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Subject PSYCHOLOGY

Paper No and Title Paper No 1: Cognitive Science

Module No and Title Module No 38: Metacognition

Module Tag PSY_P1_M38

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Learning Outcomes
2. Introduction: History of Metacognition
3. Meaning and Concept of Metacognition
3.1 Conscious or Automatic Metacognition
3.2 General or Domain Specific Metacognition
4. Developmental Process in Metacognition
5. Components of Metacognition
5.1 Cognition Vs Metacognition
5.2 Metamemory
5.3 Metacomprehension
5.4 Problem Solving
5.5 Metareasoning

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5.6 Artificial Intelligence

6. Assessment of Metacognition
7. Application of Metacognitive Models to Other Fields
7.1 Social Psychology
7.2 Abnormal Psychology
7.3 Educational Psychology
7.4 Developmental Psychology
7.5 Cognitive Neuroscience
8. Summary

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1. Learning Outcomes
After studying this module, you shall be able to

 Know the background and concept of metacognition.

 Learn the components of metacognition.
 Identify the development and assessment of metacognition.
 Evaluate the application of metacognition in other fields.

2. Introduction

History of Metacognition

The vitality of metacognition in human experience has been well recognized. Rise of interest in
this area is distinctly exhibited with the expansion of research and influence over other
disciplines. Even before the inception of psychology with an independent discipline identity, the
thought over metacognition still pervaded. The knowledge of our ownselves, as it was perceived
early by Descartes or Augustine was thought to be a unique capacity of disembodied soul.
Conversely, the growing body of modern literature viewed metacognition as a unique mental
potential sustained by a phenomenological experience specific to humans. This view strongly
endorsed and carried a considerable appeal. The deliberation over own perceptions, memory,
thinking led the early thinkers like Descartes to believe that there existed a nonphysical soul. Also
that this embodiment was only specific to humans as animals, evidence emerging from the fact
that other primates such as animals did not have language (Terrace, 2005; Terrace & Metcalfe,
2005). The non-dualist also considered it to be a unique cognitive capacity owing its origin from
the evolutionary process. The capacity to self reflects was viewed to bear a strong adaptive value.
The view of nonphysical soul was paradoxical for Comte, where he postulated that how mind
could serve as a function and observer of its function as well. The paradox rested on the idea that
consciousness was united in comparison to be fragmented. If then consciousness was to serve as a
function and observe its own functioning, it was then essentially fragmented. The paradox was
then related to the perception in itself being fragmentary yet bearing a holistic perspective. This
idea of perceptual continuity was well supported by multimodality functioning, where one could
listen to music and at the same time solve math yet share a spotlight of attention.

Another plausible view to the paradox mentioned was that even if consciousness was united, still
function and observation of function may not happen at the same psychological moment. In one
moment, the function could occur and in the next the appraisal may happen making both the
processes independent in time. The neuroscience also supported the co-occurrence of acting,
monitoring, regulating and evaluating own functions. The paradox ignited research in the area
where attempts were directed to seek a theoretical solution to the postulation. Nelson and Narens,
l990 proposed that for consciousness to perform two functions simultaneously it must exist at
two levels, one at the object or doing level and other at the metalevel of judging own functioning.
The view was well endorsed and served as the foundation for the phenomena of metacognition.

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3. Meaning and Concept of Metacognition

Metacognition refers to one’s knowledge of own cognitive processes. The term Meta connotes
beyond, hence metacognition indicates to the process of going beyond the mere occurrence of
cognitive processes and engaging into its awareness, knowledge and regulation. Metacognition
operates at three levels, metacognitive knowledge, regulation and experiences. Metacognitive
knowledge deals with knowing about own cognitive processes and have to be differentiated from
metacognitive skills. The former is based on declarative knowledge acquired through the
interaction with the environment (person, task, and situation) and latter is based n procedural
knowledge dealing with modus operandi of cognitive activity. Skills differ from knowledge in
terms of being action based and knowledge only being awareness of the cognitive activity.
Conditional knowledge on the other hand deals with choice of action at specific time based on
metacognitive awareness. Similarly metacognitive regulation relates to control and manipulation
of cognitive capacities and metacognitive experiences refer to current state of cognitive affairs.
All the three components prove imperative for higher order thinking. The phenomenon thus goes
beyond mere thinking about thinking to monitoring, control and regulation of thought.

