Icpe7 Proceedings Book

2
THE 7TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE

ON POSTGRADUATE EDUCATION
(ICPE-7 2016)
Going Beyond Research in Postgraduate Education
1 st December 2016
DEWAN SRI BUDIMAN

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA (UiTM)
3
Institute of Graduate Studies, UiTM
Copyright© 2016 by Institute of Graduate Studies,

UiTM. No part of this publication may be
reproduced or distributed in any form or by any
means, or stored in a database or retrieval system,
without prior written permission of the publisher.
ISBN 978-967-0171-64-7
4
LIST OF EDITORS AND REVIEWERS

CHEIF OF EDITORS : DR MOHAMMAD NAWAWI DATO’ HAJI SEROJI
DEAN OF IGS, UITM
EDITORS : DR SITI FARHANA ZAKARIA
ASSOC. PROF. DR AMAN MOHD IHSAN MAMAT
ASSOC. PROF DR. ABDUL JALIL MOHAMED ALI
DR KHAIRUL SAFUAN MUHAMMAD
DR SUHAILY HASNAN
REVIEWERS : TRACK 1: ENGINEERING, SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
ASSOC. PROF . DR. NAEEM M. S. HONNOON
ASSOC. PROF. DR KAMARULARIFIN ABD JALIL
ASSOC. PROF. DR. KALAVATHY RAMASAMY
ASSOC. PROF. DR. SAYANG MOHD DENI
ASSOC. PROF. DR. ZULHABRI ISMAIL
DR NORIN ZAMIAH KASSIM SHAAR
DR AZLINA IDRIS
DR CHOO CHEE YAN
DR KAVITHA S. RAJAGOPAL
DR KHAIRUL SAFUAN BIN MUHAMMAD

DR MOHAMAD FAHMI HUSIN
DR MOHAMAD HUZAIMY JUSOH
DR MOHAMAD NIDZAM RAHMAT
DR MOHAMMAD NAWAWI SEROJI
DR MOHD AFZAN MOHD ANUAR

5
DR MOHD HISBANY MOHD HASHIM
DR MOHD SHAHRIMAN ADENAN
DR NOR SUHAILA BINTI MOHAMAD HANAPI
DR NOR SUHAILA MOHAMAD HANAPI
DR NORLIANA MOHD ABAS
DR SHAHRUL YANI SAID
DR SHAMSIAH ABDULLAH
DR UMMI KALTHUM IBRAHIM
DR WAN EMRI WAN ABDUL RAHMAN
DR WAN FAIZIAH WAN ABD RAHMAN
DR WAN RAZARINAH BT WAN ABDUL RAZAK
DR ZAMZALIZA ABDUL MULUD
DR. FAZLEEN HASLINDA MOHD HATTA
DR. HANIM BT. HUSSIN

IR DR MOHD AZMI BIN YUNUS
MUHAMAD AZHAN ANUAR
PRO. MADYA DR SOLEHUDDIN SHUIB
PROF. DR DAUD MOHAMAD
PROF. MADYA DR LOW CHENG YEE
PROF. MADYA DR NURAINI YUSOFF
PROF. MADYA DR NURAINI YUSOFF
SAIFUL AMAN HJ SULAIMAN

6
SR MASNIZAN CHE MAT
SR. FARIDAH ISMAIL
AZINOOR AZIDA ABU BAKAR

DR SITI SHAWALLIAH IDRIS
DR AZLI ABD RAZAK
DR IDRIS SAAD
DR MOHD SHIHABUDDIN AHMAD NOORDEN
DR NORLIANA MOHD ABBAS
DR SITI NOOR HAJJAR MD LATIP
DR ZULKIFLI MOHAMED
PROF. MADYA DR ROHANA MAHBUB
PROF. MADYA DR SHUZLINA ABDUL RAHMAN
SR DR KHAIRUL NIZAM TAHAR
TRACK 2: ARTS, HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
ASSOC. PROF. DR. ANIZAH ZAINUDDIN
ASSOC. PROF. DR. NORLIDA ABDUL HAMID
ASSOC. PROF. DR. RAMONA MOHD TAHIR
ASSOC. PROF. DR. TAN PECK LEONG
DR YUSFIDA AYU ABDULLAH @ MOHD ZAIN
DR AIDA HAZLIN ISMAIL
DR ANI SAIFUZA ABD SHUKOR

DR AZLINA HANIF
DR AZZARINA ZAKARIA
DR DALELEER KAUR RANDAWAR
7
DR FARIDAH ISMAIL
DR GHAZALI YUSRI BIN ABD RAHMAN
DR ISMAIL SUALMAN
DR JASMINE AHMAD
DR MAZZINI MUDA
DR MOHD BAHRIN BIN OTHMAN
DR MUMTAZ MOKHTAR
DR NADRAWINA ISNIN
DR NAJAHUDIN LATEH
DR NOORUL HUDA SAHARI
DR NORZUWANA SUMARJAN
DR NUR ISLAMI BT MOHD FAHMI TENG
DR PISOL MAIDIN
DR ROHASLINDA RAMELE
DR ROHAYA ABDUL WAHAB
DR SHAHRIN NASIR
DR SHEELA JAYABALAN
DR SITI FARHANA ZAKARIA
DR SUSEELA DEVI S CHANDRAN
DR YARINA AHMAD
DR ZAHARAH YAHYA
DR. AMINA JOSETTA AHMAD
DR. AZLINA HANIF

DR. FARIDAH MUHAMAD HALIL
8
DR. ISMADI ISMAIL

DR. MAWARNI MOHAMED
DR. MAZLIZA DELIMA KAMARULZAMAN
DR. MOHD NAJIB MD SAAD
DR. MUHAMAD KHALIL OMAR
DR. NOR SUZIWANA HJ TAHIR
DR. NORASHIKIN HUSSEIN
DR. NORASHIKIN HUSSEIN
DR. ROZITA HAJI NAINA MOHAMED
DR. SITI ZALEHA SAHAK
MOHD NIZAM BASIRON
MUHAMMAD YUSUF MASOD
PM DR IZAHAM SHAH ISMAIL
PM DR NOR HASHIMA HASHIM
PROF DR MOKHTAR MUHAMMAD
PROF MADYA DR ABDUL JALIL MOHAMED ALI
PROF MADYA DR AHMAD MAZLI MUHAMMAD
PROF MADYA VEERA PANDIYAN KALIANI SUNDRAM
PROF. MADYA DR SITI KHADIJAH AB. MANAN
PROFESOR MADYA DR FAIZAH ABDUL MAJID

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PROFESOR MADYA DR NABILAH ABDULLAH
PROFESSOR DR HABIBAH HJ ASHARI
PROFESSOR DR PARMJIT SINGH AL APERAPAR SINGH
ASSOC. PROF. DR. SHAHANUM MOHD SHAH

DR JAMALIAH MOHD. YUSOF
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LIST OF PAPERS, TITLES, AFFILIATION AND RESEARCH AREA
NO PAPER ID FIRST AUTHOR TITLE AFFILIATION RESEARCH AREA

1 T01_002 NORSYAKILAH STRATEGIC CONSIDERATIONS UNIVERSITI ARCHITECTURE,
ROMELI IN INFRASTRUCTURE JOINT TEKNOLOGI MARA PLANNING AND
VENTURE PROJECTS SURVEYING
2 T01_006 ABDUL AZIZ ABAS COMPLEXITY OF PROJECT AND UNIVERSITI ARCHITECTURE,
IMPACTS ON PRELIMINARIES TEKNOLOGI MARA PLANNING AND
OF CONSTRUCTION PROJECT AT SURVEYING
TENDER STAGE
3 T01_011 KU NOR AFIZA SEA SURFACE CIRCULATION IN UNIVERSITI ARCHITECTURE,

ASNIDA KU MANSOR STRAIT OF MALACCA AND TEKNOLOGI MARA PLANNING AND
ANDAMAN SEA USING SURVEYING
SATELLITE ALTIMETRY
4 T01_017 HAYROMAN AHMAD DESIGN FOR UNIVERSITI ARCHITECTURE,
DECONSTRUCTION: RECYCLED TEKNOLOGI MARA PLANNING AND
AND REUSED MATERIALS SURVEYING
TOWARDS SUSTAINABILITY
5 T01_018 MOHAMAD HANIF TRANSFERRING ARCHITECTURE UNIVERSITI SAINS ARCHITECTURE,
ABDUL WAHAB TERMINOLOGY: “PERAHU” AND MALAYSIA PLANNING AND
HOUSE SURVEYING
11
6 T01_024 WAN SAFE CITY: APPROACH OF UNIVERSITI ARCHITECTURE,

HAZWATIAMANI CRIME PREVENTION THROUGH TEKNOLOGI MARA PLANNING AND
BINTI WAN ISMAIL ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN SURVEYING
(CPTED) IN PUBLIC PARK
7 T01_025 ABDUL AZIZ ABAS A STUDY ON COST OF UNIVERSITI ARCHITECTURE,

PRELIMINARIES OF TEKNOLOGI MARA PLANNING AND
CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS FOR SURVEYING
CIVIL INFRASTRUCTURE WORKS
IN MALAYSIA
8 T01_048 YASMIN NUR THE CHARACTERISTICS OF UNIVERSITI ARCHITECTURE,
AMIRAH BINTI MALAY HOUSE AND ITS USAGE TEKNOLOGI MARA PLANNING AND
YAMAN AS A HOMESTAY SURVEYING
9 T01_051 VIVIAN ANNE CRITICAL CONSIDERATION UNIVERSITI ARCHITECTURE,
THOMAS TARANG FACTORS IN ADOPTING TEKNOLOGI MARA PLANNING AND
MODULAR CONSTRUCTION SURVEYING
10 T01_055 MARTINI ALWI IMPORTANCE OF UNIVERSITI ARCHITECTURE,
GOVERNMENT POLICY TEKNOLOGI MARA PLANNING AND
ENFORCEMENT TOWARDS SURVEYING
IMPROVING BUILDING
INFORMATION MODELLING
IMPLEMENTATION IN THE
MALAYSIAN CONSTRUCTION
INDUSTRY
12
11 T01_056 M. YUSOF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT UNIVERSITI ARCHITECTURE,

ABDULLAH FOR CONSTRUCTION TEKNOLOGI MARA PLANNING AND
PRESSURE VESSEL PROJECT IN SURVEYING
IOT ENVIRONMENT
12 T01_062 NORMANIZA ABD SELECTION CRITERIA OF UNIVERSITI ARCHITECTURE,
GHANI BIDDERS DURING PRE- TEKNOLOGI MARA PLANNING AND
CONTRACT PROCESS BETWEEN SURVEYING
OIL & GAS AND BUILDING
CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
13 T01_074 NURUL LIYANA SAFETY OF THE ELDERLY IN UNIVERSITI ARCHITECTURE,
HANAPI MULTI-STOREY RESIDENTIAL TEKNOLOGI MARA PLANNING AND
BUILDING DURING EMERGENCY SURVEYING
14 T01_079 KAMARUL ARIFF YOUTH PARTICIPATION IN THE UNIVERSITI ARCHITECTURE,
OMAR NEIGHBOURHOOD OUTDOOR TEKNOLOGI MARA PLANNING AND
SPACE SURVEYING
15 T01_088 MARTINI ALWI DESIGN MANAGEMENT UNIVERSITI ARCHITECTURE,
TOWARDS QUALITY PROJECT TEKNOLOGI MARA PLANNING AND
PERFORMANCES AMONG SURVEYING
ARCHITECTS
16 T01_089 NURUL AINUL MD. IDENTIFYING THE GREEN HOME UNIVERSITI ARCHITECTURE,
YUSOFF FEATURES OFFERED BY TEKNOLOGI MARA PLANNING AND
DEVELOPERS – A SYSTEMATIC SURVEYING
LITERATURE REVIEW
13
17 T01_044 CARLMOND GOH HETEROLOGOUS EXPRESSION UNIVERSITY BIOTECHNOLOGY

KAH WUN OF FK506-BINDING PROTEIN35 MALAYSIA SABAH
FROM PLASMODIUM
KNOWLESI USING SYNTHETIC
GENE AND CODON
OPTIMIZATION
18 T01_045 NOORHASLINA BINTI ENHANCEMENT OF BIOACTIVE UNIVERSITI BIOTECHNOLOGY
HASHIM CONSTITUENTS IN MALAYSIA PERLIS
ORTHOSIPHON STAMINEUS
PLANT GROWN UNDER
NITROGEN STRESS CONDITIONS
19 T01_054 JOVI SILVESTER HETEROLOGOUS EXPRESSION UNIVERSITI BIOTECHNOLOGY
AND SINGLE STEP MALAYSIA SABAH
PURIFICATION OF A PUTATIVE
FKBP35 PARTNER PROTEIN,
CALMODULIN
20 T01_046 RUSNANI AB LATIF USING DELPHI TECHNIQUE: UNIVERSITI HEALTH SCIENCE
MAKING SENSE OF CONSENSUS TEKNOLOGI MARA
IN CONCEPT MAPPING
STRUCTURE AND MULTIPLE
CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQ)
21 T01_049 RUSNANI AB LATIF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING UNIVERSITI HEALTH SCIENCE
OF MOTHERS WITH LOW BIRTH TEKNOLOGI MARA
WEIGHT AMONG INFANTS
WHO ARE ADMITTED IN
SPECIAL CARE NURSERY (SCN):
CROSS SECTIONAL STUDY
14
22 T01_090 NORA AFZAM BINTI ASSESSMENT OF ROOT CAUSES UNIVERSITI HEALTH SCIENCE
ABD WAHAB OF INCIDENT IN OIL AND GAS MALAYSIA
PLANT IN MALAYSIA USING PAHANG
SWISS CHEESE ACCIDENT
CAUSATION MODEL
23 T01_053 RAMLAH MOHAMAD PREVALENCE AND RISK UNIVERSITI PUTRA MEDICINE
IBRAHIM FACTORS OF NON-ALCOHOLIC MALAYSIA
FATTY LIVER DISEASE AMONG
MENOPAUSAL WOMEN IN
KLANG VALLEY, MALAYSIA
24 T01_003 SAHIMI BINTI TRANSLATION AND UNIVERSITI ISLAM PHARMACY
MOHAMED VALIDATION OF THE MALAY ANTARABANGSA
VERSION OF THE ATRIAL
FIBRILLATION PERCEPTION
SCALES
25 T01_004 EMAN ALI DYAB ASSESSMENT OF KNOWLEDGE, UNIVERSITI ISLAM PHARMACY
ATTITUDES AND PERCEIVED ANTARABANGSA
BARRIERS AMONG NURSE
PRACTITIONERS TOWARDS
MEDICATION ERROR
REPORTING
26 T01_023 MOHD KAMAL BIN THE CHARACTERISATION OF UNIVERSITI PHARMACY
NIK HASAN PHYTOCHEMICALS FROM TEKNOLOGI MARA
MYRMECODIA PLATYTYREA VIA
MASS SPECTROMETRY
15
27 T01_033 SYAFIQA HAYATI PURIFICATION OF SILICEOUS UNIVERSITI PHARMACY

MOHD ALI FRUSTULES ISOLATED FROM TEKNOLOGI MARA
MALAYSIAN MARINE DIATOMS
28 T01_052 NURUL SYAHIDAH COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT UNIVERSITI PHARMACY
BINTI MOHD YUSOF MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF TEKNOLOGI MARA
RELATIVE QUANTIFICATION
METHOD FOR REAL-TIME PCR
29 T01_008 ROSDIYANI DETERMINATION OF REQUIRED UNIVERSITI PLANTATION AND

MASSAGUNI HLB VALUE OF PALM OIL TEKNOLOGI MARA AGROTECHNOLOGY
METHYL ESTERS (PME) USING
NON-IONIC SURFACTANT
BLENDS IN O/W EMULSION
SYSTEM
30 T01_010 SITI ZULAIHA ESTABLISHMENT OF UNIVERSITI PLANTATION AND
AHAMAD AZHAR ADVENTITIOUS ROOT FROM TEKNOLOGI MARA AGROTECHNOLOGY
MERISTEM OF BOESENBERGIA
ROTUNDA
31 T01_015 AZIELA BINTI SEED GERMINATION OF UNIVERSITI PLANTATION AND
MASARIP CANARIUM ODONTOPHYLLUM TEKNOLOGI MARA AGROTECHNOLOGY
IN RELATION TO FRUIT
RIPENESS
32 T01_022 SUHAINI RAEZE CHEMICAL AND UNIVERSITI PLANTATION AND
NUTRACEUTICAL TEKNOLOGI MARA AGROTECHNOLOGY
COMPOSITIONS OF PALM OIL
EXTRACTED FROM UNRIPE
FRUIT BUNCHES
16
33 T01_035 MUHAMMAD DETERMINATION OF UNIVERSITI PLANTATION AND

FIRDAUS BIN RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOIL TEKNOLOGI MARA AGROTECHNOLOGY
IHWAAN CHEMICAL PROPERTIES WITH
INCIDENCE OF BASAL STEM ROT
DISEASE IN OIL PALM
34 T01_085 MUHAMMAD FAIZ GROWTH MORPHOLOGICAL UNIVERSITI PLANTATION AND
IBRAHIM CHARACTERISTICS AND ITS TEKNOLOGI MARA AGROTECHNOLOGY
RELATIONSHIP WITH
INFLORESCENCE OF ARENGA
PINNATA
35 T01_016 MUHIDEEN ABBAS EVALUATION OF THE UNIVERSITI ELECTRICAL AND
HASAN ACCELEROMETER MALAYSIA ELECTRONICS
PERFORMANCE FOR DETECTING PAHANG ENGINEERING
THE MOTION ARTIFACT IN
PHOTOPLETHYSMOGRAPHY
SIGNAL PROCESSING
36 T01_037 AHMAD AZZREEN LOW-POWER ACTIVE RFID UNIVERSITI ELECTRICAL AND
BIN DALAWI SYSTEM USING NRF24L01 MALAYSIA ELECTRONICS
PAHANG ENGINEERING
37 T01_060 NASSER HASAN ALI PERFORMANCE OF IEC 61850 UNIVERSITI PUTRA ELECTRICAL AND
DIFFERENT COMMUNICATION MALAYSIA ELECTRONICS
CHANNELS PROTECTION ENGINEERING
NETWORKS FOR SMART GRIDS
17
38 T01_064 MARMEEZEE MOHD A FACILE GROWTH IMMERSION UNIVERSITI ELECTRICAL AND

YUSOFF METHOD OF ALUMINUM- TEKNOLOGI MARA ELECTRONICS
DOPED TITANIUM DIOXIDE ENGINEERING
NANOROD ARRAYS FOR UV
PHOTOSENSOR APPLICATION
39 T01_065 LIM ZI JIE A CONTINUATION POWER UNIVERSITI ELECTRICAL AND
FLOW-BASED VOLTAGE TEKNOLOGI ELECTRONICS
STABILITY INDEX IN PREDICTING MALAYSIA ENGINEERING
VOLTAGE STABILITY USING
ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK
40 T01_068 NOR FARHANI ELECTRICAL UNIVERSITI ELECTRICAL AND
ZAKARIA CHARACTERIZATION AND MALAYSIA PERLIS ELECTRONICS
RECTIFICATION PERFORMANCE ENGINEERING
OF 5 NM TRENCH SELF-
SWITCHING DIODES
41 T01_072 SITI AISHAH SAIDI ELECTRICAL UNIVERSITI ELECTRICAL AND
CHARACTERIZATION OF TEKNOLOGI MARA ELECTRONICS
HIERARCHICAL-BRANCHED ZINC ENGINEERING
OXIDE NANOROD ARRAYS
PREPARED USING SOLUTION
BASED METHOD
42 T01_077 CHE ZAWIYAH CHE AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER UNIVERSITI ELECTRICAL AND
HASAN GAIT CLASSIFICATION USING TEKNOLOGI MARA ELECTRONICS
ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS ENGINEERING
18
43 T01_081 FARAH HANIM BT A PRELIMINARY REVIEW ON UNIVERSITI SAINS ELECTRICAL AND

ABD JABAR CRYPTANALYSIS OF ACOUSTIC ISLAM MALAYSIA ELECTRONICS
SIGNALS LEAKAGE ENGINEERING
44 T01_082 SALEH Y. ABUJARAD A COMBINED METRIC TO UNIVERSITI ELECTRICAL AND
ASSESS THE AVAILABLE TEKNOLOGI ELECTRONICS
FLEXIBILITY WITHIN MALAYSIA ENGINEERING
CONVENTIONAL GENERATION
POWER SYSTEM
45 T01_083 NOOR SHAHIDAH SYSTEMATIC LITERATURE UNIVERSITI SAINS ELECTRICAL AND
BINTI ISHAK REVIEW: CORRELATED FUZZY ISLAM MALAYSIA ELECTRONICS
LOGIC RULES FOR NODE ENGINEERING
BEHAVIOR DETECTION IN
WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORK
46 T01_093 TUNKU LOW VOLTAGE DC POWER UNIVERSITI ELECTRICAL AND
MUHAMMAD NIZAR MODULE FOR RELIEF CAMP MALAYSIA PERLIS ELECTRONICS
TUNKU MANSUR ENGINEERING
47 T01_059 NUR AZIMAH BINTI GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSION UNIVERSITI ENERGY

BAHRUM ESTIMATION FROM LIVESTOCK TENAGA
IN URBAN AND NON-URBAN NASIONAL
AREAS OF SARAWAK
19
48 T01_007 SITI NURUL UMIRA DEVELOPMENT AND UNIVERSITI MARINE AND

BINTI MOHD SABARI APPLICATION OF MICRO SOLID MALAYSIA ENVIRONMENTAL
PHASE EXTRACTION TERENGGANU SCIENCES
TECHNIQUE FOR THE
ANALYSIS OF ORGANIC
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS
49 T01_012 AMIRUL HAFIZAN DETERMINATION OF PARABENS UNIVERSITI MARINE AND
BIN MOHD AZMI FROM WATER SAMPLES USING MALAYSIA ENVIRONMENTAL
GREENER METHOD OF TERENGGANU SCIENCES
MAGNETIC SOLID PHASE
ETRACTION
50 T01_014 NUR ANISAH BINTI TOTAL LIPID ANALYSIS OF UNIVERSITI MARINE AND
DAUD CADAVER DECOMPOSITION IN MALAYSIA ENVIRONMENTAL
RUBBER PLANTATION SOIL TERENGGANU SCIENCES
51 T01_058 FOK FEI MEI DETERMINATION OF TOTAL UNIVERSITI MARINE AND
ORGANIC CARBON MALAYSIA ENVIRONMENTAL
CONCENTRATION IN THE TERENGGANU SCIENCES
SURFICIAL SEDIMENTS OF
RIVERS IN SEBERANG PERAI,
PENANG, MALAYSIA
52 T01_071 ISSA ALABIAD TREATMENT OF LEACHATE AT UNIVERSITI MARINE AND
PADANG SIDING LANDFILL, MALAYSIA PERLIS ENVIRONMENTAL
PERLIS USING FENTON AND SCIENCES
BIO-ELECTROCHEMICAL
METHODS
20
53 T01_075 ZARITH SUFIANI HEAVY METAL UNIVERSITI PUTRA MARINE AND

BAHAROM CONCENTRATIONS IN FISHES MALAYSIA ENVIRONMENTAL
FROM GALAS AND PUTAT SCIENCES
RIVER, PENINSULAR MALAYSIA :
HEALTH RISK ESTIMATION
54 T01_005 EMMA AHMAD ENHANCING AVAILABILITY OF UNIVERSITI COMPUTER &
SIRAJUDIN MARINE KNOWLEDGE MALAYSIA MATHEMATICAL
REPOSITORY WITH A NOVEL TERENGGANU SCIENCE
FAULT TOLERANCE TECHNIQUE
55 T01_029 NADHIRAH BINTI COMPARISON OF REFERENCE UNIVERSITI COMPUTER &
GAZALI RATES DETERMINATION IN MALAYSIA MATHEMATICAL
MALAYSIA TERENGGANU SCIENCE
56 T01_034 NOOR HAYATI DATA CENTER DISASTER UNIVERSITI COMPUTER &
MOHD ZAIN MANAGEMENT APPROACH: TEKNOLOGI MATHEMATICAL
FEATURES FINDINGS MALAYSIA SCIENCE
57 T01_040 ABDALRAHMAN AN INTEGRATION OF FIVE UNIVERSITI COMPUTER &
SALEM ALFAGI SELECTION STRATEGIES FOR TEKNOLOGI MATHEMATICAL
SELECTING CANDIDATE MALAYSIA SCIENCE
ATTRIBUTES AND TUPLES IN
DATABASE WATERMARKING
58 T01_047 WAN MAHANI AN APPROACH OF FINDING UNIVERSITI COMPUTER &
ABDULLAH FOREGROUND MARKER FOR MALAYSIA PERLIS MATHEMATICAL
COMPLEX BACKGROUND SCIENCE
IMAGE
21
59 T01_067 ABDUL JALIL MEASURING THE ELEMENTS OF UNIVERSITI COMPUTER &

MOHAMAD PEDAGOGY IN A FRAMEWORK PENDIDIKAN MATHEMATICAL
OF MOBILE APPS FOR SULTAN IDRIS SCIENCE
KINDERGARTEN EARLY
READING
60 T01_073 ROQIA RATEB DESIGNING AN AUTOMATED UNIVERSITI UTARA COMPUTER &
SOCIAL SUPPORT ASSIGNMENT MALAYSIA MATHEMATICAL
OVER SOCIAL NETWORKS SCIENCE
61 T01_084 ASIA KHALAF INVESTIGATING THE FUZZY UNIVERSITI COMPUTER &
ALBZEIRAT ORDER ON DIFFERENTIAL MALAYSIA PERLIS MATHEMATICAL
EQUATIONS SCIENCE
62 T01_091 NUR DAYANA FLOW AND HEAT TRANSFER OF UNIVERSITI COMPUTER &
KHAIRUNNISA ROSLI MHD NON-NEWTONIAN TEKNOLOGI MARA MATHEMATICAL
POWER LAW FLUIDS DUE TO SCIENCE
ROTATING DISK
63 T01_092 NORAZUWIN NATURAL HYDROMAGNETIC UNIVERSITI COMPUTER &
NAJIHAH MAT TAHIR CONVECTIVE INSTABILITY IN TEKNOLOGI MARA MATHEMATICAL
VISCOELASTIC NANOFLUID SCIENCE
LAYER
64 T01_009 RAFIZAH BINTI SPECTROSCOPIC AND DFT UNIVERSITI FUNDAMENTAL &
RAHAMATHULLAH CALCULATIONS OF ALKOXY MALAYSIA APPLIED SCIENCE
SUBSTITUTED HECK-IMMINE AS TERENGGANU
ORGANIC SEMICONDUCTOR
MATERIALS
22
65 T01_019 MUHAMMAD INFLUENCE OF DEPOSITION UNIVERSITI FUNDAMENTAL &

ASLAM BIN POTENTIAL ON COPPER TEKNOLOGI MARA APPLIED SCIENCE
MAHMUD DEPOSITED TITANIA
NANOTUBES VIA
POTENTIOSTATIC METHOD AND
THEIR
PHOTOELECTROCHEMICAL
PROPERTIES
66 T01_020 ADIBAH IZZATI DAUD THEORETICAL EVALUATION VIA UNIVERSITI FUNDAMENTAL &
DFT APPROACH ON D-Π-A MALAYSIA APPLIED SCIENCE
SYSTEM OF ACETYLIDE- TERENGGANU
THIOUREA MOTIF IN CARBON
DIOXIDE SENSING
67 T01_026 NUR AMIRAH SYNTHESIS AND UNIVERSITI FUNDAMENTAL &
NABILAH BINTI SPECTROSCOPIC MALAYSIA APPLIED SCIENCE
MOHD RASHID CHARACTERIZATION OF TERENGGANU
HEXYLOXY-SUBSTITUTED C≡C
AND C=N DERIVATIVE
68 T01_031 ZURIAH ISMAIL BIOASSAY-GUIDED OF UNIVERSITI FUNDAMENTAL &
FRACTIONATED-METHANOL MALAYSIA APPLIED SCIENCE
EXTRACTS OF AGLAONEMA TERENGGANU
SIMPLEX IN-VITRO PLANTLETS
69 T01_041 HERMAN UMBAU LOCAL SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS UNIVERSITI FUNDAMENTAL &

LINDANG ON FUZZY WATER QUALITY TEKNOLOGI MARA APPLIED SCIENCE
ASSESSMENT MODEL: A CASE
STUDY
23
70 T01_050 YASMIN BINTI SYNTHESIS AND UNIVERSITI FUNDAMENTAL &

RIDWAN MORGAN SPECTROSCOPIC MALAYSIA APPLIED SCIENCE
CHARACTERIZATION OF E-4-((4- TERENGGANU
CHLOROPHENYL)ETHYNYL)-N-
(4-(HEXYLOXY) BENZYLIDENE)
ANILINE POTENTIALLY EXHIBITS
LIQUID CRYSTALLINE
PROPERTIES
71 T01_057 NUR ARIFAH BINTI STUDY ON PHASE UNIVERSITI FUNDAMENTAL &
ISMAIL TRANSFORMATION OF MALAYSIA APPLIED SCIENCE
HYDROTHERMALLY TERENGGANU
SYNTHESIZED 1-D TITANATE
INTO TITANIA (TIO2) AS A
POTENTIAL
NANOBIOMATERIALS
72 T01_061 UWAISULQARNI M. SYNTHESIS OF THIOSEMI- UNIVERSITI FUNDAMENTAL &
OSMAN CARBAZIDE DERIVATIVE FOR MALAYSIA APPLIED SCIENCE
DYES SENSITIZED SOLAR CELLS TERENGGANU
73 T01_066 NORZAHIDA M SALIH EFFECT OF DIFFERENT RATIOS UNIVERSITI FUNDAMENTAL &
OF NR/NBR ON THE TEKNOLOGI MARA APPLIED SCIENCE
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
NR/NBR BLEND LATEX FILM
24
74 T01_032 ZAKIUDDIN BIN CHARACTERIZATION OF SOLID UNIVERSITI CHEMICAL

JANURI RESIDUE FROM CATALYTIC TEKNOLOGI MARA ENGINEERING
MICROWAVE ASSISTED
PYROLYSIS OF AUTOMOTIVE
PAINT SLUDGE
75 T01_036 NOOR AIYSAH BINTI EFFECT OF PARTICLE SIZE ON UNIVERSITI CHEMICAL
ARIS BITTER GOURD (MOMORDICA TEKNOLOGI ENGINEERING
CHARANTIA) EXTRACT YIELD BY MALAYSIA
SUPERCRITICAL CARBON
DIOXIDE EXTRACTION
76 T01_039 NUR UMISYUHADA GRAPHITIC CARBON NITRIDE UNIVERSITI CHEMICAL
BINTI MOHD NOR MODIFIED TITANIUM DIOXIDE TEKNOLOGI ENGINEERING
(G-C3N4@TIO2) FOR MALAYSIA
IMPROVED PHOTOREDUCTION
OF CO2 TO METHANOL UNDER
UV LIGHT
77 T01_080 AHMAD ARIF TAGUCHI OPTIMIZATION FOR UNIVERSITI CHEMICAL
BIO-RECOVERY OF SILVER TEKNOLOGI MARA ENGINEERING
FROM WASTEWATER USING
PALM (ELAEIS GUINEENSIS)
LEAVES EXTRACTS
78 T01_001 HUSSEIN M. CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS UNIVERSITI CIVIL ENGINEERING
HAMADA (CSFS) TO ADOPTION OF BIM MALAYSIA
TECHNIQUE IN THE PLANNING PAHANG
STAGE WITHIN IRAQI
CONSTRUCTION COMPANIES
25
79 T01_043 FARIZ ASWAN BIN VIERENDEEL BENDING FAILURE UNIVERSITI CIVIL ENGINEERING
AHMAD ZAKWAN MECHANISM OF CELLULAR TEKNOLOGI MARA
STEEL BEAMS (CSBS) WHEN
EXPOSE TO FIRES: A REVIEW
80 T01_063 NURSHAMIMIE THE STUDY ON THE SETTING UNIVERSITI CIVIL ENGINEERING

MUHAMMAD FAUZI TIME OF TREATED SLUDGE TEKNOLOGI MARA
CONTAINING BLENDED BINDER
FOR WATER TREATMENT
SLUDGE
81 T01_070 IZZUL SYAZWAN VARIOUS POSITION OF WATER UNIVERSITI CIVIL ENGINEERING
ISHAK TANK AS A PASSIVE TUNED TEKNOLOGI MARA
LIQUID DAMPER – A REVIEW
82 T01_076 AHMAD IDZWAN RAYLEIGH DAMPING UNIVERSITI CIVIL ENGINEERING
YUSUF COEFFICIENTS MEASUREMENT TEKNOLOGI MARA
OF ELASTOMERIC BEARING
USING FINITE ELEMENT AND
EXPERIMENTAL MODAL
ANALYSIS
83 T01_086 JAHARATUL DINI THE EFFECT OF BY-PRODUCTS UNIVERSITI CIVIL ENGINEERING
KAREN LEE BINTI PARTIAL REPLACEMENT TRIAL TEKNOLOGI
ABDULLAH MIX ON CONCRETE STRENGTH MALAYSIA
AND PERFORMANCE
84 T01_013 MUHAMMAD PERFORMANCE STUDY OF UNIVERSITI MECHANICAL

ZUBAIR ABD REHIM METALLIC TIBIA TRAY TEKNOLOGI MARA ENGINEERING
26
COMPONENT IN TOTAL KNEE

REPLACEMENT
85 T01_021 ISMAIL BIN LIAS WIRE CUT EDM PROCESS UNIVERSITI MECHANICAL
PARAMETER MACHINING OF TEKNOLOGI MARA ENGINEERING
ALUMINIUM FOAM TUBE
PRODUCE (AFTP)
86 T01_028 MST. NASIMA EFFECT OF HSM ON MRR AND UNIVERSITI ISLAM MECHANICAL
BAGUM SURFACE QUALITY IN MILLING ANTARABANGSA ENGINEERING
SODA-LIME GLASS
87 T01_030 MAT HUSSIN AB PID WITH FIREFLY ALGORITHM UNIVERSITI MECHANICAL
TALIB AND PARTICLE SWARM TEKNOLOGI ENGINEERING
OPTIMIZATION FOR SEMI- MALAYSIA
ACTIVE SUSPENSION SYSTEM
USING MR DAMPER
88 T01_038 SYAFIQAHDAHIYAH AN OVERVIEW ON THE UNIVERSITI MECHANICAL
BINTI RAMLAN DEVELOPMENT OF DESIGN AND TEKNOLOGI MARA ENGINEERING
PROPERTIES FOR RAIL SUPPORT
AND SLEEPER MATERIALS FOR
RAILWAY INDUSTRY
89 T01_042 MOHD FAIRUS BIN REAL-TIME ACTIVE VIBRATION UNIVERSITI MECHANICAL
JAMID CONTROL OF FLEXIBLE BEAM TEKNOLOGI ENGINEERING
MALAYSIA
27
90 T01_069 MOHAMAD CHARACTERISATION OF THE UNIVERSITI MECHANICAL

SHAMSUL AZRAF BIN DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF TEKNOLOGI MARA ENGINEERING
SULAIMAN A COMPLEX JOINTED
STRUCTURE
91 T01_078 MUNIR ALKBIR ENERGY ABSOPTION UNIVERSITI PUTRA MECHANICAL

CABABILITY OF HEXAGONAL MALAYSIA ENGINEERING
COMPOSITE STRACTURE
92 T01_087 SOLEHAH JAMILAH EFFECTS OF LOCAL REGRESSION UNIVERSITI MECHANICAL
ISMAIL SMOOTHING METHOD ON TEKNOLOGI ENGINEERING
LOWER LIMB ANGLES DURING MALAYSIA
WALKING
93 T01_094 LIZA ANUAR COSMETIC CORROSION OF UNIVERSITI MECHANICAL
CLOSED CAR ‘PARKING LOT TEKNOLOGI ENGINEERING
SURVEY’ MALAYSIA
94 T02_001 NUR FADILA AKMA A NEW ONTOLOGY MODEL FOR UNIVERSITI EDUCATION AND
BINTI MAMAT SPECIAL EDUCATION MALAYSIA CONTEMPORARY
ENVIRONMENT TERENGGANU ISLAMIC STUDIES
95 T02_002 SYAZWANI ABD ASYMMETRIC MARKET UNIVERSITI SAINS BUSINESS &
RAHIM REACTIONS TO SUKUK ISLAM MALAYSIA MANAGEMENT
ISSUANCE: CASE STUDY ON
POST 2008-GLOBAL CRISIS
96 T02_003 CHENG FU ZE THE ANTECEDENTS OF UNIVERSITI BUSINESS &
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR IN MALAYSIA MANAGEMENT
ONLINE HOTEL ROOM TERENGGANU
RESERVATION
28
97 T02_004 MOHAMMAD IDENTIFICATION OF POTENTIAL UNIVERSITI BUSINESS &

KHAIRUDDIN DISTRACTION FACTORS MALAYSIA MANAGEMENT
OTHMAN AMONG SEAFARERS’ ONBOARD TERENGGANU
SHIPS USING A CAUSE AND
EFFECT ANALYSIS
98 T02_005 NURHARANI THE PRELIMINARY UNIVERSITI EDUCATION AND
SELAMAT DEVELOPMENT OF CHANGE TEKNOLOGI MARA CONTEMPORARY
ORIENTED ORGANISATIONAL ISLAMIC STUDIES
CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOUR SCALE
99 T02_006 MOHD GOVERNMENT GREEN UNIVERSITI ARCHITECTURE,
SALLEHUDDIN MAT PROCUREMENT (GGP) IN TEKNOLOGI MARA PLANNING AND
NOOR MALAYSIAN CONSTRUCTION SURVEYING
INDUSTRY: HAVE WE GOT IT
RIGHT?
100 T02_007 HASMAN ABDUL COSMOPOLITAN LIVING AND UNIVERSITI BUSINESS &
MANAN MALAYSIAN MALAYS’ LIFESTYLE TEKNOLOGI MARA MANAGEMENT
CHOICES: A REVIEW
101 T02_008 MOHD FAIQ BIN ABD FOSTERING EMPLOYEE PRO- UNIVERSITI BUSINESS &
AZIZ ENVIRONMENTAL BEHAVIOUR: TEKNOLOGI MARA MANAGEMENT
DOES EMOTIONAL
INTELLIGENCE AND ISLAMIC
WORK ETHICS MATTER?
102 T02_009 AYAD HAMEED TOWARD A REAL-TIME UNIVERSITI UTARA BUSINESS &
MOUSA DECISION-MAKING IN BUSINESS MALAYSIA MANAGEMENT
INTELLIGENCE ENVIRONMENT
29
103 T02_010 FAIRIZ MIZA YOP DRIVERS OF NON UNIVERSITI ARCHITECTURE,

