phases.

3.1 Printed Element/Structural Scale or Buildability Simulation

The significance of the prediction of the final mechanical performance of the printed structure increases as

we move towards more mature, larger scale, and practical applications of concrete 3D printing. However,

studying the effect of each process parameter and condition of the concrete printing process on the final

mechanical performance of the developing structure is still a challenging task.

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The structural scale numerical models required specific actions for effective modelling [29]. This includes

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the layer-wise modelling of the printed process by providing the geometry in parts or slices. The interaction

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between the layers and the evolving properties of the materials need to be defined—lastly, the stepwise
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activation of the parts of geometry to simulate the printing process.
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Generally, the gravitational force is the main loading force on the manufacturing stage's printing structure.
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Gravity-induced stresses increase with the addition of each new layer. For simple shapes, the bottom layer

is experiencing the most stress; hence plastic failure usually occurs at the bottom layer. However, the failure
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location is less straightforward for the structures with complex shapes, multi-materials, or variable process
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parameters over the height of the designs. The types of failure are related to the process parameters, the

geometry of the final structures, and material properties.

Plastic collapse and elastic buckling are two main failure phenomena on the level of the structures. The

plastic collapse occurred when the gravity induced-stresses reached the yield stress and represented the

material's rheological yielding, while elastic buckling resulted from geometrical instability. A combination

of both phenomena, elastic buckling induced by plastic failure at the bottom layer, can also be observed as

a second-order P-delta effect.

As stated earlier, the elastic-plastic behaviour of the early age material is the basis of numerical modelling

and simulation of 3D printed concrete material. Poison's ratio and elastic stiffness (or Young's modulus)

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are the governing properties for the elastic behaviour of the material and help in the prediction of both

elastic deformation and elastic buckling. The plastic deformation of the material can be best evaluated by

yield stress. It is worth noting that cementitious material's early age material properties during

manufacturing are not constant due to the thixotropic nature of the cementitious. The change of properties

may be linear or nonlinear, expressed by saturation rate Athix [37,90].

Researchers have suggested different experimental methods, i.e. soil and mechanical testing of hardened

concrete, to evaluate more accurate elastic and plastic properties for numerical modelling instead of the

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fresh state's material properties. A variation in proposed methods can be found in the literature for

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rheological and mechanical properties to ensure the effect of structuration in input material properties. An

accurate numerical model incorporates the process parameters i.e. speed, contour length, and the variation

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in gravity-induced stress due to growing geometry [73].
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In their study Suiker [59] developed a mechanistic model to explore the effect of printing process

parameters on the mechanical performance of the developing structure. The model predicts plastic collapse
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and elastic buckling's failure mechanism for straight wall structures. The model considers the most
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appropriate parameters, including the heterogeneous stiffness and strength properties of the printing
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material, the curing characteristic of the material, printing speed, the geometrical features of the printing

object, and the non-uniform dead weight. The developed model has been compared with concrete 3D

printed walls with free and rectangular layouts, including free walls, fully clamped walls, and supporting

wall structures. The results are compared with 3D printed concrete walls structures. The study verified the

model's performance and suggested its application to study the influence of printing parameters on the final

building. The study also suggested applying the model to validate any finite element model.

In the following study, Wolfs and Suiker studied plastic collapse and elastic buckling failure for extrusion

3D printing-based wall structure. A dedicated FEM simulation model has been compared with various

3DCP experimental wall structures with linearly and exponentially material curing processes. The result of

the parametric model of Suiker [59] are also validated with 3DCP experimental and dedicated FEM

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simulations. The developed FEM models resulted in an excellent agreement with the experimental results

for buckling failure in almost all the cases. The model has also been verified for designs with varying

printing quality and material properties. Different 3DCP walls with variable material properties such as

low curing rate and high curing rate with thermal heating have been developed and used for verification.

The study suggested a linear curing function for a low curing rate and a quadratic function for a higher

curing rate. The study successfully validated the parametric model as a research and development tool for

predicting failure mechanisms during 3DCP. The model can also be used to optimize the printing

parameters by studying the effect of individual parameters on the failure response of the final structure.