Metacognition

Metacognitive
Metaknowledge Metaregualtion
Experiences

Procdural Declaratve Conditional Appraisal of

Monitoring Planning Evaluation
Knowledge Knowledge Knowledge Cognitive
Experiences

Fig 1: Depicting Three Levels of Metacognition

Expansion of research in the area of metacognition entails rationalization and evaluation of one’s
own executive functions regulating the information processing capacities. Synthesis of various
interpretations indicates Meta x being X of X, so metacognition is cognition of cognition,
metaknowledge is knowledge of knowledge. Tradionally under this umbrella concept of
metacognition various related terms were included such as metacognitive beliefs, metacognitive
awareness, feeling of knowledge, theory of mind, metamemory which confused the
distinctiveness of the domain. Some terms elaborated on more general forms of knowledge
whereas others dealt with age specific processing. Some concepts are purely metacognitive
whereas others are cognitive ad metacognitive as well such as learning, thinking etc. For
instance the idea of self-regulating was considered as secondary concept to metacognition
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whereas other researches viewed it as a superordinate to

metacognition. Such kind of paradoxes has led to lack of
functional unity in the concept of metacognition. Nelson’s view of consciousness operating at
object and the meta level then provided clarification to the idea. The actual cognitive process
operated at the objet level whereas reasoning functioned at the meta level, the idea about the state
of function level is conveyed to the meta level through series of regulating, monitoring processes
and the feedback from the meta level to the object level is transcended by the control processes,
the flow of information is bidirectional and postulates consciousness to be piecemeal and
fragmentary. The idea is reflective of metacognitive knowledge and skills where a lapse at the
object level would be transmitted to Meta level which would further also apply appropriate skills
directed towards solution of the problem. Thus metacognition is not simply complex
discriminative evaluation but rather a judgment that involves information processing called
cognition and monitoring of higher order thinking understood as metacognition.

3.1 Conscious or Automatic Metacognition

Extending the line of investigation to the fact that is metacognition a conscious or more of an
automatic process. The view that it is a conscious process entails the involvement of higher order
processing (Nelson, 1996 & Schnotz, 1992). The other view represented metacognition to be less
of conscious process and more of reflex action. The automaticity is well achieved when the
process of on looking almost turns into a good regular habit. Such evaluations then seem to push
itself into the background of conscious experience except in an erroneous situation where entire
process may get alarmed. Another perspective to the question added by Bandura’s was
metacognition to be a practice acquired through observational or vicarious learning (Bandura,
1989). It allowed metacognition to be less of a conscious and more of an automatic modeling
process. Furthermore whether conscious metacognition or automatic metacognition would be
more self-regulatory will reflect a philosophical disagreement between self-determinism and
externally regulated behavior. Also the difference of metacognitive skill and metacognitive
strategy would rely upon again the metacognition being an automatic or a conscious effort.

3.2 General or Domain Specific Metacognition

The perennial question to metacognition in education is whether it is a general activity or a task

specific process. General Metacognition would be synchronized with teaching and would not
transcend automatically. Conversely, domain specific metacognition would require specific
teaching pedagogy. More evidence is available for metacognition to be a domain specific activity
each encompassing customized teaching pedagogy for math’s (Desoete & Roeyers, 2003;
Kramarski & Mevarech, 2003), science (Thomas, 2003), or reading abilities (Zhang, 2001 &
Veenman & Beishuizen, 2004). Recent studies attempt to cite differences amongst metacognition
of various domains. On the other hand, monitoring skills are taken to be general across domains
(Schraw, Dunkle, Bendixen & Roedel, 1995; Schraw & Nietfeld, 1998). Nonetheless, the
dichotomy still pervades and results remain inconclusive. At the initial level, the skills may seem
to be more at specific level as each of the task may unfold in a different way and require task
oriented strategies. Perhaps at the later level, a more general level of functioning may operate in
solving the problems. However, the divergent thinking may emerge from the general
metacognitive grounds.

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5. Developmental Stages in Metacognition

Constant renewal of interest has been viewed in identifying the chronological development of
metacognition. Theory of mind is believed to be develop around 3-5 years of age (Flavell, 2004)
followed by metamemory and metakowledge to develop and become an ongoing dynamic
process. (Alexander, Carr & Schwanenflugel, 1995). Metacognitive skills seem to emerge around
8- 11 years and mature throughout, however, skill of planning may establish before than higher
order skill of monitoring or evaluation. Conversely, the reports of early infancy show planning,
monitoring and evaluation to also become apparent in the tasks of interest. Since acquisition of
skills is a developmental process hence a fixed timeline trajectory may not be defined. It may
essentially be viewed in biopsychosocial context. Furthermore still to have an idea of
development, components of metacognition need to be precisely defined and also the role and
impact of one component in the development of the other need to be ascertained. Also the relation
of intelligence with metacognitive skills needs to be highlighted. Does intelligence level increase
or decrease the acquisition of metacognitive skills or influence the pace of acquisition warrants
further research. At the inception level, metacognitive skills may appear to be domain specific but
later with maturity it may operate in a more generalized fashion (Veenman & Spaans, 2005).
Thus to gain holistic perspective of metacognition being conscious or automatic, specific or
general, its influential ability and its relatedness with other fields needs to be well explored .