ZAIN PARTICIPATION IN TEKNOLOGI MARA PLANNING AND
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT SURVEYING
ASSESSMENT (EIA) WITH
EVIDENCE TO MALAYSIA’S MRT
PROJECT
104 T02_011 ZIININE THE IMPACT OF INDEPENDENT UNIVERSITI COMMUNICATION &
ABDESSELAM ONLINE MEDIA ON THE TEKNOLOGI MARA MEDIA STUDIES
MAINSTREAM MEDIA (IN THE
CONTEXT OF MALAYSIA)
105 T02_012 NUR HIDAYAH SHOPHOUSES’S PRICE IN UNIVERSITI ARCHITECTURE,
HAJAR MELAKA HISTORIC CITY TEKNOLOGI MARA PLANNING AND
SURVEYING
106 T02_013 AHMED M. THE ROLE OF TRIALABILITY, UNIVERSITI BUSINESS &
MUTAHAR AWARENESS, PERCEIVED EASE TEKNOLOGI MARA MANAGEMENT
OF USE, PERCEIVED
USEFULNESS IN DETERMINING
THE PERCEIVED VALUE OF
USING MOBILE BANKING IN
YEMEN
107 T02_014 OSAMA ISAAC PERCEIVED USEFULNESS, UNIVERSITI BUSINESS &
PERCEIVED EASE OF USE, TEKNOLOGI MARA MANAGEMENT
PERCEIVED COMPATIBILITY,
AND NET BENEFITS: AN
EMPIRICAL STUDY OF INTERNET
USAGE AMONG EMPLOYEES IN
YEMEN
30
108 T02_015 MOHAMED ZAKARIA EXAMINING BASO MODEL- UNIVERSITI BUSINESS &
BIN MOHAMED BASED STRATEGIC PLANNING TEKNOLOGI MARA MANAGEMENT
YAHYA TRAINING AND FOLLOW UP
SESSION IMPACT ON RURAL
COMMUNITY MOSQUE
ORGANISATIONAL
EFFECTIVENESS
109 T02_016 NUR AAINAA BT FRED MCGRAW DONNER’S UNIVERSITI EDUCATION AND
BAJURI MOK INTERPRETATION OF AL- TEKNOLOGI CONTEMPORARY
FUTŪHĀT: AN ANALYSIS FROM MALAYSIA ISLAMIC STUDIES
THE ISLAMIC HISTORICAL
PERSPECTIVE
110 T02_017 BABLU KUMAR DOES MANAGEMENT OF UNIVERSITI SAINS ADMINISTRATIVE
DHAR STATE-OWNED COMMERCIAL ISLAM MALAYSIA SCIENCE & POLICY
BANKS OF BANGLADESH STUDIES
SUPPORT HUMAN RESOURCE
ACCOUNTING?
111 T02_018 SITI MARSILA BINTI PRICE DISPARITY BETWEEN UNIVERSITI BUSINESS &
MHD. RUSLAN EAST AND WEST MALAYSIA: MALAYSIA MANAGEMENT
ISSUE OF CABOTAGE POLICY TERENGGANU
USING STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS
112 T02_019 JALAL FAIZ THE PHILOSOPHY AND IDEA OF LASBELA EDUCATION AND
EDUCATION IN WESTERN UNIVERSITY OF CONTEMPORARY
CIVILISATION AGRICULTURE ISLAMIC STUDIES
113 T02_020 SUHAIMEE SAAHAR POLITICAL ADVERTISING AND UNIVERSITI COMMUNICATION &
YOUNG VOTERS TEKNOLOGI MARA MEDIA STUDIES
31
114 T02_021 SABRINAH BINTI THE ROLE OF UNIVERSITI ADMINISTRATIVE

ADAM ENTREPRENEURIAL STRATEGY- TEKNOLOGI SCIENCE & POLICY
MAKING DIMENSIONS MALAYSIA STUDIES
TOWARDS ORGANISATIONAL
PERFORMANCE OF INTERNET
BUSINESS IN MALAYSIA
115 T02_022 RAZIEMAN MOHD DETERMINANTS OF UNIVERSITI BUSINESS &
YUSOFF RIDESHARING SERVICES TEKNOLOGI MARA MANAGEMENT
ADOPTION AMONGST URBAN
RESIDENTS IN KUALA LUMPUR
116 T02_023 NURUS SAADAH THE IMPLEMENTATION OF UNIVERSITI EDUCATION AND
BINTI MD YUSOF MILITARY LEADERSHIP MALAYSIA CONTEMPORARY
TRAINING PROGRAMME; PAHANG ISLAMIC STUDIES
RESERVE OFFICER TRAINING
UNIT (ROTU) IN SHAPING
ISLAMIC MORAL AMONG
CADETS: A CASE STUDY IN
UNIVERSITI SAINS ISLAM
MALAYSIA
117 T02_024 YUSMAZIDA MOHD THE ROLE OF GREEN UNIVERSITI BUSINESS &
YUSOFF INTELLECTUAL CAPITAL ON TEKNOLOGI MARA MANAGEMENT
BUSINESS SUSTAINABILITY
118 T02_025 MOHD RUSTAM BIN A SURVEY ON MATHEMATICS UNIVERSITI EDUCATION AND
MOHD RAMELI ACHIEVEMENT GOALS TEKNOLOGI CONTEMPORARY
ORIENTATION AMONG MALAYSIA ISLAMIC STUDIES
MALAYSIAN STUDENTS
32
119 T02_026 IBRAHIM MOHAMED FACTORS INFLUENCE UNIVERSITI BUSINESS &

MOHAMED INTENTION TO USE MOBILE TEKNOLOGI MARA MANAGEMENT
ALRAJAWY LEARNING WITHIN PUBLIC
UNIVERSITIES STUDENTS IN
YEMEN
120 T02_027 ABUZAR BIN ABDUL UNDERSTANDING THE UNIVERSITI COMMUNICATION &
HALIM APPLICATION OF IMAGE REPAIR TEKNOLOGI MARA MEDIA STUDIES
THEORY TO THE IMAGE OF
UNITED MALAYS NATIONAL
ORGANISATION (UMNO) AS
PROPOSED BY MALAYSIAN
POLITICAL SCHOLARS
121 T02_028 FARAH WAHIDA KEY-DETERMINANTS OF UNIVERSITI ADMINISTRATIVE
MOHD RAFLY KNOWLEDGE SHARING TEKNOLOGI MARA SCIENCE & POLICY
CULTURE ON JOB STUDIES
PERFORMANCE AND
MODERATING ROLE OF JOB
POSITION: A STUDY IN SHAH
ALAM CITY COUNCIL (SACC)
122 T02_029 MOHD ALIF BIN FAMILY AS THE NEXUS IN UNIVERSITI BUSINESS &
MOHD PUZI TRANSGENERATIONAL TEKNOLOGI MANAGEMENT
TOURISM ENTREPRENEURSHIP MALAYSIA
33
123 T02_030 FATIN FAZRIDA BINTI THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN UNIVERSITI ADMINISTRATIVE
PEROS KHAN THE IMPACTS OF TEKNOLOGI MARA SCIENCE & POLICY
TELECOMMUTING STUDIES
ENGAGEMENT AND EMPLOYEE
PERFORMANCE IN OIL AND GAS
INDUSTRY IN KUANTAN,
PAHANG: JOB MODERATOR AS
A MODERATOR VARIABLE
124 T02_031 AGATHA LAMENTAN THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN UNIVERSITI EDUCATION AND
ANAK MUDA PERCEIVED ORGANIZATIONAL TEKNOLOGI MARA CONTEMPORARY
SUPPORT WITH ISLAMIC STUDIES
ORGANIZATIONAL
COMMITMENT AMONG
ACADEMIC STAFF
125 T02_032 ADEELA REHMAN MANAGING HEALTH SYSTEM UNIVERSITI ISLAM SOCIOLOGY AND
GOVERNANCE: FRAMEWORKS, ANTARABANGSA ONTROPOOGY
STRATEGIES AND POLICES FOR MALAYSIA
MAINSTREAMING GENDER
BASED NEEDS INTO PUBLIC
HEALTH
126 T02_033 NIK MURSHIDAH THE APPLICATION OF CONTENT UNIVERSITI EDUCATION AND
BINTI NIK DIN ANALYSIS METHOD IN SULTAN ZAINAL CONTEMPORARY
STUDYING LINGUISTIC POETRY ABIDIN ISLAMIC STUDIES
STYLE OF IMAM AL- SHAFIE
34
127 T02_034 MUHAMMAD WAFI EFFECTS OF OUTDOOR UNIVERSITI EDUCATION AND

BIN A. RAHMAN EDUCATION CAMPS ON LIFE PENDIDIKAN CONTEMPORARY
EFFECTIVENESS SKILLS AMONG SULTAN IDRIS ISLAMIC STUDIES
PUBLIC UNIVERSITIES
STUDENTS IN MALAYSIA
128 T02_035 SULAIMAN BIN CUSTOMERS’ INTENTION TO UNIVERSITI BUSINESS &
NAWAWI REPURCHASE HALAL PERSONAL TEKNOLOGI MARA MANAGEMENT
CARE PRODUCTS: AN
INVESTIGATION OF THE
DRIVERS AND MODERATING
VARIABLE
129 T02_036 NOR SUZILA LOP AN EFFECTIVE APPROACH OF UNIVERSITI ARCHITECTURE,
PERFORMANCE TEKNOLOGI MARA PLANNING AND
MEASUREMENT SYSTEM FOR SURVEYING
CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS:
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
130 T02_037 NORZANAH ABD APPLICATION OF SWOT UNIVERSITI SOCIOLOGY AND
RAHMAN ANALYSIS IN FLOOD TEKNOLOGI MARA ONTROPOOGY
MITIGATION MEASURES: A
CASE STUDY OF SABAH
131 T02_038 IZATUL FARRITA SUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION UNIVERSITI ARCHITECTURE,
MOHD KAMAR SAFETY COST IN ACHIEVING TEKNOLOGI MARA PLANNING AND
QUALITY OF LIFE – A SURVEYING
LITERATURE REVIEW
35
132 T02_039 ALFIATUL ROHMAH PROFITABILITY, MARKET UNIVERSITI ACCOUNTANCY

MOHAMED HUSSAIN INCENTIVE AND AUDIT QUALITY TEKNOLOGI MARA
OF FINANCIAL
MISSTATEMENTS: EVIDENCE
FROM MALAYSIAN PUBLIC
LISTED COMPANIES (PLCS)
133 T02_040 IZANORASHAKILA THE CONCEPTUAL STUDY ON UNIVERSITI ARCHITECTURE,
YUSOF THE UNDERSTANDING OF TEKNOLOGI MARA PLANNING AND
ENVIRONMENT SUSTAINABLE SURVEYING
PRACTICE IN MODERN ZOO
134 T02_041 COLLIN BABAT WHEN MOTHERS KILL THEIR UNIVERSITI LAW
BABIES: REGULATING TEKNOLOGI MARA
INFANTICIDE IN MALAYSIA
135 T02_042 NURUL MARDHIAH THE EFFECTS OF GST UNIVERSITI BUSINESS &
BINTI HARUN KNOWLEDGE TOWARDS TEKNOLOGI MARA MANAGEMENT
STUDENTS’ SPENDING PATTERN
136 T02_043 AINIL SOFIA SARPAN EXPLORING METACOGNITION UNIVERSITI EDUCATION AND
AND CREATIVE AND CRITICAL TEKNOLOGI MARA CONTEMPORARY
THINKING SKILLS OF ISLAMIC STUDIES
POSTGRADUATE STUDENTS IN
A PUBLIC UNIVERSITY
137 T02_044 SITI MARIAM BINTI PRINCIPAL’S CHANGE UNIVERSITI EDUCATION AND
HAMID LEADERSHIP FOR EFFECTIVE TEKNOLOGI MARA CONTEMPORARY
SCHOOL ISLAMIC STUDIES
36
138 T02_045 SUZANA BINTI ALI OBSTACLES AND CHALLENGES INTERNATIONAL LAW
IN IMPLEMENTING AND ISLAMIC
APPLYING SHARED PARENTING UNIVERSITY
PRINCIPLE IN MALAYSIA MALAYSIA
139 T02_046 MADZLI HARUN THE DEVELOPING EIGHT UNIVERSITI ADMINISTRATIVE
ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION (D- MALAYSIA SCIENCE & POLICY
8): THE STRATEGIC TERENGGANU STUDIES
DEVELOPMENT AND
FORMULATION OF FOREIGN
TRADE POLICY
140 T02_047 MUHAMAD FAIROS THE DETERMINANT OF UNIVERSITI BUSINESS &
BIN MOHAMAD SUPPLIER 2 CUSTOMER TEKNOLOGI MARA MANAGEMENT
SHAH RELATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT
PERFORMANCE MODEL FOR
SMES
141 T02_048 AZIZUL HAKIM MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING UNIVERSITI BUSINESS &
MASHKURI EVOLUTION IN AEROSPACE PERTAHANAN MANAGEMENT
MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY NASIONAL
MALAYSIA
142 T02_049 MOHAMMED THE USE OF BUSINESS UNIVERSITI UTARA BUSINESS &
AHMED SAEED BIN INTELLIGENCE MALAYSIA MANAGEMENT
SUROOR
ALMAZROOOEI
37
143 T02_050 MUHAMMAD THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK TO UNIVERSITI ART & DESIGN

ZULFADHLI AMIR REVISIT MALAYSIAN PUBLIC TEKNOLOGI MARA
RASIDI AMIR SCULPTURE CHRONOLOGY
144 T02_051 NIK MOHD FIKRI BIN SUSTAINABILITY SUPPLY CHAIN UNIVERSITI BUSINESS &
NORDIN AND HALAL SUPPLY CHAIN: A TEKNOLOGI MARA MANAGEMENT
COMPARISON
145 T02_052 CHE AUDAH HASSAN MALAYSIAN LEGAL UNIVERSITI LAW
FRAMEWORK ON TEKNOLOGI MARA
ELECTRONING MONITORING OF
OFFENDER: PREVENTIVE OR
REHABILITATIVE?
146 T02_053 TUAN SARIFAH AINI SHOULD GRAMMAR BE UNIVERSITI EDUCATION AND
BINTI SYED AHMAD TAUGHT IN THE TEKNOLOGI MARA CONTEMPORARY
COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE ISLAMIC STUDIES
LEARNING ENVIRONMENT?
147 T02_054 SERENA FADZIL SYMBOLIC ROLES OF MUSIC IN UNIVERSITI MUSIC
KAVADI RITUALS TEKNOLOGI MARA
148 T02_055 NORAZEAN MISWAT INTRINSIC ATTRIBUTES OF UNIVERSITI ART & DESIGN
CLOTHING FOR CONSUMER TEKNOLOGI MARA
WITH DISABILITIES (BREAST
CANCER SURVIVOR) TO
ENHANCE QUALITY OF LIFE : A
PRELIMINARY STUDY
38
149 T02_056 MOHAMMED THE MODERATING EFFECT OF UNIVERSITI SAINS BUSINESS &
HASSAN SALEM DIRECTORS’ DEMOGRAPHIC ISLAM MALAYSIA MANAGEMENT
MAKHLOUF CHARACTERISTICS ON THE
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE
BOARD OF DIRECTORS’
EFFECTIVENESS AND FIRM
PERFORMANCE
150 T02_057 NOORFATHEHAH BT THE PERSPECTIVES OF LOCAL UNIVERSITI EDUCATION AND
ABDULLAH SANI COMMUNITY IN MALAYSIA CONTEMPORARY
SAFEGUARDING INTANGIBLE TERENGGANU ISLAMIC STUDIES
CULTURAL HERITAGE AT
GEORGE TOWN, PENANG
151 T02_058 MUHAMAD AZIYAN ASEAN ECONOMIC UNIVERSITI BUSINESS &
HUSSIM COMMUNITY (AEC), TEKNOLOGI MARA MANAGEMENT
COMPETITIVENESS IMPACT TO
CROSS BORDER HAULIERS – A
REVIEW
152 T02_059 KHAIRUL JANNAH ENSURING SUSTAINABILITY OF UNIVERSITI EDUCATION AND
BINTI SAMSUDIN EDUCATION WAQF FUND FOR TEKNOLOGI MARA CONTEMPORARY
HIGHER EDUCATION ISLAMIC STUDIES
INSTITUTIONS
153 T02_060 NURHARYANTI TREND ANALYSIS OF UNIVERSITI BUSINESS &
BORHAN PROPERTIES MARKET IN MALAYSIA MANAGEMENT
MALAYSIA TERENGGANU
39
154 T02_061 NUR AIN SHAFINAZ THE INFLUENCE OF VIEWING UNIVERSITI ART & DESIGN
KAIRUDDIN CONDITION TOWARDS COLOUR TEKNOLOGI MARA
DIFFERENCE ACCEPTABILITY IN
THE GRAPHIC ARTS
155 T02_062 RAJA MUHAMAD EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE UNIVERSITI BUSINESS &

YUSOF AND COUNTERPRODUCTIVE TEKNOLOGI MARA MANAGEMENT
WORK BEHAVIOUR:
MODERATING EFFECT OF
WORKPLACE SPIRITUALITY
156 T02_063 IZYAN MUNIRAH MARITIME BOUNDARY UNIVERSITI ADMINISTRATIVE
MOHD ZAIDEEN DELIMITATION ISSUES IN THE MALAYSIA SCIENCE & POLICY
STRAIT OF SINGAPORE: TERENGGANU STUDIES
INDONESIA, MALAYSIA AND
SINGAPORE
40
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TRACK 1: ENGINEERING, SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY
T01_001: CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS (CSFS) TO ADOPTION

OF BIM TECHNIQUE IN THE PLANNING STAGE WITHIN IRAQI
CONSTRUCTION COMPANIES ........................................................... 54
T01_002: STRATEGIC CONSIDERATIONS IN INFRASTRUCTURE
JOINT VENTURE PROJECTS .............................................................. 65
T01_003: TRANSLATION AND VALIDATION OF THE MALAY
VERSION OF THE ATRIAL FIBRILLATION PERCEPTION
SCALES ..................................................................................................... 75
T01_004: ASSESSMENT OF KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES AND
PERCEIVED BARRIERS AMONG NURSE PRACTITIONERS
TOWARDS MEDICATION ERROR REPORTING ............................ 83
T01_005: ENHANCING AVAILABILITY OF MARINE
KNOWLEDGE REPOSITORY WITH A NOVEL FAULT
TOLERANCE TECHNIQUE .................................................................. 97
T01_006: COMPLEXITY OF PROJECT AND IMPACTS ON
PRELIMINARIES OF CONSTRUCTION PROJECT AT TENDER
STAGE ..................................................................................................... 104
T01_008: DETERMINATION OF REQUIRED HLB VALUE OF
PALM OIL METHYL ESTERS (PME) USING NON-IONIC
SURFACTANT BLENDS IN O/W EMULSION SYSTEM ................ 111
T01_009: SPECTROSCOPIC AND DFT CALCULATIONS OF
ALKOXY SUBSTITUTED HECK-IMMINE AS ORGANIC
SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS ..................................................... 118
T01_010: ESTABLISHMENT OF ADVENTITIOUS ROOT FROM
MERISTEM OF BOESENBERGIA ROTUNDA ................................ 126
T01_011: SEA SURFACE CIRCULATION IN STRAIT OF
MALACCA AND ANDAMAN SEA USING SATELLITE
ALTIMETRY .......................................................................................... 132
41
T01_013: PERFORMANCE STUDY OF POLYETHYLENE TIBIAL

INSERT IN TOTAL KNEE REPLACEMENT DURING DEEP KNEE
FLEXION ................................................................................................ 140
T01_014: TOTAL LIPID ANALYSIS OF CADAVER
DECOMPOSITION IN RUBBER PLANTATION SOIL ................... 146
T01_015: SEED GERMINATION OF CANARIUM
ODONTOPHYLLUM IN RELATION TO FRUIT RIPENESS ........ 150
T01_016: ACCELEROMETER PERFORMANCE FOR DETECTING
THE MOTION ARTEFACT IN PPG SIGNAL PROCESSING ........ 157
T01_017: DESIGN FOR DECONSTRUCTION: RECYCLED AND
REUSED MATERIALS TOWARDS SUSTAINABILITY ................. 162
T01_018: TRANSFERRING ARCHITECTURE TERMINOLOGY:
“PERAHU” AND HOUSE ..................................................................... 167
T01_019: INFLUENCE OF DEPOSITION POTENTIAL ON COPPER
DEPOSITED TITANIA NANOTUBES VIA POTENTIOSTATIC
METHOD AND THEIR PHOTOELECTROCHEMICAL
PROPERTIES ......................................................................................... 172
T01_020: THEORETICAL EVALUATION VIA DFT APPROACH
ON D-Π-A SYSTEM OF ACETYLIDE-THIOUREA MOTIF IN
CARBON DIOXIDE SENSING ............................................................ 178
T01_021: WIRE CUT EDM PROCESS PARAMETER MACHINING
OF ALUMINIUM FOAM TUBE PRODUCE (AFTP)........................ 183
T01_022: CHEMICAL AND NUTRACEUTICAL COMPOSITIONS
OF PALM OIL EXTRACTED FROM UNRIPE FRUIT BUNCHES 188
T01_023: THE CHARACTERISATION OF PHYTOCHEMICALS
FROM MYRMECODIA PLATYTYREA VIA MASS
SPECTROMETRY ................................................................................. 193
T01_024: SAFE CITY: APPROACH OF CRIME PREVENTION
THROUGH ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN (CPTED) IN PUBLIC
PARK ....................................................................................................... 198
T01_025: A STUDY ON COST OF PRELIMINARIES OF
CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS FOR CIVIL INFRASTRUCTURE
WORKS IN MALAYSIA ....................................................................... 203
42
T01_026: SYNTHESIS AND SPECTROSCOPIC

CHARACTERIZATION OF HEXYLOXY-SUBSTITUTED C≡C AND
C=N DERIVATIVE ................................................................................ 208
T01_027: CHARACTERISATION OF THE DYNAMIC
CHARACTERISTICS OF A COMPLEX JOINTED STRUCTURE 214
T01_028: EFFECT OF HSM ON MRR AND SURFACE QUALITY IN
MILLING SODA-LIME GLASS .......................................................... 222
T01_029: COMPARISON OF REFERENCE RATES
DETERMINATION IN MALAYSIA ................................................... 227
T01_030: PID WITH FIREFLY ALGORITHM AND PARTICLE
SWARM OPTIMIZATION FOR SEMI-ACTIVE SUSPENSION
SYSTEM USING MR DAMPER .......................................................... 232
T01_031: BIOASSAY-GUIDED OF FRACTIONATED-METHANOL
EXTRACTS OF AGLAONEMA SIMPLEX IN-VITRO PLANTLETS
.................................................................................................................. 237
T01_032: CHARACTERIZATION OF SOLID RESIDUE FROM
CATALYTIC MICROWAVE ASSISTED PYROLYSIS OF
AUTOMOTIVE PAINT SLUDGE ........................................................ 242
T01_033: PURIFICATION OF SILICEOUS FRUSTULES ISOLATED
FROM MALAYSIAN MARINE DIATOMS ....................................... 247
T01_034: DATA CENTER DISASTER MANAGEMENT
APPROACH: FEATURES FINDINGS ................................................ 251
T01_035: DETERMINATION OF RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN.... 256
T01_036: EFFECT OF PARTICLE SIZE ON BITTER GOURD
(MOMORDICA CHARANTIA) EXTRACT YIELD BY
SUPERCRITICAL CARBON DIOXIDE EXTRACTION ................. 262
T01_037: LOW-POWER ACTIVE RFID SYSTEM USING NRF24L01
.................................................................................................................. 267
T01_038: AN OVERVIEW ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF DESIGN
AND PROPERTIES FOR RAIL SUPPORT AND SLEEPER
MATERIALS FOR RAILWAY INDUSTRY ...................................... 272
43
T01_039: GRAPHITIC CARBON NITRIDE MODIFIED TITANIUM

DIOXIDE (G-C3N4@TIO2) FOR IMPROVED PHOTOREDUCTION
OF CO2 TO METHANOL UNDER UV LIGHT ................................. 279
T01_040: AN INTEGRATION OF FIVE SELECTION STRATEGIES
FOR SELECTING CANDIDATE ATTRIBUTES AND TUPLES IN
DATABASE WATERMARKING......................................................... 284
T01_041: LOCAL SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS ON FUZZY WATER
QUALITY ASSESSMENT MODEL: A CASE STUDY ..................... 304
T01_042: REAL-TIME ACTIVE VIBRATION CONTROL OF
FLEXIBLE BEAM ................................................................................. 314
T01_043: VIERENDEEL BENDING FAILURE MECHANISM OF
CELLULAR STEEL BEAMS (CSBS) WHEN EXPOSE TO FIRES: A
REVIEW .................................................................................................. 324
T01_044: HETEROLOGOUS EXPRESSION OF FK506-BINDING
PROTEIN35 FROM PLASMODIUM KNOWLESI USING
SYNTHETIC GENE AND CODON OPTIMIZATION ...................... 332
T01_045: ENHANCEMENT OF BIOACTIVE CONSTITUENTS IN
ORTHOSIPHON STAMINEUS PLANT GROWN UNDER
NITROGEN STRESS CONDITIONS. ................................................. 341
T01_046: USING DELPHI TECHNIQUE: MAKING SENSE OF
CONSENSUS IN CONCEPT MAPPING STRUCTURE AND
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQ) ...................................... 348
T01_047: AN APPROACH OF FINDING FOREGROUND MARKER
FOR COMPLEX BACKGROUND IMAGE ........................................ 362
T01_048: THE CHARACTERISTICS OF MALAY HOUSE AND ITS
USAGE AS A HOMESTAY .................................................................. 373
T01_049: PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING OF MOTHERS WITH
LOW BIRTH WEIGHT AMONG INFANTS WHO ARE ADMITTED
IN SPECIAL CARE NURSERY (SCN): CROSS SECTIONAL STUDY
.................................................................................................................. 383
CHARACTERIZATION OF E-4-((4-CHLOROPHENYL)ETHYNYL)-
N-(4-(HEXYLOXY) BENZYLIDENE) ANILINE POTENTIALLY
EXHIBITS LIQUID CRYSTALLINE PROPERTIES ....................... 404
44
T01_051: CRITICAL CONSIDERATION FACTORS IN ADOPTING

MODULAR CONSTRUCTION ............................................................ 412
T01_052: COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT MATHEMATICAL
MODELS OF RELATIVE QUANTIFICATION METHOD FOR
REAL-TIME PCR .................................................................................. 424
T01_053: PREVALENCE AND RISK FACTORS OF NON-
ALCOHOLIC FATTY LIVER DISEASE AMONG MENOPAUSAL
WOMEN IN KLANG VALLEY, MALAYSIA .................................... 431
T01_054: HETEROLOGOUS EXPRESSION AND SINGLE STEP
PURIFICATION OF A PUTATIVE FKBP35 PARTNER PROTEIN,
CALMODULIN ...................................................................................... 442
T01_055: IMPORTANCE OF GOVERNMENT POLICY
ENFORCEMENT TOWARDS IMPROVING BUILDING
INFORMATION MODELLING IMPLEMENTATION IN THE
MALAYSIAN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY ................................... 450
T01_056: KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT FOR CONSTRUCTION
PRESSURE VESSEL PROJECT IN IOT ENVIRONMENT ............ 457
T01_057: STUDY ON PHASE TRANSFORMATION OF
HYDROTHERMALLY SYNTHESIZED 1-D TITANATE INTO
TITANIA (TIO2) AS A POTENTIAL NANOBIOMATERIALS ....... 463
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................... 468
T01_058: DETERMINATION OF TOTAL ORGANIC CARBON
CONCENTRATION IN THE SURFICIAL SEDIMENTS OF RIVERS
IN SEBERANG PERAI, PENANG, MALAYSIA ............................... 470
T01_059: GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSION ESTIMATION FROM
LIVESTOCK IN URBAN AND NON-URBAN AREAS OF SARAWAK
.................................................................................................................. 477
T01_060: PERFORMANCE OF IEC 61850 DIFFERENT
COMMUNICATION CHANNELS PROTECTION NETWORKS FOR
SMART GRIDS ...................................................................................... 488
T01_061: SYNTHESIS OF THIOSEMI-CARBAZIDE DERIVATIVE
FOR DYES SENSITIZED SOLAR CELLS ......................................... 502
45
T01_062: SELECTION CRITERIA OF BIDDERS DURING PRE-

CONTRACT PROCESS BETWEEN OIL & GAS AND BUILDING
CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS ............................................................ 509
T01_063: THE STUDY ON THE SETTING TIME OF TREATED
SLUDGE CONTAINING BLENDED BINDER FOR WATER
TREATMENT SLUDGE ....................................................................... 522
T01_064: A FACILE GROWTH IMMERSION METHOD OF
ALUMINUM- DOPED TITANIUM DIOXIDE NANOROD ARRAYS
FOR UV PHOTOSENSOR APPLICATION ....................................... 530
T01_065: A CONTINUATION POWER FLOW-BASED VOLTAGE
STABILITY INDEX IN PREDICTING VOLTAGE STABILITY
USING ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK ..................................... 541
T01_066: EFFECT OF DIFFERENT RATIOS OF NR/NBR ON THE
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF NR/NBR BLEND LATEX FILM.
.................................................................................................................. 554
T01_067: MEASURING THE ELEMENTS OF PEDAGOGY IN A
FRAMEWORK OF MOBILE APPS FOR KINDERGARTEN EARLY
READING ............................................................................................... 563
T01_068: ELECTRICAL CHARACTERIZATION AND
RECTIFICATION PERFORMANCE OF 5 NM TRENCH SELF-
SWITCHING DIODES .......................................................................... 570
REFERENCES........................................................................................ 575
T01_069: CHARACTERISATION OF THE DYNAMIC
CHARACTERISTICS OF A COMPLEX JOINTED STRUCTURE 577
T01_070: VARIOUS POSITION OF WATER TANK AS A PASSIVE
TUNED LIQUID DAMPER – A REVIEW .......................................... 584
T01_071: TREATMENT OF LEACHATE AT PADANG SIDING
LANDFILL, PERLIS USING FENTON AND BIO-
ELECTROCHEMICAL METHODS ................................................... 588
T01_072: ELECTRICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF
HIERARCHICAL-BRANCHED ZINC OXIDE NANOROD ARRAYS
PREPARED USING SOLUTION BASED METHOD ........................ 598
46
T01_073: DESIGNING AN AUTOMATED SOCIAL SUPPORT

ASSIGNMENT OVER SOCIAL NETWORKS................................... 604
T01_074: SAFETY OF THE ELDERLY IN MULTI-STOREY
RESIDENTIAL BUILDING DURING EMERGENCY ..................... 609
T01_075: HEAVY METAL CONCENTRATIONS IN FISHES FROM
GALAS AND PUTAT RIVER, PENINSULAR MALAYSIA :
HEALTH RISK ESTIMATION ............................................................ 613
T01_076: RAYLEIGH DAMPING COEFFICIENTS
MEASUREMENT OF ELASTOMERIC BEARING USING FINITE
ELEMENT AND EXPERIMENTAL MODAL ANALYSIS .............. 621
T01_077: AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER GAIT

CLASSIFICATION USING ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS 627
T01_078: ENERGY ABSOPTION CABABILITY OF HEXAGONAL
COMPOSITE STRACTURE ................................................................ 631
T01_079: YOUTH PARTICIPATION IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD
OUTDOOR SPACE ................................................................................ 638
T01_080: TAGUCHI OPTIMIZATION FOR BIO-RECOVERY OF
SILVER FROM WASTEWATER USING PALM (ELAEIS
GUINEENSIS) LEAVES EXTRACTS ................................................. 643
T01_081: A PRELIMINARY REVIEW ON CRYPTANALYSIS OF
ACOUSTIC SIGNALS LEAKAGE ...................................................... 650
T01_082: A COMBINED METRIC TO ASSESS THE AVAILABLE
FLEXIBILITY WITHIN CONVENTIONAL GENERATION POWER
SYSTEM .................................................................................................. 661
T01_083: SYSTEMATIC LITERATURE REVIEW: CORRELATED
FUZZY LOGIC RULES FOR NODE BEHAVIOR DETECTION IN
WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORK ...................................................... 669
T01_084: INVESTIGATING THE FUZZY ORDER ON
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS ........................................................... 685
T01_085: ANALYSIS ON RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN GROWTH
MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS WITH
INFLORESCENCES OF ARENGA PINNATA .................................. 696
47
T01_086: THE EFFECT OF BY-PRODUCTS PARTIAL

REPLACEMENT TRIAL MIX ON CONCRETE STRENGTH AND
PERFORMANCE ................................................................................... 705
T01_087: EFFECTS OF LOCAL REGRESSION SMOOTHING
METHOD ON LOWER LIMB ANGLES DURING WALKING ...... 712
T01_089: IDENTIFYING THE GREEN HOME FEATURES
OFFERED BY DEVELOPERS – A SYSTEMATIC LITERATURE
REVIEW .................................................................................................. 719
T01_090: ASSESSMENT OF ROOT CAUSES OF INCIDENT IN OIL
AND GAS PLANT IN MALAYSIA USING SWISS CHEESE
ACCIDENT CAUSATION MODEL .................................................... 730
T01_091: FLOW AND HEAT TRANSFER OF MHD NON-
NEWTONIAN POWER LAW FLUIDS DUE TO ROTATING DISK
.................................................................................................................. 748
T01_092: NATURAL HYDROMAGNETIC CONVECTIVE
INSTABILITY IN VISCOELASTIC NANOFLUID LAYER ............ 755
T01_093: LOW VOLTAGE DC POWER MODULE FOR RELIEF
CAMP ...................................................................................................... 763
T01_094: COSMETIC CORROSION OF CLOSED CAR ‘PARKING
LOT SURVEY’ ....................................................................................... 770
TRACK 2: ARTS, HUMANITIES & SOCIAL SCIENCES
T02_001: A NEW ONTOLOGY MODEL FOR SPECIAL

EDUCATION ENVIRONMENT .......................................................... 779
T02_002: ASYMMETRIC MARKET REACTIONS TO SUKUK
ISSUANCE: CASE STUDY ON POST 2008-GLOBAL CRISIS ....... 788
T02_003: THE ANTECEDENTS OF CONSUMER BUYING
BEHAVIOR IN ONLINE HOTEL ROOM RESERVATION ............ 795
T02_004: EXAMINING THE POTENTIAL DISTRACTION
FACTORS AMONG SEAFARERS’ ONBOARD SHIPS USING A
CAUSE AND EFFECT ANALYSIS ..................................................... 804
48
T02_005: THE PRELIMINARY DEVELOPMENT OF CHANGE-

ORIENTED ORGANISATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOUR
SCALE ..................................................................................................... 823
T02_006: GOVERNMENT GREEN PROCUREMENT (GGP) IN
MALAYSIAN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY: HAVE WE GOT IT
RIGHT? ................................................................................................... 830
T02_007: COSMOPOLITAN LIVING AND MALAYSIAN MALAYS’
LIFESTYLE CHOICES: A REVIEW .................................................. 843
T02_008: FOSTERING EMPLOYEE PRO-ENVIRONMENTAL
BEHAVIOUR: DOES EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND
ISLAMIC WORK ETHICS MATTER? .............................................. 850
T02_009: TOWARD REAL-TIME DECISION-MAKING IN
BUSINESS INTELLIGENCE ENVIRONMENT ................................ 857
T01_010: DRIVERS OF NON PARTICIPATION IN
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA) WITH
EVIDENCE TO MALAYSIA’S MRT PROJECT ............................... 864
T02_011: THE IMPACT OF INDEPENDENT ONLINE MEDIA ON
THE MAINSTREAM MEDIA (IN THE CONTEXT OF MALAYSIA)
.................................................................................................................. 871
T02_012: SHOPHOUSES PRICE IN MELAKA HISTORIC CITY . 878
T02_013: THE ROLE OF TRIALABILITY, AWARENESS,
PERCEIVED EASE OF USE, AND PERCEIVED USEFULNESS IN
DETERMINING THE PERCEIVED VALUE OF USING MOBILE
BANKING IN YEMEN .......................................................................... 884
T02_014: PERCEIVED USEFULNESS, PERCEIVED EASE OF USE,
PERCEIVED COMPATIBILITY, AND NET BENEFITS: AN
EMPIRICAL STUDY OF INTERNET USAGE AMONG
EMPLOYEES IN YEMEN .................................................................... 899
T02_015: EXAMINING BASO MODEL-BASED STRATEGIC
PLANNING TRAINING AND FOLLOW-UP SESSIONS IMPACT ON
RURAL COMMUNITY MOSQUE ORGANISATIONAL
EFFECTIVENESS. ................................................................................. 920
49
T02_016: FRED MCGRAW DONNER’S INTERPRETATION OF AL-

FUTŪHĀT: AN ANALYSIS FROM THE ISLAMIC HISTORICAL
PERSPECTIVE ...................................................................................... 933
T02_017: DOES MANAGEMENT OF STATE-OWNED
COMMERCIAL BANKS OF BANGLADESH SUPPORT HUMAN
RESOURCE ACCOUNTING? .............................................................. 940
T02_018: PRICE DISPARITY BETWEEN EAST AND WEST
MALAYSIA: ISSUE OF CABOTAGE POLICY USING
STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS............................................................... 948
T02_019: THE PHILOSOPHY AND IDEA OF EDUCATION IN
WESTERN CIVILISATION ................................................................. 961
T02_020: POLITICAL ADVERTISING AND YOUNG VOTERS ... 970
T02_021: THE ROLE OF ENTREPRENEURIAL STRATEGY-
MAKING DIMENSIONS TOWARDS ORGANISATIONAL
PERFORMANCE OF INTERNET BUSINESS IN MALAYSIA....... 979
T02_022: DETERMINANTS OF RIDESHARING SERVICES
ADOPTION AMONGST URBAN RESIDENTS IN KUALA LUMPUR
.................................................................................................................. 996
T02_023: THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MILITARY LEADERSHIP
TRAINING ............................................................................................ 1005
T02_024: THE ROLE OF GREEN INTELLECTUAL CAPITAL ON
BUSINESS SUSTAINABILITY .......................................................... 1030
T02_025: A SURVEY ON MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT
GOALS ORIENTATION AMONG MALAYSIAN STUDENTS ..... 1038
T02_026: MOBILE LEARNING IN YEMEN PUBLIC
UNIVERSITIES: FACTORS INFLUENCE STUDENT’S INTENTION
TO USE .................................................................................................. 1050
T02_027: UNDERSTANDING THE APPLICATION OF IMAGE
REPAIR THEORY TO THE IMAGE OF UNITED MALAYS
T02_028: KEY-DETERMINANTS OF KNOWLEDGE SHARING
CULTURE ON JOB PERFORMANCE AND MODERATING ROLE
OF JOB POSITION: A STUDY IN SHAH ALAM CITY COUNCIL
(SACC) ................................................................................................... 1071
50
T02_029: FAMILY AS THE NEXUS IN TRANSGENERATIONAL