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Due to the ease or simplicity of modelling, almost all the above models are printed with vertically extruding

mechanisms. The estimation of buildability can be assessed from these models; however, the accuracy of

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these models is limited to simple structures such as multilayers, straight walls, or hollow cylindrical shapes.
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Wolf's et al. [36] are the first to analyze the mechanical behaviour of fresh 3D printed concrete structures
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using the FE model for 0 to 90 minutes after the construction. The study imported a virtual file of the design
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and used implicit/static solver for the analysis. The model is first divided into printable layers activated

stepwise until the completion or failure of the targeted design structure. The model was based on time-
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dependent material properties in linear stress-strain behaviour and time-dependent Mohr-Columb failure
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criterion. The required material properties were obtained from an experimental setup consisting of a direct

shear test and a uniaxial compression test. The test resulted in a linear increase in young modulus, cohesion,

and compressive and shear strength with the concrete age. At the same time, the study observed constant

behaviour of poisons ratio and angle of internal friction. The model has been verified with experimental

results and reported satisfactory qualitative performance. However, the improvement in the model has been

suggested for future studies to obtain the quantitative agreement with experimental data.

Wolfs et al. [31] reported the model with an improved material characteristics method in the following

study. The validation with experimental performance for a 5m long wall structure resulted in about 15%

over-prediction of the total printable layers before the failure. Different walls with varying lengths have

18
been printed until failure for experimental verification. The study also verified the performance of the triaxle

test by comparison with uniaxial compression and ultrasonic wave transmission test. The study also

discussed the possible deviation of the model concerning experimental results.

However, further numerical improvement in the model is also identified and suggested by Vantyghem et

al. [2]. In addition, the study did not present an example to use the model for more complex and free-form

geometries, usually printed by 3D technique. Hence in a recent study, Vantyghem et al. [2] proposed two

improved simulation strategies for 3DCP processes, using the model of Wolf et al. [36] as a starting point.

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The general methodologies applied by the authors are represented in

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The study can be used for any complex geometry and to optimize the printing parameters (such as print

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speed, layer height, and design or materials properties for successful printing. Two FEM strategies have
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been used for used in this study for simulation of the 3DCP process. The study aims to detect the structural
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behaviour during the printing while concrete material is still under the varying material properties stage

predict the maximum possible overhang angle and optimal print speed. Time-dependent materials
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properties for the model can be calculated by different experimental methods, including(unconfined)
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compressive test and triaxial compression test described by Wolf et al. [36]. Mohr-Coulomb material model
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has been used with time-dependent input parameters of Poisson's ratio (v), Young modulus as a function of

time E (t), density (ρ), time-dependent cohesion (c) function, dilatancy angle (ψ), and angle of internal

friction (φ). Time-dependent material behaviour is activated stepwise along the corresponding element's

printing direction.

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Figure 3. Proposed modelling strategy for 3DCP: the General methodology of [28,29].

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Both models used stepwise addition of finite elements until completion or failure to simulate the printing

process and involve multiple static implicit steps solving. However, different discretization technique is
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used in both cases. The first method, named "Voxel Print", voxelized a 3D model into a set of small unit
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cubes called the vocalization technique. This process makes the mesh FE mesh more straightforward by
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generating a direct link between the voxel and the mesh.

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While in the second approach defines the tool path where finite elements are added along the print path and
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called "CobraPrint". This approach divides the print into several segments, and several mesh elements are

assigned to the segment. These segments are activated sequentially along the print path to simulate the

printing process. Cobra print is comparatively more accurate and allows complex features like bevels, layer

edges, and layer contact (although less straightforward). VoxelPrint is more specific, preferred for more

complex shapes, less prone to bugs, and has faster calculation time. However, VoxelPrint has low print

approximation and no contact interaction, i.e., modelling weak interaction between the layers or cold joints.