5. Components of Metacognition

5.1 Cognition Vs Metacognition

Metacognition as phenomena has been implicated to refer to series of epistemological processes.

Generally it is conceived as cognition of cognition giving it a higher order thinking status.
Therefore if cognitive acts involve perception, thinking, memory, metacognitive acts relate to the
awareness, regulation and control of these events. Flavell (1978) defined it as ‘knowledge that
takes as its object or regulate any aspect of any cognitive endeavor’. Moore (1982)
conceptualized it as ‘individual’s knowledge of various aspects of thinking’ whereas Gavalek &
Raphel (1985) phrased it as ‘the ability of the individual to adjust their cognitive activity in order
to promote more effective comprehension’. Metacognition then thus emerges as an external
higher order spectator to the cognitive process yet being an integral part of it which is truly
reflective of Comte’s paradox. This further indicates that cognition and metacognition both are
entwined processes. Metacognition relies on cognition and at the same time cognition is subject
to metacognition. In the context of metacognitive knowledge, it is difficult to have metacognitive
knowledge without attaining knowledge of specific domain. Similarly in case of Metamemory,
the appraisal of the memory is not possible without any active memory process. At the same time,
the self-appraisal and self-management of cognitive concepts provide functional feedback and
regulate the cognitive act. The assessment of metacognition is based on the cognitive
performance and evaluation of cognition derives completion from appraisal of metacognitive
experiences. This deep interrelation gives circularity to the entire mental phenomena and poses a
challenge to disentangle both the components. However, proficiency in metacognition can

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compensate for lacks in cognitive components but high

cognitive abilities cannot fill the gap for metacognition.

5.2 Metamemory:

Metamemory refers to the introspective examination of one’s own memory contents facilitating
judgment and discretion. Thus, Metamemory is not memory itself but rather analysis,
commentaries, appraisal of the memory index and learning. For instance, when Descartes was
engaged in his famous doubting meditation – musing about how his memories or perceptions
could have been different than they were, or how he could have been mistaken about them – he
was engaging in metacognition. Such reflection of the phenomenological selves was also highly
prone to subjectivity. Since Metamemory is primarily judgment and appraisal of the memory
index, three basic judgments of formed the core of Metamemory research Feeling of knowing
Judgments, Tip of the Tongue Judgments and Judgment of Learning. Though the list of
judgments is exhaustive as metamemory concerns any judgment about the memory so other
evaluations such as source judgment, recognition judgment, and confidence judgment also
include as imperative part. Metamemory operates at two levels i.e. the objective level and the
metalevel. At the objective level, the memories itself is the concern whereas at the metalevel, the
regulation of the objective level is involved.

5.3 Metacomprehension:

Similarly, the concept of metacomprehension entails cognitive appraisal of one’s own

comprehension abilities. A classical example would be a student reading a book and not
understanding and yet negligent of the fact of not understanding. Such lack of insight over the
aspect of understanding and learning makes it purely mechanical. The emphasis of
metacomprehension has been particularly on evaluation of one’s own reading or speech
comprehension. May times in the classroom settings, it has been observed a wide gap between the
child’s perception of knowing and his actual knowledge. Thus the training of metacomprehension
strategies during the early school years becomes imperative for the success of learning.

5.4 Problem Solving:

The attributes of decision making and problem solving encompass most of the time of human life.
It can be conceived as a cognitive act of choosing wisely amongst the available alternatives and
also the ability to perceive a question from varied perspectives. The idea if divergent thinking
also gets introduced in problem solving, where moving beyond the available heuristics and
algorithms helps in seeking different, innovative solutions for the problem. It constantly focuses
on developing alternatives, evaluating options, exploring the opportunity cost etc. most
importantly it entails the cognitive ability to question ownself in terms of redefining the problem,
pathway and the expected outcome. Parallel to the aspect of problem solving is the higher
cognitive ability of an individual to evaluate ideas based on their quality entails critical thinking.
It can also been seen complimentary to problem solving where the evaluation of the alternatives
could be formalized in terms of various parameters such as clarity, rationality, coherence,
expected success, generalizability etc. this kind of thinking is viewed across disciplines and is
just no more a scientific entity.