TOURISM ENTREPRENEURSHIP .................................................. 1080
T02_030: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE IMPACTS OF
TELECOMMUTING ENGAGEMENT AND EMPLOYEE
PERFORMANCE IN OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY IN KUANTAN,
PAHANG ............................................................................................... 1087
T02_031: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PERCEIVED
ORGANIZATIONAL SUPPORT WITH ORGANIZATIONAL
COMMITMENT AMONG ACADEMIC STAFF ............................. 1099
T02_032: MANAGING HEALTH SYSTEM GOVERNANCE:
FRAMEWORKS, STRATEGIES AND POLICES FOR
MAINSTREAMING GENDER BASED NEEDS INTO PUBLIC
HEALTH ............................................................................................... 1106
T02_ 033: THE APPLICATION OF CONTENT ANALYSIS
METHOD IN STUDYING LINGUISTIC POETRY STYLE OF IMAM
AL- SHAFIE .......................................................................................... 1118
T02_034: EFFECTS OF OUTDOOR EDUCATION CAMPS ON LIFE
EFFECTIVENESS SKILLS AMONG TWO PUBLIC UNIVERSITIES
STUDENTS IN MALAYSIA ............................................................... 1128
T02_035: CUSTOMERS’ INTENTION TO REPURCHASE HALAL
PERSONAL CARE PRODUCTS: AN INVESTIGATION OF THE
DRIVERS AND MODERATING VARIABLE .................................. 1142
T02_036: AN EFFECTIVE APPROACH OF PERFORMANCE
MEASUREMENT TOOL FOR CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS:
REVIEW OF LITERATURE .............................................................. 1163
T02_037: SWOT ANALYSIS TOWARDS FLOOD MITIGATION
MEASURE STRATEGIES: ................................................................. 1177
T02_038: SUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION SAFETY COST FOR
RAIL INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECT IN ACHIEVING QUALITY
OF LIFE – A LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................. 1184
T02_039: PROFITABILITY, MARKET INCENTIVE AND AUDIT
QUALITY OF FINANCIAL MISSTATEMENTS: EVIDENCE FROM
MALAYSIAN PUBLIC LISTED COMPANIES (PLCS) ................. 1193
51
T02_040: THE CONCEPTUAL STUDY ON THE UNDERSTANDING

OF ENVIRONMENT SUSTAINABLE PRACTICE IN MODERN
ZOO ....................................................................................................... 1205
T02_041: WHEN MOTHERS KILL THEIR BABIES: REGULATING
INFANTICIDE IN MALAYSIA .......................................................... 1213
T02_042: THE EFFECTS OF GST KNOWLEDGE TOWARDS
STUDENTS’ SPENDING PATTERN................................................. 1224
T02_043: EXPLORING METACOGNITION AND CREATIVE AND
CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS OF POSTGRADUATE STUDENTS
IN A PUBLIC UNIVERSITY .............................................................. 1235
T02_044: PRINCIPAL’S CHANGE LEADERSHIP FOR EFFECTIVE
SCHOOL ............................................................................................... 1245
T02_045: OBSTACLES AND CHALLENGES IN APPLYING AND
IMPLEMENTING SHARED PARENTING PRINCIPLE IN
MALAYSIA ........................................................................................... 1258
T02_046: “THE DEVELOPING EIGHT ECONOMIC CO-
OPERATION (D-8): THE STRATEGIC DEVELOPMENT AND
FORMULATION OF FOREIGN TRADE POLICY ........................ 1268
T02_047: THE DETERMINANT OF SUPPLIER 2 CUSTOMER
RELATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT PERFORMANCE MODEL FOR
SMES ..................................................................................................... 1284
T02_048: MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING PRACTICES: THE CASE
OF AEROSPACE MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY ...................... 1294
T02_049: THE USE OF BUSINESS INTELLIGENCE: CASE STUDY:
CLEVELAND CLINIC ........................................................................ 1300
T02_050: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK TO REVISIT
MALAYSIAN PUBLIC SCULPTURE CHRONOLOGY ................ 1309
T02_051: SUSTAINABILITY SUPPLY CHAIN AND HALAL
SUPPLY CHAIN: A COMPARISON ................................................. 1316
T02_052: MALAYSIAN LEGAL FRAMEWORK ON
ELECTRONING MONITORING OF OFFENDER: PREVENTIVE
OR REHABILITATIVE? .................................................................... 1325
52
T02_053: SHOULD GRAMMAR BE TAUGHT IN THE

COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING (CLT)
ENVIRONMENT? ................................................................................ 1335
T02_054: SYMBOLIC ROLES OF MUSIC IN KAVADI RITUALS
................................................................................................................ 1342
T02_055: IDENTIFICATION OF INTRINSIC ATTRIBUTES OF
CLOTHING FOR CONSUMER WITH DISABILITIES (BREAST
CANCER SURVIVOR): A PRELIMINARY STUDY ...................... 1349
T02_056: THE MODERATING EFFECT OF DIRECTORS’
DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS ON THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS’ EFFECTIVENESS AND
FIRM PERFORMANCE ..................................................................... 1363
T02_057: THE PERSPECTIVES OF LOCAL COMMUNITY IN
SAFEGUARDING INTANGIBLE CULTURAL HERITAGE AT
GEORGE TOWN, PENANG............................................................... 1376
T02_058: ASEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY (AEC),
COMPETITIVENESS IMPACT TO CROSS BORDER HAULIERS –
................................................................................................................ 1390
T02_059: ENSURING SUSTAINABILITY OF EDUCATION WAQF
FUND FOR HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS .................... 1398
T02_060: TREND ANALYSIS OF PROPERTIES MARKET IN
MALAYSIA ........................................................................................... 1410
T02_061: THE INFLUENCE OF VIEWING CONDITION TOWARDS
COLOUR DIFFERENCE ACCEPTABILITY IN THE GRAPHIC
ARTS ...................................................................................................... 1415
T02_062: EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND
COUNTERPRODUCTIVE WORK BEHAVIOUR: ......................... 1422
T02_063: MARITIME BOUNDARY DELIMITATION ISSUES IN
THE STRAIT OF SINGAPORE: INDONESIA, MALAYSIA AND
SINGAPORE ......................................................................................... 1436
53
TRACK 1: ENGINEERING, SCIENCE

& TECHNOLOGY
54
T01_001: CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

(CSFS) TO ADOPTION OF BIM TECHNIQUE
IN THE PLANNING STAGE WITHIN IRAQI
CONSTRUCTION COMPANIES
Hussein M. Hamada
Ahmad Tarmizi
Zahrizan Zakaria
Civil Engineering & Earth Resources, University Malaysia
Pahang
Ali M. Humada
Electrical & Electronics Engineering, University Malaysia Pahang
ABSTRACT
Building information modeling (BIM) has been adopted by the construction
companies in the advanced countries widely. Although, the fast progress to
the adoption of BIM, there is a knowledge gap still found on the true adoption
of BIM. This paper develops the critical success factors (CSFs) to BIM
adoption within the theoretical framework, then assessment these factors by
respondents to find out importance level to each factor. Data collection
method was quantitative in nature, through design a questionnaire form
include the theoretical framework of CSFs on BIM adoption, and send to the
professionals in the Iraqi construction industry. All the data collected were
analyzed by the relative important index (RII) to find out the importance level
of CSFs to BIM adoption. The results reveal that support from management
occupied the first rank among the CSFs in terms of importance level in the
framework. The result of research recommends that extended the research to
include the CSFs to adopt of BIM in all project phases.
Key words: Building information modeling (BIM); critical success factors
(CSF); quantitative; Iraqi construction industry; relative important index
(RII)
1. Introduction
Building information modeling (BIM) is a new technique to practice the
design, construction, and scheduling which changes the traditional design to
the project into the virtual tasks [1]. BIM as defined by [2] “is not just a tool
but it is a process and software, but also implementing a new way of
thinking”. Despite the adoption of BIM has many challenges and obstacles,
55
but it has many benefits and advantages through applications within

construction industry [3]. BIM has been adopted in the construction
companies in most of the advanced countries, thus it will change methods of
design and construction to the construction projects, in terms of
documentation, design, scheduling [3]. Many studies in UK construction
industry in 2013 conducted in order to determine the factors impacting on the
BIM adoption and focused on determining the challenges and obstacles to
BIM adoption within construction industry [4, 5]. BIM technology faces
many challenges and barriers to implement it within construction companies.
Many of specialists in the project can benefit from BIM applications such as
architects, civil engineers, and Owners [6]. Although spreading the benefits
of BIM technology among the construction professionals, but the BIM still
applied in the scheduling phase in the most of the countries [7]. Several
studies conducted such as [8] explored factors affected on BIM adoption and
called the critical success factors (CSF) in order to evaluate the
implementation of BIM technique in the construction industry. The second
part of study focuses on the analysis of results by adopting factor analysis and
other tools. He discovered 58 CSFs that are important to adopt of BIM
technique within construction industry. In a recent study by [9], he divided
the factors affected on adoption of BIM into 3 elements, technology,
organization, and environment, and developed a framework to study the
influence these factors on BIM adoption within Indian architectural firms.
Also, in 2014 has been study by [10] developed the CSFs within 4 elements,
he has developed a framework of BIM adoption based on collaboration,
which contains four elements: organizational collaboration, technical
collaboration, Process collaboration and legal issue. Each of elements divided
into several of factors affected on BIM adoption as a CSFs. Due to lack of
study appears the BIM implementation factors in Iraq. Therefore, the study
will show the importance level of CSFs which has affected on BIM adoption
in the Iraqi construction companies.
2. Literature review
Critical Success Factors or the Key Results are the necessary factors required
to success the project. Through finding out and identifying these CSFs can
assist to improve and enhance the project business by avoiding the waste
efforts. Finding out the importance level of CSFs from respondents, came
after development the theoretical framework that contains on the CSFs of
BIM adoption which developed from literature review as can be seen in table
1. Adoption of BIM technology in the architecture, engineering, and
construction (AEC) industry started from the eighties the last century, but it
was slowly. BIM adoption in the AEC came to overcome on the low
56
construction productivity and improve the quality of project models [11].

Many studies and surveys were conducted in order to identify the benefits,
barriers, and challenges that hindered of BIM adoption [3, 6, 12-16]. One of
these studies, the Smart Market Reports is a comprehensive survey studies in
European, US, and Korean markets [13, 17, 18].
Table 1: CSFs to adoption of BIM within the theoretical framework
No CSFs of BIM implementation Reference
1 Investment cost for BIM (software, hardware, training) [8, 9]
2 Training and technical IT support [8-10, 19]
3 Top management support [8-10, 19]
4 Willingness of Project managers to adopt BIM [8, 10, 12]
5 Owner's request to adopt BIM [8-10, 12]
6 Complexity of Project [8-10, 12]
7 Willingness the site engineers to adopt BIM [8, 12]
8 Implementation of similar projects and compared to [8, 12]
other project.
9 Finding out impact of adopting BIM through (return on [8, 12]
investment)
10 Technique of BIM is required by company to compete [8, 12]
11 Familiar software to support of BIM applications [8-10, 12]
12 The successful BIM projects [8, 12]
13 Ease of project model [8, 10, 12]
3. Research method
In order to find out the importance level of CSFs to adopt BIM technique
in the construction companies. Both qualitative and quantitative approaches
have been adopted to achieve the research goals. The quantitative approach
means that participate more population and their responded representative in
a statistical method, thus analysis these data in a numeric method [20]. While,
the qualitative analysis means to explain the observed behavior in depth
understand [21]. A questionnaire survey has been selected for this research to
be the main method of data collection and to provide a numeric description
of attitudes, trends, and opinions of a population through study a larger
sample of participants [22]. The study has been conducted after design the
questionnaire form that consists of 8 questions to get appropriate answers as
can be seen in the appendix. The questionnaire form was designed and sent
to the construction professionals in Iraqi companies, in both languages
English and Arabic. Sampling was the most convenient participants to
represent the respondents [23]. Out of 120 emails have been selected by the
researcher, only 43 that was received to the researcher that constitute 36% of
57
sample size. Usually, the required sample size is 30 as identify by [24]. A 5-

point Likert scale has been adopted to assist the respondents in selection the
importance level of 13 CSFs. In the questionnaire, the researcher asked the
respondents to determine the importance level of CSFs which range 1 to 5
(1= very unimportant, 2= not important, 3= neutral, 4: important, and 5= very
important). The relative importance index RII was used in this study to rank
and find out the importance level of CSFs to BIM adoption.
∑𝑊
RII = (1)
𝐴∗𝑁
RII= relative importance index that ranging value (0< RII < 1), W = weight
of factor (1- 5), A = the highest value, in this case = 5, N = number of
respondents.
Literature review Design a questionnaire Results

related to CSFs to form to assess the discussion
adoption of BIM importance level of and
CSFs by respondents conclusion
Identify the problem

Collect questionnaire
statement
forms returned and
calculate the frequency
of respondents’ answers
Identify the research by SPSS software,
questions and goals version 22
Developed a Analysis data by

framework that adopting the RII method
contain on the CSFs to finding out rank and
to adoption of BIM level of importance to
CSFs
Figure 1: Research method
4. Data analysis: this suction will discuss the data analysis collected from
questionnaire.
Table 2: respondent’s profile
No Element Item Percentage
1 Gender Male 67.4%
58
Female 32.6%
20-30 30.2%
2 Age 31-40 32.6%
41-50 20.9%
More than 50 16.3%
Architect 58.1%
3 Job title Civil engineer 23.3%
MEP engineer 11.6%
Contractor 7%
Construction building 39.5%
4 Field experience Highway and railway 30.2%
Water supply and sewage 20.9%
others 9.3%
1-10 years 25.6%
5 Years’ experience 11-20 years 25.6%
21-30 years 32.6%
More than 30 years 16.3%
Do not have knowledge 51.2%
6 Knowledge of BIM about BIM 34.9%
Have knowledge about BIM 14%
Applied of BIM
Visualization 46.5%
7 Application of Clash detection 25.6%
BIM Simulation 20.9%
Others 7%
In terms of gender, 67.4% of respondents were male category and 32.6%

female. Regarding age of participants, the category of (20-30) and (31-40)
years recorded the largest percentage among the respondents 30.2% and
32.6% respectively, while the older respondents whose more than 50 years,
they have the lowest percentage 16.3% in the questionnaire. More than half
of the respondents 58.1% were architects, 23.3% civil engineers, 11.6% MEP
engineers, and 7% contractors. In terms of, work field, the largest percentage
of respondents 39.5% work in the construction building field, while the
highway and railway occupied the second rank among participants 30.2%. In
addition to work in the water supply and sewage 20.9% and others field 9.3%
only. In terms of years’ experience, the large percentage 32.6% of
respondents that have (21-30) years as can be seen in table 2, while the lowest
percentage who participated in the questionnaire were from the category
respondents more than 30 years’ experience. From answers of respondents
59
who participated in this study, 51.2% of the participant did not hear about
BIM technology, while, 34.9% of the respondents who heard of BIM, and
14% who applied of BIM in their projects. Regarding of BIM applications in
the construction projects, most of the respondents 46.5% chose the
visualization, 25.6% and 20.9% of respondents chose the clash detection and
simulation respectively. While only 7% of respondents who applied BIM in
other applications.
Table 3: results of questionnaire to finding out rank and level of importance to
CSFs
No CSFs of BIM implementation Mean S.D RII Rank
1 Investment cost for BIM (software, 4.30 .708 .86 3
hardware, training)
2 training and technical IT support 4.28 .591 .865 2
3 top management support 4.42 .626 .88 1
4 willingness of Project managers to 4.02 .831 .804 11
adopt BIM
5 Owner's request to adopt BIM 4.26 .693 .851 5
6 complexity of Project 4.19 .732 .837 6
7 willingness the site engineers to 3.98 .672 .795 12
adopt BIM
8 Implementation of similar projects 3.95 .688 .79 13
and compared other project.
9 finding out the impact of adopting 4.28 .591 .856 4
BIM by (return on investment)
10 technique of BIM is required by 4.02 .707 .805 10
company to compete
11 familiar software to support of BIM 4.14 .710 .828 8
applications
12 the successful BIM projects 4.05 .688 .809 9
13 Ease of project model 3.60 .791 .832 7
60
RII value of CSFs

1
13 0.9 2
0.85
12 3
0.8
0.75
11 4
0.7 Series1
10 5
9 6
8 7
Figure 2: value of RII to assessment the CSFs of BIM adoption
5. Discussion of results
Table 3 and figure 2 illustrate the values of RII for the necessary CSFs to
adopt BIM technique in the Iraqi construction companies. From the previous
studies have been chosen 13 CSFs to adopt of BIM technology within
construction companies. The questionnaire was designed and sent to the
respondents in Iraqi construction firms to assessment the CSFs to adopt of
BIM. The analysis of data by the RII method shows that top management
support occupied the first rank in terms of the importance level of CSFs that
was (RII=0.88). In addition to the second CSF in terms of importance level
was the training and technical IT support, it has value (RII=0.865), and the
third rank was Investment cost for BIM (software, hardware, training) that
has (RII=0.86). On the other hand, the factor of “Implementation of similar
projects and compared to another project” came in the last rank, which
achieved 0.79, means that this factor is the lowest value in terms of
importance. From the analysis of CSFs to the adoption of BIM, we can note
that all the CSFs are important because of all the RII values more than 0.7
within the framework.
6. Conclusion and recommendation

This study was conducted to assess the critical success factors to adoption
of BIM technology in the Iraqi construction companies in terms of identifying
the level of importance these factors. RII method has been adopted to analyze
the data obtained from the respondents' answers after calculating the
frequency of answers by SPSS software, version 22, as arranged the results
61
in table 3 according to the importance of each factor by using a 5-Likert scale.

Support from top management was the first rank for the selection of the
respondents because of its importance in the adoption and implementation of
BIM technology in the construction companies, with RRI = 0.88. While the
lowest rank with value RII = 0.79 was to implementation in similar projects
and compare it with other projects. On the other hand, the results
recommendations for future research in this aspect to expanding the scope of
research to include the study of the CSFs for the adoption of BIM in all project
phases.
References
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handbook: A guide to building information modeling for owners,
managers, designers, engineers and contractors: John Wiley &
Sons, 2011.
[2] Y. Arayici, P. Coates, L. Koskela, M. Kagioglou, C. Usher, and K.
O'Reilly, "BIM adoption and implementation for architectural
practices," Structural survey, vol. 29, pp. 7-25, 2011.
[3] C. Eastman, P. Teicholz, R. Sacks, and K. Liston, "BIM handbook:
a guide to building information modeling for owners, managers,
designers, engineers, and contractors” John Wiley & Sons," Inc.
New York, 2008.
[4] R. Howard and B.-C. Björk, "Building information modelling–
Experts’ views on standardisation and industry deployment,"
Advanced Engineering Informatics, vol. 22, pp. 271-280, 2008.
[5] R. Eadie, M. Browne, H. Odeyinka, C. McKeown, and S. McNiff,
"BIM implementation throughout the UK construction project
lifecycle: An analysis," Automation in Construction, vol. 36, pp.
145-151, 2013.
[6] L. L. Foster, Legal issues and risks associated with Building
Information Modeling Technology: ProQuest, 2008.
[7] J. D. Goedert and P. Meadati, "Integrating construction process
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construction engineering and management, vol. 134, pp. 509-516,
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Part II. Analysis and results," Journal of the Chinese Institute of
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[9] R. Ahuja, M. Jain, A. Sawhney, and M. Arif, "Adoption of BIM by
architectural firms in India: technology–organization–environment
62
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pp. 1-20, 2016.
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Computing in Civil and Building Engineering, pp. 1441-1448,
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impact of BIM-assisted design validation," Automation in
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lessons learned of implementing building virtual design and
construction (VDC) technologies for coordination of mechanical,
electrical, and plumbing," 2007.
[15] R. Manning and J. Messner, "Case studies in BIM implementation
for programming of healthcare facilities," ed: ITcon, 2008.
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63
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Appendix
1. How old are you?
2. What is your gender?
3. What is your job title?
4. What is your field experience?
5. How many are years’ experience in the construction industry do you
have?
6. Do you have knowledge about BIM technology?
I don't have knowledge about I have a knowledge about I applied of
BIM BIM BIM
7. What is the BIM application do you have?
visualization Clash Simulation Others
detection
8. Please give your opinion about the importance level of CSFs to
adopt BIM technology, (1= very unimportant, 2= not important, 3=
neutral, 4: important, and 5= very important).
No Item importance
1 2 3 4 5
1 Investment cost for BIM (software, hardware,
training)
2 Training and technical IT support
64
3 Top management support

4 Willingness of Project managers to adopt BIM
5 Owner's request to adopt BIM
6 Complexity of Project
7 Willingness the site engineers to adopt BIM
8 Implementation of similar projects and
compared other project.
9 Finding out impact of adopting BIM by (return
on investment)
10 Technique of BIM is required by company to
compete
11 Familiar software to support of BIM applications
12 The successful BIM projects
13 Ease of project model
65
T01_002: STRATEGIC CONSIDERATIONS IN

INFRASTRUCTURE JOINT VENTURE
PROJECTS
Norsyakilah Romeli
Faridah Muhamad Halil
Faculty of Architectures, Surveying and Panning, Universiti Teknologi
Mara
Faridah Ismail
Faculty of Architectures, Surveying and Panning, Universiti Teknologi
Mara
ABSTRACT
The Malaysian Infrastructure Joint Venture Projects (IJVP) reached apex
when the joint venture met its objective and successful delivery of project.
The execution of the project must within the stipulated time, according to
client’s budget and clear-cut scope of works. However, recent scenarios of
the Malaysian infrastructure joint venture project indicated some low
performance in punctuality, cost overrun and dispersed the customers and
client satisfaction. Hence, the strategic consideration approach by the
contractor is prominent in putting the project into a high expectation on
client’s view. Aim of this paper is to identify the major elements of the
strategic consideration once the IJVP had been executed. The objectives of
this paper are to analyze each of the three major elements of the strategic
consideration in the IJVP. The elements classified into three categories which
are project capital, procurement system approach and risk assessment
systems. Using the quantitative method, a set of questionnaire submitted to
the selected contractors according to the class, only class G7 selected. From
that, only 30 contractors agreed to be the respondent. The results received
then analyzed using SPSS 20. Results displayed the frequencies of the
respondent answer together with the mean and its standard deviation. The
results retrieved, then the conclusion made on each of the question. Majority
of the project cost more than MYR 100 million and the collaboration made in
between Asian Continent. The elements displayed the highest scored for the
three elements recorded as the important elements that required acme from
the contractors to ensure that all of the strategic consideration was under
control and then sustain the infrastructure project development growth.
66
Keywords: Joint Venture, Infrastructure Projects, Project Capital,

Procurement Selection, Risk Management
Introduction
The construction project is intricate, time – consuming undertakings [15],
[16]. The normal evolution of the project consisted of a few phases which
required a specific approach and range of services. A few considerations
needed to be acknowledging whether the development is housing or
infrastructure projects since both of the projects eventually shares the major
highlights which is the efficiency of the funding system available in the
project that would be a focal point and strength of the project to nurture into
a better progression[5].
Nature of Infrastructure Joint Venture Projects in Malaysia

Infrastructure development can be view in the form of transport, power
generation and distribution, water services, waste disposal,
telecommunication, health, education, public and commercial buildings.
From the development done by the government cities become extremely
complex, so do with the social and economic expansion. It happened when
the innovation of the quality of the infrastructure stemmed the national
economic to remain competitive in the global market [9]. Therefore the term
infrastructure is universal and it can be interpreted broadly as physical,
personal and institutional development of one nation [7[-[9], [14]. Emerging
suitable regulations or framework are the basis to infrastructure delivery
which involvement from the technical team is fully required. [8]. In the nation
perspectives such in Malaysia, it’s not much diverse from the other
developing countries. Hence, the IJVP in Malaysia wasn’t a new approach.
Numerous of joint venture in Malaysia stressed 20% more on the
infrastructure rather than housing development [7]. The joint-venture means
a business agreement or relationship under which two or more party’s joint
together for a set of activities and agree to share profits [7]. Among 5,267
registered joint venture contractors, 10% of it was the foreign contractors that
implemented joint venture projects consisted of Civil Engineering
Contractors 66%, Housing Developer 21%, and Specialist Sub- Contractors
14 %. In 2014, 7,590 of joint venture projects registered to the CIDB
involving project cost more than 100 million ringgit [7]. Besides, the
Bumiputera agenda allowing 43 % of the participation of the contractors in
joint venture project as enacted in Malaysian policy. The process of the
development of the infrastructure started from planning, design, construction,
operation and lastly disposal and recycling. All of the phases required
67
multiple disciplines to stimulate the projects. The scope of works may be

vary, but the stakeholders shares similar objectives. From planning until
recycling phase, hands-on funding approaches are vastly obligatory to secure
the project performance [1], [7].
Figure 1: Implementation of Infrastructure Project Process
Strategic consideration adapted to infrastructure joint venture in

Malaysia
The strategic consideration can be seen as the approach or capitals alternative
to fund infrastructure project and the sources may derived from numerous
fundamentals [6], [8]. Based on Figure 1 above, the approach divides into
three categories, obtaining the project capital, selection of the procurement
and risk assessment for the IJVP. These elements would affect the quality of
funding strategy. In this case, contractor held imperious roles to navigate the
projects. The project capital is very essential since it’s the mechanism for
funding developing infrastructure in each country [10]-[14]. The structure
and composition of the internal and external funding sources which required
allocating and distributing fund along within the construction phase [6],[8].
Hence, the role of the World Bank and the regional development bank are
crucially prerequisite along with the involvement from the shareholder or
alternative of leveraging the infrastructure project to the private sector.
Meanwhile, selections of the procurement in infrastructure joint venture
contribute towards the outstanding funding strategy [5], [6]. The strategy
functioned to establish a rationale for project implementation according to the
priorities and nature of the project [12], [16]. Many procurement framework
available to be choose, however a consideration on infrastructure usage need
to be explain for example for social usage, trade or technical usage and more.
From that deliberation, the selection of procurement can be prepared. Besides
that, risk assessment factors can be derived from the selection of procurement
[8], [9]. There is a need for a comprehensive risk element and classification
into different types of risk and also contingencies plan to overcome the risk.
Thus, it will affect the funding option as well as level of funding required.
Even though the financial risk looked as an icing on the cake in the risk
management plan, however other risk categories such as technical,
68
management and environment risk necessity to be alarm since it affected the

funding options in the infrastructure projects. [1], [5].
Research Methodology
Using the quantitative methods, a set of questionnaire distributed to the
selected contractors. There are 30 numbers of contractors from G7 acted as
the respondent to the questionnaire. The selection of the respondent based on
the registered project to the CIDB which the contractors obtain experiences
in conducting joint venture project for more than 15 years. The questionnaire
consisted of Section A until Section E. Section A – B is consisted of
demographic questions meanwhile Section C – E consisted of the main
question to be query. The Likert scale used to measure the answers given by
the contractors according to the variables derived. After that, the results of
the questionnaire been analyzed using SPSS 20.0. The mean, median and
standard deviation of each question recorded.
Results and Discussion

The results are as below; derived from 30 numbers of respondents which
selected among the G7 grade of contractors. The demographic survey
displayed that the project cost of 17 contractors more than MYR 100 million,
and the rest are not more than MYR 100 million. Other than that, 25 of the
contractors answered Asian Continent as their collaboration partners’ origin.
Table1: Types of sources of project capital for IJV Projects

Mean Median Std. Dev
Project Capital
Internal sources
Capital and resources from partners 4.100 4.000 0.759
Shares from the shareholders 3.570 3.500 1.165
Stock exchange 4.270 5.000 0.944
Issue of securities 4.070 4.000 1.048
Venture capital 4.270 5.000 1.015
Conventional credit 3.870 4.000 1.137
External sources
Tax increment financing 4.333 4.000 0.711
Infrastructure Property Development 3.767 4.000 1.305
Model
Hypothecated Taxes 4.067 4.000 1.048
Official Development Assistance 4.300 5.000 0.952
69
Private Finance 3.900 4.000 1.094

Short Term sources
Bank service 4.067 4.000 1.048
Commodity credit 4.300 5.000 0.952
Factoring 3.900 4.000 1.094
Leasing 3.567 3.500 1.165
Long Term sources
Bank Loan 4.267 5.000 0.944
Mezzanine 3.900 4.000 1.094
Debt securities 4.067 4.000 1.048
Table 1 shows the types of sources of project capital obtained to fund the
infrastructure joint venture projects. The results shows that respondent prefer
capital from partners as their internal sources. Meanwhile for external
sources, tax increment financing be the most practical in the development.
For short term sources, the commodity credit can be used as aid of the
project’s survival. Bank loan has been most delightful choices for the
contractor to remain their financial balance sheet intact in infrastructure
projects for long term project capital sources.
Table 2: Factors to consider in obtaining project capital

Mean Median Std.
Dev
Loan size and term 3.900 4.000 1.094
Construction length 4.067 4.000 1.048
The involvement of the private sector 4.267 5.000 0.944
into the infrastructure project
Machineries and high technology used in 4.267 5.000 0.944
the joint venture project
Labor capacity used 3.900 4.000 1.094
Material utilizations 4.067 4.000 1.048
Scope of works / Types of construction 3.567 3.500 1.165
Site condition 4.267 5.000 0.944
Table 2 shows the factors to consider in obtaining project capital in

infrastructure joint venture project. Among the factors enumerated, the
involvement of the private sectors into the infrastructure project, machineries
and high technology used in the joint venture project, and site condition has
70
been their major apprehension before crease for project capital due to the
factors would affect the level of funding the most. Thus, the top management
required to decide a good choice for their projects. A creative decision
making done would resulted a sustainable funding flows in infrastructure
joint venture projects.
Table 3: Types of procurement system used in IJV project

Mean Median Std.
Dev
Design, Build, Finance and Operate 3.500 3.500 0.974
Engineering Procurement and 3.500 3.500 0.974
Construction Contracts/ Turnkey
Emerging Cost contracts 4.267 5.000 0.944
Fast- Track Construction 4.067 4.000 1.048
Engineering Procurement and 4.267 5.000 0.944
Management Contracts
Traditional Method 3.500 3.500 0.974
Custom Build 4.267 5.000 0.944
Table 3 shows the results for types of procurement system used in joint
venture project. The types of procurement listed are among the most
accomplished in mega infrastructure project in the world. The results
displayed that emerging cost contract, engineering procurement and
management contract and custom build are among the types of procurement
often been used by the contractors and client to achieve their goal in one
development. The procurement route will indicated the power and control
over the certain scope or work and authorization to specific legal clause as
per agreed in contracts.
Table 4: Factors to consider before choosing the procurement system

Mean Median Std.
Dev
The contractor's experience required by 4.067 4.000 1.048
the client
Control over the design changes 4.267 5.000 0.944
Transparency of the procurement system 3.500 3.500 0.974
subject to audit
Willingness to pay 4.267 5.000 0.944
Division of responsibility 4.067 4.000 1.048
Cost and financial consideration 4.267 5.000 0.944
71
Uncertainties in other related regulation 3.500 3.500 0.974

Overlap of the construction stages 3.900 4.000 0.885
Political and Regulation 3.033 3.000 1.033
Table 4 shows the factors to consider before choosing the procurement

system. The results indicated that there are three factors listed among the
other distinguish factors. They are control over the design changes,
willingness to pay and cost and financial consideration which leads to the
route of procurement. These elements are very important due to the direct
influence towards project funding. The procurement choices would designate
the consequences of choosing it, in term of financially. Thus, the
consideration needs to be done thoroughly.
Table 5: Types of risk assessments elements in IJV projects

Mean Median Std.
Dev
Risk Elements
Financial Risk
Overrun cost 4.267 5.000 0.944
Equity distribution unequal leads to 3.500 3.500 0.974
disagreement between parties
Cost for extensive usage of manpower 3.900 4.000 0.885
and high technology
Poor value for money project 3.033 3.000 1.033
assessment
Insolvencies of one of the collaboration 4.267 5.000 0.944
partner
Insurance coverage to the project 3.500 0.944 0.974
Technical Risk
Inappropriate procurement route 3.900 4.000 0.885
Variation order subject to change the 3.033 3.000 1.033
scope of works
Time management did not parallel with 4.267 5.000 0.944
cost distribution
Failed to secure the quality 3.500 3.500 0.974
Failed to comply with the legal 3.867 4.000 0.900
regulation
Management Risk
Conflict of interest between partners 3.900 4.000 0.885
72
Decision making problem 3.033 3.000 1.033

Coordination between the stakeholders 4.267 5.000 0.944
Inappropriate management tools to the 3.500 3.500 0.974
project
Liability of the partners to pay the 3.900 4.000 0.885
penalties
Environmental Risk
Difficulties in handling with the slope 3.033 3.000 1.033
area
Unpredicted soil movement 4.267 5.000 0.944
The existence of site condition rare 3.500 3.500 0.974
element
Poor environmental protection plan 3.867 4.000 0.900
from the stakeholder
Materials of construction may 3.500 3.500 0.974
hazardous to the environment but can
be obtain in cheaper price
Table 5 shows the types of risk assessment elements in infrastructure joint

venture projects. For financial risk, the highest scored elements are overrun
cost and insolvencies of one of the collaboration partners. Meanwhile for the
technical risk, inappropriate procurement route has been their major concern.
For management risk, conflict of interest between partners and liability of the
partners to pay the penalties required a thorough risk management plan. The
unpredicted soil movement has been the major environmental risk listed in
the table. The elements scored the highest absolutely required thorough
accentuate and better prevention to make sure that the construction keep on
track.
Table 6: Benefits of risk management

Mean Median Std. Dev
Minimizing uncertainty on project or 4.267 5.000 0.944
during changes in company organization
Better decision making, it can ensure that 3.500 3.500 0.974
strategic decision are well founded
Focus on critical problem which risks 3.900 4.000 0.885
associated with design, construction and
maintenance/ operation.
3.033 3.000 1.033
73
Contribute to better briefing process,

therefore there will be a balance between
high risk and lower risk
Help to ensure clear accountability 4.267 5.000 0.944
Help to give common purpose, once risk 3.500 3.500 0.974
are establish, risk minimization can be
assigned to individual in the team
Table 6 shows results on benefits of risk management to be implement on

infrastructure joint venture projects. The result presented that there are two
most crucial benefits which are the risk assessment will minimizing the
uncertainty on project or during changes in company organization and help
to ensure clear accountability. From the implementation of complex project,
many stakeholders involve especially executing project through joint venture
approach. Therefore, establishment of the risk elements would help a lot in
term of stakeholder accountability and reduce the uncertainties, to tress on
mega infrastructure joint venture project.
Conclusion and Recommendation

It is proven that the strategic consideration may be derived from the project
capital perspectives, selection of procurement and risk management in certain
infrastructure project. These elements would lead to the healthy financial
ability of the contractor to construct the project. Apart from that, he
perspectives from the industry players pertaining the elements are very
crucial towards the effectiveness of the infrastructure development.
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75
T01_003: TRANSLATION AND VALIDATION

OF THE MALAY VERSION OF THE ATRIAL
FIBRILLATION PERCEPTION SCALES
Sahimi Mohamed-1, 2
Tariq Abdul Razak-1
Rosnani Hashim-3
1- International Islamic University Malaysia, Bandar Indera Mahkota,
25200 Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia
2- Hospital Tengku Ampuan Afzan, 25100, Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia.
3- Cyberjaya University College of Medical Sciences,

Main Campus, No. 3410, Jalan Teknokrat 3, Cyber 4, Selangor, Malaysia.
ABSTRACT
Atrial Fibrillation (AF) patients are highly exposed to the risk of stroke and
had poor quality of life (QoL). Better understanding about AF can lead to
good QoL and positive clinical outcomes. Since no tool was available in
Malay language to assess AF perception, this study develops and validate the
Malay AF perception scale (AFP-S). Multi-centre, cross-sectional survey
was conducted in Malaysia. Validation of the Malay AFP-S followed a
systematic validation procedure. Validation steps include content and face
validity, item analysis, and reliability testing. The validation process resulted
in 30 items that had highly relevant content coverage with item content
validity index (I-CVI) of > 0.78. All items had acceptable factors loading
which is > 0.4 ranging from 0.48 to 0.93 and considered appropriate to be
included in the final Malay AFP-S. The Malay AFP-S had good discriminant
validity when the correlation between AFP-S subscales was < 0.30. The
reliability was good (Cronbach’s alpha=0.75) and the Malay AFP-S can be
used at different times which was supported by test-retest reliability
(ICC=0.92). These findings suggested that the Malay AFP-S was considered
to have good content validity and it is reliable and valid tool which can be
used to assess patients’ perception towards AF in Malay-speaking AF
patients.
KEYWORDS: Malay, Atrial Fibrillation, Patients’ perceptions
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Introduction
Atrial Fibrillation (AF) has been described as a growing public health

problem [1] and the lifetime risks for patients to develop AF was about 25%
at age of 40 years [2]. Although the prevalence of AF in Asian population is
lower than in Western population, but the associated relative risk of stroke is
similar [3]. The main goal of AF management is to prevent AF-related stroke.
AF-related strokes are more severe than strokes related to other illnesses and
furthermore, they are five-times likely to have stroke than other chronic
diseases [4]. Thus, campaigns to raise awareness of AF and its link to stroke
such as the global ‘Know Your Pulse’ campaign and the ‘Sign Against Stroke
in AF’ was done in many countries including Malaysia [5], [6]. These
campaigns were aimed to increase patients’ understanding about AF and AF-
related stroke, and it also contributed to driving action for health care
providers (HCPs) to prevent AF-related strokes, improving future outcomes
and quality of life (QoL) of people diagnosed with AF [5], [6].
AF-related stroke can be prevented if patients adhere to
anticoagulant therapy (ACT) [2]. Patients’ adherence [7] and QoL [8] are
related to their perceptions of illness. Patients reported with high level of
illness understanding are able to control their condition by themselves and/or
with appropriate treatment [7]. Thus, it is important for the HCPs to identify
AF patients’ perceptions towards their AF and educate them accordingly to
improve their level of AF understanding as this can improve patients’ care.
Basically, the education about AF only include educational
intervention about AF knowledge. Thus, to date, the assessment about AF
perceptions (AFP) has not been well established [8] and educational
intervention on AF remains lacking in Malaysia. In order to identify patients’
behaviour change in AFP, assessment using a validated and reliable tool is
important. Hence, this study developed and validated the AFP scale (AFP-S)
in Malay language version.
Material and Methods
A cross sectional study was conducted at five hospitals in Malaysia. Ethical

approval was obtained from Ministry of Health, Malaysia, Medical Research
Ethics Committee (Ref. no. NMRR-13-1586-17360). Patients’ consents were
obtained prior data collection. The Sample size was calculated based on 1:10
questions to patient’s ratio [9], thus, 300 patients were needed to validate the
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Malay AFP-S. All data were analyzed using SPSS version 20.0. Patients’
demographic data were analyzed descriptively and presented as frequencies
and percentages for categorical data, while the means and standard deviations
(SD) were used for continuous data.
The AFP-S was adapted from Illness Perception (IP) scale of the
Illness Perception Questionnaire-Revised (IPQ-R) [10]. The IP scale
consisted 38 items which were divided into seven subscales; Timeline (TL);
consequences (CS); personal control (PC); treatment control (TC); illness
coherence (IC); timeline cyclical (TLC); and, emotional representations
(ER). Five-point Likert scales ranged from “strongly disagree’ to “strongly
agree” was used to measure the AFP.
Validation Process
Three phases of validation process were involved in this study; (1)