The models are compared to experimental results and reported good agreement. In both methods, a

Grasshopper plug-in has been created to generate the mesh file of the required geometry using Rhinoceros

software [91] which can be simulated in the next step for the structural behaviour by FE package SIMULIA

Abaqus/CAE [92].

20
In the recent studies, the authors also presented the improved version of models with experimental

validation from the literature and verified the tools' potential for more complex geometries [29]. The study

presented the detailed features and abilities of the developed tools, such as creating a FEM model for any

complex and random geometry without extensive modelling. The layer-wise mesh generation is reported

as the main novelty of the developed tool where the generalized code is used for the modelling, irrespective

of the input geometry. The study also describes general methodologies such as CAD, numerical, and FEA

simulation, as shown in the figure below. The study also provided three case studies to verify the developed

tool's advantages, possibilities, and abilities, as shown in the figure. The authors published a detailed study

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on the developed tool to give the users a detailed knowledge of the software [28].

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Figure 4. Analysis of failure mechanism for a cylindrical structure using a numerical model of Ooms et al. [29]. The

top and isometric view.

Similarly, the limitation of the initial models for simple structures is also identified by Van et al. [93]. The

emphasis on the importance of modelling 3DCP following the printing path, as print part, provides the exact

time and space-dependent information. Toolpath-dependent modelling helps to predict the failure

mechanism's mode accurately and facilitates the simulation of any simple to more complex. The study's

21
objective is to develop a computation procedure to simulate the entire 3DCP process with a suitable tool

path pattern, shown in Figure 5.

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Figure 5. The computational framework was developed by Nguyen-Van et al. [93] for the 3DCP process.

The challenge of the study was the unavailability of a toolpath generation format for 3DCP in any CAD or

design software package. The study developed a computational framework to analyze layer by layer

buildability and predict the failure mechanism in the 3DCP process. The CAD model of the final print has

been used as input in slicing software to generate Gcode to define the toolpath for printing. The model has

been validated with experimental results and reported well-matched Figure 6. The layer height deformation

has been compared with experimental results from the laser sensor and reported high consistency. The

22
model is also analyzed for vertical deformation and buildability as a function of printing speed. Similar

Other Numerical models developed in literature are summarized in Table 2.

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Figure 6. (a) Virtual Printing model, (b) the generated tool path, (c) Abaqus simulation results, (d) The

experimental results. The study of Naguyen-Van et al. [93].

23
Table 2. Numerical Models developed in literature specifically for 3DCP process at filament and structural level.

S.No Ref. Institutes Scale Modelling Software Exp. Description

(First Author) Technique Tool Verification

1 Jayathilakage et Swinburne orifice Discrete - Yes Dem model was developed to study the flow behaviour of

al. [41] University of extrusion Element concrete during 3D printing. The extrudability of the material

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Technology, Method (DEM) has been experimentally calibrated with concrete through

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Melbourne, orifice extrusion. The developed model has been

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Australia experimentally verified for the pressure inside the hopper for

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different rotational speeds.

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2 Comminal et al. Technical Single CFD Flow-3D ® - The model is developed to evaluate the cross-section of the

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[94] University of Layer printed bead for different materials including concrete, using

Denmark
ur the 3D printing technique. The study reported the
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dimensional accuracy of the printed beam as a sensitive

parameter that can easily vary from its nominal shape and

affect the final product's printed accuracy.

3 Mengesha et al. Bauhaus- FEM MATLAB - The study used a novel pseudo-density approach for

[95] Universität modelling using the Finite element method. The material

Weimar, properties at each finite element are defined by density and

varying material properties approach is applied. The material

24
 Weimar, has been activated along the printed path and the properties

Germany have been varied with time i.e. curing of the material.

4 Zhixin Liu et Nanyang Single- CFD, Support ANSYS Yes The study developed a numerical model for analyzing the

al. [96] Technological layer Vector FLUENT flow mechanism of concrete material during the extrusion and

University, Filament Machine deposition phase. The deformation of the filament has been

Singapore (SVM) targeted as the quality of the printed filament. The velocity of

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the printing nozzle and yield stress were analyzed as the

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sensitive parameters for the filament deformation.