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5.5 Metareasoning:

Reasoning is directed towards rationalizing a solution to a problem and metareasoning is related

to the reasoning that generates such solution or delves into the problem. The term metareasoning
does not always essentially refer to reasoning of reasoning but rather reasoning at three levels i.e.
object, reasoning and the meta-level. The object level or ground level entails both rules and
propositions specific to domain. The reasoning level involves describing the object and initiating
a change in it. Lastly, the metalevel process involves progress evaluation and outcome of the
reasoning level. Thus processes in the reasoning level alter process at the object level and process
at the metalevel ramifies processes at the reasoning level. Thus Metareasoning involves reasoning
of the reasoning cycle. It involves both the processes, metalevel control of rationalizations and
introspective regulation of reasoning. The goal of metalevel is to develop the quality of
decisions by monitoring the reasoning investment whereas the aim of introspective monitoring is
to make efficient metalevel control strategies. Metalevel is thus engaged in generating plausible
causes for reasoning level decisions influencing object level performance. It may also involve
itself in attributing causes at object of reasoning level in case of a reasoning failure. In totality the
metareasoning process will involve notion of self that controls its reasoning choices, monitors the
products and finally synergizes the self with the social context.

Monitoring
• object level • Reasoning Level • Metareasoning
level

Perception Control

Fig 2: Depicting the Three Levels Involved in Metareasoning

5.6 Artificial Intelligence (AI):

The field entails the study and design of intelligent agents or developing human like intelligence
in machines and software. John McCarthy (1955) coined the term and referred to it as ‘the
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science and engineering of making intelligent machines’. Since

the time of inception itself, AI researchers have been questing
to develop self-knowledge and introspection capacities in machines. Two prime views by Minsky
(1968) and McCarthy (1968) prevailed to exchange views on the same. Minsky contended that
for a machine to be intelligent enough to reciprocate on the questions of the world and itself, it
should have an executable model of own self. On the other hand, McCarthy presented that for a
machine to be intelligent it must adequately declare its knowledge of the world and of itself. The
former proposition was procedural in nature whereas the latter was declarative. Minsk’s view was
found to be more logical as it established relation between the knowledge of the world and
agent’s knowledge of itself in the world. He also correlates the knowledge of one’s own
knowledge of the world or the metaknowledge and one’s own knowledge of own self and
behavior called the metacognitive knowledge. Nonetheless both the views have been directed
towards making machines intelligent enough so as to reflect and regulate the knowledge of its
own self.

6. Assessment of Metacognition
Metacognition being a complex mental process encompassing series of cognitive phenomena
perhaps poses challenge in its evaluation. However, various techniques ranging from behavioral,
psychometric to neuropsychological have been used. Each of the techniques is surfaced with
merits and demerits suggesting no perfect technique but rather an eclectic approach of assessment
depending upon the component measured. For instance questionnaires (Pint rich & de Grout,
1990; Thomas, 2003) could be used to analyse the large group at once but may not yield true
responses. Similarly interviews (Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons, 1990) could have the benefit of
personal interaction and understanding of body language but then it may not be time effective and
prone to socially desirable responses. Another method of assessment which entails analysis of
thinking aloud protocols (Afflerbach, 2000; Veenman, Elshout & Groen, 1993) could be an
intrusive method yet subject to investigator’s bias. Neuropsychological measure of eye movement
analysis could yield reliable results but loose on cost effectiveness. Looking at the variation in the
assessment process, it is important to first identify which metacognitive component to be gauged
and then select suitable assessment measure ensuring least discrepancy amongst the scores and
the task performance. With the advent of technology, another vital discretion is to choose among
the offline or the online methods of assessment. The offline method offers pre and post
assessment of the task whereas online method reflects assessment during the task performance.
The recent trend favours online assessment as it reflects higher predictive value and the eases the
process of assessment with a huge interface (Vennman, 2005) The bottom line in any process of
assessment is to have the investigated goal clear and preferably apply multi modal method of
evaluation.

7. Application of Metacognitive Models to Other Fields

7.1 Social Psychology:

Recent developments in social psychology can be traced to the parallel intensification of

cognitive and metacognitive field. Social perception and social cognition deals with
identification, interpretation, analysis of others behaviour in social situations. The mental
processes of attribution, impression formation, and cognitive fallacies of understanding an
individual in social context entail the role of cognition in social world. The information

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processing approach applied to understanding of social

behaviour such as aggression or conflict establishes itself with
application of cognitive model in the social context. Metacognition in social domain may reflect
in the ability to critically evaluate the social influences and relationships. The bird’s eye view of
the perception of social world and the ability to regulate social behaviour assimilates the field of
social psychology with metacognition.