Translation of IP scale, (2) Validity test, and (3) Reliability test. The
translation of the IP scale to Malay AFP-S was done prior to content validity
according to the standard guideline [11].
Results
Validity Test
Content and Face Validity
Of the 38 items in the Malay AFP-S, three experts suggested dropping eight
items, which had similar meaning with other items when these items were
rephrased positively. Thus, 30 items were retained as these items were
deemed to be adequate by the experts (I-CVI > 0.78). Most of the patients
did not have any difficulties in answering the AFP-S. Patients took about 15
to 25 minutes to complete the AFP-S.
Patients’ characteristics
Data collection was completed by 347 patients. Their mean (SD) age was 63
(9.80) years old. Majority of the patients were Malay (79.8%) with equal
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distribution of gender. Nearly 40% had completed at least secondary

education level. Two-third of them had been diagnosed with AF for more
than one year and using ACT for stroke prevention since then.
Construct Validity
Using varimax rotation, seven factors were obtained for AFP-S. All items
loaded well in their factors with factor loading of above 0.40 (Table 1).
Table 1: Ranged of Loading Factor for AFP-S subscales
Factor Loading Factor

ER 0.69 - 0.91
TL 0.18 - 0.95
CS 0.50 - 0.70
PC 0.68 - 0.85
TC 0.62 - 0.83
IC 0.68 - 0.78
TLC 0.92 - 0.93
ER=Emotional representations, TL=Timeline acute/chronic, TC=Treatment control, CS=Consequences,
PC=Personal control, IC=Illness coherence, TLC=Timeline cyclic
Discriminant validity would be expected if the constructs have low

correlations (r<0.9) between subscales [12]. Result showed that all AFP-S
had low correlation, the highest correlation was found between TC and PC
subscales (r=0.19) which indicates good discriminant validity.
Reliability
Reliability of AFP-S was good with Cronbach’s alpha=0.75 and all subsacles
were also found to have good reliability (α > 0.70). The lowest reliability was
TC subscale (α=0.72) and the highest was ER (α=0.92). The ICC for test-
retest calculated with an interval of four to five weeks for 50 patients was
good at 0.98 and indicates that the Malay IPQ-R had good stability. The
average difference between test and retest was about 0.29 unit and the largest
difference was 0.57 units.
Discussion
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The importance of information, including patients’ perceptions, was

undeniable. To date [8], studies related to AFP are still limited and have not
been widely explored. In the past years, the impact of AF to QoL has attracted
much attention to many researchers and many studies have found that AF
negatively impact patients’ QoL [13], [14].
However, the information would not be reliable and valid if non-
validated instrument was used; hence using the validated instrument must not
be neglected at any expense. Because of the differences in culture, population,
and age, a tool needs to be validated according to the standard guidelines
before it can be used in other population. This is also to ensure that the
instrument has been appropriately adapted for the targeted population, meet
the original objectives and if required, the translated version remains the same
objective as the original tool [15]. The Malay AFP-S was appropriately
adapted from IP scale for the Malay population. The translation was
succesfully done, fiftteen AF patients did not have any difficulties in
answering the AFP-S during face validity.
Checking content and eliminate items which are not relevent or
redundant is crucial to ensure the tools had good content and construct
validity. The item content validity index (I-CVI) was one of the common
methods used to check content validity. Three to ten experts and minimum I-
CVI of 0.78 were recomended [18]. To ensure that the AFP-S correctly
measures AFP, six experts from related field were asked to rate the Malay
AFP-S independently [18]. Eight items were deleted at content validity phase,
the item analysis on 30 items in the Malay AFP-S showed that all items were
relevant and clear to measure AFP with appropriate I-CVI of >0.78 and
average CVI of 0.90. Although the Malay AFP-S have less items, the results
were comparable with the original study [10]. Findings from current study
were also consistent with previous studies [16], [17] in which a few items
were also eliminated in these studies in order to validate the construct of IP
scale to measure other specific diseases.
Construct validity was required in validation process as the AFP-S
had multidimensionality. This is to ensure that the items in the instrument
were related to the relevant theoretical construct and the subscales were not
closely related to other construct. Construct validity was considered good if
value of factor loadings for all items were > 0.40 and the discriminant validity
was fulfilled which subscales were not related to each other (r<0.9) [19].
Factor analysis of 30 items in AFP-S resulted with seven factors which had
the factors loading of >0.4 and supported the construct validity of the AFP-
S. These findings were consistent with the original study [10]. Additionally,
the low correlation (r<0.9) between subscales were regarded as an adequate
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evidence of discriminant validity which means that the AFP-S subscales were
able to measure the intended subscales and all subscales were not closely
related with each other. Since there was no validated instrument published in
Malaysia which comparable to AFP-S, criterion validation was not
performed.
Reliability tests were performed to ensure the Malay AFP-S was
reliable and do not change over the time. The reliability using Cronbach’s
alpha coefficient (α) is usually used in tools using polytomously scored items
such as Likert scales, while Kuder Richardson 20 is used to establish the
reliability of tools which is measured using dichotomous coded such as “Yes
or No answer” [20]. A Cronbach’s alpha of >0.70 was considered as
acceptable value [19]. The reliabilty of the Malay AFP-S was good (α=0.75)
as well as all the subscales (α > 0.70). The stability of the Malay AFP-S was
tested using test-retest, and good stability was assumed when the value of
intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) was >0.70 [21]. The requirement for
conducting test–retest reliability was at least two weeks to six months. With
50 AF patients and at four to five week interval, the Malay AFP-S was
considered stable to be used over the time as the ICC of 0.98 was obtained.
Conclusion
Overall, the Malay AFP-S showed the evidence of good content validity,
satisfactory of validity and reliability. Thus, it can be used by all HCPs to
assess AFP and identify the learning level needed by patients to improve their
health outcome.
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T01_004: ASSESSMENT OF KNOWLEDGE,

ATTITUDES AND PERCEIVED BARRIERS
AMONG NURSE PRACTITIONERS TOWARDS
MEDICATION ERROR REPORTING
Eman Ali Dyab
Ramadan Mohamed. Elkalmi*
Shazia Qasim Jamshed
Siti Halimah Bux
Kuliyyah of Pharmacy, International Islamic University Malaysia,

25200, Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia
*E-mail: ramadan@iium.edu.my
ABSTRACT
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Medication errors (MER) have appealed more interest because of their

complications like a higher mortality rate and increased health care cost. The
MER are underreported in all countries. This issue compromises the
medication error reporting (MER) systems. This study was aimed to assess
nurses’ knowledge, attitudes toward MER, furthermore, to explore barriers
and facilitators towards MER practices among nurses. A cross-sectional pre-
tested survey was conducted with a sample of nurses attached to the Hospital
Tengku Ampuan Afzan (HTAA), Kuantan- Malaysia. (n = 310) with a
response rate equal to 90.3%. The mean for their total mean knowledge score
was 5.6 (SD= 1.4). Almost all participants (99.3%) considered MER as
important. But 30% of those who committed ME last year they did not report
their errors. Almost all the respondents (92.1%) agreed that MER is a part
of their professional duties. The main reasons for underreporting were fear
of liability or lawsuit issues (63.6%), fear of being labelled as an incompetent
nurse (52.1%), and lack of effective feedback from the nursing manager
(33.6%). The main facilitators toward MER were compulsory error reporting
(90.7%), conducting training program specifically for MER (84.3%),
analysis/feedback criteria (80%), encouraging environment from nurses’
leaders (75.7%), and using anonymous reporting form (73.2%). This study
revealed that although the nurses had reasonably acceptable knowledge and
positive attitudes toward MER, there was low involvement of nurses toward
MER. Their decisions to report MES were highly affected by barriers. In
order to improve the participation of nurses toward MER, the related
authorities should work on strategies which can help to improve the nurses’
involvement such as creating a MER environment free from blaming,
reporting anonymously, and conducting a training program.
Key-words: medication error reporting, patient safety, nurses’ attitude,

cross-sectional study, medication error reporting barriers.
Introduction:
The principle objectives of care in health care systems are lifesaving. Patient
safety is one of the main concepts in the field of health care system and a key
factor in maintaining the quality of health care services. Medication error
(ME) is defined as “any preventable event that may cause or lead to
inappropriate medication use or patient harm while the medication is in the
control of the health care professional, patient, or consumer”. [1] Adverse
events and medical errors are the main issues threatening the patient safety,
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and their effect ranges from little harm to fatal cases. [2] The nurses are the
health care practitioners whose responsibility is managing drug
administration to the patient, and this task can pose a greater risk to the
patient’s life if it is not performed properly, as approximately 78% of them
have made mistakes during drug administration. [3]The reported rate for MEs
in south-east Asian countries ranges from 15.2% to 88.6% [4]. Beside to their
cost problem, MEs of nurses can lead to different problems. [4] Such as
unsuccessful and imperfect treatment, [5] legal problems, [5] an increase in
term and cost of hospitalization, [5] damage to the professional reputation of
nurses [4, 5], and mistrust of patients towards the health care system. [4] Human
errors cannot be eliminated at all, but the systems in which humans work in
and interact can be made safer with less chance for errors to occur. [6] The
incidents reporting and information sharing internally and externally can help
to enhance patient safety through preventing recurrence of the same incidents
in the future. The health organizations depend on nurses as front-line
practitioners for MEs identification and reporting. The possible causes of
underreporting are the poor knowledge of nurses about the MER, their
attitudes toward the MER, or organizational and individual barriers. To date,
there is limited information available about the knowledge, attitudes and
barriers toward MER among Malaysian nurses and a comprehensive study is
required. Conducting a study to understand the issue of MEs underreporting
among nurses is important by exploring the nurses’ knowledge, attitude,
barriers and facilitators in order to improve the MER practices among nurses.
Method:
This cross- sectional descriptive study was conducted within two weeks
starting from 7th to 21st December 2015 using new validated self –
administered survey. After getting the ethical approval from the International
Islamic University Research Ethical Committee (IREC) and the Ministry of
Health Malaysia (MOH), the survey was distributed among a sample of
nurses (n=310) attached to Hospital Tengku Ampuan Afzan (HTAA),
Kuantan- Malaysia. The sampling frame was all the nurses being employed
in the hospital, no specific inclusion or exclusion criteria. The nurses were
informed about the objectives of the study through the explanatory letter
attached with the questionnaire. They received the questionnaire through
respective person in-charge in each nursing unit. All data were collected
anonymously and no personal data were sought from the participants. Lastly,
clear instructions were given regarding to whom they should return the filled
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questionnaire. The instrument was constructed based on the qualitative data

collected by interviewing a small number (n=23) of nurses as well as from
the previous studies. [7-13]. A 45-item survey instrument divided into five
major domains, nine items for socio-demographic data, ten items for the
knowledge domain (multiple choice questions), eight items in attitudes
domain, ten items in barriers domain, and eight items for the facilitators’
domain. The type of questions in the last three domains was framed by using
five points Likert-scale, merged into three points Likert-scale (1 = (strongly
disagree and disagree), 2 = neutral, 3 = (agree and strongly agree)). The
questionnaire was translated into Malaysian language (Bahasa Melayu) based
on reverse translation method [16]. Five specialist pharmacists and nurses were
asked to assess the face and content validity of the questionnaire (CVI=
0.786). All their comments were taken into consideration in the final survey.
In order to evaluate the reliability, the survey piloted among twenty five
nurses. Those participants were excluded from the main study. The resulted
Cronbach alpha was 0.781. The collected data were entered and analysed
using SPSS®. The descriptive tests were performed such as the frequencies,
percentages, mean, and standard deviation whenever necessary to summarize
the data. Also, the relationships between variables were assessed using
student t-test, one way ANOVA, and chi-square test or Fisher exact test. P
value was computed and it was considered significant when its value was less
than 0.05.
Results:
In this study, the total number of collected questionnaire was 291. Eleven
drafts were excluded. One questionnaire was incomplete and ten
questionnaires, participants were identified to be participated in the pilot
study and they were confirmed by the last four digits of their identification
card number (I/C No). As a result, 280 drafts were valid for analysis (response
rate=90.3%). The average age of participants was 32.37± 6.16. Almost all
of the participants were female (n= 273, 97.5%), Malay (n= 275, 78.2%), had
a diploma level of education (n= 268, 95.7%), had an experience of more than
five years (n= 198, 70.7%), have attended the Continuous Nurse Education
(CNE) program three times or more (n= 244, 87.1%). More than one-quarter
of the committed MEs were not reported (n= 9 out of 32, 28%). More details
about socio-demographic characteristics of participants are shown in table 1.
The obtainable total mean knowledge score for participants was 5.6 (SD=
1.4) with a range from 0 to 9. The obtainable mean total attitude score was
(mean ±SD = 19.66 ±1.79, range = (8-24). The total knowledge and attitude
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score of respondents according to the demographic characteristic are shown

in table 2. There was no statistical significant difference in the mean
knowledge score with regard to the participants’ socio-demographic data.
There was a statistical significant difference in total attitude score regarding
attendance to CNE (P=0.001), A Post Hoc Turkey test showed that the
attitudes of nurses who attend the CNE program last year were significantly
different with the attitudes of nurses who attend once or twice at P < 0.5.
There was no statistical significance difference in the total attitude score with
regard to the other socio-demographic measures.
Table 1. The social-demographic characteristics for a sample of nurses
in HTAA (n=280).
Characteri Number Percentag Characteristic Number Percent

stic (n) e (%) (n) age (%)
Gender Experience (years)
Male 7 2.5 <1 11 3.9
Female 273 97.5 1-5 71 25.4
Age >5 198 70.7
15-25 38 13.6 CNE attendance (last year)
26-35 177 63.2 Never 5 1.8
36-45 57 20.4 Once 8 2.9
46-55 8 2.9 Twice 23 8.2
Mean ±SD 32.37± 6.16 ≥ three times 244 87.1
Race No of committed errors (last year)
Malay 275 78.2 No errors 248 88.6
Indian 2 0.7 ≥1 32 11.4
Chinese 1 0.4 No of reported errors (last year)
Others 2 0.7 Never report 257 91.8
Educational level ≥1 23 8.7
Diplom MER rate (n=32)
268 95.7
a
Degree 8 2.9 Reported MEs 23 71.88
Others 4 1.4 Unreported MEs 9 28.13
CNE= Continuous Nurse Education program.
Table 2. The knowledge and attitude score of nurses according to the
demographic characteristics (n=280).
Knowledge score Attitude score

Demographic characteristic Mean ± SD P Mean ± SD P value
value
Male 6.14 ± 1.67 19.71 ± 1.50
Gender 0.437 0.932
Female 5.61 ± 1.42 19.66 ± 1.80
≤ 25 5.42 ± 1.57 19.23 ± 2.16
Age 0.501 0.336
26-35 5.72 ± 1.41 19.79 ± 1.76
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36-45 5.46 ± 1.39 19.56 ± 1.57

46 ≥ 5.75 ± 1.42 19.50 ± 1.77
Diploma 5.65 ± 1.39 19.65 ± 1.81
Educational
Degree 5.25 ± 2.31 0.505 20.10 ± 1.12 0.751
level
Others 5.00 ± 1.63 19.50 ± 1.00
<1 6.27 ± 1.42 20.00 ± 1.55
Experience 1-5 5.31 ± 1.42 0.543 19.84 ± 2.16 0.464
>5 5.70 ± 1.41 19.58 ± 1.64
CNE1 Never 4.80 ± 1.09 18.80 ± 0.84
attendance 1-2 5.45 ± 1.43 0.317 18.38 ± 3.02 0.001*
(last year) ≥ three times 5.66 ± 1.43 19.84 ± 1.51
No of No errors 5.43 ± 1.50 19.71 ± 1.64
committed ≥1
0.506 0.666
errors (last 5.64 ± 1.42 19.88 ± 1.83
year)
No of Never report 5.64 ± 1.42 19.70 ± 1.66
reported ≥1
0.666 0.942
errors (last 5.43 ± 1.50 19.73 ± 1.63
year)
(1) CNE= Continuous Nurse Education. (*) p value ≤ 0.05. t- Student
test and ANOVA test with Post-Hoc Turkey test were carried out
when appropriate
Almost all participant considered that the MER is important (99.3%).

The majority of respondents agreed that the caregiver or the patient should be
informed about the ME (70.4%). Three-quarters of respondents agreed that
the MER guidelines are understandable (74.3%). Less than one-quarter of
participants agreed that there is a Difficulty in recognizing the ME (22.9%).
More than half of the respondents consider fear from a lawsuit issue as a
barrier for MER (63.6%). Half of the respondents fear from being labelled as
an incompetent nurse as a barrier toward MER (52.1%). The majority of
respondents had a highly recommended opinion for applying compulsory
MER as facilitators toward MER (90.7%). About three-quarters
recommended using anonymous reporting form (73.2%). The majority of
participants recommended conducting specifically training program for ME
reporting. The obtained responses for each statement in attitude, barriers and
facilitators toward MER are presented in tables 3, 4, 5.
Table 3: Nurses' responses to the attitudinal statements (n=280).
Knowledge score Attitude score

Demographic characteristic Mean ± P value Mean ± SD P value
SD
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6.14 ±
Male 19.71 ± 1.50
1.67
Gender 0.437 0.932
5.61 ±
Female 19.66 ± 1.80
1.42
5.42 ±
≤ 25 19.23 ± 2.16
1.57
5.72 ±
26-35 19.79 ± 1.76
1.41
Age 0.501 0.336
5.46 ±
36-45 19.56 ± 1.57
1.39
5.75 ±
46 ≥ 19.50 ± 1.77
1.42
Diploma 5.65 ±
19.65 ± 1.81
1.39
Educational Degree 5.25 ±
0.505 20.10 ± 1.12 0.751
level 2.31
Others 5.00 ±
19.50 ± 1.00
1.63
<1 6.27 ±
20.00 ± 1.55
1.42
1-5 5.31 ±
Experience 0.543 19.84 ± 2.16 0.464
1.42
>5 5.70 ±
19.58 ± 1.64
1.41
Never 4.80 ±
18.80 ± 0.84
1.09
CNE1
1-2 5.45 ±
attendance 0.317 18.38 ± 3.02 0.001*
1.43
(last year)
≥ three times 5.66 ±
19.84 ± 1.51
1.43
No of No errors 5.43 ±
19.71 ± 1.64
committed 1.50
0.506 0.666
errors (last ≥1 5.64 ±
19.88 ± 1.83
year) 1.42
No of Never report 5.64 ±
19.70 ± 1.66
reported 1.42
0.666 0.942
errors (last ≥1 5.43 ±
19.73 ± 1.63
year) 1.50
SA = strongly agree and agree. Abbreviations: ME = medication error,

CNE = Continuous Nurse Education. * P value <0.05 using Chi square
test.
Table 4: Nnurses' responses to the barriers statements (n=280)
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90
Responses P value
Barriers Statements SA n (%) Age Length of CNE No of No of
The following experience errors reports
prevent me from
reporting
medication errors
1. Difficulty in
recognizing the 64 (22.9) 0.026* 0.189 0.744 0.323 0.012*
ME.
2. Slight impact of
ME reporting on
18 (6.4) 0.519 0.319 0.001* 0.754 0.396
improving
quality of care.
3. The incident has
low possibility 147 (52.5) 0.235 0.409 0.486 0.992 0.089
to happen again.
4. Previous
documentation
80 (28.6) 0.327 0.786 0.546 0.123 0.030*
of same
incident.
5. Belief that it is
useless to report 18 (6.4) 0.744 0.807 0.260 0.720 0.481
a near-miss
6. Lack of
information on
73 (26.1) 0.265 0.333 0.158 0.053 0.589
how to report
MEs.
7. ME reporting is
49 (17.5) 0.002* 0.044* 0.406 0.012* 0.291
time consuming.
8. Fear from
liability or 178 (63.6) 0.144 0.761 0.038* 0.190 0.956
lawsuits issues.
9. Lack of
effective
94 (33.6) 0.199 0.617 0.981 0.556 0.557
feedback from
the manager. .
10. Fear from being
labelled as
146 (52.1) 0.308 0.624 0.134 0.457 0.736
incompetent
nurse.
Scale: SA = strongly agree and agree. Abbreviations: ME = medication
error, CNE = Continuous Nurse Education. * P value <0.05 using Chi
square test.
Table 5: Nurses’ responses to the facilitators’ statements (n=280).
Responses P value
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Medication error HR n (%) Age Length of CNE No of No of

reporting experience errors reports
facilitators
1. Compulsory
254 (90.7) 0.575 0.922 0.917 0.622 0.914
error reporting.
2. Rewarding
criteria for 78 (27.9) 0.977 0.134 0.016* 0.088 0.134
reporter nurses.
3. Analysis /
feedback 224 (80) 0.368 0.438 0.001* 0.126 0.033*
criteria.
4. Encouraging
environment
212 (75.7) 0.491 0.418 0.828 0.571 0.956
from nurses’
leaders.
5. Support from
other health care 220 (78.6) 0.046* 0.296 0.530 0.188 0.509
providers.
6. Using
anonymous 205 (73.2) 0.574 0.669* 0.509 0.272 0.537
reporting form.
7. Seeing others
reporting their
124 (44.3) 0.874 0.163 0.630* 0.032* 0.011*
medication
errors.
8. Conducting
specifically
training 236 (84.3) 0.886 0.275 0.024* 0.288 0.291
program for ME
reporting
Scale: HR= highly recommended and recommended. Abbreviations: ME
= medication error. * P value <0.05 using Chi square test.
Discussion:
This study revealed that there is a potential underreporting problem for the
MEs among nurses in HTAA, as around 28% of the MEs were not reported.
This finding was consistent with the result from previous studies, where
Koohestani (2009) stated that 76% of the MEs committed by the nursing
students were reported. The estimated average recall number of ME reports
submitted to the nurses’ manager by the nurses was 46%. [14]
The nurses had a medium level of knowledge. In comparison with the
previous studies, the nurses had obtained a higher mean knowledge score
regarding the MER. [15] However, the same study showed that the mean
knowledge score was not significantly different with the age, experience, and
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92
level of education and this was in line with the finding of our study as the
total mean knowledge score was not significantly affected by the
demographic characteristics of the participants. [15] On the other hand, a study
carried out in the Philippines showed that the nurses were suffered from
knowledge deficiency regarding MER, and their knowledge score was
significantly related only to the age of participants and number of
encountered MEs. [16] Another study showed that more than half of nurses
were found to have inadequate knowledge about MER. [17] A specific training
and educational program are highly recommended to overcome knowledge
deficiency regarding the MER aspects.
The findings of this study show that most of the nurses have positive
attitudes toward ME reporting. Almost all of them consider the reporting of
ME as part of their responsibilities as a nurse practitioner, and this was in
complete agreement with the previous studies. [7, 17] In both studies, most of
the participants agreed that they have a professional obligation and moral
responsibility to report MER to authorities. Regarding ME disclosure to the
patient, the majority of the participants agreed that the patient or his caregiver
should be informed about the ME. In the previous studies, ME disclosure was
concentrated on physicians rather than nurses. However, one study revealed
that slightly more than half of the nurses disclosed their MEs to the patient.
[18]
Upon exploration of barriers towards MER, the majority of

respondents did not consider that there is difficulty in recognizing the error
occurrence. Some of the previous studies reported that the nurses face a
problem in distinguishing error occurrence due to the lack of clear definition
of which error should be reported. [10, 12, 13, 19, 22] Regarding near miss reporting
the majority of nurses believe useful data can be obtained if they reported.
However, the finding from the qualitative part showed that the nurses do not
report minor MEs and near-miss. They believe that it is important to report
near-miss errors, but in their practice, they do not report them. This finding
was in complete agreement with the previous studies. [7, 9, 14, 23] The majority
of respondents fear from lawsuit problem and this fear feeling has a great
influence on the nurses’ decision. About two-third of participants agreed that
the fear of legal issue is another factor which could prevent them from
reporting their MEs, and this was parallel with the previous studies. [9, 10, 14, 24,
25]
Less than half of the respondents disagreed that the lack of feedback for
their reporting practice prevents them from reporting MEs, whereas in the
finding from the previous studies showed that the lack of effective feedback
is considered the main barriers against MER. [3, 7, 10] Fear of being labelled as
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93
incompetent nurses has a large influence on the majority of nurses’ decision,

and this was consistent with previous studies. [9, 14]
In this study, the majority of participants agreed that they will give
more attention to report their MEs when the compulsory MER system is
applied. This was consistent with a previous study, [26] where about two-third
of participants agreed that the MER system should be mandatory. The
majority of respondents agreed that doing the analysis and providing
feedback from the previously accumulated ME reports is another important
factor to facilitate the MER among nurses and this was consistent with the
previously published studies. [3, 7, 26, 27] Around two-third of participants
agreed that using an anonymous reporting form will facilitate and improve
MER practices among them, and this was consistent with the finding of the
previous studies. [9, 26] More than one-quarter of participants agreed that
giving rewards to the reporters may increase the MER practices among
nurses. This issue was addressed also in the previous study, where about half
of the participants consider providing rewards to the reporters can stimulate
health care practitioner towards MER. [26]
Limitation of the study
This study included nurses who are working in one hospital as well as the
non-random sample of the nurses was chosen. This may interfere with the
generalizability of results among all Malaysian nurses. As it is a
questionnaire-based study, one cannot sideline the possibility of survey bias
and recall bias. The estimated number of committed errors and the estimated
number of ME reports were subjective data collected based on the
participants’ willingness to disclose their MEs and their ME reporting
practices. These findings may not reflect the exact prevalence of MEs and
MER among HTAA nurses.
Conclusion
The MEs were underreported among nurses. A large proportion of

participants had basic knowledge about ME reporting. However, the
educational program regarding near-miss reporting is highly recommended.
Regarding their attitudes, most of the nurses have positive attitudes towards
reporting MEs. However, their decision to report or not is highly affected by
other factors such as fear of liability and lawsuit issues, fear of being labeled
as an incompetent nurse, their beliefs that the possibility for the incidents to
happen again is very low, and lack of effective feedback from the nursing
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manager. To facilitate the MER among nurses, factors like providing an

effective feedback, supporting compulsory MER, using anonymous ME
reporting form, and giving support and rewards to the reporters should be
taken in consideration.
Acknowledgment
The author would like to thank sister noorni binti abdulah for her assistance
in data collection, all nurses in HTAA in general and particularly those who
participated in this study and agreed to share their experience with the MER.
References:
[1] Lau, D.T., Consumer medication management and error,” Clinical

therapeutics 30(11) 2156-2158 (2008).
[2] Kalra, J., N. Kalra, and N. Baniak, Medical error, disclosure and
patient safety: A global view of quality care,” Clinical biochemistry
46(13)1161-1169 (2013).
[3] Glavin, R., Drug errors: consequences, mechanisms, and
avoidance,” British journal of anaesthesia 105(1) 1-7 (2010).
[4] Salmasi, S., et al., Medication errors in the Southeast Asian
countries: A systematic revie,”. PloS one 10(9) ( 2015).
[5] Wittich, C.M., C.M. Burkle, and W.L. Lanier, Medication Errors:
An Overview for Clinician,”. Mayo Clinic Proceedings 89(8)1116-
1125 (2014).
[6] Sommerfelt, T., et al., To err is human, to share is divine. 2011.
[7] Evans, S.M., et al., Attitudes and barriers to incident reporting: a
collaborative hospital study,” Qual Saf Health Care 15(1) 39-43
(2006).
[8] Handler, S.M., et al., Identifying modifiable barriers to medication
error reporting in the nursing home setting,” Journal of the American
Medical Directors Association 8(9) 568-574 (2007).
[9] Snor Bayazidi , et al., “Medication Error Reporting Rate and its
Barriers and Facilitators among Nurses,” Journal of caring sciences
1(4) 231 (2012).
[10] Bahadori, M., et al., “The factors affecting the refusal of reporting
on medication errors from the nurses' viewpoints: a case study in a
hospital in Iran,” International Scholarly Research Notices 2013 1-
5 (2013)
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[11] Koohestani, Hamid Reza, and N. Baghcheghi, “Barriers to the

Reporting of Medication Administration Errors among Nursing
Students,” Australian Journal of Advanced Nursing 27(1) 66-74
(2009).
[12] Moumtzoglou, A., “ Factors impeding nurses from reporting adverse
events,” Journal of nursing management 18(5) 542-547 (2010).
[13] Mostafaei, D., et al., “ Medication Errors of Nurses and Factors in
Refusal to Report Medication Errors Among Nurses in a Teaching
Medical Center of Iran in 2012,” Iranian Red Crescent Medical
Journal 16(10) (2014).
[14] Mrayyan, M.T., K. Shishani, and I. AL‐Faouri, “Rate, causes and
reporting of medication errors in Jordan: nurses’ perspectives,”
Journal of nursing management 15(6) 659-670 (2007).
[15] Johnson, J. and M. Thomas, “ Medication errors: Knowledge and
attitude of nurses in ajman, uae,” Reviews of Progress 1(4) (2013).
[16] Rogie Royce Carandang, et al., “Knowledge, Attitude and Practices
on Medication Error Reporting among Health Practitioners from
Hospitals in Manila,” Scholars Academic Journal of Pharmacy 4(5)
293-300 (2015).
[17] Abdel-Latif, M.M., “Knowledge of healthcare professionals about
medication errors in hospitals,” J Basic Clin Pharm 7(3) 87-92
(2016).
[18] Hobgood, C., B. Weiner, and J.H. Tamayo-Sarver, “Medical error
identification, disclosure, and reporting: do emergency medicine
provider groups differ?,” Acad Emerg Med 13(4) 443-51 (2006).
[19] Martowirono, K., et al., “ Possible solutions for barriers in incident
reporting by residents,” Journal of evaluation in clinical practice
18(1) 76-81 (2012).
[20] Eldin, Y.K.Z. and N.H. Abd Elaal, “The relationship between
perceived safety climate, nurses' work environment and barriers to
medication administration errors reporting,” Life science journal-
acta zhengzhou university overseas edition 10(1) 950-961 (2013).
[21] Chakravarty, A., “A survey of attitude of frontline clinicians and
nurses towards adverse events,” medical journal armed forces india
69 (4) 335-340 (2013).
[22] Hashish, E.A.A. and G.G. El-Bialy, “Nurses’ Perceptions of Safety
Climate and Barriers to Report Medication Errors,” Life Science
Journal 10(1) 2160-2168 (2013).
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[23] Lawton, R. and D. Parker, “Barriers to incident reporting in a

healthcare system,” Quality and Safety in Health Care 11(1) 15-18
(2002).
[24] Poorolajal, J., S. Rezaie, and N. Aghighi, “Barriers to medical error
reporting,” International journal of preventive medicine 6 (2015).
[25] Sarvadikar, A., G. Prescott, and D. Williams, “Attitudes to reporting
medication error among differing healthcare professionals,”
European journal of clinical pharmacology 66(8) 843-853 (2010).
[26] Kiguba, R., et al., “Medication Error Disclosure and Attitudes to
Reporting by Healthcare Professionals in a Sub-Saharan African
Setting: A Survey in Uganda,” Drugs-real world outcomes 2(3),
273-287 (2015).
[27] Covell, C.L. and J.A. Ritchie, “Nurses' responses to medication
errors: suggestions for the development of organizational strategies
to improve reporting,” Journal of nursing care quality 24(4), 287-
297 (2009).
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T01_005: ENHANCING AVAILABILITY OF

MARINE KNOWLEDGE REPOSITORY WITH
A NOVEL FAULT TOLERANCE TECHNIQUE
Emma Ahmad Sirajudin
Ahmad Shukri Mohd Noor
Nur Farhah Mat Zian
School of Informatic and Applied Mathematics
Universiti Malaysia Terengganu
ABSTRACT
System availability is one of the crucial properties of a dependable knowledge
repository system in order to preserve and pull through from minor outages
in a short timespan by an automated process. National Marine
Bioinformatics System or NABTICS is a Marine Microbial Knowledge Base
that unites the integrated information on genomic sequence and associated
metadata which projected to be a large and growing database as well as a
metadata system for inputs of research analysis and solving community
issues. Therefore, it is decisive to maintain the availability of the system by
accurately detecting the failure in a timely manner and a prompt recovery
action during the event of failure. The failure in any of NABTICS' system
component can be devastating for the system causing the system is
inaccessible for a period of time. In this paper, we integrated NABTICS with
Cloud-based Neighbour Replication and Failure Recovery (NRFR) in order
to enhance the availability of the system. We showed that the implementation
resulted in better user experience with minimum system downtime as well as
online database application is said to be highly available. Furthermore,
NABTICS also performed better resource utilization and higher response
application during runtime.
Keywords: Cloud, Availability, Distributed System, Marine Repository,
Database Replication
Introduction
NABTICS is an initiative of Marine Biotechnology, Universiti Malaysia
Terengganu with the purpose of serving the needs of marine ecology research
community by forming a rich and diverse Marine Microbial Knowledge Base
that particularly concentrates on the inventory of marine organisms of
Malaysian waters. The NABTICS applications provide unified information
98
on genomic sequence and associated metadata system where the datasheets

able to facilitate the research progress from the computer-based data analysis.
A system with a high availability is a system that able to tolerate
constituent component failures for the longest time [3] in order to avoid the
loss of service. Fault tolerance in a computing system can be achieved by
placing redundant resources that contain enough functionality to operate
under partial-failures. Site replication gives very high availability as it masks
environmental failures, hardware failures, operator error and even some
software faults [3]. In a replicated environment, copies of a primary file, as
well as the data object, will be stored at multiple neighboring servers or nodes
in the network and any transactions that took place will recognize them as a
single logical object. Users communicate with these data objects by invoking
transactions, a partially ordered sequence of atomic read and write operations
from the application that spread across the multiple nodes fulfilling the
concept of distributed system.
We integrate NABTICS with a Cloud-based Neighbor Replication
and Failure Recovery (NRFR) in order to provide both high availability and
higher application response time. We affirm that NABTICS demonstrates a
highly reliable structure, improved the scalability of the overall system, low
bandwidth consumption that can help researchers have convenience in doing
their work and it adds to the system itself in terms of superiority, usability,
and consistency. As a result, NABTICS could also be a reliable system that
is almost fault free.
The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2
presents the framework and Section 3 demonstrate the deployment of the
replica management protocol. Concluding remarks and future directions are
reported in Section 4.
Framework
NABTICS system is migrated from a centralized system and later
modularized in a distributed system that runs on multiple servers. The new
model of NABTICS is broken down into four independent instances and
located in multiple servers with a local database that periodically
synchronizes with the master database in order to harmonize the NABTICS
application. Each of the instances consists of a primary file of the application
and the supported backup for the other application or node by keeping the
replica of their primary file. Each of the instances also keeps a copy of
NABTICS databases and periodically synced with the master database to
ensure the data is identical and consistent for each replica. On the client-end,
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the application is accessed through a proxy server that is connected to the

cluster nodes thru a private internal network.
The ability of new NABTICS model to handle failure is measured in
order to calculate the availability of the system. The availability of the system
refers to the ability to provide users with access to a service for a high
percentage of time while reducing unscheduled outages [4, 5]. The
NABTICS' model is illustrated in following Figure 1 and Figure 2:
Figure 1: NABTICS system with Neighbor Replication and Fault Recovery

(NRFR)
On top of the system, a monitor called Heartbeat Monitor (HBM) is deployed
in order to continuously check on the aliveness status of the NABTICS nodes.
HBM constantly pings the servers to ensure the node is alive and invokes
recovery action to an Index Server (IS) in the event of a confirmed failure of
a node thru SSH command. IS will calculate the weighted information of
each node for the neighbor selection process in order to determine the most
suitable replica to take over the failed node. The Virtual IP address of the
chosen node is activated once invoked by IS and the user's connection is
directed to this replica without any external or human intervention. This
automated failure detection and recovery process are desirable in a critical
and heavy usage setting of NABTICS system. For NABTICS database
system, an arrangement involving master-slave relationship among several
local databases and the master database is used. The remote server, where the
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master database resides is used for any write operation to the database while
the local server is used for the read operation and any changes to the local
database are propagated to the remote server. This will ensure consistency in
data as implied that only the master will hold the correct version of the
database thus avoids many conflicts that could arise in multiple instances
environment. The NABTICS system is encapsulated from outside world
through a proxy server that completes the setup of a distributed system.
FIGURE 2: Instance 3 is failed, its application (Bioactive) is activated in its

neighbor Instance 4 within cloud using NRFR.
Deployment
The experimental environment of the system is performed using a hypervisor
called VMWare workstation where multiple servers are run at the same time
on different instances within the Local Area Network (LAN) on a single
physical machine. Figure 1 illustrates the breakdown of the NABTICS
application into distributed setting. The NABTICS application was developed
using PHP and MySQL while the Apache and MySQL were installed on the
Linux servers. On the client side, the application cloud is accessed through
host IP address in order to obtain the right files for the application in use.
Figure 2 describes the event when a server fails and a recovery action
has taken place and the neighbor replica is activated. A Heartbeat Monitor
(HBM) is deployed to continuously check the aliveness of each server. An
Index Service (IS) is deployed to keep records and status of all servers in this
environment. During the uncertain period where HBM did not receive the
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server's status in the specified time period, HBM affirms the server's status
by issuing pings service. A server is said to fail if it does not respond to the
HBM pings request. HBM will notify IS to update the index manager in order
for recovery to be performed on the failed server. IS then performs a neighbor
selection process to determine which replica is best to take to serve the client
of the down server. This is done by invoking the selected neighbor to activate
virtual IP. Consequently, the NABTICS application process is resumed and
the client does only experience minimum downtime while using the
application.
Availability, as defined by [11], is the rate of recurrence or length in
which a service or a system component is available for use. [11] has stated
that the measurement of base availability, denoted by A (t) is the ratio of
uptime to total elapsed time as in Equation (1):
𝑢𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐴(𝑡) = (1)
𝑢𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒+𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
The neighbor replication technique applied to each of NABTICS application

for its supremacy against other techniques and suitability with the experiment
setting and requirement. Once failure is detected in NABTICS system, HBM
confirms the failure is indeed a failure before declaring it. Later a recovery
process takes place where the best neighbor is selected to assume the task of
the failed server by taking over the floating IP as its own. The results showed
an improvement by 70% in overall system availability as well as the system
becomes continuous in service where minimal downtime is recorded plus
system able to recover automatically without human intervention. NABTICS
showed better resource utilization with a higher response as well as performs
in a consistent behavior over time and able tolerate disturbance caused by
resource hectic or the occurrence of the resource failure.
Conclusion and Future Work