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5 Wolfs et al. Eindhoven Single CFD Flow-3D® Yes The geometry of printing filament has been analyzed with

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University of Layer varying printing parameters, materials, and geometric

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[97]

Technology, Focus features. Specific focus has been given to the buckling and

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Netherlands ur tearing of the filament at sharp turns during the printing.

6 Hosseini et al. Iran University Multi- density - Yes The model focuses on interlayer bonding between adjacent
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[98] of Science and Layer functional printed concrete layers. New bonding material has been tested

Technology, theory (DFT) as a gluing material between the adjacent layers.

Tehran, Iran.

GuanzhongXu:

Monash

University,

Melbourne,

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 VIC, 3800,

Australia

7 • Comminal et Technical Single CFD software: Yes -

al.[99] University of Layer FLOW-

Denmark, 3D®

Denmark

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8 Jayathilakage et Swinburne Structure Finite Software Yes The model is developed to predict the plastic collapse of 3D

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al. [100] University of level Difference (FLAC 3D) printed concrete structures using the Mohr-Coulomb-based

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Technology, Method buildability criterion. The study aims to predict the stability

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Melbourne, of concrete printed structures and buildability criteria based

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Australia on the properties of the fresh material.

9 Nguyen-Van et RMIT, VIC, Structure

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3D nonlinear Python, Yes. With a A computational framework has been developed for 3D
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al. [93] Australia Level. quasi-static FE Matlab, hollow printing of concrete structures. The model aims to predict
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Nanyang Simple to model Abaqus cylindrical concrete material's failure mode and layer-by-layer

Technological complex structure buildability. The model is validated for the experimental

University, structures. structure of a hollow printed cylinder.

Singapore

IIT, India

26
10 Wolfs et al. Eindhoven Structure FE Abaqus Yes The numerical model has been developed to study the

[36] University of level mechanical behaviour of concrete 3D printed structure of

Technology, fresh concrete.

Eindhoven,

The

Netherlands

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11 Wolfs and Structural FEM Abaqus Yes Using a numerical modelling approach, the study focused on

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Suiker [101] scale simulations Compared plastic collapse and elastic buckling failure phenomena.

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with several

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wall

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structures.

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12 VANTYGHEM Ghent Structural ur FEM Rhinoceros Yes Two FEM strategies have been applied to develop numerical

et al. [2] University, scale 3D, Python and simulation models to predict the printability of concrete
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Ghent, (Simple to structures using 3D printing. The model defines the tool bath

Belgium complex from CAD model of the printed structures and then the

structures). material is activated along the printing path considering the

time-dependent material properties of the printed structure.

13 Collins et al. 1Maastricht Structural FEM MATLAB [102] FEM model has been developed using MATLAB PDE

[102] University, scale (PDE toolbox to analyze the printed behaviour of concrete

(straight toolbox) structures. The developed model has been used to predict the

27
 The and tilted performance of different printed elements such as straight and

Netherlands and hollow tilted beams and hollow cones.

cone.

14 Nadjar [103] Université Straight FE - - Nedjar [42] presented a modelling framework for ageing 3D

Gustave Eiffel, Wall printed material, particularly for concrete material. The

France structure framework's effectiveness has been demonstrated with model

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examples and a set of simulations.

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15 Lim et al. he Open Structure FEM Grasshopper Yes Non-conventional curved layer printing has been applied

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[104] University, level – a plug-in concrete 3D printing of large scale.

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Walton Hall, of

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Milton Rhinoceros

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Keynes, MK7 ur
6AA, UK
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16 Andersen et al. Technical Structural finite element FEM Yes The model has been developed based on the early age

[105] University of level method (FEM) digital concrete with time-dependent properties. The model is used

Denmark, image to predict the maximum number of layers to be printed before

Lyng by correlation the collapse of the structure. With an accuracy of 58%, the

Denmark (DIC) numerical model is suggested to be developed further.