7.2 Abnormal Psychology:

Sourcing its origin from the cognitive revolution, the role of metacognitive psychology has been
increasingly identified in diagnosis and treatment of the psychological disorders. Woven in the
cognitive fabric, metacognition in the clinical field focuses on the awareness of the cognitive set
detached from self and perceived as mental phenomena. Growing body of literature recognizing
cognitive deficits such as attention, memory, visuo-motor activity, planning, decision making etc
in psychopathology such as depression, schizophrenia. The unawareness and irregulation of such
has fortified metacognitive roots in causation of such disorders. The use of mindfulness based
cognitive therapy in treatment of psychopathology fundamentally relies on the appreciation of
metacognitive processes. Reduced metacognitive ability has related to greater vulnerability to
psychopathology especially depression (Moore et al, 2002). Treatment based on metacognitive
training focuses on bringing the cognitive biases and distortions at the forefront of consciousness
perhaps challenge psychosis. In case of learning disabilities, use of metacognitive strategies in
enhancing learning and problem solving skills has also been suggested.

7.3 Educational Psychology:

Evidence of metacognitive concepts in the field of education has been reflected in concepts such
as metacognitive knowledge, division and organization of knowledge etc. Also designing of
educational pedagogy based on the cognitive development, its appraisal has gained newsworthy
maturity. The influence of cognitive growth and experiential feedback in education is well
reflected in recent pedagogy of computer based cognitive tutoring, programmed learning etc. The
idea of cognitive economy and metacognitive experiences has also been nevertheless absorbed by
educationists to internalize the notion of cognitive capacity and functioning in learning. The
research in the areas of learning, metamemory, metareasoning has recently moved a step ahead
from the labs to the school settings. The idea of Translational Educational Science where changes
in education modalities resulting from research in the same and allied areas such as cognitive
psychology and metacognition has been a contemporary breakthrough from pedagogical rigidity
(Roedieger, 2013). Recent trends have focused on metacognitive instructions to be embodied in
teaching pedagogy for acquisition of metacognitive skills at an early age only.

7.4 Developmental Psychology:

Many of the developmental theories base their course on cognitive maturity. The land marking
conventional theories such as Piaget’s cognitive development and Vygotsky moral development
have viewed physical development in the context of cognitive growth. The cognitive transitions
characterize the developmental milestones and also establish norms to verify any cognitive delay.
Social interactions are believed to depict an important influence on the development of
metacognitive process. Interpsychological development marks as the precursor for
intrapsychological development. Initially the significant others lead as proactive guide to the
child, later the child becomes active and the parents invigilate and correct the child behavior
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finally the child takes the lead and the parents emerge as
supportive and sympathetic spectators (Brown & French,
1983). The theory of mind has also reflected the influence as the ability of the child to understand
own and cognition of others. The chronological sequence with ToM has been an expression of
metacognitive development in a child. The development of a child in terms of appraisal and
regulation information processing, perceptual skills, learning, conservation etc. marks the dawn
of metacognitive skills.

7.5 Cognitive Neuroscience:

The term cognitive neuroscience was first suggested by George Miller and Micheal Gazzanga in
late 1970’s. The field entails understanding of biological underpinnings of cognitive faculties and
its self-regulation. It attempts to assess the role of brain in regulation of cognitive and
metacognitive functions. The domain exhibits to explain cognitive science with evidences from
neuropsychology. It portrays cognitive model viewed in light of neuroscience and computational
modeling. It stands as an interaction between neuroscience and cognitive science. It attempts to
explore the neurobiological roots of metacognitive functions. Metacognitive neuroscientists use
various imaging methods such as fMRI, EEG, PET scan to infer about the cognitive performance.
Recent trends have focused research on specific minute areas of brain to unravel the related
cognizance and second order thinking.

8. Summary
1. Metacognition can be conceived as higher order cognition of cognition. It entails
awareness, evaluation and management of own cognition.
2. The development of metacognition should be viewed in the biopsychosocial context.
3. Various psychometric and neuropsychological methods such as fMRI, PET scan etc are
used for assessment of metacognition.
4. There are various components of metacognition such as Metamemory,
metacomprehension, problem solving, metareasoning, artificial intelligence etc.
5. The influence of metacognition can be well observed with the fields of social psychology,
abnormal psychology, cognitive neuroscience, educational psychology.

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PSYCHOLOGY PAPER No. 1: Cognitive Science

MODULE No. 38: Metacognition