By placing redundant copies in multiple sites across the network, the
increment in data availability and accessibility can be achieved despite site or
communication failure. NABTICS application is deployed in a cloud
environment in order to provide the repository for a large number of users
and data, therefore, it is crucial to maintaining the availability of the system.
NABTICS provides tools for research and data management where heavy
usage of this application desire an automated failure detection and recovery
in the system. We integrate NABTICS with Cloud-based Neighbor
Replication and Failure Recovery (NRFR) for maintaining NABTICS
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replicated data across distributed servers. The performance analysis of

NABTICS system is measured and showed that NABTICS system
demonstrates significant improvement in the availability scores with better
resource utilization. Although heartbeat interaction policy does well in
detecting failures, there are some failure situations that heartbeat cannot
determine what exactly failed. Therefore, including and analyzing more
complicated failure patterns of NABTICS system in order to improve the
failure detection is a favorable route for the future failure detection study.
References
[1] M. Deris, J. Abawajy, A. Mamat “An Efficient Replicated Data Access
Approach for Large-scale Distributed Systems, Future Generation
Computer Systems” Elsevier (Apr 2007).
[2] M. Deris, J. Abawajy, A. Mamat, S. Ismail “Managing Data Using
Neighbor Replication” ICCS (2006).
[3] A. Helal, Abdelsalam A. Heddaya, Bharat B. Bhargava “Replication
Techniques in Distributed Systems (Advances in Database Systems)”
(1996).
[4] Ahmad Shukri Mohd Noor, Mustafa Mat Deris, Md Yazid Md Saman
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Infrastructure as a service (IaaS) optimization in interdependent
environment” UMT (2014).
[5] R.V. Renesse and R. Guerraoui. “Replication Techniques for
Availability.” In B. Charron-Bost, R. Pedone, and A. Schiper (Eds.):
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[7] L. Parziale, A. Dias, L.T. Filho, D. Smith, J.V. Stee, and M. Ver.
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[8] Natanzon, A., Bachmat, E.: “Dynamic Synchronous/Asynchronous
Replication” ACM Transaction on Storage, Vol. 9. No. 3, Article 8
(2013).
[9] Siva, S.S. & Babu, K.S.: “Survey of fault tolerant techniques for grid.
Computer Science Review”, 4(2): Elsevier Inc. pp. 101-120 (2010).
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[10] Herault, T., & Robert, Y. “Fault-tolerance techniques for high-

performance computing” (p. 320). Springer (2015).
[11] Schmidt, K. “High availability and disaster recovery: concepts, design,
implementation” (Vol. 22). Springer Science & Business Media (2006).
[12] Függer, M., & Schmid, U. “Reconciling fault-tolerant distributed
computing and systems-on-chip”. Distributed Computing, 24(6), 323-
355 (2012).
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T01_006: COMPLEXITY OF PROJECT AND

IMPACTS ON PRELIMINARIES OF
CONSTRUCTION PROJECT AT TENDER
STAGE
Abdul Aziz Abas, Faridah Ismail, Zulhabri Ismail
Faculty of Architecture, Planning and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi
MARA (UiTM), Shah Alam
ABSTRACT
Preliminaries and contractual matters are in fact the risks that deal with non-
trade elements. It is a common practice in Malaysia that Preliminaries are
prepared based on general description i.e. usually based on Conditions of
Contract or project specific and priced in lump sum amount. Complexity is
part of the uncertainties exists in the construction project and directly
influences the Preliminaries at Tender Stage. Truly the Contractors are
facing a great deal of arbitration, exaggeration of risks and unseen problems
to arrive to a competitive price. This paper identifies several pertinent
complexity elements and proposes achievable approaches in dealing with
Preliminaries for the industry player. The aim focuses on establishment of
reliable Preliminaries i.e. accurate, reasonable, conclusive and yet easy to
be priced by Contractors at Tender Stage. Theoretical analysis based on
literature review is adopted. The issue deliberated by many Researchers
postulates root causes and rigorous constructive proposals critically
discussed in this paper. The finding suggests the Preliminaries are to be
broken down into smaller items and adopt several sum approaches for
accuracy reason. Preliminaries are imperative in nature, thus expected to be
comprehensive, easy to understand, practical and effective.
Keywords: Complexity, Preliminaries, Tender, Experience, Uncertainty
Introduction
This paper discusses project complexity and its impacts on Preliminaries of a

construction project at Tender Stage. Project components, tasks and their
intensities, an interaction between components and interrelation between
projects to the external entities are attributes to the complexity of project [1].
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Complexity is of absolute important related to the nature of work and its

direct influence on the performance of the project. Costs, Time and Quality
are interrelated constraints of success and Costs are highly regarded from
competitiveness aspect [2] and therefore extremely crucial at Tender Stage.
The Contractor is obliged to provide competitive Costs without
risking the performance of the project; therefore the importance to have
competitive Costs is paramount. Among other important aspects are database
and thorough knowledge of construction techniques [3] which becoming
more crucial nowadays in the construction industry.
Literature Review
Complexity is part of the uncertainties exists in the construction project
[4][5]. It emerges from the project’s requirements, selection of technology or
materials or / and diversity of Stakeholders [6]. Due to complexity, unit rates
established by the Contractor are normally pure estimates and arbitrary,
exaggeration of risks and unseen problems matching the Client’s optimism
for the completion of a project [7].
Project complexity endures with respect to the pertinent requirement
of the Standard Method of Measurement (SMM) that the price in
Preliminaries needs to be identified although the scope of work is not specific
[8]. How does the Contractor to be guided in the process to identify the
missing information? This would be challenging tasks to the Project Manager
due to the risk associated with it [7]. Preliminaries and contractual matters
are in fact risks that deal with non-trade elements in construction project.
Sufficient allowance for risks over base costs generally considered [9].
Project complexity and lack of knowledge and experience of the
Project Manager would lead to insufficient provisions in the Tender. For
instance, the complexity of a refurbishment project is more critical compared
to a new construction as many variables such as technology as well as social
and legal aspects need to be considered [10][11]. Hence, experience in past
similar nature of projects, proper planning to meet project expectation, timely
completion and competitive Costs are crucial factors.
Ability to identify project complexity at the early stage would
provide better understanding, thus reducing risks and providing successful
project management due to better anticipation [12]. Project complexity
depends on its nature and ranges from moderate to most challenging. For
instance, managing a refurbishment project is challenging due to its
complexity and uncertainty [11] compared to a new project.
Thorough identification of project complexity and proper planning
of works at Tender Stage are seen as effective management, thus prevent
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unnecessary claim disputes due to procurement process failure [13]. In

Malaysia, Preliminaries are commonly priced using summation rates (lump
sum) based on loose general description and Contractor’s own interpretation.
Due to complexity, the breakdown of Lump Sum item to smaller
items would provide better accuracy and able to be defined in simplest terms
with basic components and should be able to anticipate risk costs (other
uncertainties). As such they are structured and overrun costs avoidable [14].
The construction market experiences and knowledge are critical for
the Contractor to enable them to make decisions; such as procurement
approaches that comprise of know-how of planning, budgeting and
authorizing for effectiveness, efficient and economical [15][3]. Complexity
in dealing with indirect costs are equally crucial. Indirect prices or costs dealt
with soft cost elements as a result of necessary activities related to the
construction and intangible in nature [16] and normally related to non-
productive activities [17].
Market driving factors and issues on risks could be confusing and
complicated thus require reasonable principles of economic knowledge on
construction materials and methods of construction [18]. Underestimation of
price would lead to the abandonment of a project, possible lawsuit, and
contract difficulty whereas overestimation of the same would overshoot the
allocation and deferment of the project itself [19].
Significantly, the percentage of Preliminaries from the tender price
is in the region of 2% to 12% depending on the nature of project. The
construction Preliminaries price for Malaysia is not exceeding 10% [20][21].
However, based on other research, the average percentages for Malaysian
construction industry are between 3.60% and 7.94% [22][23]
Theoretical analysis based on literature review was adopted. The statements

by Researchers were analyzed and synthesized in terms of applicability and
practicality of the theories. The elements of Complexity and uncertainties
probed by the Researches were collated, summarized, critically evaluated and
interpreted to draw ‘new whole’ conclusions from those findings [24]. The
findings related to ‘Costs’ were capitalized due to their criticality at Tender
Stage. The Costs reflect competitiveness [2], thus the award of Tender.
Findings And Discussions
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107
Generally, Preliminaries contain general information; obligation and

instruction to the Contractor related to the project. They specify continuous
activities throughout the construction period, descriptive in nature and priced
entirely in Lump Sum. Preliminaries are in fact blanket work orders that need
to be carefully scrutinized, analyzed with sound predictions and anticipations
during Tender Stage due to associated complexities and uncertainties.
The Costs are crucial factors at Tender Stage as to measure
competitiveness and main consideration for award of Tender. Nonetheless
Costs and Time are critical factors during construction and Quality is crucial
to the completion of the project. Miscalculation of Costs and other constraints
due to lack of consideration or experiences of Project Manager may cause the
Tender price not competitive. Poor consideration of the complexity of the
project may also cause Costs overrun and would certainly lead to construction
failure. Truly, this is a result of competition at Tender Stage; the Contractor
may purposely under quote the Tender price particularly the Preliminaries
simply to keep the Tender price low. The concern is not only limited to
Malaysia but also elsewhere.
The author agrees that large Lump Sum items in Preliminaries would
create larger inaccuracy in terms of price and understand the scope of works.
The author concurs with the Researchers finding that the items should be
broken down into smaller items for ease of estimation and better
understanding the scope of works.
Complexity and uncertainty related to direct and indirect costs are
crucial and to be considered at the Planning Stage of the project. It must be
treated with utmost priority and this is the stage where all thoughts and
experiences are put together. Furthermore, due to the nature of Preliminaries
itself that mainly descriptive, the approaches capitalizing particularly age,
experiences, and leadership are significant factors. Truly, due to complexity
and uncertainty, it is common that indirect prices are ‘taken’ as sundry costs
to the projects without much due diligence investigation or prediction,
however the impacts may be significant. Indirect prices are in fact additional
costs to Preliminaries if they were not considered.
In dealing with Complexity, Researchers unanimously agreed that
the experience on similar nature of projects backed up by the ability to
anticipate the present and future risks, mitigation plan and rigorous action
planning for the Project Manager are crucial. Due to Complexity, the
Preliminaries is the last bill to be finalized after the trade bills as this would
provide overall perceptions of each activity, associated risks and costs
consideration. At present, the price of Preliminaries is expected not to exceed
10% of the overall Tender Sum.
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Conclusions
Preliminaries are noticeably difficult to establish due to uncertainty and

complexity but crucial. The price components need to be identified albeit the
scope of work is not specific. The present common practice that simply
adopts clauses of the general description of Conditions of Contract as
Preliminaries invites ambiguities and risk. Large ‘lump sum’ Preliminaries
may be avoided by providing a more reliable project specific Preliminaries
using several approaches such as ‘one-off’, ‘time base’, ‘provisional sum’ or
‘measurable’ items as much as possible. This is a challenge to the Project
Manager to establish reliable Preliminaries i.e. accurate, reasonable,
conclusive and yet easy to be priced by Contractor at Tender Stage. This
challenging task could be executed through rigorous planning and
understanding complexity of the construction project. Thorough
identification of project complexity and proper planning of work at Tender
Stage are ‘crucial’ for effective management.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to submit his heartiest thanks to Associate Professor
Sr. Hj. Ruslan Affendy Arshad being a dedicated mentor and supervisor
during the completion of his Master Degree’s dissertation in July 2016. His
guidance was most precious and immeasurable in any forms.
References
[1] B. Dao, S. Kermanshachi, J. Shane, and S. Anderson, “Project

Complexity Assessment and Management Tool,” Procedia Eng., vol.
145, pp. 491–496, 2016.
[2] B. Stojčetović, “Project Management : Cost , Time,” in 8th
International Quality Conference,Center for Quality, Faculty of
Engineering, University of Kragujevac, 2014, pp. 201–206.
[3] S. O. Oyediran, O. M. Ajayi, and F. A. Aderinto, “Cost Modeling of
Preliminaries for Building Projects,” Built Environ. J., vol. 9, no. 2,
pp. 1–8, 2012.
[4] D. Cleden, Managing project uncertainty. Farham, Surrey: Gower
Publishing, 2009.
[5] G. M. Winch, Managing Construction Project : An Information
Processing Approach, 2nd ed. Manchester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.
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109
[6] M. Danilovic and B. Sandkull, “The use of dependence structure

matrix and domain mapping matrix in managing uncertainty in
multiple project situations,” Int. J. Proj. Manag., vol. 23, no. 3, pp.
193–203, 2005.
[7] R. C. Smith, Estimating and Tendering for Building Work. Essex:
Longman Scientific & Technical, 1990.
[8] NBS, “Preliminaries and General Conditions,” National Building
Specification [NBS], 2015. [Online]. Available:
http://www.thenbs.com/products/nbsPreliminaries.asp.
[9] M. Tower and D. Bacarini, “Risk Pricing in Construction Tenders -
How, Who What,” Constr. Econ. Build., vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 49–60,
2012.
[10] A. Ali and R. Zakaria, “Complexity of statutory requirements: case
study of refurbishment projects in Malaysia,” J. Build. Perform., vol.
3, no. 1, pp. 49–54, 2012.
[11] I. Rahmat and A. S. Ali, “The involvement of the key participants in
the production of project plans and the planning performance of
refurbishment projects,” J. Build. Apprais., vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 273–288,
2010.
[12] H. Wood and K. Gidado, “Project Complexity in Construction,”
Cobra 2008, pp. 1–13, 2008.
[13] T. Cunningham, “Contractors ’ Claims for Loss and Expense under
the Principle ‘ Traditional ’ Forms of Irish Building Contract,” vol.
31. 2014.
[14] NJDOT, “Cost Estimating Guideline,” Progr. Manag. Off., p. 126,
2016.
[15] Khi V. Thai, Ed., “International Handbook of Public Procurement,”
CRC Press, 2009.
[16] R. K. Ellsworth, “Estimating indirect costs for infrastructure
construction projects,” Construction Accounting & Taxation, vol. 21,
no. 5, pp. 11–16, 2011.
[17] C. Hendrickson and T. Au, Project Management For Construction :
Fundamental Concepts for Owners, Engineers, Architects and
Builders, 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc, 2000.
[18] M. D. Dell’Isola, “Detailed Cost Estimating,” Excerpt from Archit.
Handb. Prof. Pract., pp. 1–13, 2003.
[19] M. A. Azman, Z. Abdul-Samad, and S. Ismail, “The accuracy of
preliminary cost estimates in Public Works Department (PWD) of
Peninsular Malaysia,” Int. J. Proj. Manag., vol. 31, no. 7, pp. 994–
1005, 2013.
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110
[20] Turner&Townsend, “A brighter outlook : International Construction

Cost Survey 2013,” 2013.
[21] N. A. Ghani, “The importance of preliminaries items,” Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia, 2006.
[22] T. A. N. C. Keng and Y. K. A. H. Ching, “A Study on The Cost of
Preliminaries Section in Construction Projects,” no. 1, pp. 1–6, 2012.
[23] T. C. Keng, “Costing for The Preliminaries Section of The
Construction,” in Cost and Contract Administration in Construction,
Devine Perspectives, vol. 1, M. F. A. Ayob and M. S. Ibrahim, Eds.
Kuala Lumpur: IIUM Press, 2016, pp. 24–29.
[24] Harvard, “The Literature Review: A Research Journey,” Harvard
Graduate School of Education - Gutman Library, 2016. [Online].
Available: http://guides.library.harvard.edu/literaturereview.
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T01_008: DETERMINATION OF REQUIRED

HLB VALUE OF PALM OIL METHYL ESTERS
(PME) USING NON-IONIC SURFACTANT
BLENDS IN O/W EMULSION SYSTEM
Rosdiyani Massaguni
Siti Noor Hajjar Md. Latip
Faculty of Plantation and Agrotechnology,
Universiti Teknologi MARA,
40450 Shah Alam, Selangor,Malaysia
Ismail Ab Raman
Advanced Oleochemicals Technology Division,
Malaysian Palm Oil Board, 6 Persiaran Institusi, Bandar Baru Bangi,
43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
The stable emulsion can be formulated with surfactants blend that their HLB
value is compatible with required HLB of the oil phase used. However, the
required HLB values of palm oil methyl ester stabilized using non-ionic
surfactant blends have not been thoroughly reported. Thus, the purpose of
this study is to determine the appropriate required HLB of palm oil methyl
ester in O/W emulsion systems prepared with Tween and Span blends. The
emulsions were prepared with various types of Tween and Span mixtures that
blend in variable concentrations using mechanical homogenization. Then,
the optimum HLB value for palm oil methyl ester was determined based on
emulsion stability evaluation that characterized by phase separation and
turbidimetric method. As such, a stable O/W emulsion of palm oil methyl ester
was produced with the emulsifying agent of Tween 80/Span 80 at total blends
of 4% (w/w) and the required HLB value was found to be 12.0. Overall, this
study has indicated that the stability of palm oil methyl ester in O/W
emulsions towards droplet aggregation and coalescence can be improved
with Tween and Span blend as emulsifying agents.
Keywords: HLB value, O/W emulsion, Palm oil methyl ester, Turbidimetric
method, Tween 80/Span 80
Introduction
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Palm oil methyl ester (PME) is a constituent of palm oil that was produced
by the enzymatic process of transesterification. It exhibits a great potential to
be used as a dispersing medium in emulsion formulations as it has excellent
wetting behavior, good solvency and low viscosity [1]. Generally, the
emulsions are thermodynamically unstable which the liquid/liquid
immiscibility creates an interfacial tension between the two liquids [2].
Hence, an addition of surfactant in emulsion system could stabilize the
emulsion by lowering the interfacial tension between oil-water and keep the
dispersed phase from separating out of the continuous phase [3]. A systematic
selection of surfactant type is frequently based on the hydrophilic-lipophilic
balance (HLB) concept and development of the most stable emulsion is
achieved when the HLB values of the surfactant blends are close to that
required HLB value of the oil phase. However, the data on the required HLB
values of PME stabilized using non-ionic surfactant blends have not been
thoroughly reported. Thus, the purpose of this study is to determine the
appropriate required HLB of the PME in oil-in-water (O/W) emulsion
systems prepared with Tween and Span blends. Effects of the surfactants
type, as well as their concentrations on emulsion stability, was observed in
order to establish the appropriate emulsification technique that will give a
stable PME O/W emulsion.
PME with C12-18 of the carbon chain length was supplied by Malaysian Palm
Oil Board (MPOB) and all of the commercial non-ionic surfactants were
purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (M) Sdn. Bhd., Malaysia.
Preparation of emulsions
The blend of various pairs of surfactant namely: Tween 20/Span 40, Tween
20/Span 80, Tween 60/Span 40, Tween 60/Span 80 and Tween 80/Span 80
were incorporated in the emulsion system at 3, 4 and 5% (w/w) of a total
blend concentration. The O/W emulsion containing 20% (w/w) of PME was
prepared using a homogenizer (Ultra-Turrax model T25™, IKA
Labortechnik, Staufen, Germany) at a speed of 13,500 rpm by followed the
emulsification procedure of [4] with some modifications. After
emulsification process, the samples were centrifuged before incubated in
room and oven (54±1oC) for a period of 14 days. A short-term stability of
emulsion was characterized by measurement of the creaming index (%CI) as
described by [2] and the turbidimetric method using UV/Vis
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113
spectrophotometer (Sastec UV-8000 Spectrophotometer, Malaysia) based on

the works of [5].
Determination of Required HLB

The procedure for the determination of required HLB for PME in O/W
emulsion system using Tween-Span blends was adapted from reference [2].
Several series of emulsions with final HLB values ranging from 9.0 to 14.0
were prepared by blend together the respective surfactant in different weight
ratios (Table 1).
Table 1: HLB spreadsheet design for Tween and Span blends
Weight ratio (%) (Tween: Span)

Final HLB
T20/S40 T20/S80 T60/S40 T60/S80 T80/S80
9.0 23 : 77 38 : 62 28 : 72 45 : 55 44 : 56
10.0 33 : 67 46 : 54 40 : 60 54 : 46 53 : 47
11.0 43 : 57 54 : 46 52 : 48 63 : 37 62 : 38
12.0 53 : 47 62 : 30 64 : 36 73 : 27 72 : 28
13.0 63 : 37 70 : 30 77 : 23 82 : 18 81 : 19
14.0 73 : 27 78 : 22 89 : 11 92 : 8 91 : 9
Note: T=Tween; S=Span
The weight ratio of each surfactant is calculated according to [6] as shown in

Equation (1).
HLBreq = (% Span x HLB Span) + (% Tween x HLB Tween) (1)
100%
Statistical Analysis
The statistical significance between treatment values was determined by
analysis of variance (ANOVA) test followed by pairwise comparison using
the statistical software package of Minitab® Release 14.1 (Minitab, Inc.).
Results and Discussions
Selection of Surfactant Blend

Figure 1 is depicted the creaming formation in emulsion system formulated
with various pairs of Tween and Span blend. A higher value of creaming
index was observed for the emulsion composed of Tween 20/Span 40 and
Tween 60/Span 40 that kept in the room with 82.72% and 94.85% of
creaming, respectively (Figure 1a). The emulsions showed unfavorable phase
behavior and not viable as the emulsifying agent in the emulsion, which they
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114
were found to be very viscous and rigid at room temperature. Meanwhile, the
emulsion prepared with Tween 60/Span 80 having the highest creaming value
(34.1%) when stored in the oven (Figure 1b). The lowest creaming value was
observed in the sample with surfactant blend of Tween 80/Span 80 (Figure
1a and 1b). It is obvious that the proper surfactant blend was found to be
Tween 80/Span 80 as it was stable at all the storage conditions during the
observation period. This finding is consistent with the reference [4], which
found Tween 80/Span 80 blend provided more stable emulsions with the
smallest average droplet size.
(a) (b)
Figure 1: Effect of surfactant type on creaming index of emulsion incubated in
room (a) and oven at 54oC (b)
Figure 2 shows the influence of Tween 80/Span 80 concentrations on

creaming formation and emulsion turbidity after 14 days of aging. It can be
observed that increase in surfactant concentrations led to the increment of the
turbidity values and reduction of creaming rate (%) of emulsions. This
observation could be explained as the high surfactant concentrations have
attributed to the high number of surfactant molecules absorbed around the
oil-water interface, and decrease interfacial tension in the system which
favors the formation of an emulsion with small droplets [1,7]. It demonstrated
that no significant difference (p>0.05) was observed between the emulsion
stability using 4% and 5% (w/w) of surfactant concentration. For cost and
efficiency reasons, low surfactant percentage could be considered as an
advantage since further preparation of this formulation would reduce toxicity
and costs with raw materials. Thus, the optimal concentration of Tween
80/Span 80 for a stable PME O/W emulsion was 4% (w/w).
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Creaming index
(room)
Creaming index (%)
Turbidity index (%)

Surfactant concentrations (%)
Figure 2: Effect of surfactant concentrations on creaming index (%) and
turbidity index (%) of emulsion after 14 days storage in room and oven
The thermal stress did have a significant impact on the emulsion
stability in both analysis, as the higher creaming index value and lower
turbidity value was observed when the emulsion stored in oven storage. This
phenomenon is in agreement with [7] who demonstrated that 45 oC of storage
temperature have to affect emulsion stability than stored at 25 oC.
Required HLB of PME

The comparison of surfactant blends indicates that a pair of Tween 80/Span
80 was the most suitable emulsifying agent in PME O/W emulsion
formulation, as the others showed the unacceptable product. Thus, a set of
emulsions with 4% (w/w) of Tween 80/Span 80 blends in 20% (w/w) oil was
prepared. The effects of the surfactants' HLB on emulsion turbidity are shown
in Table 2. It shows that all emulsions remained stable for 24 hours after
emulsification and did not show any significant variance. However, a
significant difference (p<0.05) in the percentage of turbidity values were
observed after 7 days of storage, which the turbidity value was higher
between HLB 11.0 to 13.0. It indicates that the required HLB value of PME
could probably fall within this range. Turbidity values in the emulsion were
significantly decreased (p<0.05) after 14 days of storage and the maximum
value of turbidity (97.99%±0.04) was observed for an emulsion at HLB 12.0.
This result determined that the HLB value of 12.0 lies in the same HLB range
of the higher turbidity values of the emulsion at 7 days of observation. Thus,
it exhibited the HLB 12.0 of Tween 80/Span 80 blends which composed 72%
Tween 80 and 28% Span 80 was the optimum HLB value for PME in O/W
emulsion systems. This result agrees with those of [7], who demonstrated that
the mixture of Tween 80 and Span 80 (7:3 v/v respectively) provided the
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required HLB (11.8) for O/W emulsion prepared using palm-olein.

Meanwhile, reference [8] also obtained HLB 12.0 as the required HLB of
PME using surfactants blend of Emerest 2660 and Dehydol LS 1.
Table 2: Turbidity analysis of 4% (w/w) of Tween 80/Span 80 blends
Turbidity (%) in Room Storage Turbidity (%) in Oven Storage

HLB
Day 1 Day 7 Day 14 Day 1 Day 7 Day 14
9.0 99.77±0.06 98.67±0.09 85.22±0.20d 99.86±0.01 87.67±1.37b 81.24±0.38d
10.0 99.78±0.02 98.54±0.18 90.62±0.39a 99.86±0.05 97.59±0.26a 94.72±0.26a
11.0 99.81±0.02 98.69±0.08 96.58±0.30b 99.89±0.00 98.68±0.05a 97.65±0.14bc
12.0 99.82±0.02 98.81±0.03 98.62±0.40c 99.89±0.02 98.80±0.18a 97.99±0.04b
13.0 99.82±0.01 98.76±0.09 98.59±0.23c 99.87±0.03 98.75±0.13a 97.44±0.13bc
14.0 99.79±0.03 98.72±0.05 96.39±0.33b 99.87±0.02 98.44±0.22a 97.41±0.01c
F = 1.50 F= 2.69 F= 862.45 F = 0.87 F = 172.49 F = 3084.46
ANOVA
p = 0.262 p = 0.074 p = 0.000 p = 0.529 p = 0.000 p = 0.000
Note: Means followed by the same letters above bars indicate no significant difference using
Tukey’s test; p<0.05.
Conclusions
A surfactant blend composed of 4% (w/w) Tween 80/Span 80 in a ratio 72:28

(v/v) was found as the best non-ionic surfactant type and would be
appropriate to stabilize PME O/W emulsion. The required HLB of PME was
12.0 and was optimum in 20% (w/v) of oil. Overall, this study has indicated
that the stability of PME in O/W emulsions towards droplet aggregation and
coalescence can be improved with Tween and Span blend as emulsifying
agents. Moreover, the developed emulsification method in this study is
feasible to produce stable emulsion for over 14 days at room storage even
after centrifugation.
References
[1] N. Salim M. Basri M.B. Abd Rahman D.K. Abdullah H. Basri and A.B.
Salleh, “Phase behaviour, formation and characterization pf palm-based
esters nanoemulsion formulation containing Ibuprofen”, Journal of
Nanomedic and Nanotechnology Vol.2, 113 (2011)
[2] M.R.A. Ferreira R.R. Santiago T.P. De Souza E.S.T. Egito E.E. Oliveira
and L.A.L. Soares, “Development and evaluation of emulsions from
Carapa guianensis (Andiroba) Oil”, AAPS PharmScitech Vol.11 (3),
1383-1390 (2010)
116
117
[3] C.D. Ampatzidis E.-M.A. Varka and T.D. Karapantsios, “Interfacial

activity of amino acid-based glycerol ether surfactants and their
performance in stabilizing O/W cosmetic emulsions”, Colloids and
Surfaces A: Physicochem. Eng. Aspects 460, 176–183 (2014)
[4] Y.H. Cho S. Kim E.K. Bae C.K. Mok and J. Park, “Formulation of a
cosurfactant-free O/W microemulsion using non-ionic surfactant
mixtures”, Journal of Food Science 73 (3), E115-E121 (2008)
[5] S. Mostafa A.H. Seham H. Mohammed and M. Nahed, “Development
of stable O/W emulsions of three different oils”, International Journal
of Pharmaceutical Studies and Research Vol.2 (2), 45-51 (2011)
[6] L.P. Wong K. Mohamad Affuan M.S. Siti Hamidah I. Zuhaili C.Y.
Mohd Azizi and A.Z. Muhammad Abbas, “Development of
emulsification containing natural colorant from local plant (Roselle)”,
Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences and Engineering) 69 (4), 15-17 (2014)
[7] K.A. Sheikh S. Baie and G.M. Khan, “Haruan (Channa striatus)
incorporated palm-oil creams: formulation and stability studies”,
Pakistan Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences Vol.18(1), 1-5 (2005)
[8] I. Nursakinah A.R. Ismail M.Y. Rahimi and A.B. Idris, “Evaluation of
HLB values of mixed non-ionic surfactants on the stability of oil-in-
water emulsion system”, AIP Conference Proceedings 1571, 850-856
(2013)
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T01_009: SPECTROSCOPIC AND DFT

CALCULATIONS OF ALKOXY
SUBSTITUTED HECK-IMMINE AS ORGANIC
SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
Rafizah Rahamathullah1,2
Wan M. Khairul1*
1. School of Fundamental Science, Universiti Malaysia
Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu,
Malaysia
2. Faculty of Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia
Perlis, Level 1, Block S2, UniCITI Alam Campus,
Sungai Chuchuh, Padang Besar, 02100, Perlis,
Malaysia
ABSTRACT
A new class of hybrid moieties of heck-immine system is inspired from two
well-known conjugated π-systems; vinylene (C=C) and azomethine (CH=N)
that lead to the success of integration into an addition of organic
semiconducting materials potentially use in any designated application. In
this present research, the assessment of 4-[(hexyloxyphenyl)methylene]
amino)-4’-cyano-stilbene (HMCS) based on Donor (D)-π-Acceptor (A)
system has been successfully synthesized as active semiconductor material
candidates. The compounds were then characterized via several
spectroscopic and analytical techniques namely Infrared (IR), UV-Visible
(UV-Vis), 1H and 13C Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR). In addition, the
compounds were evaluated theoretically via Gaussian 09 software
employing DFT approach with set of basis function B3LYP/6-31G (d,p). The
quantum mechanical calculation involves the geometry optimization to the
minimum energy and the result revealed the predicted value was in
agreement with experimental result. From the preliminary result, a good
relation between the experimental and theoretical data provides strong
support of being a potential candidate in organic semiconductor
application, particularly in the respect of their low and good stability of
HOMO-LUMO energies. With the outstanding approach and performance,
this proposed type of molecular framework has given an ideal indication to
act ideally as organic semiconductor materials in various organic
electronic devices.
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119
Keywords: heck-immine; conjugated system; semiconducting material
Introduction
Recently, the development of organic semiconducting materials have drawn
intensive attention for molecular electronic applications such as organic
photovoltaic (OPVs), organic light emitting diode (OLEDs) and organic
field effect transistors (OFETs) [1,2]. These promising candidates possess
unique characteristics such as exhibit low cost of production, lightness and
compatibility with large-scale flexible substrates [3]. In addition, the
chemistry of these active materials comprises electronic delocalization in
extended π-orbital system and contains fair number of alternating single and
double bonds which the electron can flow from one reservoir to another that
resulted into the effective properties of electrical conductivity. Within this
concern, remarkable progress of organic semiconductor classes have been
extensively studied based on polymeric and small molecules to enhance
carrier mobility, electrical performance and can perform function at an
optimum level [4].
In these respect, the choice of material with good evaluation of the
band gap energy of the corresponding materials to act as semiconductor
candidates is a critical task for the manufacturing of stable and efficient
organic electronics devices [5]. Therefore, by insertion of π-conjugated
moieties which possess electron donating and withdrawing groups in the
molecule itself, the HOMO-LUMO energy gap of the molecules can be
controlled and becoming more efficient towards the active material because
of the electrons can be generated in-situ on the conjugated system. Due to
this matter with high interest in developing single molecule organic
semiconducting material, we are introducing new heck-immine derivative,
4-[(hexyloxyphenyl)methylene]amino)-4’-cyano-stilbene (HMCS) based
on Donor (D)-π-Acceptor (A) in which A represents the cyano group and D
consist of alkoxy chain length as an active semiconductor material
candidates as shown in Fig. 1. Therefore, the devotions of this publication
has been actively focused on the design, synthesis and investigation on its
electronic and optical properties, including HOMO-LUMO energy gaps of
π-conjugated systems of new heck-immine derivatives in order to evaluate
how far these types of molecular framework systems could be applied as
photoactive semiconducting material.
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Fig.1. Molecular structure of 4-[(hexyloxyphenyl)methylene]amino)-4’-

cyano-stilbene (HMCS)
Experimental
All chemicals and materials used in the experimental work-up were
commercially purchased from standard suppliers and were used as received
without further purification and the reactions were carried out under an
ambient atmosphere and no special attention was taken to exclude air or
moisture during experimental work-up.
2.1 General overview of synthetic work

The synthesis work up comprised three major parts which were the
synthesis of 4-hexyloxybenzaldehyde (1) via Williamson ether synthesis
and the Heck cross-coupling protocols derivative, 4-amino-4’-cyano-
stilbene (2) which act as precursor compound. From precursor, the
preparation of heck-immine, 4-[(hexyloxyphenyl)methylene]amino)-4’-
cyano-stilbene (HMCS) (3) were obtained from schiff base reaction as
focalpoint compounds in this study. The synthetic approach for the
preparation of HMCS is summarized in Scheme 1.
Scheme 1: The synthetic pathway for the preparation of HMCS
2.1.1 Preparation of 4-[(hexyloxyphenyl)methylene]amino)-4’-cyano-

stilbene (HMCS)
The preparation of HMCS was accomplished via Schiff base reaction
through equimolar amount of 1 (10.02g, 66.2mmol) and 2 (10.02g,
66.2mmol) in ethanolic solution fitted with a Dean-stark condenser. The
mixture of these reactants was put at reflux at 70ºC for ca. 6 hours with
continuous constant stirring. After adjudged completion by thin layer
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121
chromatography (TLC) (hexane: ethyl acetate; 3:2), the solvent was

removed in-vacuo and the crude solid was recrystallised from acetonitrile
to afford the yellow precipitate of the title compound in good yield, 75%.
RESULT AND DISCUSSSION
3.1 Infrared (IR) Spectroscopy Analysis

IR spectrum of HMCS revealed all the expected bands of interest namely
ν(C-H), ν(C≡N), ν(C=C alkene), ν(C=C aromatic) and ν(C=N). The bands
at around 2936cm-1 to 2870cm-1 correspond to C-H stretching of alkyl
substituent and attributed to the symmetry stretching vibration of (Ar-O-
CH2). The intense absorption of ν(C≡N) stretching band appeared at 2223
cm-1 in the spectrum. Meanwhile, the absorption band for ν(C=C) alkene
and aromatic stretching vibration occurred at 1604cm-1 and 1582cm-1 for the
formation of stilbene moieties with moderate intensity which is almost
identical in the other reported similar molecular system [6]. The presence of
ν(C=N) stretching vibration can be observed at 1257cm-1 respectively, in
which it is highly indicated to Schiff base formation and are in close
agreement with previously studied system [7].
3.2 Optical Properties

Electronic transition spectrum of HMCS was recorded in dichloromethane
solution with concentration 1×10−5 M and wavelength ranges from λmax 200-
500nm. The primary bands of phenyl ring were assigned at around λmax
294nm which can be ascribed as π→π* transition influenced by the
inductive interaction between the aromatic rings and alkoxy group. Strong
absorption band centered at around λmax 370nm can be attributed to π→π*
and n→π* transitions due to the existence of overlapping between C=C and
C=N moiety. Then, the optical band gap (Egopt) was obtained from the cut
off wavelength which is the intercept of the linear portion of the UV-Vis
spectrum expressed in nm. According to UV-Vis spectrum of HMCS, the
cut off wavelength (λoff-set) was found to be 430nm which leads to
experimental optical energy band gap of 2.88eV as illustrated in Fig. 2
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Fig. 2: UV-Vis spectrum of HMCS recorded in DCM
To investigate further into the energy separation between the difference of

highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) and the lowest unoccupied
molecular orbital (LUMO), the molecular geometry of HMCS were
optimized via density functional theory (DFT) calculations with set of basis
function B3LYP/6-31G (d,p). The HOMO-LUMO level of HMCS is
depicted in Fig. 3 which derived from quantum chemical calculations. From
the data analysis, it is clearly observed that the value of energy separation
between the HOMO and LUMO of HMCS with the energy band gap value
2.86eV was in good agreement with the experimental result of optical band
gap from UV-Vis absorption spectroscopy, 2.88 eV. Notably, the electron
withdrawing group from the cyano moieties to the conjugated backbone
during the HOMO→LUMO transition which the HOMO of HMCS
corresponded to a π bonding system localised at the phenyl ring moiety of
the extensively π-conjugated into the stilbene-Schiff base aromatic system.
whereas its LUMO has π symmetry with antibonding nature delocalized
throughout the electron donating effect from the alkoxy moieties to the
conjugated backbone of azomethine (CH=N) moiety. Thus, a good relation
between the experimental and theoretical data provide strong support of
HMCS being a potential candidate in organic semiconductor application,
particularly in the respect of film owing to their low and good stability of
HOMO-LUMO energies.
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123
Fig. 3: energy level between HOMO and LUMO of HMCS