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17 Peng et al. RMIT 3D printed 3D finite MATLAB The developed numerical model has been validated with

[106] University, Beams element (FE) experimental and analytical results. A detailed analysis has

Melbourne, homogenization been performed for the effect of density and core topology.

VIC, 3000, approach

Australia

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3.2 Filament scale modelling/ Material Deposition

3DCP uses a sliced computer model of the final structure, assuming that the extruded filament adopts the

exact shape of the theoretical filament model. The shape of the filament is a function of extrusion factors

and time-dependent concrete properties. Differences in original and theoretical filament thickness and

deformation in filament by tear, crack or bend are two main reasons for deviation from theoretical shape

[73].

A slight difference between the theoretical and actual dimensions of the filament can alter the dimension

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of the subsequent filament. Any such slight deviation can add up to affect the final geometry of the structure.

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Nicolas Roussel [3] studied the requirement of rheological properties for printing concrete, such as

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viscosity, yield stress, critical strain, elastic modulus, and structuration rate. A moving extrusion nozzle

numerical and simulation model for concrete printing is developed. The printing or extrusion process at the
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nozzle level is first discussed from a material perspective. The study considered two regimes for concrete
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extrusion at nozzle level: "Infinite brick extrusion" and "free-flow deposition". In "Infinite brick extrusion,"
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the layer leaves the nozzle as a stiff material with geometry similar to the nozzle opening. The rheological
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properties requirement is then discussed to prevent the flow of a single layer, to prevent the strength-based

failure due to successive layers, and needed to control the final geometrical dimensions of the printed
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structures. The rheological properties requirement is also analyzed to control surface cracking and buckling

stability. The study also evaluates the necessity and role of interlayer bonds and the effect of printing

support on rheological properties.

For "Infinite brick extrusion", the cementitious material has higher yield stress than gravity and pumping

induced stresses [3]. While in "free-flow deposition," the final geometry results from competition between

gravity and yield stress. The material is fully shared because of either local contraction, low yield stress, or

local screw mixer [42]. The actual extrusion filament is somewhere between the two cases.

Local compressive stresses are also generated when the distance between the printing nozzle and surface is

less than the nozzle opening. The material is expected to deform by compressive stresses until the filament

30
thickness equals the distance between the nozzle and printing surface. These compressive stresses are

transferred to the lower printed filament layers and result in either further deformation or damage to the

overall stability of the printed structure [73].

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Figure 7. (a) printed beads for different models [97], and (b) cross-section of three consecutive layers based on
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particle finite element method using Bingham material model [94], source: [73].
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Similarly, when the extrusion flow rate is equal to the product of nozzle velocity and expected cross-section
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of the filament, a well-defined and constant dimension filament is printed, and the velocity is called nominal
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velocity. For the printing, velocity is higher than the nominal flow rate, resulting in tensile stresses at
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filament and cracks. Suppose the printing velocity is lower than nominal, compressive stresses between the

filament printing point and nozzle exit. The magnitude of these stresses depends on the material's filament-

free length and elastic properties, leading to buckling. Despite the importance of precise filament shape

control and prediction, few studies have considered filament scale modelling for 3DCP [43].

Filament scale numerical modelling has been performed in literature for both cross-section deviation and

longitudinal (buckling and tearing) deviations to predict the exact shape of the printing material. However,

the area is rarely explored for concrete printing despite its importance.

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Figure 8. Laminar flow in conical (right) and rectangular (left) nozzle [3]
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In their study, Communal et al. [43] focused on concrete 3D printing using Computational Fluid Dynamics

(CFD). The study analyzes the effect of nozzle height and printing speed on the geometry of the printed
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layer on the planer surface for a specific cement-based mortar mix. The study reported an increase in
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pressure, below the nozzle, for stiff material with lower nozzle height. The magnitude of the pressure could
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dominate the load of the material. The behaviour of the fresh motor is modelled with Bingham constitutive

law. Rotational and oscillatory tests were used to measure the rheological parameters for the material

experimentally. Elasto-viscoplastic and Newtonian fluid models are the two formulations employed in the

simulation. The study extended the preliminary results published in their previous study [99].

Earlier, the effect of constitutive laws (i.e., power law, Newtonian, Herschel-Buckley, and Bingham model)

on a single printed layer was analyzed by Communal et al. [94]. The study considers the modelling and

material deposition for 3DCP and significant areas of additive manufacturing, including molten plastic and

concrete. The study used Flow-3D software to simulate the CFD model for extrusion and deposition

material. Several constitutive models have been applied to various materials to analyze the cross-section of

the printed beads. The study reports a more substantial influence of shear on the cross-section of the beads

32
compared to viscosity. The study compared the results with the slicer software and targeted beads

dimension as a sensitive parameter that could vary substantially concerning its nominal value and could

affect the precision of the manufacturing.

Aiming further validation of the developed CFD model to multilayer print, in a recent study, Spangenberg

et al. [107] performed a numerical simulation study for multilayer 3DCP. The study presented the CFD

model that fits multilayer 3DCP, using the Elasto-viscoplastic constitutive model. The study reported

successful modelling with high accuracy by verifying straight concrete walls' experimental data. The study

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also quantifies the extrusion load imposed upon the layer and its effect of deformation or flow on the

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previously printed layer. The model could optimize the printing parameters to reduce the chances of

experimental failure.

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Figure 9. (a) CFD Model-based crossectional shape of the filament. (b) CFD model simulation. (c) cross-sectional

shape from experimental multilayer. Multiple figures form [107].

Reinold et al. [108] applied Particle finite element simulation approach for fresh concrete for additive

manufacturing considering layer extrusion technique. The study approximated the flow behaviour of the

concrete material by Bingham model, and Particle finite element method is used to deal with large

deformation. In another study, Reinold et al. [109] presented a numerical model using the particle finite

element method for extrusion-based 3DCP. The mixed velocity-pressure formulation has been used to solve

34
the balance of mass and momentum in an updated Langrangian framework. The study reported that the

extrusion model of concrete material in additive manufacturing could be simulated effectively. The model

has been validated with a channel flow test as a numerical benchmark for fresh concrete flow. The study

also reported a complex interaction between the structural response and the material and process

parameters. The study also noted the possibility of extending the numerical model from extrusion of fresh

concrete to ageing and modelling the structural built-up.

3.3 Mixing and Material Delivery

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Mixing is the starting and critical step of the concrete 3D printing process. It affects the performance of all

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the following steps from delivery to the mechanical performance of the final structure [4]. In 3DCP, mixing

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can be referred to as the base, basic mixing of the printing material and the mixing of the chemical material

for rapid setting to allow the quick printing process. At both steps, homogeneous dispersion is one of the
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primary targets.
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The mixing energy of the primary material is also a critical parameter that affects the material properties
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and hence its performance. For example, the mixing energy resulting in the crushing of the solid particles
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affects the cementitious material's build-up rate and mechanical properties [110–112]. Hence a high level
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of process control is required at this stage. For the rapid printing process, the accelerator is usually added

in the print head just before the final deposition so rapidity promotes the formation of hydrates. Flocculent

can also be added to form the colloidal bond between the particles. The mixing system is introduced at the

print head to ensure the homogeneous mixture. The printhead can be either static or rotating in the mixing

system, and mixing time is used as a controlling parameter. A detailed review of the inline mixing process

of accelerator can be found in the recently published article of Tao et al. [113].

The preferred numerical method for concrete mixing is the Discrete Element Method (DEM), introduced

for concrete study in 1990 [4]. The method considers concrete as a media of separate particles interacting

with each other using interaction laws. Newton's second law is used to analyze the displacement of each

particle, considering its interaction with surrounding particles. The Researchers also used the Finite Volume

35
Method (FVM) to model the flow in truck mixers [114]. However, DEM is preferred due to its ability to

visualize the quality of mixing and dispersion and segregation for particles of different sizes. The

development of computational power also facilitated the research to move towards more advanced

modelling, including the time-dependent contact laws and different nature of particles such as solid and

liquid. This allows the calculation for force-displacement based on the time step and nature of the

interacting particles [115,116]. Zhan et al. [107] performed numerical modelling with DEM to better

understand the fresh concrete pumping mechanism. Figure 10 represents the illustration between the

particles and their interaction with the wall and the contact model for concrete pumping. The study

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performed a series of parametric studies on pipe geometry, pumping conditions, and aggregates geometry

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and reported its effect on pumping power Figure 11. This type of simulation can be extended to the

accelerator simulation in the print head.