1
3.3 H and 13C Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Analysis
The H NMR spectrum for HMCS showed methyl resonance at δH 0.92ppm
1
while protons for the alkoxy group were observed in the range of δH 1.36-
1.85ppm. For R-O-CH2, the signal for the proton was detected at δH 4.03ppm
because the hydrogen on the carbon attached to the oxygen were deshielded
due to the contribution of electronegativity of the oxygen atom. Whilst, the
aromatic protons of the para-substituted aromatic rings can be clearly
observed at around δH 6.97-7.86ppm as pseudo-doublet resonances. For
instances, the disappearance of amine and aldehyde protons that
accompanied with the appearance azomethine proton (CH=N) was also
observed at δH 8.41ppm which confirming that amine have been condensed
with aldehyde to produce targeted compounds of HMCS.
The 13C NMR of HMCS was consistent with the proposed
molecular structure. The methyl resonance can be clearly observed at δC
14.04ppm and carbon resonances for alkyl were detected in the range of δC
22.60-31.57ppm. Whilst, the chemical shift for R–CH2-O can be found at
δC 68.25ppm due to the deshielding effect in the presence of oxygen atom
that withdrew certain amount of electron density from the alkyl chain.
Meanwhile, aromatic carbon resonances were also observed in their NMR
spectra at δC 110.38−159.76 ppm and are attributed to para-substituted
aromatic systems. The C=N were also observed in the spectrum at δC
162.09ppm where this chemical shift are comparable to the literature [8].
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Conclusion
In conclusion, a new class of semiconductor material of heck-immine
system featuring Donor (D)-π-Acceptor (A) has been successfully
synthesized with good yield (75%). The optical band gap of HMCS exhibit
2.8eV which showed good relation between the experimental and
theoretical data where provides strong support of being a potential candidate
in organic semiconductor application, particularly in the optoelectronic
devices.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to acknowledge the Ministry of Education (MOE)
for the research grant FRGS 59366, SLAB Scholarship, Universiti Malaysia
Perlis and the School of Fundamental Science, Universiti Malaysia
Terengganu for the facilities and research aid.
References
[1] J. L. Segura, N. Martín and D. M. Guldi, “Materials for organic solar
cells: the C 60/π-conjugated oligomer approach,” Chemical Society
Reviews 34 (1), 31-47 (2005)
[2] M. Mas-Torrent and C. Rovira, “Novel small molecules for organic
field-effect transistors: towards processability and high performance,”
Chemical Society Reviews 37 (4), 827-838 (2008).
[3] W. Jiang, Y. Li and Z. Wang, “Heteroarenes as high performance
organic semiconductors,” Chemical Society Reviews 42 (14), 6113-6127
(2013).
[4] P. M. Beaujuge and J. M. Fréchet, “Molecular design and ordering
effects in π-functional materials for transistor and solar cell applications,”
Journal of the American Chemical Society 133(50), 20009-20029 (2011)
[5] J. C. Costa, R. J. Taveira, C. F. Lima, A. Mendes and L. M. Santos,
“Optical band gaps of organic semiconductor materials,” Optical Materials
58, 51-60 (2016)
[6] H. Lu, and D. He, “Novel 2-(naphthalen-1-yl)-5-stilbene-1, 3, 4-
oxadiazole molecules: Synthesis, optical properties and DFT calculation,”
Journal of Molecular Structure 1060, 88-93 (2014).
[7] P. Ekmekcioglu, N. Karabocek, S. Karabocek and M. Emirik,
“Synthesis, structural and biochemical activity studies of a new hexadentate
Schiff base ligand and its Cu (II), Ni (II), and Co (II) complexes,” Journal
of Molecular Structure 1099, 189-196 (2015)
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[10] C. Selvarasu and P. Kannan, “Effect of azo and ester linkages on rod
shaped Schiff base liquid crystals and their photophysical investigations,”
Journal of Molecular Structure 1125, 234-240 (2016).
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T01_010: ESTABLISHMENT OF ADVENTITIOUS

ROOT FROM MERISTEM OF BOESENBERGIA
ROTUNDA
Siti Zulaiha Ahamad Azhar
Nor Azma Yusuf
Faculty of Plantation and Agrotechnology, University Technology MARA
(UiTM), 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
The composition of a medium is proved useful to induce adventitious root of a
variety of monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants. An efficient protocol
for adventitious root induction has been established using shoot buds of
Boesenbergia rotunda. This protocol provides a basis for future studies on
adventitious root induction of B. rotunda and could be applied for large-scale
multiplication of this valuable plant. The adventitious root induction depended
mainly on plant growth regulators, its concentration and nutrient media. Shoot
bud explants were incubated in total darkness in half-strength MS medium
supplemented with various concentrations of 1-Naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA),
2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) (0.5,
1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5 and 3.0 mg/L) for the adventitious root induction. The addition
of NAA ( 1.0 mg/L), 2,4-D (0.5 and 1.5 mg/L) and IBA (1.0 and 1.5mg/L) to the
culture medium comprising half-strength Murashige and Skoog (MS) basal
salts, 3% sucrose, 1% Gelrite™ show significant effects on adventitious root
induction produced after eight weeks of culture. Low concentration of 0.5 mg/L
2,4-D was chosen as the best concentration of PGRs for adventitious root
induction whereas the addition of NAA and IBA to the medium had a little effect
on the production of adventitious root. However, low concentration of NAA
produced more shoot rather than root.
Keywords: Boesenbergia rotunda, Zingiberaceae, MS medium, adventitious

root induction
INTRODUCTION
Boesenbergia rotunda L. is previously known
as Boesenbergia or Kaempferia pandurata (Roxb. Schltr.), a small perennial
monocotyledonous plant belongs to the Zingiberaceae, a member of ginger
family. As regards its natural activities, the rhizomes of this plant have been
used for the treatment of peptic ulcer, as well as colic, oral diseases, urinary
disorders, dysentery, inflammation [13], gastrointestinal disorder, and
aphrodisiac [11]. Conventionally, B. rotunda requires a long period of time to
produce in large scale with the purpose of medicinal as B. rotunda is usually
propagated through rhizome cuttings. Boesenbergia species is extremely
uncommon compared to other genera because primarily, they were found in very
damp, in the shade areas and usually near to streams or in swampy conditions.
The plants’ life cycle was usually about five months and breeding is seriously
handicapped by poor fruit setting [6] since B. rotunda is a monocotyledonous
plant. Furthermore, pathogenic fungi were readily transmitted through
traditional practices and B. rotunda is high susceptibility to rot diseases.
Application of tissue culture techniques is a solution to this problem [8].
Moreover, environmental factors, biotic and abiotic stress, and geographical
locations in field grown rhizomes affect the production, quality and quantity of
the compound of interest.
Hence, for the biotechnological approach, in vitro culture is the best
method as a continuous source of supply of disease free planting material for
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commercial utilization because it offers an opportunity to exploit the cell, tissue,

organ or entire organism by growing them in vitro. In vitro techniques is known
to be more consistent, can be control and relatively more stable. Shoot cultures
and root cultures for the production of medicinally important compounds has
been attempted but no research on induction of adventitious root in B. rotunda.
Based on previous studies, root is an organ culture that promising to get
secondary metabolites. Production of secondary metabolites is generally higher
in differentiated tissues and organ cultures are relatively more stable [10]. In
biotechnology research methods, organ culture is a development from tissue
culture. The organ culture is able to accurately model functions of an organ in
various states and conditions by the use of the actual in vitro organ itself.
Therefore, this study was attempted to establish the protocol for adventitious
root induction from meristem of B. rotunda.
MATERIALS AND METHODS

Plant materials
Rhizomes of B. rotunda were obtained from local field at Kuala Krau, Pahang.
Healthy rhizome with active shoot buds were collected, excised and washed
thoroughly under running tap water to remove adhering soil particles to be used
as explants.
Culture Media and Growth Condition
Half-strength of Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium containing 30.0 g/L
sucrose, solidified with 2.0 g/L gelrite were used [2]. The pH of all media was
adjusted to 5.8 with 1.0 M sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and/or 1.0 M hydrochloric
acid (HCl) prior to autoclaving. The cultures were maintained in a growth room
at 25±1ºC under a dark condition.
Establishment of aseptic culture
The explants were placed under running tap water for 20 min and were soaked
with 60% concentration of Clorox® (5.25% sodium hypochlorite, NaOCl the
active ingredient) with 4 drops of Tween 20™ for 30 min, followed by rinsing
once with sterilized distilled water. The outer layer was trimmed and the
explants were further disinfected with 20% concentration of Clorox®with 4
drops of Tween 20™ with three different time exposure of 5, 10, 15 min namely
T1, T2, T3 respectively. The explants were rinsed with sterile distilled water for
eight times. The explants were dipped in 95% ethanol (EtOH) for 1 min and
were rinsed twice with sterile distilled water. The explants were dried by using
sterile plate and cultured into initiation media. All the processes were carried
out in laminar air flow. The process was done in fifteen replicates with five
explants per replicate.
Adventitious root induction and culture condition
Half-strength of MS medium containing 30 g/L sucrose, solidified with 2 g/L
gelrite were supplemented with various concentrations of plant growth
regulators (PGRs) either NAA (0.5 to 3.0 mg/L), IBA (0.5 to 3.0 mg/L) or 2,4-
D (0.5 to 3.0 mg/L) alone. MS medium without PGRs was used as a control.
Rooted cultures were maintained on the same media by regular subculturing at
4 weeks interval. Each treatment consisted of three replications. Each treatment
was replicated for five times with three aseptic explants per replicate.
Experimental design and statistical analysis
The data of each parameter were analyzed using One-Way ANOVA followed
by mean comparison with Tukey test (HSD) at p ≤ 0.05 using SPSS version
16.0.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Effects of different time exposures of CloroxTM on aseptic explants
The success of in vitro techniques largely depends on the availability of efficient
tissue culture protocols. Being a monocotyledonous crop, B. rotunda was one of
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Zingiberaceae species that initiation of contamination free cultures was difficult

to establish due to the underground rhizomes [4]. Initially, nearly 60% of the
cultures were found to be contaminated. However, there was no further
contamination once a healthy culture was established.
In this study, the best treatment for establishing aseptic culture from
meristem of B. rotunda with the highest survival rate was T3 (4.667 ± 0.724),
followed by T2 (3.267 ± 2.187) and T1 (2.067 ± 1.710) respectively (Table 1).
Among the three treatments tested, the survival rate of explants that significantly
affected was T3 (p=0.05). Prakash et. al (2006) [9] reported that double
sterilization method yielded 80% of contamination free nodal explants in P.
santalinus by using 70% EtOH for 2 min followed by 0.1% (w/v) aqueous
mercuric chloride solution for 7 min. This finding was concurrent to [15] that
two-stage surface sterilization using mercuric chloride and Clorox® was
extremely efficient for establishing aseptic buds of other Zingiberaceae species.
However, mercuric chloride is a hazardous chemical with disposal problems.
Therefore, it is more eco-friendly and secure to find other surface sterilization
procedure that does not use mercuric chloride.
Table 1. The number of survival, contaminated and dead aseptic cultures of B.

rotunda obtained from the surface sterilization treatments.
Treatments Number of Number of Number of dead
survival rate contaminated
T1 2.067 ± 1.710ab 2.867 ± 1.807bc 0.067 ±
0.258abc
T2 3.267 ± 2.187abc 1.733 ± 2.187bc 0.00 ± 0.00abc
T3 4.667 ± 0.724bc 0.133 ± 0.352a 0.200 ±
0.561abc
*Data represent mean and standard deviation. Values are the mean of fifteen
replicates. Mean values followed by same alphabet are not significantly
difference at p=0.05 (by Tukey’s Test)
A B
Figure 1. A. Shoot buds of B. rotunda. Bar at 2.0cm. B. Aseptic culture

after 4 weeks. Bar at 1.0cm.
The present studies showed the applicability using 60% and 20% Clorox® for
30 min and 15 min respectively followed by EtOH for 1 min could established
more than 80% aseptic and surviving explants. The explants free with
contamination after four weeks cultured in half MS medium (Figure 1B). This
is concurrent to previous research by [14] that demonstrated the applicability of
15% Clorox®for 10 minutes followed by 70 % EtOH for 2 min as surface
sterilization agents for immature stem cuttings of P. santalinus.
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Effects of different PGRs for adventitious root induction

As the protocol for adventitious root induction of B. rotunda has not been
published, a broad range of treatments were designed to determine the most
effective PGRs condition for the adventitious root induction. Half strength MS
were supplemented with various concentration of PGRs (NAA, IBA, 2,4-D)
with range of (0.5-3.0) mg/L. As culture medium is significant aspect on
micropropagation of plant species, the culture environments such as light and
temperature are also important factors. The cultures are generally incubated
under photoperiod regime of dark with 60-70% relative humidity and
temperature of 22 ± 2ºC in culture room [7].
In this study, the best treatment for adventitious root induction was T13
supplemented with 0.5 mg/L 2,4-D with mean value (0.6667 ± 0.5774) after
been incubated for eight weeks onto half MS media (Figure 2). Among the
eighteen treatments tested, only T13 was significantly (p=0.05) affected the
rooting induction and also produced the highest number and length of roots with
mean value of (6.667 ± 3.055) and (2.5600 ± 0.3799) respectively.
The induction of adventitious root were followed by T2 (1.0 mg/L

NAA), T8 (1.0 mg/L IBA), T9 (1.5 mg/L IBA) and T15 (1.5mg/L 2,4-D) with
mean value (0.3333 ± 0.5774) respectively (Table 2). These results are
accordance with [12] which reported that high concentrations of growth
regulator reduce shoot elongation and rooting on micropropagation.
Table 2. The rooting, number and length of root of adventitious root of B.

rotunda produced for each treatment with different PGRs after eight
weeks in cultures.
Treatments Rooting Number of root Length of root
T1 0.0000 ± 0.0000a 0.000 ± 0.000a 0.0000 ± 0.0000a
T2 0.3333 ± 0.5774ab 0.333 ± 0.577ab 0.1667 ± 0.2887ab
T3 0.0000 ± 0.0000a 0.000 ± 0.000a 0.0000 ± 0.0000a
T4 0.0000 ± 0.0000a 0.000 ± 0.000a 0.0000 ± 0.0000a
T5 0.0000 ± 0.0000a 0.000 ± 0.000a 0.0000 ± 0.0000a
T6 0.0000 ± 0.0000a 0.000 ± 0.000a 0.0000 ± 0.0000a
T7 0.0000 ± 0.0000a 0.000 ± 0.000a 0.0000 ± 0.0000a
T8 0.3333 ± 0.5774ab 2.000 ± 3.464ab 0.7233 ± 1.2529ab
T9 0.3333 ± 0.5774ab 1.000 ± 1.732ab 0.6667 ± 1.1547ab
T10 0.0000 ± 0.0000a 0.000 ± 0.000a 0.0000 ± 0.0000a
T11 0.0000 ± 0.0000a 0.000 ± 0.000a 0.0000 ± 0.0000a
T12 0.0000 ± 0.0000a 0.000 ± 0.000a 0.0000 ± 0.0000a
T13 0.6667 ± 0.5774c 6.667 ± 3.055bc 2.5600 ± 0.3799c
T14 0.0000 ± 0.0000a 0.000 ± 0.000a 0.0000 ± 0.0000a
T15 0.3333 ± 0.5774ab 4.000 ± 0.6100 ± 1.0566ab
6.928abc
T16 0.0000 ± 0.0000a 0.000 ± 0.000a 0.0000 ± 0.0000a
T17 0.0000 ± 0.0000a 0.000 ± 0.000a 0.0000 ± 0.0000a
T18 0.0000 ± 0.0000a 0.000 ± 0.000a 0.0000 ± 0.0000a
*Data represent mean and standard deviation. Values are the mean of five
replicates. Mean values followed by same alphabet are not significantly
difference at p=0.05 (by Tukey’s Test)
However, the number of roots produced differed as the concentration of
PGRs varied. According to Table 2, the second highest number of roots
produced was T15 with mean value of (4.000 ± 6.928), followed by T8 (2.000
± 3.464), T9 (1.000 ± 1.732) and T2 (0.333 ± 0.577) respectively. Subsequently,
the second highest length of roots produced was T8 (0.7233 ± 1.2529), followed
by T9 (0.6667 ± 1.1547), T15 (0.6100 ± 1.0566) and T2 (0.1667 ± 0.2887)
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respectively. Low concentration of PGRs significantly (p=0.05) affected the

number and length of adventitious root induction.
These results were concurrent to study done by [1] which stated that IBA
was more effective when compared to NAA for root formation in meristem
culture. In contrary, research done by [5] mentioned that NAA was more
effective than IBA in root induction. According to [3], the maximum rooting to
multiple shoots was noted on half strength of MS medium with 0.5 mg/L NAA
in turmeric, which supported this research as low concentration of NAA
produced multiple shoots and root induction.
A B
C D
Figure 2. A. Adventitious root on 1.0 mg/L IBA. B. Adventitious root on

0.5 mg/L 2,4-D. C. Adventitious root on 1.5 mg/L 2,4-D. D. Adventitious
root on 1.0 mg/L NAA. (Bars at 1.0 cm).
CONCLUSION
B. rotunda is an important aromatic and medicinal plant. It is traditionally

propagated through rhizomes segments. For conventional propagation, it is
considered as low multiplication rate as the plant easily attacked by fungus. An
optimum size of sterilized explants and proper culture medium essentially
required in vitro cultures. The best treatment to establish aseptic explants was
double sterilization method using 60% and 20% Clorox®with 30 min and 15
min exposure respectively followed by 95% EtOH for 1 min. Half MS media
supplemented with low concentration of PGRs (NAA, IBA, 2,4-D) promotes
rooting in B. rotunda with range (0.5-1.5) mg/L. ½ MS + 0.5 mg/L 2,4-D was
the ideal growth regulator for the adventitious root formation. Perhaps, this
study may be useful for chemical properties of B. rotunda.
REFERENCES
[1] Bhagyalakshmi, A. and Singh, N.S. (2010). Effect of plant growth regulator
on in vitro multiplication of turmeric
(Curcuma longa L. cv Ranga). Int. J. Biol. Technol., 1:16-23
[2] Dani, F., Spiridon, K., Athanasios, S.E., Georgia, M., and Helen-Isis, A.C.
(2010). Effect of Different Strength of
Medium on Organogenesis, Phenolic Accumulation and Antioxidant
Activity of Spearmint (Menta spicata L.). The
Open Horticulture Journal, 3:31-35
[3] Dipti, T., Ghorade, R.B., Swati, M., Pawar, B.V., Ekta, S. (2005). Rapid
multiplication of turmeric by
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micropropagation. Ann. Plant Physiol.,19:35-37

[4] Hosoki, T., Sagawa, Y. (1977). Clonal propagation of ginger (Zingiber
officinale Rosc.) through tissue culture.
Hort. Sci. 12:451-452
[5] Kambaska, K.B., and Santilata, S. (2009). Effect of plant growth regulator
on micropropagation of ginger
(Zingiber officinale Rosc.) cv-Suprava and Suruchi. J. Agric. Technol., 5:
271-280
[6] Larsen, K., Ibrahim, H., Khaw, S.H., Saw, L.G., (1999). Gingers of
Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore. Nat.
Hist. Publ., Borneo
[7] Lincy, A., Sasikumar, B. (2010). Enhanced adventitious shoot regeneration
from aerial stem explants of ginger
using TDZ and its histological studies. Turk. J. Bot., 34: 21-29
[8] Nayak, S. and Naik, P.K. (2006). Factors Effecting In Vitro Microrhizome
Formation and Growth in
Curcuma longa L. and Improved Field Performance of Micropropagated
Plants. Science Asia, 32: 31-37
[9] Prakash E., Khan P.S.S.V., Rao T.J.V.S. & Meru E.S. (2006).
Micropropagation of red sanders (Pterocarpus
santalinus L.) using mature nodal explants. Journal of Forest Research,
11:329-335
[10] Roja, G. (1994). Biotechnology of indigenous medicinal plants. PhD
Thesis, Bombay University, Bombay
[11] Saralamp, P., Chuakul, W., Temsiririrkkul, R., Clayton, T. (1996).
Medicinal Plants in Thailand, Vol I, Amarin
Printing and Publishing Public Co., Ltd., Bangkok, p. 49
[12] Thayamini, H.S. (2014). In vitro Propagation of Ginger (Zingiber officinale
Rosc.) through Direct
Organogenesis: A Review. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences, 1028-
8880
[13] Trakoontivakorn, G., Nakahara, K., Shinmoto, H., Takenaka, M., Onishi-
Kameyama, M., Ono, H., Yoshida, M.,
Nagata, T., Tsushida, T. (2001). Structural analysis of a novel
antimutagenic compound, 4-hdroxypanduratin A, and the antimutagenic
activity of flavonoids in a Thai spice, fingerroot (Boesenbergia pandurata
Schult.) against mutagenic heterocyclic amines. Journal Agriculture Food
Chemistry,49: 3046-3050
[14] Warakagoda, P.S., Subasinghe, S. (2013). In vitro propagation of
Pterocarpus santalinus L. (Red Sandalwood)
through tissue culture. J. Natn. Sci. Foundation Sri Lanka, 41(1): 53-63
[15] Yusuf, N.A., Annuar, M.S.M., and Khalid, N. (2011). Efficient propagation
of an important medicinal plant
Boesenbergia rotunda by shoot derived callus. J Med Res, 5: 2629-2636
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T01_011: SEA SURFACE CIRCULATION IN

STRAIT OF MALACCA AND ANDAMAN SEA
USING SATELLITE ALTIMETRY
Ku Nor Afiza Asnida Ku Mansor
Muhammad Faiz Pa’suya
Mohd Azwan Abbas
Tengku Afrizal Tengku Ali
Mohamad Azril Che Aziz
Faculty of Architecture Planning and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA,
Perlis, Malaysia
Ami Hassan Md Din

Faculty of Geoinformation and Real Estate, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,
Johor Bharu, Johor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
The ocean circulation in Strait of Malacca is derived using satellite altimeter
data from January 1993 until February 2016. The satellite altimeter was
involved are TOPEX, Jason-1, Jason-2, ERS-1, ERS-2, ENVISAT, SARAL and
Cryosat. The sea surface height derived from Satellite altimeter have been very
useful in the study of ocean circulation but still not appropriate for
oceanographic application. This is because it is a superposition of geophysical
effects such as tidal effect. The tidal models more suitable to use at open sea
like South China Sea. The tidal effect was complex to determine especially in
shallow water like Strait of Malacca. In order to remove the tidal effect, the best
ocean tide model need to be investigated to determine the ocean circulation in
Strait of Malacca. To verify the result, sea level anomaly data (SLA) were
compared to tide gauge data and the pattern show regularly same. In order to
check the ocean circulation using altimetric data, the result were compared with
the trajectories drifter data from Marine environment data service (MEDS) of
Canada. The trajectories of the drifter have confirmed the current pattern
around studied region during 9 Jun 1999 until 9 July 1999.
Keywords: Ocean circulation, Satellite altimeter, Strait of Malacca, Tidal

effect
Introduction
During the last four decades, altimeters have been shown to be a powerful tool
to measure sea surface height with high precision for oceanographic and
geodetic application. In oceanographic application, the altimetry data are very
useful for study ocean circulation and eddy variability due to the long time
series, good resolution and cover large area. A number of satellite altimeters
were launched but the most important satellite for study ocean circulation are
TOPEX/Poseidon and Jason-1/2 that given the most precise altimetry data
compared to other missions. Unfortunately, the use of altimetric products in the
marginal or shallow water still difficult and the challenge exists in the form of
use the satellite altimeter observation. According to [2], there are two major
problems when to use altimetry data in the coastal domain, which are the
interference of radar echo with the surrounding land, and that the standard
processing procedure to derive sea level from altimetry. It is because; most of
the current processing procedure has been designed for the open sea. Besides,
accurate tidal correction of the altimetry data has to resolve before applying the
altimetry data to the marginal seas [8]. Therefore, much attention has been given
133
to study the ocean circulation using altimetry data in the open seas compared to
the marginal seas.
However, thanks to the improvement in spatial and vertical resolution brought

by SARAL/Altika that promises a lot for remote sensing of the coastal sea level
and provide data products for monitoring of the main continental water levels
[7]. This mission is a Ka-band altimeter that having a narrower footprint than
the standard C-band altimeters such as TOPEX/Poseidon (T/P hereafter) and
Jason mission. Therefore, this mission is expected to perform better in the
marginal or coastal region compare to other missions.
The Straits of Malacca and Andaman Sea
The Strait of Malacca separates Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra, forming a

funnel-shaped waterway as it narrows to the south. This strait is one of the
busiest ways of shipping routes where form the shortest route connecting both
the Middle-Eastern oil suppliers with the Far Eastern economic giants of China,
Japan and South Korea. In general, Strait of Malacca is a marginal sea with depth
water changes slightly from approximately 30m in the south to 200m at the north
[10]. Not much attention has been given to study the ocean circulation in this
region compared to the South China Sea and Indian Ocean. According to [11],
the direction of ocean current in this strait is almost constant whereby flows
northward from the South China Sea towards the Indian Ocean with current
speed of approximately 2 m/s. By using Hamburg Shelf Ocean Model
(HAMSOM), they have pointed out that the current speed at the sea surface were
generally greater in February compared to those in August.
Figure 1 The topography of Andaman Sea and Malacca Strait, depths are given in
meters (adapted [10]
Andaman Sea is part of the Indian Ocean whereby the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands separate the region from the Bay of Bengal. In general, the
average depth of the Andaman Sea is about 1,000 meters. According to [10], the
water depth in this region changes rapidly from over 3000-4000 meters in the
Indian Ocean to approximately 200 meters in the area around the islands,
returning to deeper than 2500 meters in the centre of the Andaman Sea as shown
in Figure 1. The coral reefs and islands in this region are popular tourist
destinations besides it is used for fishery and transportation. Like Strait of
Malacca, ocean circulation study in this region also not gets much attention.
133
134
Thus, more and more observations in the Bay of Bengal have made a prominent
progress to understand the circulation in the region compared to Andaman Sea
which has been left behind. [12] have pointed out there is an anticlockwise gyre
in the Andaman Sea during Northeast monsoon (summer) and anticlockwise
during Southwest Monsoon (winter) near the Andaman Island.
Satellite Altimeter
The basic principle of satellite altimetry is based on the simple fact that a period
of time is equivalent to distance, whereby the distance between the satellite and
the sea surface is measured from the round-trip travel time of microwave pulses
emitted downward by the satellite radar, reflected back from the ocean, and
received again on board. Meanwhile, independent tracking systems are used to
compute the satellite’s three-dimensional position relative to an earth-fixed
coordinate system .By combining these two measurements, profiles of sea
surface height, H with respect to a reference ellipsoid is obtained [3].
H=h- R’ - ΣΔRj (1)
However, the range measured by satellite altimeters, R contains a few biases,

ΣΔRj and the method of yielding sea level profiles is far more complex in
practice. Several factors have to be taken into account such as, atmospheric
corrections, reference systems, precise orbit determination, varied satellite
characteristics, instrument design, calibration, and validation [9, 4]. In
oceanographic application, accurate estimates of R and H (corrected from bias)
are not sufficient to estimate dynamic effects of geostrophic ocean currents
because the sea-surface height given by Equation (1) is still superposition of a
number of geophysical effects such as geoid undulation, tidal height variation
and atmospheric pressure loading [6]. These effects need to be removed in order
to get the sea surface height above the ocean rest state that is the part of the sea
surface height that arises from the ocean’s circulation and is referred to as the
dynamic ocean topography.
Data and Method
The sea level anomaly data from January 1993 to December 2015 were derived
from multi-mission satellite altimetry data from TOPEX, Jason-1, Jason-2,
ERS-1, ERS-2, EnviSat, CryoSat-2 and Saral/Altika using Radar Altimeter
Database System (RADS). Developed by Delft Institute for Earth-Oriented
Space Research and the NOAA Laboratory for Satellite Altimetry, this system
is already installed in the Faculty of Architecture, Planning and Surveying,
Universiti Teknologi MARA (Perlis). The altimetry sea level anomaly data
extracted ranges between 2°N ≤ Latitude ≤ 18°N and 91°E ≤ Longitude ≤ 102°E,
covering the Malacca Straits and Andaman Sea. Figure 2 shows the overview
of altimeter data processing flows in RADS.
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135
Figure 2 Overview of altimeter data processing flows in RADS

(adapted [5]).
The sea level data are corrected for orbital altitude; altimeter range corrected for
instrument, sea state bias, ionospheric delay, dry and wet tropospheric
corrections, solid earth and ocean tides, ocean tide loading, pole tide
electromagnetic bias and inverse barometer corrections. The bias is reduced by
applying specific models for each satellite altimeter mission in RADS. In this
study recent DTU13 MSS model released by Denmark Technical University is
used as a datum to derive the sea level anomaly. Crossover adjustments have
been performed after applying altimeter corrections and removing bias to adjust
the sea surface heights (SSH) from different satellite missions to a “standard”
surface. In this process, the orbit of the TOPEX-class satellites (T/P and Jason)
held fixed and those of the ERS-class satellites adjusted concurrently.
As discussed before, shallow or marginal water area like Strait of Malacca and
Andaman Sea give a number of challenges to users of satellite altimeter due to
the tidal effect. In the altimeter data processing, global tide model usually used
to remove the tidal effect but the global tide model does not has sufficient
accuracy to remove the effect [13] and the effect larger and complex in coastal
region [1]. Thus, efforts have been made to evaluate the accuracy of three (3)
global tide models that are FES2004, GOT4.8 and GOT4.10 for the study area.
The Finite Element Solution (FES2004) includes 9 short period waves such Q1,
O1, K1, P1, 2N2, N2, M2, K2 and S2. The Goddard Ocean Tide model GOT4.7
includes 10 short period waves such K1, O1, P1, O1, S1, K2, M2, N2, S2 and
M4. The Goddard Ocean Tide model GOT4.8 differs from GOT4.7 only in its
S2 component. The different between GOT4.8 and GOT4.10 are GOT4.8 data
come from only TOPEX data but GOT4.10 only on Jason data. The GOT4.10 is
now the default tide model in altimeter data processing in RADS. At the final
stage processing, all the data were merged and gridded into 0.25°x0.25°
latitude/longitude using Gaussian weighting function with sigma 1.5. The
corrected and gridded SLA that has been processed from RADS is used to
estimate the geostrophic current using the geostrophic approximation.
Result and Discussion
Estimation the best global ocean tide model
In order to estimate the best global tide model to remove tidal signal in altimetric
data for study area, the sea level anomaly corrected using three global tide
models are compared with the tidal data from the selected tide gauge stations
135
136
around west coast of Peninsular Malaysia; Langkawi, Port Klang and Pulau
Pinang. The data are obtained from Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level
(http://www.psmsl.org/data/obtaining/).
Table 1 Standard Deviation of Ocean Tide Model
FES2004 GOT4.8 GOT4.10

Langkawi 0.062 0.049 0.049
Port Klang 0.088 0.056 0.058
Pulau Pinang 0.056 0.040 0.040
Figure 3 Plot of yearly sea level variation from Langkawi, Port Klang , Pulau
Pinang and altimeter data
136
137
The yearly averages of SLA are computed and interpolated into the tide gauge
position using Inverse Distance Weighting method to compute the monthly time
series of SLA. The standard deviation for each models are computed and the
result is shown in Table 1 below. Based on the result, clearly be seen the GOT
4.8 and 4.10 models have better standard deviation compared to the FES2004
model for all stations. The accuracy between GOT4.8 models with the most
recent global tide model, G0T 4.10 is slightly different. Thus, GOT 4.10 model
was used in RADS processing to derive sea level anomaly in this study. The
Figure 3 shows the variation pattern of sea level between tide gauge and
altimeter using GOT 4.10 model and present a quite uniform pattern. The sea
level pattern seems like noisy and inconsistent because the area is exposed to
the narrow and shallow water of the Strait of Malacca.
(a) (b)
Figure 4 Geostrophic current derived from altimetric data (a) and trajectories of
drifter (b)
Validation of surface current pattern with the gps-tracked drifter

In order to evaluate the estimated sea surface circulation pattern from altimetric
data, the results are compared with the selected Argos-tracked Drifting Buoys.
The drifter data obtained from Marine Environmental Data Services (MEDS) in
Canada (http://www.meds-sdmm.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/meds/Database). Figure 4 (a)
and (b) shows the trajectories of drifter in the Strait of Malacca and geostrophic
current pattern derived from altimeter data. From the Figure 4 (a), one can see
the drifter 1162798 release at 8.078°N 95.032° E on 9 June 1999 from Andaman
Sea moved all the way southward before turn eastward at around ~ 5.5°N, 97°E
toward Peninsular Malaysia. However, the drifter turns cyclonically northward
before changes direction to southward until end at 4.307°N 99.6°E on 9 July
1999 . Probably, it is indicating the existence of anti-cyclonic circulation in the
Strait of Malacca. In overall, the pattern of geostrophic current derived in this
study almost consistent with the trajectories of drifter.
(a)
Conclusion
137
138
The present study derived the ocean circulation in Strait of Malacca and
Andaman Sea using altimeter data from January 1993 until February 2016 (23
years). Basically, the sea surface geostrophic current derived using satellite
altimeter is the alternative approach to understand the ocean circulation. The
geostrophic current consider only one factor which is pressure gradient
compared to other research used combination such wind and tidal factor of
deriving the surface current. Actually, the altimetric data which has a long term
observation data and also high resolution data enough to represent the ocean
surface current in this study area but more detailed study need to be done to
confirm the presence of eddy surround. Based on this research, the surface
current pattern derived from altimeter data consistent well with the trajectories
of the drifter provider by Marine environmental data service (MEDS) of Canada.
The existence of eddies near the Andaman Island during February and August
almost consistent with the result by [3] but not report by the [14] Interestingly,
this study revealed the existence of a clockwise gyre at the middle part of the
Strait of Malacca during August and not reported by any previous study. The
existence of the gyre almost consistent with the trajectories of drifter 1162798.
Overall, the knowledge of ocean circulation is important to the marine activity
such as fisheries, shipping and also monitoring and cured the oil spill which is
increase in this region.
References
[1] Andersen, O. B. Shallow water tidal determination from altimetry - the M

4 constituent. Bollettino Di Geofisica Teorica Ed Applicata, 40(3-4), 427–
437 (1999).
[2] Durand, F., D. Shankar, F. Birol, and S. S. C. Shenoi. Estimating boundary
currents from satellite altimetry: a case study for the East coast of India, J.
Oceanogr., Vol 64 (no.6), pp 831-845 (2008).
[3] Din, A. H. M., Omar, K. M., Naeije, M. and Ses, S. Long-term Sea Level
Change in the Malaysian Seas from Multi-mission Altimetry Data.
International Journal of Physical Sciences Vol. 7(10), pp. 1694 - 1712, 2
March, 2012. DOI: 10.5897/IJPS11.1596 (2012).
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Sea Level Rise Quantification Using Multi-Mission Satellite Altimeter over
Malaysian Seas. The 36th Asian Conference on Remote Sensing (ACRS
2015). October, 19 to 23, 2015. Manila, Philippines. Scopus – Proceeding
(2015).
[5] Din, A. H. M., Ses, S., Omar, K. M., Yaakob,O., Naeije, M. and Pa'suya,
M.F. Derivation of Sea Level Anomaly Based on the Best Range and
Geophysical Corrections for Malaysian Seas using Radar Altimeter
Database System (RADS). Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences And Engineering),
71:4 (2014) 83–91 (2014).
[6] Fu, L. L. and Cazenave, A. Altimetry and Earth Science, A Handbook of
Techniques and Applications. Vol. 69 of International Geophysics Series.
Academic Press, London (2001).
[7] Jacques Verron, Pierre Sengenes, Juliette Lambin, Jocelyne Noubel,
Nathalie Steunou, Amandine Guillot, Nicolas Picot, Sophie Coutin-Faye,
Rashmi Sharma, R. M. Gairola, D. V. A. Raghava Murthy, James G.
Richman, David Griffin, Ananda Pascual, Frédérique Rémy & P. K. Gupta.
The SARAL/AltiKa Altimetry Satellite Mission, Marine Geodesy, 38:sup1,
2-21, DOI: 10.1080/01490419.2014.1000471(2015).
[8] Morimoto, A., Matsuda, T.The application of Altimetry data to the Asian
Marginal Seas. In: Proceedings of IEEE International IGARSS 2005, vol. 8,
pp. 5432–5435 (2005).
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[9] Naeije, M., Scharroo, R., Doornbos, E. and Schrama, E. Global Altimetry
Sea Level Service: GLASS. NIVR/SRON GO project: GO 52320 DEO
(2008).
[10] X. Qu, Q. Meng, The economic importance of the Straits of Malacca and
Singapore: an extreme-scenario analysis, Transp. Res. E 48 258–265.
2012.
[11] Rizal S., Damm P., Wahid M. A., Sundermann J., Ilhamsyah Y., Iskandar
T. & Muhammad. General Circulation in the Malacca Strait and Andaman
Sea : A Numerical Model Study, 8(5), 479–488 (2012).
[12] Sakmani AS, Lam WH, Hashim R, Chong HY. Site selection for tidal
turbine installation in the strait of Malacca. Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews 2013 In press (2013).
[13] Varkey, M.J., V.S.N. Murty and A. Suryanarayana. Physical oceanography
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Annual Rev., 34: 1-70 (1996).
[14] Wyrtki, K. Physical Oceanography of the Southeast Asian Waters. NAGA
report. Vol.2. La Jolla: University of California. 1961
139
T01_013: PERFORMANCE STUDY OF
POLYETHYLENE TIBIAL INSERT IN TOTAL
KNEE REPLACEMENT DURING DEEP KNEE
FLEXION
Muhammad Zubair Abd Rehim
Solehuddin Shuib
Muhad Rozi Mat Nawi
Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor,
Malaysia
ABSTRACT
This paper presents the performance of knee implant in Total Knee Replacement
(TKR) during flexion zero degree until deep flexion by using finite element
analysis (FEA). The objective of this study is to redesign and analyse the
performance of tibia tray component at deep flexion. Every angle flexion has
different net lateral force as well as the stress distribution on knee. The angle
variation for this study are 0, 90, 135, and 165 degrees. From the FEA
analysis, the best design is achieved by using compatible material i.e., Cobalt
Chrome, Titanium and Ultra Height Molecular Weight Polyehtylene
(UHMWP). This study is to evaluate the performance of von Mises stress,
deformation, shear stress and contact pressure of tibia insert. Design
improvement has been done based on formula P=F/A (P = pressure, F = net
force, A = contact area). It is found that the critical position and highest value
of stress is deep knee flexion i.e. 165 degree. The performance of critical
position has been improved from the existing design which reduce the stress
distribution. From that improvement, the new design has been successfully
analyzed and offers better performance at deep flexion position.
Keywords: Total Knee Replacement; Total Knee Arthroplasty; Finite Element

Analysis; Ultra-High Molecular Weight Polyethylene; Deep Flexion.
Introduction
Knee is defined as a joint where having three components. The thigh bone (the
femur) joins the large shin bone (the tibia) to combine the main knee joint [1].
From the aspect of anatomy human body, knee is one of the complicated joint
in the human body. Knee have two structurally and functionally different, yet
interrelated joint, which are tibiofemoral and patella femoral joint [2].
Commonly, there are two ways of knee injury: (1) natural injury due to the sport
activities: (2) aging as well as accident event such as road accident, work site
accident etc. The common injury of knee is meniscus injury. Meniscus injury is
happened whenever tear of one or more of the fibrocartilage strips in the knee
called menisci. Menisci can be torn during non-dangerous activities such as
walking or squatting. It is also due to by traumatic force happen in sports or
other body posture of physical exertion. The traumatic action is always
happened during twisting movement at the knee when the leg is in flexion. For
adult region, the meniscus can be broken by prolonged 'wear and tear' called a
degenerative tear [2].
Total Knee Replacement (TKR) is one of the best treatment or last

option to the patient to overcome the knee problem. In year 1968 the first knee
implant surgery was successful done [3]. Since then, the development of knee
implant design or TKR operation increase from material uses, the design, and
techniques in TKR surgery. Between 2001 until 2006 more than two thousand
patients has gone through the TKR in Singapore (See Table 1).
Table 1: Statistic of patients have gone through TKR [3]
Demographic TKR (n = 1716)
No %
Male 350 20.4
Female 1365 79.5
Chinese 1522 88.7
Malay 116 6.8
Indian 58 3.4
Other 19 1.1
Public 1329 77.4
Private 374 21.8
Other 13 0.8
Age in years, mean ± SD 67.1 ± 7.6
In year 2006, NexGen Legacy® LPS-Flex Mobile Bearing had produce by