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Figure 10. The illustration of contact model (Right) and the contact between the particles and the particle and wall

(left).

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 Figure 11. Velocity magnitude of concrete particles flow (a) and (c) represents the upward flow, (b) is the

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horizontal and (d) is downward flow.

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During the flow of concrete through a pipe, a lubrication layer is formed between the concrete and the pipe,

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facilitating concrete pumping. The properties of the lubricating layer and its thickness are important factors
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to estimate the pumping power. CFD approach is generally applied to estimate the pumping pressure by
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simulating the concrete flow in the pipe. The concrete is modelled as a single-phase or multiphase with
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constant rheological properties throughout the material medium. All these concrete pumping models can

be applied for pumping concrete material in 3D concrete printing.

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Researchers like Chen et al. [117], Jo et al. [118], and Choi et al. [119] analyzed the lubrication layer in

pumping concrete using computational approaches. Choi et al. [119] applied a single-fluid CFD

methodology to simulate the fresh concrete in a pumping circuit of 170m. The fitting curve for the

lubrication layer and the pressure profile was matched with the experimentally performed data. Shear-

induced particle migration is a possible mechanism for forming the lubricating layer. Choi et al. [120]

numerically modelled concrete flow in the pipe. The study reported a strong influence of irregular shapes

particles, such as gravel and sand, on the flow. The velocity profile and flow rate were reported to be well-

matched with the experimental data of a full-scale experiment.

Several other studies have successfully modelled numerical simulation to analyze lubrication layers and

pipe wear during the concrete flow. All these studies can be used for the pumping process for 3D concrete

37
printing; however, specific additional challenges of concrete printing as mentioned by Perrot et al. [4]. Such

as the interruption in printing during the nozzle movement to the new position during printing, higher yield

stress of printable concrete than usual concrete processes, transition from pumping to the mixing stage in

the print head before final printing. Although large-scale pumping experiments are reported yet for 3DCP,

pumpability can be essential for many large-scale urban projects.

4. Conclusion and Recommendations

Due to the complex and diverse nature of the involved physics at different stages of the 3DCP process, such

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as mixing, pumping, extruding, and structural scale, very little is known about the impact of each parameter

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and conditions on the mechanical performance during the printing process. The specific printable

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combination of design, materials properties, and process parameters for successful printing resembled a
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"secret recipe" by Vantyghem et al. [2]. Hence, the optimal process parameters for the printing process are
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usually developed by the trial-and-error method. However, for structures with high volume, i.e. civil

engineering, this results in a time-consuming and expansive final product. Numerical models help to predict
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the performance of printing material and explore unexpected error, hence, helping to replace the extensive
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trial and error method with a safer and more economical solution. The importance of numerical modelling
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and simulations increases as we move towards more mature, larger scale, and practical applications of

concrete 3D printing.

Most of the modelling techniques also have a limited range and focus on a specific sub-section of the 3DCP

process. As a result, the numerical modelling and simulation approach applied in literature can be classified

in mixing and delivery scale, filament scale, and structure scale modelling techniques. Based on the detailed

review, the following conclusions and recommendations are made:

● Analytical and numerical models can be found in the literature; however, the range of models is

limited to a specific sub-process of the 3DCP process. However, the applications of analytical

models are limited to simple shapes and with the risk of first-degree approximation.

38
● The prediction of 3DCP structure is not straightforward in the case of complex geometries, variable

process parameters, or multi-materials printing.

● The review of current literature confirms the ability of numerical modelling and simulation

techniques to predict the type of structural failure in the printing process, including the failures at

extrusion of materials, one or multiple layers, and the whole structure scale.

● However, the pace of numerical modelling and simulation research did not progress fast enough to

catch the industrial interest of 3DCP, resulting in a lack of reliable simulation tools.

● A reliable simulation tool can result in several economic and time benefits by optimizing the

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printing parameters, design, and materials, including reducing a reduction in wear and tear of the

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machine, machine occupancy, material, and time waste.

●
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Due to the ease or simplicity of modelling, almost all the above models are printed with a vertically
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extruding mechanism for concrete material with fresh material. The estimation of buildability can
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be assessed from these models; however, the accuracy of these models is limited to simple
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structures such as multilayers, straight walls, or hollow cylindrical shapes. The models are not

accurate enough to predict the complex structures' behavior with complex tools path.
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● There is an apparent lack and need for more advanced numerical tools to predict the geometric
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conformity and final failure of 3DCP structure.

● The limitation of all the developed numerical models is their application range. There is no such

tool available that can predict the performance of the whole 3DCP process, from mixing to pumping

and extrudability till filament shape prediction till the failure mechanism prediction on the

structural level. Developing a universal model covering the involved multi-physics from filament

scale to the structure scale is still a challenge.

● Polymer 3D printing by extrusion is a more mature technology widely considered in the literature.

Numerical studies on filament scale printing of polymer could be helpful to understand the

perspective of concrete extrusion and deposition.

39
 ● A machine learning approach can find optimal material properties using the preliminary

experimental and simulation test results.

Single Computational Model: Hence, there is a need for a detailed computer-based numerical design and

simulation tool to explore the unexpected error, investigate the printing issue, predict the resultant

performance, decrease costly physical experiments, and save time, resources and hence overall cost. The

plan for developing a detailed computer-based modelling and simulation tool is suggested below to be

developed from the micro-scale of material development up to the macro-scale of structure's level. Figure

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12 represents the plan for developing the proposed model from micro to macro scale. At microscale

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modelling of accurate materials and extrusion process to predict the exact shape of the printed filament. For

accurate modelling, a detailed analysis of critical parameters can be performed, including process

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parameters such as extrusion rate, nozzle speed, temperature, geometric size of nozzle and filament, and
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most important material properties such as viscosity and yield stress, and elastic stiffness. The measurement
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of time-dependent hardened materials properties of printed material could be a critical challenge in micro-
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scale modelling. To consider the design issues at a multilayers scale, the model could be further developed

to address the multilayer challenges called the Meso-scale modelling. Detailed modelling at this stage could
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include the key parameters including open time, layer cycle time, deformation under self-weight, layer
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adhesion and minimum feature size and tolerance. Weldability or layer adhesion between the layers is the

key challenge to address at this scale. This task aims to extend the micro and mesoscale numerical and

simulation model to the level of the structures to precisely predict the failure and geometric conformity for

different material types, designs, and printing parameters.

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Figure 12. Micro, Meso and macro-scale modelling and Simulations for 3DP-CL materials.
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Acknowledgement: This publication was made possible by the TÜBİTAK—QNRF Joint Funding Program
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grant (AICC02-0429-190014) from the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey

(TÜBİTAK) and Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF). Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or
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recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the
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views of TÜBİTAK or QNRF.

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Highlights
• The pace of numerical modelling and simulation research did not progress fast enough to catch
the industrial interest of 3DCP, resulting in a lack of reliable simulation tools.
• The trending methodology of extensive trial and error methods in 3DCP makes the final
product's development more expensive and time-consuming.
• The specific printable combination of design, materials properties, and process parameters for
successful 3D concrete printing (3DCP) process resembles a "secret recipe".
• The applications of analytical models are limited to simple shapes and with the risk of first-
degree approximation.
• Due to involving multi-physics phenomena at each sub-process, the developed numerical
models are limited to a specific sub-process range.
• The study presents a plan to integrate different sub-processes to build a single computational

of
model from material mixing to final buildability.

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Declaration of interests

☒ The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships
that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

☐The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered
as potential competing interests:

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