Zimmer Incorporated has improved the design knee implant for deep knee
flexion (155o), however in this study, it extends the knee implant up to 165˚. The
purpose of this study is to evaluate the performance of von Misses stress,
deformation, shear stress and contact pressure of tibia insert.
Methodology
The main parts of knee in this study are femoral and tibial inset as well as tibia
and patella also include in this analysis in completion for Total Knee
Replacement (TKR). Different design features for femoral and polyethylene part
has been modeled using Catia R15 software and the performance of deep flexion
has been analyzed using Ansys v15.0 software.
Force applied location

During FEA simulation, forces are set well distributed around the femoral
implant with different angle flexion for the particular human position, i.e.
standing and squatting as shown in the Figure below [4].
Figure 1: Direction force applied in FEA [4]
Table 2: Material properties [6], [7]

Part Selected material Young Modulus
elasticity (MPa)
Femoral Cobalt Chrome Alloy 220,000
Tibial Ultra High Molecular Weight 800 - 1,500
insert Polyethylene (UHMWPE)
Tibia Titanium 110,320
Mechanical system and static structural analysis

Three dimensional knee implant has been modeled in CATIA which consisting
femoral, tibial insert and tibia. Femoral and tibia are set as titanium material and
tibial insert as polyethylene. Global coordinate system set as the default
coordinate. The modeled has been meshed with three different qualities.
Meshing process is edited manually. The meshing has given a little effect on the
result of the finite element models. Table 2 represents the material properties of
141
new design. Figure 2 shows the location of femoral, tibial insert and tibia in 3D
meshed knee implant.
The finite element analysis are shown in Table 3. There are including element
type, element number and number of nodes for different angle of flexion. In
FEA simulation, there are four different angles to be applied to the femoral as
indicated in Table 4. The tibial insert and tibia component have been fixed in
order to maintain its location. There are four angles of flexion with particular
positions also indicated in Table 4. Different angle of flexion is applied in the
analysis system. The direction of force applied is perpendicular to the
polyethylene component. Fixed support is setting at bottom of polyethylene
component.
Femoral
Tibial insert
Tibia
Figure 2: 3D model of knee implant
Table 3: Finite element analysis features

Angle of flexion (degree) 0 90 135 165
Element type Computer auto-generated
No. element 13882 104525 25220 46084
No. nodes 25376 59804 13747 25703
Table 4: Side view of 3D knee implant modeled with four flexion angles.
Angle (˚) Position Condition Angle (˚) Position Condition
0 Stand 135 Squat
90 Kneel 165 Sit on feet
Force applied load

Weight of 80kg (equivalent 784053N) has been applied during analysis by
considering the average weight of Malaysian people.
Table 4: Force applied due to the angle flexion

Angle flexion (˚) 0 90 135 165
(BW = Bodyweight) 0.5 BW = 1.2 BW = 5.3 BW = 6 BW =
Net force 392.265N 941.436N 2940.156N 4546.787N
Design analysis
During analysis, there are some parameters have been considered, there are
Total deformation, directional deformation due to x, y, z axis, von Misses stress,
shear stress and contact pressure parameter to be compared with previous
designs. These parameters have been referred from previous research [5] and
[9].
142
Results and discussion
Stress distribution
Figure 3 shows the contact pressure distribution due to the orientation of flexion.
For standing position (0o) the maximum value is 1.675 MPa and minimum value
is 0.234 MPa. At kneel position (90 o) the maximum value is 12.86MPa,
minimum value is 1.772MPa. Squat position (135 o) produces the maximum
value is 55.181MPa and the minimum value is 8.416MPa meanwhile deep
flexion position (165o) produces the maximum value is 188.47MPa and the
minimum value is 7.425MPa. The trend values of contact pressure is
exponentially in shape. Figure 3 also shows red colour contour area is maximum
(black circle) and blue colour are the minimum pressure. The maximum value
of stress is at deep flexion position i.e. 165° because of this position is critical
and focus area of this study.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 3: Contact pressure for different flexion angles, (a) 0 o, (b) 90o, (c)
135o, (d) 165o
Shear stress distribution
Figure 4 shows the shear stress versus angle of flexion, which indicates that the
position of 165 degree flexion is the highest value of shear stress. Shear stresses
at zero degree and 135 degree flexion on YZ plane are the highest. At 90 degree
flexion, the highest value of shear stress is on the plane XY. Meanwhile, at the
plane XZ, the highest value of shear stress is at 165 degree flexion. From the
figure also, it shows that the highest values of shear stress for both angles 0° and
135° occurs at the plane YZ. Therefore, the plane YZ is crucial and need to have
more attention.
SHEAR STRESS DISTRIBUTION

50
XY Plane YZ Plane XZ Plane
SHEAR STRESS (MPA)
40
30
20
10
0
0 90 135 165
ANGLE OF FLEXION (°)
Figure 4: Shear stress based on plane orientation
143
Knee is part of the body which does the sliding between femoral and
tibia and normally knee failure happens during sliding or flexion movements.
The highest value of shear stress is about 42.85 MPa which still not exceed the
yield strength value. The anatomy region of this critical area for standing
position is intercondyloid eminence, for kneeling position is lateral
epicondyle, for squat position is medial epicondyle and for deep knee flexion
position is at the edge of articular surface, from the posterior position.
Comparison performance
Table 5: Comparison performance existing design with new design

Angle Deformation Von Mises Shear Contact pressure
of (mm) stress(Mpa) stress(Mpa) scale(Mpa)
flexion Existing New Existing New Existing New Existing New
(degree) design design design design design design design design
0 0.469 0.0076 29.703 4.216 16.506 2.162 14.767 1.675
90 0.0199 0.0305 38.761 29.441 19.965 15.713 7.642 12.86
135 0.93 0.3 244.47 48.522 132.35 27.549 60.078 55.181
165 0.535 0.447 253.55 144.31 128.43 79.059 553.98 188.47
Based on the FEA simulation, the highest stress value is lower than Young
Modulus elasticity value, so that every deformation still in elastic modulus.
Elastic modulus is defined as deformation on implant and the slope of its stress–
strain curve in the elastic deformation region. Plastic region is defined as
deformation permanently at implant. The plastic region have to avoid due to the
broken implant or fatigue failure of material. Yield strength is the critical
boundary between elasticity and plastic region. Every stress value must be
lowered than yield strength to avoid plastic region.
Conclusion
The present work which aims to redesign a knee implant that can extend the
flexion angle up to 165o compared to the existing design in which the maximum
flexion angle is 155o [8]. From the FEA analysis using Ansys 15.0 software, the
new design has produced criteria of von Mises stress, shear stress and contact
pressure which are about 43%, 38% and 66% respectively. This study proves
that the deep flexion up to 165o for knee implant is still feasible with the finding
values of von Mises stress, shear stress and contact pressure.
Acknowledgement
The author would like to thank the Ministry Of Higher Education Malaysia for
the Graduate Research Assistant (GRA) scheme under FRGS no 600-
RMI/FRGS 5/3 (68/2015) or sponsorship no. FRGS /1 /2015 / TK03/ UiTM/ 02/
6
Reference
[1] www.medicinenet.com, "Definition of Knee," 1996-2014. [Online].

Available:http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey
=4114. [Accessed 7 November 2014].
[2] M. Rene chalet, Knee Pain and Disability, United States of America: F.
A Davis Company, 1992.
[3] American academy of orthopaedic surgeon, "Total Knee
Replacement," American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeon,
December2011.[Online].Available:http://orthoinfo.aaos.org/topic.cfm
?topic=a00389. [Accessed 8 November 2014].
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implants evaluated using finite element analysis of patient- specific ...
144
femoral-component case study,” BMC Musculoskelet. Disord., vol.
8:91, no. November 2016, p. 7 of 10, 2007.
[5] M.Ikhwan Zaini Ridzwan, M.S. Mohidin, Solehuddin Shuib, and A.A.
Shokri, 28-29th May, 2007, ‘Stress Variations due to Different in Stem
Length on TKR’, Proceedings of Regional Annual Fundamental
Science Seminar 2007 (RAFSS 2007), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,
Johor, Malaysia.
[6] www.3trpd.co.uk, "Material Specifcation Cobalt Chrome Alloy
Co28Cr6Mo," AS 9100 Rev C for the production of metal parts using
Additive Manufacturing (AM), uk.
[7] Rimnac C. On the mechanical properties of UHMWPE. Transactions
of the 3rd UHMWPE International Meeting, Polyethylene in Total
Joint Replacement Systems: Concerns and Solutions. Madrid, Spain,
September 14-15, 2007.
[8] Hefzy MS, Kelly BP, Cooke TDV. Kinematics of the knee joint in deep
flexion: a radiographic assessment. Med Eng Phys. 1998; 20:302-307.
[9] Mohamad Ikhwan Zaini Ridzwan, Solehudin Shuib, A.A. Shokri,Ng
Joon Kiat, Design and Analysis of Multi-size Jig for Anterior and
Posterior Preliminary Cut at the Distal End of Femoral Bone, Journal
of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 2009, 3(2), 67-76.
.
145
T01_014: TOTAL LIPID ANALYSIS OF
CADAVER DECOMPOSITION IN RUBBER
PLANTATION SOIL
N.A, Daud
S.S, Ismail
School of Marine Science and Environmental, 21300
Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Malaysia.
ABSTRACT
Soil lipids have big potential as decomposition biomarkers to estimate the post
mortem interval has been acknowledged by forensic entomologist. A stimulated
burial experiment was carried out to identify the total lipid present starting the
time of death. In this experiment, fatty flesh of pig carcass (Sus scrofa) was used
and buried in organic soil to mimic the burial in a shallow grave. The
experimental soil was collected from 10 years old rubber plantation in
Terengganu area. The pig tissues were buried in moist acidic sand under
anaerobic condition at room temperature to simulate the burial of a body under
local conditions in Terengganu, Malaysia. Due to similarities in percentage of
body fat distribution, the pig flesh was used as analogue for human cadaver.
The soil pH was measured during decomposition occurs and noted increase in
value to alkaline. Gas chromatography with the flame ion detector (GC-FID)
was employed to determine the concentration of cadaveric material presented.
The total lipid analysis was focus with the most abundance lipids which were
palmitic and stearic acids. Based on results achieved, the concentration of
palmitic acid (C16:0) and stearic acid (C18:0) increased upon the
decomposition process. In conclusion, these lipids can be used as a biomarker
for further improvement in estimation of post mortem interval.
Keywords: soil lipids; post-mortem interval; shallow grave; cadaver
decomposition
Introduction
Decomposition is a process occurs immediately after death whereby the tissue
of dead organisms is degraded through the chemical and biological degradation
of tissue to simpler forms [1][2]. The chemistry of adipocere formation indicated
that adipocere can be formed only a few hours after death [3] and the presence
of adipocere is marked by particular fatty acids [4] Depending with surrounding
and environment the decomposition may happened right after four minutes after
death and the process continue and going slow until the body decompose into
skeleton [1,5]. This decomposition process is complex and involves in breaking
down the soft tissues until the skeletonized stage has occur [6]. The following
Table 1.0 shows the stages of decomposition along the process with the expected
process time interval.
Table 1: Stage of Decomposition [1].
Stage of decomposition Time interval
146
Stage 1 (Initial Stage) 0-3 days
Stage 2 (Putrefaction) 4-10 days
Stage 3 (Black Putrefaction) 10-20 days
Stage 4 (Butyric Fermentation) 20-50 days
Stage 5 (Dry Decay) 50-365 days
Base on previous study by [7] the life cycle of insects has been used using the
calculation of egg laid time to estimate the minimum time of death. The major
larva of order Diptera and Coleoptera are usually associated with the human
body [8]. Using these arthropods and micro-organisms activities, a value
prediction can be achieved directly related to the various stages by their help
from breakdown of soft tissues during the decomposition process [1, 9].
To date, soil lipids are extracted and analysed to identify the total lipids
found in sample soil based on several stages of decomposition to estimate the
post-mortem interval (PMI). A control burial laboratory experiment was
conducted using soil from 10 years old rubber plantation to establish preliminary
results of total lipids abundance during the each decomposition stage and
emphasis on palmitic and stearic acids. In this experiment, due to some
limitation the pig fatty flesh is used as analogue to human body as they have
similar skin depth, fat deposit, organ arrangement [10] and the anatomy of skin
tissues are exists under the same condition [11].
Methodology
Simulated Burial Experiment

The experiment was designed to stimulate burial in a shallow grave. 28 ml
volume vials were used to mimics the shallow grave. It was fully filled-up with
soil and 30 g pig fatty flesh was buried and allowed to decompose according to
the specific burial intervals. The vials were exposed to ambient environment and
the moisture content had been checked consistently. The soils were collected
accordingly for each of the sampling point: Day zero (D0), Day seven (D7), Day
fifteen (D15), Day thirty (D30) and Day ninety (D90).Soils with adipose tissue
were stored in a freezer at -20 °C prior analysis. Then soils were freeze-dried
and transferred into airtight sample glass bottle and stored.
Modified Bligh-Dyer Extraction

Approximate 2 g soil was transferred into a Pyrex culture tube and the dry
weight obtained. 3 ml of DCM/methanol (2:1 v/v) was added into the soil, then
spiked with 100 µl internal standard tetratriacontane acid and sonicated for 15
min, followed by centrifuging for 5 min (~3000 rpm). The supernatant was
transferred into a clean vial. The process was repeated three times for 2 ml of
DCM/ methanol (2:1 v/v). The soil then treated with 3 ml of Bligh-Dyer solvent,
sonicated for 15 min and centrifuged (~3000 rpm, 5 min). The supernatant was
transferred into the same vial. The extraction was repeated with 3 x 2 ml Bligh-
Dyer solvent. To break the organic phase, 2 ml each of buffered water and
chloroform were added to the supernatant and the mixture centrifuged for 1 min
(~3000 rmp). The organic layer then transferred into a clean vial. This process
was repeated with 3 x 2 ml chloroform. The solvent was evaporated from the
resulting total lipid extraction (TLE) solution under a gentle flow of nitrogen,
and the resultant TLE stored in a freezer below -30 °C [12].
Instrument Analysis
Samples were analysed using a gas chromatography- flame ion detector (GC-
FID) (GC-2010 plus, Shimadzu). Separation was performed with BPX1 polar
147
capillary column (30 m x 0.25 mm internal diameter, 0.25 µm film thickness).
Helium was used as a carrier gas. After injection at 50 °C and held for 2 min.,
the oven temperature was raised to 250 °C at a rate 10 °C min-1 and held for 5
min., then to 320 °C at 10°C min-1, and finally held constant for 10 min. The
flame ionization was held at 350°C. Peaks were identified by comparing their
retention times with those of authentic standards (Supelco Inc.).

Figure 1 showed the bar chart of concentration of palmitic acid (C16:0) and
stearic acid (C18:0) from the total lipids extracted. To summarize, the
abundance of palmitic acid is lower than stearic acid almost triple times. The
concentration of palmitic acid increased from D0_CR to D15_R3 and decreased
afterward, with gradually increased at D30_R3. During D30_R3, the abundance
of palmitic acid is the highest while for stearic acid the most abundance is during
D15_R3. Day-15 is included in stage 3 decomposition which is black
putrefaction and also known as the combined process of putrefaction and the
metabolic activities of the maggots [5, 13].
Figure 1 Concentration of Palmitic acid (C16:0) and Stearic acid (C18:0) against
experimental days
The time interval for D30 is corresponding to butyric fermentation

stage while, D90_R3 is correspond to the dry decay stage [1]. During the butyric
fermentation stage, the activities of maggot feeding and bacterial putrefaction
are continuous. The carcasses are drying out and attract the beetle populations
and other parasites species surround affect the decomposition rate and the
formation of lipid along the decomposition activity [5, 13]. Above and beyond,
the dry decay stage is recognized as the consequent deflation of the corpse and
also the diminished of insects activity [14].
These can be conclude, the concentration of palmitic and staeric acid are very
variety in every stage of decomposition. It can be noted as during putrefaction
and black fermentation these lipids can be one of indicator to identify the
interlude of decomposition. However, the suitable surrounding conditions also
play an important role in promotion the hydrolysis and hydrogenation of the
tissues [1][15,16].
Conclusion
This study was successfully carried out to understand the soil lipids extractant
has potential as a biomarker to estimate the pmi. The objective of this study was
to identify the total lipids found in sample soil based on the five stages of
decomposition was achieved with the extraction using the modification of bligh-
dye method and employment of gas chromatography flame ion detector (gc-fid)
instrument. The results showed the higher reading of most abundance lipids
which were palmitic and stearic acid were detected. Nevertheless, the laboratory
experimental will continue to meet the timescale of decomposition process of
148
fatty flesh completed and the others total lipids abundance during the
decomposition process.
References
[1] Vass, A. A. (2001). Beyond the grave-understanding human
decomposition.Microbiology today, 28, 190-193.
[2] Stewart, T. D., & Kerley, E. R. (1979). Essentials of forensic
anthropology: especially as developed in the United States.
Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
[3] Yan, F., McNally, R., Kontanis, E., & Sadik, O. (2001). Preliminary
Quantitative Investigation of Postmortem Adipocere Formation.
Journal of Forensic Sciences, 46(3), 609-614.
[4] Cassar, J., Stuart, B., Dent, B., Notter, S., Forbes, S., O'Brien, C., &
Dadour, I. (2011). A study of adipocere in soil collected from a field
leaching study. Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences, 43(1), 3-11.
[5] Goff, M.L. 2009. Early Post-Mortem Changes and Stages of
Decomposition in Exposed Cadavers. Experimental and Applied
Acarology 49: 21-36.
[6] Lowe, A. C., Beresford, D. V., Carter, D. O., Gaspari, F., O’Brien, R.
C., Stuart, B. H., & Forbes, S. L. (2013). The effect of soil texture on
the degradation of textiles associated with buried bodies. Forensic
science international, 231(1), 331-339.
[7] Anderson, G. S. (1996). Practical exercise in forensic entomology.
Gazette,58(9), 3-6.
[8] Singh, H., Venketasan, M., Aggarwal, O. P., & Raj, S. (2014). Use of
maggots for the estimation of time since death. Journal of Punjab
Academy of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology, 14(1), 22-26.
[9] Dent, B.B., Forbes, S.L. & Stuart, B.H. 2004. Review of Human
Decomposition Processes in Soil. Environmental Geology 45: 576-
585.
[10] Schoenly, K. G., Haskell, N. H., Hall, R. D., & Gbur, J. R. (2007).
Comparative performance and complementarity of four sampling
methods and arthropod preference tests from human and porcine
remains at the Forensic Anthropology Center in Knoxville, Tennessee.
Journal of medical entomology, 44(5), 881-894.
[11] Notter, S. J., Stuart, B. H., Rowe, R., & Langlois, N. (2009). The initial
changes of fat deposits during the decomposition of human and pig
remains. Journal of forensic sciences, 54(1), 195-201.
[12] Bligh, E. G., & Dyer, W. J. (1959). A rapid method of total lipid
extraction and purification. Canadian journal of biochemistry and
physiology, 37(8), 911-917
[13] Perotti, M. A., & Braig, H. R. (2009). Phoretic mites associated with
animal and human decomposition. Experimental and Applied
Acarology, 49(1-2), 85-124.
[14] Janaway, R.C., Percival, S.L. & Wilson, A.S. 2009. Chapter 14:
Decomposition of Human Remains. In: Percival, S.L. (Ed.).
Microbiology and Aging. New York: Springer+Science+Business
Media, LLC. pp. 319-320.
[15] Bereuter, T. L., Mikenda, W., & Reiter, C. (1997). Iceman's
mummification—implications from infrared spectroscopical and
histological studies.Chemistry–A European Journal, 3(7), 1032-1038.
[16] Takatori, T. (1996). Investigations on the mechanism of adipocere
formation and its relation to other biochemical reactions. Forensic
science international, 80(1), 49-61.
149
T01_015: SEED GERMINATION OF CANARIUM
ODONTOPHYLLUM IN RELATION TO FRUIT
RIPENESS
Aziela, M., Tsan, F.Y. and Pebrian, D. E.
Faculty of Plantation and Agrotechnology, Universiti Teknologi MARA,
40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia.
ABSTRACT
Fruits of most Canarium, including Canarium odontophyllum, are primarily
known for their edible fruits and kernel. While research focus has been placed
on their antioxidant properties and oil, there were limited documentations on
handling of their seeds as planting materials. The aim of this research was to
investigate seed germination of C. odontophyllum in relation to fruit ripeness
for planting purposes. Seeds were obtained from fruits collected from Selangau
District, Sarawak, in end of 2015 for experimentations. Results showed that
seeds from full size unripe fruits and half ripe fruits had higher moisture content
(MC) and germinated only after two weeks. Fully ripe fruits had significantly
the lowest MC and showed earlier seed germination starting from four days
after sowing.
Keywords: seed moisture content, endocarp, fruit ripeness, seed germination.
Introduction
The genus Canarium from family of Burseraceae consists of about 88 species in

the major group of Angiosperms, with 75 species found mainly in Tropical Asia
and the Pacific [1],[2]. The species of genus Canarium are primarily known for
their edible fruits and kernel. Recent studies also focus on their potential to be
utilised as source of vegetable oil and natural antioxidant agents.
Fruits of most Canarium, including C. odontophyllum, produce nuts
that are classified as drupe with very thin layer of pericarp and fleshy mesocarp
of relatively high moisture content (MC) at harvest; while seeds of these species
are not highly distinct among one another, with each of them surrounded by
papery testa within a stony endocarp [3]. The trees of C. odontophyllum have
optimum height of 20 m and produce fruits up to 800 kg per tree [4]. The
reproduction of this plant is dioecious; the plant has two sex forms; male and
hermaphrodite [5], [6]. The breeding mechanism of C. odontophyllum is via
cross-pollination. It was reported that the pollens from the wild types were used
for pollination, instead of those from the male trees cultivated from seeds [6].
Immature fruits of C. odontophyllum are white in colour, while the ripening
fruits change to reddish-black-white in colour with yellow flesh, and the pericarp
or fruit skin eventually turns dark purple as the fruits fully ripen [4],[8],[9]. Each
fruit is single seeded, and the seeds are enclosed in oblong, large and three
angled endocarp.
In the case of C. odontophyllum, conventional vegetative propagation
method such as bud grafting is not highly successful [5]. Seeds, on the other
hand, do not germinate at satisfactory percentage and uniformity, although they
have good performance in terms of germination speed. Despite the uncertainty
and low success with both vegetative propagation method and seed germination,
little research and documentation is found on these aspects. Therefore, the
150
purpose of this study was to investigate the seed germination of C.
odontophyllum of different ripeness levels, i.e. full size unripe, half ripe and
fully ripe in the first place, in order to establish a platform for understanding
seed germination of C. odontophyllum, which will then be beneficial in
improvising the planting material production method, i.e. rootstock productions
for vegetative propagation and conservation of plant genetic resources for this
species in future; as well as to lay a foundation for further research on the seed
germination of this species.
Materials and Methods
All fruits of different ripeness used in this study were collected from a single
tree located in Selangau District of Sibu Region, Sarawak, Malaysia
(231′26.32″N11219′27.19″E). Full size unripe fruits were white in colour,
while half ripe and fully ripe fruits were reddish-black-white and dark purple,
respectively.Weekly field trips were made to monitor the fruiting and ripening
of fruits with the aid of a pair of binoculars to estimate the suitable time for
harvesting fruits of different ripeness for experimentation. Fruit collection was
carried out when all three ripeness stages were available simultaneously on the
tree bunches. Fruit harvesting was conducted using two methods, climbing onto
the tree to get the fruits and with the aid of a long pole to obtain fruits from
higher branches. Fruits were harvested with their fruit stalks intact for
transportation to Kuching by bus, which took a minimum of 6 h; as fruits with
fruit stalks removed deteriorate fast at ambient temperature [9]. Experiment was
conducted immediately on the following days upon fruit arrival.
Fruit stalks were only discarded prior to experimentation. For each fruit
ripeness, 60 fruits in three replicates were picked up randomly, soaked in tap
water for three days, followed by seed extraction using a knife and a pair of
scateurs. The seeds were those enclosed in endocarp as removal of the hard and
thick endocarp was very difficult and had frequently damaged the very thin layer
of testa, as well as the cotyledons and embryos within endocarp. After cleaning
the seeds with running tap water, 30 seeds in three replicates were measured for
morphological characteristics, followed by seed germination, while the
remaining 30 seeds, also in three replicates, were subjected to MC test according
to ISTA [10].
Seeds were measured for length and width using a standard manual
caliper reading to 0.1 mm. Then, the seeds were sown on moistened sand sized
0.2 – 2.0 mm in enclosed plastic boxes for germination test. Seed germination
was carried out at a bright place but away from direct sunlight at ambient
temperature. Covers of the plastic boxes were opened daily for seed germination
count, also allowing gas exchange to ensure sufficient oxygen supply for seed
germination. A seed was considered to have germinated with the emergence of
radicle. Germinated seeds were removed from the boxes after germination count
was recorded. Water was sprayed onto sand medium when necessary throughout
the germination period of one month. At the end of the germination test,
germination index was calculated as:
Germination index = [Gt/T]
where,
Gt = Total number of germinated seeds at day T
T = Number of days after seed sowing
For determination of seed MC, five seeds per replicate for each fruit
ripeness were placed in an aluminium boat and weighed using an analytical
balance reading to 0.0001 g before drying in a convection oven set at 103±2 C
for 16±1 h. The remaining five seeds per replicate were cut carefully to remove
their endocarp to obtain the seeds covered with only testa. The locules, testa,
151
cotyledons and embryo within the endocarp of each seed were observed
carefully and described. Then, each replicate of seeds with no endocarp was also
placed in an aluminium boat, weighed using the analytical balance and dried in
the convection oven at 103±2 C for 16±1 h. After oven drying, the dried seeds
in aluminium boat were cooled to room temperature in a desiccator for about 1
h before weighing again. After weighing, the oven dried seeds were removed
from the aluminium boat and each emptied aluminium boat was weighed
accordingly. Seed MC was calculated as:
% MC = (W1 – W2) x 100/(W1 – W3)
where,
W1 = Weight of test materials in aluminium boat before oven drying
(g)
W2= Weight of test materials in aluminium boat after oven drying (g)
W3 = Weight of aluminium boat (g)
The experimentation was based on a completely randomized design
(CRD) with three replicates, with fruit ripeness as the factor affecting seed
morphological characteristics, MC and germination. The data were subjected to
analysis of variance (ANOVA) and treatment means were compared using
Tukey’s Honestly Significant Difference (HSD) test at 5% level of significance.
Percentages were transformed to arcsine values before ANOVA.
Results
There was no significant difference observed in the length of seed (without

endocarp) from full size unripe to fully ripe fruit stages (Table 1). The seed
length was 15.00 – 23.60 mm in unripe fruits, while that in the half ripe fruits
ranged from 14.60 – 22.90 mm and seeds in fully ripe fruits had length ranging
from 13.10 – 22.70 mm. Nonetheless, seeds in fully ripe fruits had significantly
16 – 18% increment in diameter at both wider and narrower sides, being 10.35
mm at wider side and 6.37mm at narrower side, as compared to those in the
unripe and half ripe fruits; seeds of full size unripe fruits had average diameter
of 8.93 mm at wider side and 5.40 mm at narrower side while those in fruits of
half ripeness were 8.85 mm at wider side and 5.11mm at narrower side. In terms
of spread of the seed length and diameter, seeds in full size unripe and half ripe
fruits had smaller deviations of 2 – 3 mm from mean values but seeds of fully
ripe fruits had seed diameter ranging from 5.10 – 16.70 mm at wider side and
2.90 – 10.80 mm at narrower side (Table 1). Based on the data gathered, C.
odontophyllum seeds were relatively small within their fruits and occupied about
only one third of the space in the fruits.
Within the hard and thick endocarp, there were three locules but only
one locule contained a flattened ovoid shaped seed while the other two locules
were abortive and much smaller in size. For unripe fruit, testa was paper-like,
thin and light greenish to light brown in colour. The testa was glued to the
endocarp, especially at the fruit stalk position, resulting in great difficulties to
separate intact seed from the endocarp without injuring the seed. The seeds were
soft and irregular shaped with unripe fruits. The seed coat (testa) turned darker
brown as fruits ripened to half ripe and fully ripe stages. It became slightly easier
to be separated from endocarp but it was still difficult to extract intact seed from
endocarp without injuring it. The seed became ovoid with slightly narrower end
at the basal position of the fruit as the fruit ripened. The texture of the seed also
became harder in ripening fruit.
152
Table 1: Morphological Attributes of Seeds at Different Fruit Ripeness
Diameter (cm)
Fruit ripeness Length (mm) Wider side Narrower side
Full size unripe 20.04 ± 1.69a 8.93 ± 0.64b 5.40 ± 0.59b
(15.00 – 23.60) (7.00 – 9.90) (4.20 – 6.30)
Half ripe 20.21 ± 1.96a 8.85 ± 0.69b 5.11 ± 0.73b
(14.60 – 22.90) (7.10 – 9.70) (3.30 – 6.20)
Fully ripe 20.15 ± 1.94a 10.35 ± 1.94a 6.37 ± 1.49a
(13.10 – 22.70) (5.10 – 16.70) (2.90 – 10.80)
Values are mean±SD and figures in parentheses are minimum and maximum values;
means having the same letter within column are not significantly different at 5% level of
significance.
Within the paper-like testa were clearly seen folded and rolled fleshy
foliolate cotyledons, being yellowish green in colour with the full size unripe
fruits, turning more whitish in ripening fruits. Embryonic plumule and radicle
could be clearly seen with all the three under study fruit ripeness, having radicle
rather exposed as the cotyledons were not fully developed in unripe fruit but it
became fully covered within cotyledons as the cotyledons grew bigger and
developed into fuller flattened ovoid shape towards the final shape with
increasing diameter of the seed in ripening fruit. Endosperm was absent with
full size unripe to fully ripe fruits.
Seed MC dropped as fruit ripened, a natural phenomenon in seed
development. When tested with endocarp attached, seed MC was significantly
the highest at 31% with seeds extracted from full size unripe fruits (Table 2).
This physiological parameter decreased to 27.14% in seeds taken from half ripe
fruits and further decreased to 23.16% in seeds obtained from fully ripe fruits,
bringing about 7.84% moisture loss as fruit ripening progressed from full size
unripe to fully ripe stages.
Table 2: Seed MC, Germination and Germination Index of Seeds

extracted from Fruits of Different Ripeness
Ripenes Seed MC Seed MC Germination Germinatio

s with without (%) n index
endocarp endocarp (%)
attached (%)
unripe 31.00 ± 1.64a 53.07 ± 6.63a 80.00 ± 26.45a 0.48 ±
(27.76 – (40.98 – 72.42) (80 – 100) 0.05b
33.99) (0.42 –
0.53)
Half 27.14 ± 1.51b 40.39 ± 4.74b 93.33 ± 5.77a 0.48 ±
ripe (21.53 – (29.96 – 54.25) (90 – 100) 0.04ab
29.82) (0.43 –
0.53)
Fully 23.16 ± 1.32c 28.74 ± 6.59c 90.00 ± 10.00a 0.76 ± 0.17a
ripe (21.14 – (15.87 – 40.49) (50 – 100) (0.61 –
26.00) 0.95)
Values are mean±SD and figures in parentheses are minimum and maximum values;
means having the same letter within column are not significantly different at 5% level of
significance.
Meanwhile, the same trend of decreasing MC was recorded with seeds
after careful removal of endocarp to retain as much thin layer of testa as possible.
The significantly highest seed MC was 53.07% with those taken from full size
unripe fruits, and seed MC dropped significantly to 40.39% with those obtained
from half ripe fruits while and seeds extracted from fully ripe fruits had
significantly the lowest MC of 28.74% (Table 2). There was a more realistic
153
24.33% moisture loss from seeds as fruits turned from full size unripe to fully
ripe stages. Mean MC of 28.74% attained in seeds (without endocarp) obtained
from fresh fully ripe fruits indicated that the seeds could probably tolerate
moderate degree of desiccation.
There was also greater spread of seed MC detected when endocarp was
discarded; seeds from unripe fruits had MC ranged from 40.98 – 72.42% while
those from half ripe and fully ripe fruits had MC ranged from 29.96 – 54.25%
and 15.87 – 40.49%, respectively (Table 2). The deviations of MC of seeds with
endocarp attached from their respective mean values were, however, much
smaller. MC of seeds with endocarp attached ranged from 27.76 - 33.99% with
unripe fruits, 21.53 - 29.82% with half ripe fruits, while that from fully ripe fruits
ranged from 21.14 – 26%. Such much narrower MC range was attributed to the
thick endocarp, confounding the actual MC of the tissues enclosed within the
endocarp, i.e. the seed. It also indicated that endocarp had very low MC but
marked biomass due to its thickness.
Seeds with endocarp attached were studied for germinability as
removal of endocarp frequently injured the very thin testa adhered to endocarp
and the cotyledons and embryos within them. Seeds with endocarp were also
justified as possible planting stock for storage when necessary. In this study,
germination percentages of seeds extracted from full size unripe, half ripe and
fully ripe fruits were not statistically significant among one another (Table 2).
The mean seed germination percentage of the half ripe fruits was the highest at
93.33% while those from full size unripe and fully ripe fruits had mean
germination percentages of 80% and 90%, respectively. Seeds of fully ripe fruits
had much greater range of germination percentage, i.e. from 50 - 100%,
probably due to the relatively lower seed MC as mentioned above (Table 2).
Seeds from full size unripe and half ripe fruits had more reliable germination of
80 – 100% and 90 – 100%, respectively. Canarium odontophyllum seeds
showed hypogeal germination, where elongation of hypocotyl was minimal and,
hence, foliolate cotyledons remained in the germination medium after
germination while epicotyl elongated to send only the embryonic plumule above
the germination medium.
In terms of seed vigour expressed as germination index or speed of
germination, seeds from fully ripe fruits showed significantly the highest mean
of germination index of 0.76 as compared to that of full size unripe fruits at 0.48
(Table 2). The earliest germination recorded with seeds from fully ripe fruits
was on the 4th day, while those from half ripe and full size unripe fruits started
germination only on the 14th and 16th day, respectively (Figure 1). Seeds from
fully ripe fruits also had greater range of germination index, i.e. 0.61 – 0.95, as
compared to that with the unripe and half ripe fruits from 0.42 to 0.53, and 0.43
to 0.53, respectively. No further seed germination was recorded after 33 days
from sowing (Figure 1).
Discussion
Canarium odontophyllum seed enclosed in endocarp had high germination
percentage with fruits of fully ripe, half ripe and even full size unripe stages.
This suggests that the embryo had fully developed in fruit of full size, despite
the fruit was still unripe. However, germination index was significantly the
highest with seeds obtained from fully ripe fruits as compared to those from half
ripe and unripe fruits. It indicated that the seeds from fully ripe fruits were
readily to germinate while seeds from unripe and half ripe fruits could continue
to grow into full maturity in warm and moist germination medium despite
removal of pericarp and mesocarp and hence, enable germination to take place
after approximately two weeks. This was supported by the increasing seed
diameter as the fruit ripened. Eurycoma longifilia, a fleshy drupe species with
hard endocarp from family Simaroubaceae, also achieved no significant
154
difference in germination percentage when germinated with seed (enclosed in
endocarp) extracted from both unripe and ripe fruits [11]. Fully ripe seeds of this
medicinal species had 58% germination at 45 days after sowing while seeds
from unripe fruits completed germination slightly earlier at 43 days, with
germination percentage of 46%. This previous study also further investigated
the in vitro seed germination with fruits of these two different ripeness levels.
Seeds with endocarp removed showed significantly faster in vitro germination
with unripe fruits as compared to ripe fruits.
100 Unripe Half ripe Fully ripe

Cumulative germination (%)
80
60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Period (days)
Figure 1: Germination Period of Seeds from Fruits of Different Ripeness
Seed germination of C. odontophyllum in this study was much higher

as compared to previous report that indicated only up to 30% seed germination
[12]. The hard and thick endocarp was thought to be the germination barrier
[13]. The closest reference can be made with Canarium ovatum, commonly
known as Pili nut. Its seeds were reported to show delay in germination at
average of 57 days, believed to be attributed to the hard endocarp [14]. However,
fruit freshness was found crucial to ensure good seed germination in the present
study with C. odontophyllum (unpublished data). Seeds extracted from freshly
harvested fruits with fruit stalk kept intact had high germination percentage of
up to 90%. Fruits with fruit stalk discarded rotted within two to three days under
ambient temperature [7]. Rotting fruits had very low seed germination capacities
(unpublished data). Results reported in the present study suggest that the hard
endocarp was not the germination barrier but fruit freshness mattered.
The differences in seed germination of C. odontophyllum between the
present study and past reports could also be related to the fruit and seed handling
before germination. A previous study suggested that germination may be
affected by the method used to soften the fruit pulp (pericarp and mesocarp)
[13]. The usual method used by the locals to soften or “cook” the fruits before
consumption is by soaking the fruits in water of 40 to 50C for a few hours. In
the present study, fruits were soaked in tap water for three days prior to seed
extraction to avoid damage to the seeds. This could have retained high
germination of the seeds.
Conclusion
Seeds of C. odontophyllum extracted from full sized unripe, half ripe and fully
fruits had high germination of ≥80%. However, germination started early at four
days after sowing and germination index was the highest with seeds obtained
from fully ripe fruits. Seeds from full size unripe and half ripe fruits, being
155
smaller and having higher seed MC, germinated only after two weeks, after
continued development of the seeds into full maturity during warm and moist
incubation in the germination medium. Fully ripe fruits should be harvested for
seed germination purposes.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the assistance from the laboratory staff
of the Faculty of Plantation and Agrotechnology, UniversitiTeknologi MARA,
Shah Alam and Samarahan campuses.
References
[1] T. Nevenimo, “Galip Nut (Canarium indicum)”, Papua New Guinea
National Agriculture Institute, 1-8 (2007).
[2] The Plant List, “Canarium”, http://www.theplantlist.org/ (accessed 22nd July
2013) (2010).
[3] M. L. Stevens, R. M. Bourke, B. R. Evans, “South Pacific Indigenous Nuts”,
Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, 38-40 (1994).
[4] J. C. Ting, W. S. Ho, C. Tawan, “Development of SCAR Markers for Sex
Typing in Canarium odontophyllum Miq. (Dabai)”, The Third
Biotechnology Colloquium (2010).
[5] K. L. Chai, A. W. A. Dayang, C. Y. Lau, S. L. Sim, “Control of In-vitro
Contamination of Explants from Field-grown Dabai (Canarium
odontophyllum Miq.) Trees”,Asia Pacific Journal of Molecular Biology and
Biotechnology 18 (1), 115 – 118 (2010).
[6] S. L. Sim, C. Y. Lau, “Floral biology and pollination in dabai (Canarium
odontophyllum Miq.)”, Proceedings of Research Officers’ Progress
Meeting, Department of Agriculture Sarawak, (2011).
[7] L. W. Y. Jong, “Molecular Fingerprinting of Dabai (Canarium
odontophyllum Miq.) Progenies (Half-Sib Family) Using DAMD Markers”,
Degree of Bachelor of Science with Honours in Resource Biotechnology,
Resource Biotechnology, Department of Molecular Biology, Faculty of
Resource Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (2010).
[8] A. Azrina, M. N. NurulNadiah, I. Amin, “Antioxidant Properties of
Methanolic Extract of Canarium odontophyllum Fruit”, International Food
Research Journal 17, 319-326 (2010).
[9] C.Y. Lau, P. Brooke, “Changes to Dabai Fruit during the Maturation
Process”. New Sunday Tribune, (2012).
[10] ISTA, “International Rules for Seed Testing”. Seed Science and
Technology 4, 51-177 (1976).
[11] L. K. Chan, T. S. Su, K. H. T. Chris, “A Preliminary Study on The
Germination of Eurycoma longifolia Jack (Tongkat Ali) Seeds”, Pertanika
Journal of Tropical Agricultural Science 25(1), 27 – 34 (2002).
[12] I. Salma, A. Khadijah, “Propagation and Conservation of Indigenous Fruit
Species”, Proceedings of 5th National Seed Symposium, 112 – 114 (2008).
[13] M. L. Stevens, R. M. Bourke, B. R. Evans, “South Pacific Indigenous
Nuts”, Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, 38-40
(1994).
[14] R. E. Coronel, “Pili nut. Canarium ovatum Engl. Promoting the
Conservation and Use of Underutilized and Neglected Crops”, International
Plant Genetic Resources Institute, 37-57 (1996).
156
T01_016: ACCELEROMETER PERFORMANCE
FOR DETECTING THE MOTION ARTEFACT IN
PPG SIGNAL PROCESSING
Muhideen Abbas Hasan-1, 2
Fahmi Samsuri-1
Faculty of Electrical and Electronics Engineering,
Universiti Malaysia, Pekan, 26600, Pahang, Malaysia-1
Department of Electronics, Technical Institute/Dour,
Northern Technical University, Foundation of Technical
Education, Iraq-2
ABSTRACT
The Photoplethysmography (PPG) sensors are widely used in medical

applications due to their attractive properties of non-invasive, inexpensive and
easy to setup. However, they are inefficient in non-stationary states of
measurements. Adaptive noise cancellation (ANC) has existed to address this
issue as a kind of several techniques. Unfortunately, the currently used tools in
implementing this technique have failed to reflect the originally induced noise
during motion state, as the main factor for an efficient adaptive filtering. In this
work, we evaluate the classically utilized method and present the proper
solution. Explaining the properties of the devices, those generate the influential
signals, the photodetector, and the noise reflector represented by the 3-axis
accelerometer. Tying together the two devices and collecting their output
signals during various motions to test their reaction under same conditions.
Analysis showed an unmatched response in term of the main frequencies power
distribution. Finally the proper solution for such critical measurements can be
presented by producing the both required signals from similar type sources.
Keywords: PPG signals, noise reflector, Accelerometer, photodiode, ANC
Introduction
Photoplethysmographic (PPG) signal is generated by an optoelectronic device

known as a PPG or pulse oximeter sensor used for non-invasively measuring the
continuous change of blood flow in arterial vessels [1]. It uses only a LED light
source and photodetector assembled inside clip probe to monitor the
cardiovascular pulses waves that propagate through the blood vessels in the
body as seen in Figure 1 (a) and (b). ). Measurement can be measured by
transmission or reflection light as shown in Figure 1 (c) and (d).
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 1: (a) Core PPG sensor design, (b) Typical PPG sensor layout, (c)
Transmission mode measurement and (d) Reflection mode measurement [2].
Photoplethysmographic (PPG) signals are used to determine HR,
oxygen saturation. They are obscured during movements [3]. The ANC is one
of the several techniques did emerge to provide accurate PPG signal. The
precondition for the reliable adaptive filter performance is obtaining the
originally induced noise reference[4]. Traditionally, the noise reference signal
is produced by two approaches, an added extra hardware such 3-axes
accelerometer or an additional pair of LED-Photodetector [5], and by synthetic
noise method extracted from the contaminated signal itself . The synthetic way
was pointed as an inefficient method to meet the sudden changes and relatively
high-cost function processing[6]. It is noticed while applying the current method
the electronic noise effect is neglected.
In this research, we present a background related to this investigation
about the ANC system, concept of Equipartition theorem, photodiode
characteristics and 3-axis. Fastening the both devices and expos them to
different kinds of motions and records their outputs. Using the Fast Fourier
Transform (FFT) to observe the power distribution for all existed frequencies
during steady and motion states.
Background of study
Adaptive Noise Cancellation Technique
ANC is a technique where adaptive filter is implemented; it comprises two parts
the digital filter and the adaptive algorithm which adjusts the coefficient of the
digital filter upon the resulted error signal e (n) as in Figure (2). The precondition
for qualified filter adaptation is providing the actual noise reference signal as
being revealed in Equations. (1) and (2) [4].
𝑒(𝑛) = 𝐷(𝑛) + 𝑉𝐶0 (𝑛) − 𝑦(𝑛) (1)
Within some iterations E[e2(n)], will be minimized and occurs when y(n) = V C0
producing ideal situation:
𝑒(𝑛) = 𝐷(𝑛) (2)
Figure 2: Adaptive Noise Cancellation System

Concept of Equipartition theorem
This theorem states that: (Each degree of freedom of any system fluctuates with
energy equal to 1/2 kBT=2*10-21 J) at the standard temperature of 290, is the
Boltzmann constant and T the absolute temperature) [7].
Photodiode-current Generation
The photodiode is an optoelectronic device alters the light power into electrical
energy. The whole action of generation the photocurrent is the absorbed incident
photons (hυ) cause free electron-hole pairs. The photocurrent is generated when
the free electron-holes move according to the resulted electric field (Eg). As
revealed in Figure. 3 [8].
158
Figure 3: The concept of conversion the light power into electrical energy[8].
Three-Axis accelerometer
It is a Micro-Electro-Mechanical Sensor (MEMS). It consists of a Mass at the
center of the sensor’s chip, which is suspended by 4 Beams doped with Piezo-
resistive material as in Figure 4. When the sensor is subjected to acceleration in
any direction, the movement of the Mass causes change in the piezo-resistance
enables the sensor to detect the acceleration motion [9].
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 4: (a) The sensor’s chip, (b), The 3-axis accelerometer layout, (c), The
suspended Mass by four beams doped with Piezo-resistive material. [9]
Methodology
Data Acquisition Setup and Protocol of the Study

Data from 3-axes accelerometer (AD335, Analog Devices) and traditional PPG
sensor were separately collected, utilizing the four channels DAQ-NI 9215 as
shown in Figure (5). Data were recorded during five consecutive seconds in two
states of motion along X, Y and Z axis and silence, sampled at 100 Hz, utilizing
Lab-VIEW 2015 (National Instruments Corporation).
Figure 5: Data acquisition setup

It has been dealing with the obtained signals as follows:
A- Collected signals of X, Y, and Z axes have been combined on one total
acceleration signal r as in Equation (4) below.
𝑟 = √𝑋 2 + 𝑌 2 + 𝑍 2 (4)
B- Both resulted signals from PPG sensor and r were filtered by

Butterworth low pass filter of 15Hz.
C- Drive the resulted data during continuous five seconds of four kinds of
movements, along with X, Y, and Z axis, to the FFT peak plots to
159
analyze the match between the existed fundamental frequencies for
both signals. Observing the difference of FFT peak plots amplitude.
Validation Study
In this section, we evaluate the reaction of the accelerometer and photodetector
to the various motions in term of the frequency domain.
Fast Fourier Transform

The Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) is a mathematical method to alter a function
of a time domain into frequency domain. Fourier analysis (FA) of a periodic
function indicates the dominative frequencies in determined time [10, 11]. The
Equation (5) defines the Fourier Transform:
∞
𝑋(𝑓) = 𝐹{𝑥(𝑡)} = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝑑𝑡 (5)
−∞
x(t): time function, X(f): FFT function and (ft) is the analyzing frequency.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Silence State
During this state and from the Figure 6 (a) we notice that the FFT peak plots for
the acceleration and photodetector signals are almost same behavior in term of
the of 50 Hz. The gradient distribution effect for the maximum and minimum
magnitudes is entirely correspondent as pointed in the mentioned figure with red
balls.
Motions State
In this state as shown in Figure 6 (b), is an example for plotted FFT peaks
Figure 6: a and b is the FFT peak plots in silence and motion states respectively
during motion along with X axis of moving the tied sensors along with X, Y and
Z axis. It can be easily noticed that the both devices reflect the same effect of
motion with different power magnitudes in term of 50 Hz.
Hence the use of an accelerometer to indicate the induced noise caused
by motion is invalid. In background section, we have mentioned that the major
function for the accelerometer is to measure the changes of the piezoresistance
that caused by motion. While the photodetector is an electronic device
customized to gauge the change of photo-resistance due to incident light effect.
Both of them are electronic devices have different electronic noise during
motion according to the Equipartition theorem [7].
Conclusion
160
From the reported results of this study, we can conclude that the use of an
accelerometer as noise reflector is not capable of indicating all induced noise
precisely, in processing such sensitive PPG signal.
Recruiting the same kind of manufactured devices can reflect the total
induced noise easily as a most appropriate solution leads to achieve a high-level
accuracy of accurate readings.
References
[1] G. Langereis, "Photoplethysmography (PPG) system," Version,

vol. 2, pp. 1-22, 2010.
[2] http://www.semicon.panasonic.co.jp/en/applications/pulse-
oximeter/, ed.
[3] S. Rhee, B.-H. Yang, and H. H. Asada, "Artifact-resistant power-
efficient design of finger-ring plethysmographic sensors,"
Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 48, pp. 795-
805, 2001.
[4] K. B. Gan, E. Zahedi, and M. A., Application of Adaptive Noise
Cancellation in Transabdominal Fetal Heart Rate Detection Using
Photoplethysmography: INTECH Open Access Publisher, 2011.
[5] S. H. Kim, D. W. Ryoo, and C. Bae, "Adaptive noise cancellation
using accelerometers for the PPG signal from forehead," in
Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, 2007.. 29th Annual
International Conference of the IEEE, 2007, pp. 2564-2567.
[6] C. Zhou, J. Feng, J. Hu, and X. Ye, "Study of Artifact-Resistive
Technology Based on a Novel Dual Photoplethysmography
Method for Wearable Pulse Rate Monitors," Journal of medical
systems, vol. 40, pp. 1-10, 2016.
[7] NA, "Noise of Instrumentation,"Imperial College, ed, Autumn
2008.
[8] J.-M. Liu, Photonic devices: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
[9] M. Andrejašic, "Mems accelerometers," in University of Ljubljana.
Faculty for mathematics and physics, Department of physics,
2008.
161
T01_017: DESIGN FOR DECONSTRUCTION:
RECYCLED AND REUSED MATERIALS
TOWARDS SUSTAINABILITY
Anith Nabilah Mustafa1
Hayroman Ahmad2
Husna Mohamad Afifi1, Muhammad Fadhli Othman1
Mohd Zaki Yusof3
1
Master of Science in Green Architecture, 2Building
Department, 3Architecture Department, Faculty of
Architecture Planning and Surveying
Universiti Teknologi MARA Cawangan Perak, Seri
Iskandar Campus.
ABSTRACT
Deconstruction, which consists of recycling and reusing building materials, is a
cleaner form of dismantling than the traditional mechanical demolition. Besides
that, recycled and reused materials are significantly more sustainable option
compared to traditional demolition and landfilling because it reduces the cost
and energy usage. This paper aims to assess the advantages of design for
deconstruction by recycling and reusing materials that are able to contribute
towards the benefits of environmental and sustainability. There will be two case
studies in the United Kingdom chosen in order to assess the benefits of the
recycled and reused materials. The findings show by doing so, it will resulted a
significant reduction in cost, energy use, waste, embodied carbon emission and
local site environmental impacts such as noise, dust, and possible hazardous
materials. Therefore, the usages of recycled and reused materials in buildings
contribute towards environmental benefits and sustainability.
Keywords: Deconstruction, Recycle Material, Reused Material, Sustainable
Design
Introduction
A deconstruction is a better, tidier and more economical way to construct a new
development, as its main principle is to avoid construction waste and optimizing
a building development in the future. According to Diyamandoglu & Fortuna
(2015), a deconstruction is a technique of disassembling a physical structure to
its components in reverse order to that used during construction with minimum
damage so that they maintain their original physical properties and structural
integrity. In one hand, this would ensure that a building constructed can be
disassembled after it ends its life-cycle. On the other, this helps to minimize the
percentage of construction waste, currently approaching 25% up to 30% of a
total waste produced each year [6].
Due to the rapid worldwide changes in construction development, this
paper would highlight a study on the analysis and comparison of a few case
studies of Design for Deconstruction (DfD) built environment. It would also
discuss the advantages, especially through recycling and reusing of materials
that would help towards green environment and sustainability. The study would
focus on materials and techniques that are suitable for DfD and their impacts
especially on the environment.
Literature Review
Design for Deconstruction

Deconstruction is a process of dismantling a building in order to salvage its
materials for recycle or reuse [9].This shows that deconstruction is one of the
alternative ways to reduce the usage of raw construction materials, especially
those made from non-renewable sources. Unlike demolition, DfD which started
in late 1990s managed to generate high-quality low-cost reusable materials for
many uses in new development [5]. By using the indirect connector, it would be
easy to deconstruct the components. However, welded and glue connections
would damage the chemical content of the raw materials. It would then be
impossible to have a perfect deconstruction work without damaging the
components. For this technique, screw fixing would be more preferred than
nails, because it can be easily removed and reused, and lime mortar would act
as filler for all the connection voids [6].
Recycle and Reuse

Strategies and principles for design for deconstruction, with an overall
instructions and information provided in the form of a manual may be able to
assist in maximising the reused components and create a recycling potential.
Building element connections play a crucial role in DfD [6]. Other than having
significant reduction in cost, energy usage, waste, and embodied carbon
emission, recycled or reused materials can reduce the significant environmental
impact, such as reduction of noise, dust, and other possible hazardous materials
[1].
Methodology
The methodology used for this study is based on secondary data, which can be
obtained from reading materials such as academic reading sources, previous
studies, and published journals and reports that are related to the topic of this
study. This exploratory research method reviews through significant numbers of
previous research as designated literature review on constructions, materials and
environmental impact focusing on deconstruction technology. Another method
used for this study is the analysis of selected case studies. These case studies are
summarised in a table according to the benefits of the materials, techniques,
environmental aspects, and the suitability of DfD.
Findings and Discussion
Case Studies
Table 1: Summary of case studies
Olympic and Paralympic Games Village in Arup Campus Solihull, UK
Stratford, London
Case Studies
- A total of 2,900 tonnes (out of 400,000/

Descriptions
425,000 tonnes) of waste used of recycle-

- Total of 95.6% diversion of construction able materials was used, whereby up to
wastes sent to landfill was achieved, where 20% of materials used had recycle-able
about a 22% were of recycle-able content by content by overall weight, for instance,
overall value. 19% of steel frame, 5% of external steel
roof covering and 27% of miliken carpet
tiles.
The embodied carbon has been analysed for the design options and has been used as a
parameter for decision making [12].
- Built using dry construction to enhance
com
Mat
erial
pone
Strus
&
cture
nt
- Cladding panels that were full-storey

the amount of materials recovered during
height and were mostly
deconstruction.
163
interchangeable for other parts of the - The chosen material for steelwork was
residential were used. non-composite to allow easier and faster
recovery in term of its end life potential
too [12].
- The timber for window frames was
changed from cedar to tatajuba as the later
has a longer life ability, to compare.
- Some unnecessary finishes, including
ceilings and encasements for steel work
were stripped off to avoid excessive cost
of construction.
- Most of the built elements, such as
Interior Finishes
partitions can be moved, disassembled

and reassembled to reconfigure space
for future requirements. - Choice for the miliken carpet tiles was
- Partitions (British gypsum) and based on its better end of life potential,
carpets (desso) had to guarantee their and recovery at the end of its 10-year
product performance and recycle- lifespan.
ability where they allowed them to be
sent back for future refurbishment or
recycling purposes.
- Bolted steel trusses system was used.
Techniques
- Warehouse concept was used 98.5 per cent of the overall dismantling
- Hollow core planks were supported by 6 materials were for deconstructed works
metre centre-to-centre steel frames at roof (London Organising Committee of the
planes and mezzanine floors [14]. Olympic Games and Paralympic Games
- Floor and Steel frames were designed as no [7].
structural topping and non-composite. By - The reuse of building components
using this dry construction technique, it has preserves the invested embodied energy
enhanced the potential of reusing the of the deconstructed building components
components during the building lifespan. by re-using them and extending their
service life [1].
- Embodied energy for phase one of the
Environment
campus was 6.2Gj/m2, including

materials transportation.
- Embodied carbon is that 85 percent of bulk - Timber products were included because
items for concrete were delivered by rail,
 low embodied energy properties
which saved 40,000 tonnes of embodied
[12].
carbon compared to delivering by road for
 natural renewable source which
the athlete homes [13].
has a low environmental impact
 the most environmental-friendly
option [10].
Contribution of Design for Deconstruction

It is essential to reduce the quantity of new materials extracted for new
construction projects as well as reusing construction materials available by
applying the DfD concept in construction. These salvage materials from
building demolitions can be reused and recycle especially to be used as materials
for building's finishes such as flooring or wall finishes, instead of making any
structural elements due to uncertainties in the material's strength properties. The
Green House Gas (GHG) emissions can be lowered by more than 50% using
reuse and recycle salvaged materials comparing to the emissions from
demolition activities, thus reducing the global warming effect to the
environment [5]. Deconstruction lessens the interference of a site and
contributes to a reduction of landfill areas. The longer life span of a product the
lesser environmental impact the products gain per year. Hence, by reusing
components those have a longer life span than the assembled building the
environmental impact attributed to the first building could potentially be
reduced [11]. As we all know, usually the recycling facilities are not located
within the construction site and located quite a distance from the construction
site. The transportation usage for reuse and recycling materials would consume
additional energy, time and cost, which indirectly make the process less
environmentally and economically friendly [9]. If there is more availability and
specified of reused materials, the need to extract natural resources lessens, the
164
quantity of demolition waste sent to landfill is reduce, and decreases our
buildings’ embodied energy and carbon [11]. If sustainable lifecycle approaches
are not adopted by the designers or others related work field, reuse and recycling
activities will become unfeasible in the future [9].
Contribution of Design for Deconstruction in Malaysia context

Steel and concrete are most popular materials in building superstructure. In
Malaysia context, both of these materials are durable to retain imposed tropical
weather. These materials also become the main materials that are being used in
Malaysia's current construction industry. As for building construction technique,
modularity construction technique is the best method for DfD. By dividing the
main structure into few disassemble-able components, it makes this method is
the most practical technique for deconstruction design. Other than that, dry
construction technique also implementable as well as the Industrialise Building
System (IBS) in Malaysia. Increasing popularity amongst government project in
using IBS was the positive sign towards sustainable design. Although timber is
suitable and sustainable in Malaysia, the cost of timber materials are expensive
and making it less popular in modern architectural design. Moreover, dry
construction produces low environmental impacts. By precast major elements,
it can reduce in-situ activities during constructions thus give benefits to the
environment and human health.
Conclusion
Principles, systems and strategies are major factors that can help to identify
optimizing applications of DfD. These principles and strategies can be adopted
for better design techniques and would promote good applications on
construction and deconstruction activities to fulfil design requirements. The
project goal should be geared towards environmental protection, material
recycling and component reuse. Design for deconstruction gives benefit on
economics and environmental costing, in short term. However greater benefits
for life cycle resources can be achieved by reducing the production of raw
materials. This would reduce the adverse impacts on the environment, as well
as reducing the construction cost. The development team has been advised to
prepare maintenance and operational manuals for the flexibility and
deconstruction aspects of the design. These manuals would be provided to assist
in managing the building so that its deconstruction-ability, economic potential
and flexibility would not be compromised.
References
[1] Akbarnezhad, A., Ong, K. C. G., & Chandra, L. R. (2014). Economic
and environmental assessment of deconstruction strategies using
building information modeling. Automation in Construction, 37, 131–
144. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2013.10.017. 10.6.2016
[2] Begum, R. A., Siwar, C., Pereira, J. J., & Jaafar, A. H. (2006). A
benefit-cost analysis on the economic feasibility of construction waste
minimisation: The case of Malaysia. Resources, Conservation and
Recycling, 48(1), 86–98.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2006.01.00410.6.2016
[3] Carris, J. (2011). Learning legacy: Demolition Waste Management on
the Olympic Park, 1-15.
[4] Chan, B. (2011). Design for deconstruction. Structural Engineer, 89(4),
20–21. http://doi.org/10.1680/warm.2008.161.1.9.13.6.2016
[5] Diyamandoglu, V., & Fortuna, L. M. (2015). Deconstruction of wood-
framed houses: Material recovery and environmental impact.
Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 100, 21–30.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2015.04.006. 8.6.2016
165
[6] Ecomod. (2016). Design for Deconstruction.
http://ecomod.unm.edu/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/dfd-060407.pdf.
6.6.2016
[7] London Organising Committee of the Olympic Games and Paralympic
Games (LOCOG). (2012). London 2012 sustainability report April
2011: a blueprint for change, (April 2011), 126. 2.6.2016
[8] Morgan, C., & Stevenson, F. (2005). Design for Deconstruction.
Scotland: Scottish Ecological Design Association.
[9] Rios, F. C., Chong, W. K., & Grau, D. (2015). Design for Disassembly
and Deconstruction - Challenges and Opportunities. Procedia
Engineering, 118, 1296–1304.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2015.08.485. 1.6.2016
[10] Smith, M. (2013). Reuse of Materials and Byproducts in Construction:
Use of Recycled and Reclaimed Timbers. http://doi.org/10.1007/978-
1-4471-5376-4. 17.6.2016
[11] Tingley, D. D., & Davison, B. (2012). Developing an LCA
methodology to account for the environmental benefits of design for
deconstruction. Building and Environment, 57, 387-395.
[12] Waste and Resources Action Programme (WRAP). (2007).
Considering “long life, loose fit, and low energy” to maximise material
benefits at end of life. http://www.wrap.org.uk/construction. 15.6.2016
[13] Waste and Resources Action Programme (WRAP). (2012). Adaptable
Code for Sustainable. http://www.wrap.org.uk/construction. 12.6.2016
[14] Wong, D.J., & Perkins, C. (January/February 2002). The
Integrated Arup Campus.
http://www.scribd.com/document/93701353/Arup-Campus.
166
T01_018: TRANSFERRING ARCHITECTURE
TERMINOLOGY: “PERAHU” AND HOUSE
Mohamad Hanif Abdul Wahab
Institute of Postgraduate Studies, Universiti Sains
Malaysia, 11800, Penang, Malaysia
Azizi Bahauddin
School of Housing, Building and Planning, Universiti Sains
Malaysia, 11800, Penang, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
The development of maritime life in the “perahu” has formed the evolution of
life on land that affects the architectural of Malay houses. The “perahu” known
as boat used by the Malay community since the Holocene period is a kind of
transportation on water surface made of timber. The "perahu" becomes
important not only as a navigational tool but serves as a shelter during the
movement. As sailing is a part of Malay way of life, many “perahu”
manifestations are often being seen in housing construction. The transfer of
boatbuilding skill in the last 500 years or so between the different archipelago
island also impact towards the architecture development since it’s been used as
a shelter during the sea-faring activity. It is proven by the roof design of a
traditional house of Negeri Sembilan which uses the analogy of a roof or awning
(kajang) of “perahu”. The objectives of this paper are to investigate the
similarity terminology used in “perahu” and Malay house architecture. Data
collected from sources like Malay ethnics or Austronesian literature, which is
engaged in the shipping and maritime activity. This qualitative research was
involved documentation analysis on marine navigation and terminology to
identify on architectural details which related to the Malay house. The
understanding of this relationship will form the basis to unravel the elements
and components used to the Malay architecture hence identifying how the
similarity terminology transferred from “perahu” to the Malay house. The
results will list the terms and terminology involved in both architectures. The
conclusion of the study suggests the possibility of how it happened.
Keywords: Malay, architecture, terminology, “perahu”, house.
Literature Review
The Malay “Perahu” and Sea-Faring Culture

Sailing and fishing by perahu are a hereditary Malay activity over thousands of
years [1]. The perahu was very significant in the life of the Malay. The
relationship of the native Malay with water and the ocean is so close to the
extent that it will not build a house on dry land while they still can make a
home on the water and will not go anywhere on foot while they can be
reached by perahu [2].
According to Liebner, (2005), a perahu researcher in Southeast Asia,
the early history of the perahu making is derived from historical writings, and
paintings or small sculptures, and archaeological images fresco on the
Borobudur temple which built in 825 AD. There are variations in the design of
the perahu in the archipelago [3]. The first feature is cadik and katir (outrigger).
Cadik and katir are bamboo or wood mounted on either side of a perahu shaped
like a wing to control the balance from capsized [4]. The second feature is the
perahu built based on perahu batangan that is using one or more pieces of wood
planks by lashed-lug technique.
According to Wan Ramli Wan Daud, (1993), a researcher of Malay
perahu, the earliest perahu is perahu jalur, made from a halved timber which
typically in the form of a narrow and lower [1], [5]. Perahu jalur also known
as balok [1], [6] or baluk [3], [7] meaning a wood plank [8] which equals to
batang balak (timber). The used of timber like chengal and meranti species also
found in the construction of Malay house structures such as pillars and floor.
The perahu is constructed of various types based on functionality and
usability. Perahu bedar used for lifting heavy items and is shaped like a duck to
spoon up, higher than the back [1], [5]. The perahu sekoci was used to go to the
ocean because of the sharp keel and the bow while the perahu payang with the
rounded bow and back was used for trawl fishing [1], [5]. Perahu jokong or
jukong [3] match as the perahu jalur but larger, perahu kajang or kajangan or
setak which have roofs and walls, perahu kolek and perahu sampan [9]. Others
perahu are perahu lepa [10], gonting, kakap, mayang, padewakang
(paduwakang), paduwang, pencalang and penjajab [3].
“Perahu” and House Form

Among the perahu, perahu kajang has a similar function to a house. (“Perahu
Kajang, Perahu Berbentuk Rumah,” 2015). Perahu kajang roof structure is
known as lipat kajang (folding awnings) in tapering shape which may be
analogous to the Negeri Sembilan house roof [12]. In the interior is seen similar
to a Malay house which provides a central space for family members to relax
and sleep at night. At the rear area, there is a dapur (kitchen) and kamar mandi
(bathroom). Other features that describe this Southeast Asia boat is the holes at
the sides surface of the board panel (wall) which function as same as the window
of the Malay house (“Perahu Kajang, Perahu Berbentuk Rumah,” 2015).
Perahu lepa of the Bajau Laut (Bajo) in the Sulu Sea, Semporna also
function as a dwelling [13]. The design of perahu lepa is almost the same except
it much bigger than perahu kajang and has a vertical pole used to support layar
(sails). Vertical poles associated with the tiang seri (main pillar) in Malay house.
Similarly, to the layar (sails) which synonymous with the tibar layar or
triangular gable-end which located at the end of the roof [14].
The final wall plank of perahu lepa namely ding-ding [15], as similar
as dinding (wall) of Malay house. According to Nimmo, (1990) ding-ding is
usually carved on both ends where dinding in Malay house also filled with
carving motif functioning as ventilation purposes. Carved adjung-adjung
located at the extension of the haluan (bow) and buritan (stern) [15] also reflect
the anjung (porch) at left and right of the Malay house. Perahu lepa decks are
called lantai or floor [15], similar to the Malay house. The roof structure namely
rumah perahu (houseboat) also known as kubu or bunker [15]. It is made of
vertical timber board and permanently attached to the framework. On both sides
of the houseboat located carved lattice to function as ventilation space in the
boat.
Reflection of Malay Maritime and Architecture Terminology

The literature on the relationship of traditional Malay house and the boat is
limited. One method is as committed by Horst Liebner by examine the
linguistics data, namely lexicostatistics to answer the question of
anthropological. It is including navigation methods and the relationship of
language among the Austronesian tribes who live nearby the coast such as
Makasar, Bajau (Bajo), Madura (Madurese) and Buton.
Comparing the architectural terminology of Malay house with
maritime activities is significant because the boats type used by the Malay tribes
was almost the same ( Haddon, 1937; Hornell, 1920, 1936). The study implies
Austronesian cultural diversity in maritime activity as a means to find a
168
relationship between the Malay tribes perahu in proving the origin of the Malay
traditional house construction.
Among the possibility is the material as stated by Nimmo, (1990) the
importance of forest in supplying balak (timber) for construction of perahu and
Malay house. Balak splitting technique in producing poles and planks for the
construction of boats and houses are similar. Balak is also associated with
animal names. For example, the term of naga-naga or dragon is taken from a
large snake which symbolizes as the foundation of human life [19]. Naga-naga
means a timber which serves as loads/cargo [20], that match the wooden rafters
under the roof or floor. It simultaneously functions as kayu naga (dragon spine
or king post) acting as support structures to the kuda-kuda bumbung or kasau
jantan rumah ibu (rafters) which also refered to as nenaga or naga-naga [21].
Tangara term is also associated with the structure of a traditional Malay house
which means ‘tiang dasar rumah’ or home base pillar [20] which almost equaled
the word tangga (stairs) located along with pillars under the house floor.
Horst Liebner, (1992) also confirmed that the term of kamar perahu
(houseboat) associated with the component parts of the house. The perahu roof
called 'helombo' or 'kabul' (meaning leaf ) is timber which support roof pillars
and namely 'popuruki', 'busuki' or 'umbou' (which means a timber that is used in
traditional houses), 'kaso atai sao' means timber roof (in Malay equal to kasau
or rafter in the house roof structure) which means ‘balok/balak atap’ (beam /
timber roof) is also used in Buton, and 'helopo', 'soha' and 'foninto' refers to the
name of the door or window to enter the room (in the deck) or houseboat [20].
He also aided that the term 'jamba' in Buton which the small room at
the back of the lambo boat imitate the word 'jambang' ( means 'waste water' ) in
Bugis [20] are equaled the word 'jamban' in the Malay language that serves as a
toilet in the backward traditional Malay houses. Meanwhile, the word ‘lante’ in
Buton language is refers to a bamboo flooring used in boat is match with Malay
house floor namely 'lantai' [20]. While, the term polanto which refers to a
bamboo raft used for upstream and downstream of the outfall [20]. Polanto is
similar to pelantar platform in Malay house made of halves of bamboo or areca
nut tree.
Liebner highlight four most original word in the Malay seafaring
namely pulau (island), air surut (low tide ), air pasang (high tide), batu karang
(the corals). The air (water) is called 'tai' like 'Tenau tai ' and 'tai siwulu' mean
low tide while ‘eke (nu) tai’ means the high tide [20]. ' Tai ' or seawater is a
horizontal level when the boat sail is almost equal to the term ' lantai ' (floor)
which is a flat surface in the house that symbolically depict Malay house like a
ship that was sailing on it. Perahu construction techniques also equaled with
traditional houses. Both are using connecting pins or pasak between the boards
and wood ( Liebner, 2005).
The terms anjung or anjungan (balcony) is a space located in the Malay
houses and perahu. Liebner, (1993) stated anjung is located in a portion of the
perahu hull where there is a part that was identified as kotamara, a protective or
parapet wall. Kotamara wallboard recognized as repe-repe intending tindis
(imbrication), tindas (overlay) [20] coincide the installation of dinding papan
tindih or overlapping wallboard on traditional Malay house.

The study found a similarity between the architecture terminology of perahu and
traditional Malay houses seen in the use of design analogies and manifestation
and consciousness displacement of carpentry knowledge. The terminology
involved spatial component, motive elements, and structure form. This
phenomenon may happen when the Malay house used perahu as the design
references during transition process. Another possibility is the construction of
Malay houses and perahu are from the same tukang (carpenter). In conclusion,
169
the paper developed an understanding of the relationship between Malay perahu
terminology and traditional Malay house. The similarity of terminology could
happen through merantau (wander) process by many factors such as transition
of construction knowledge by the same tukang of perahu to Malay house.
Acknowledgments
This research work was sponsored by the Malaysian Ministry of Higher
Education (MOHE) and Universiti Teknologi MARA under grant Skim Latihan
Akademik Bumiputera (SLAB) reference no. KPT(BS)780317087053.
References
[1] W. R. W. Daud, “Sejarah Teknologi Melayu pada zaman Islam,” Jurnal
Sari, vol. II. pp. 127–168, 1993.
[2] A. R. Wallace, The Malay Archipelago: The Land of the Orang-Utan,
and Bird of Paradise. A Narative of Travel, with Studies of Man and
Nature. London: Macmillan & Co., 1869.
[3] H. Liebner, “Perahu-Perahu Tradisional Nusantara,” in Eksplorasi
Sumberdaya Budaya Maritim, E. Sedyawati, Ed. Jakarta: Pusat Riset
Wilayaha Laut dan Sumber Daya Nonhayati, Badan Riset Kelautan dan
Perikanan; Pusat Penelitian Kemasyarakatan dan Budaya, Universitas
Indonesia, 2005, pp. 53–124.
[4] “Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia,” 2015. [Online]. Available:
http://kbbi.web.id.
[5] Perahu, Buku Berga. Kuala Lumpur: Bahagian Kebudayaan,
Kementerian Kebudayaan, Belia Dan Sukan Malaysia, 1984.
[6] J. V. Mills, “Eredia’s Description of Malacca, Meridional India, and
Cathay,” J. Malayan Branch R. Asiat. Soc., vol. 8, no. 1 (109), 1930.
[7] K. H. Lee, “The Shipping Lists of Dutch Melaka,” in Kapal dan Harta
Karam - Ships and Sunken Treasure, M. Y. Hashim, Ed. Kuala Lumpur:
Persatuan Muzium Malaysia, Muzium Negara Malaysia, 1986, pp. 53–
76.
[8] H. Liebner, “Beberapa Catatan tentang Pembuatan Perahu dan
Pelayaran Orang Mandar, Seminar Antar Bangsa, UNHAS,” Ujung
Pandang, LIPI, Jakarta, 1996.
[9] Koleksi Perahu Tradisional Muzium Maritim. Muzium Negeri
Terengganu.
[10] C. Sather, “Bajau Laut Boat-Building in Semporna,” Tech. Cult., vol.
35–36, no. 2001, 2001.
[11] “Perahu Kajang , Perahu Berbentuk Rumah,” Balai Pelestarian Nilai
Budaya Padang, UPT Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, 2015.
[Online]. Available:
http://kebudayaan.kemdikbud.go.id/bpnbpadang/2015/06/19/perahu-
kajang-perahu-berbentuk-rumah/.
[12] Y. Idrus, Rumah Tradisional Negeri Sembilan Satu Analisis Seni Bina
Melayu. Penerbit Fajar Bakti Sdn. Bhd., 1996.
[13] N. Stacey, “Boats to burn: Bajo Fishing Activity in the Australian
Fishing Zone,” Northern Territory University, 1999.
[14] Phillip Gibbs, Building A Malay House. New York: Oxford University
Press, 1987.
[15] H. A. Nimmo, “The Boats of the Tawi-Tawi Bajau, Sulu Archipelago,
Philippines,” Asian Perspect., vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 51–88, 1990.
[16] J. Hornell, Canoes of Oceania. Volume I. The Canoes of Polynesia, Fiji,
and Micronesia. Honolulu: Bishop Museum, 1936.
[17] J. Hornell, The Outrigger Canoes of Indonesia. Vol. XII. Madras:
Madras Fisheries Bulletin, 1920.
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[18] A. C. Haddon, Canoes of Oceania. Volume II. The canoes of Melanesia,
Queensland, and New Guinea. Hanolulu: Bishop Museum, 1937.
[19] H. Stoehr, Die Religionen Alt-Indonesiens. Koeln, 1952.
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Buton.pdf.”
[21] M. S. Abd Rashid and S. Che Mat, “The Traditional Malay Architecture:
Between Aesthetics And Symbolism,” in Proceeding Seminar on
Intellectual Property and Heritage Issues in Built Environment,
Renaissance Hotel Kuala Lumpur. 20- 21st July 2008., 2008.
[22] H. Liebner, “Remarks on the terminology of boatbuilding and
seamanship in some languages of Southern Sulawesi,” Indones. Circle,
SOAS, Univ. London, vol. 21, no. 59–60, pp. 18–45, 1993.
171
T01_019: INFLUENCE OF DEPOSITION
POTENTIAL ON COPPER DEPOSITED TITANIA
NANOTUBES VIA POTENTIOSTATIC METHOD
AND THEIR PHOTOELECTROCHEMICAL
PROPERTIES
Muhammad Aslam Mahmud-1, Lim Ying Chin-2, *
1, 2
Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Shah
Alam, Selangor, MALAYSIA.
drlam88@yahoo.com
*Correspondıng Author
limyi613@salam.uitm.edu.my
Zuraida Khusaimi-3
3
NANO-SciTech Centre (NST), Institute of Science, Universiti Teknologi
MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor,MALAYSIA.
Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Shah Alam,
Selangor, MALAYSIA
zurai142@salam.uitm.edu.my
Zulkarnain Zainal- 4
4
Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology Laboratory, Institute of Advanced
Technology (ITMA), Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang,
Selangor, MALAYSIA.
zulkar@sains.upm.edu.my
ABSTRACT
TiO2 nanotubes (TiNT) offer a bright prospect for numerous advance technology
applications such as in photoelectrochemcal cell (PEC). Nevertheless, the prime
hindrance of TiNT is due to its wide band gap and limitation absorbance in ultra
violet spectrum instead of visible light (sunlight). This study reported on the
fabrication of Cu onto TiNT (Cu/TiNT) photoelectrode using potentiostatic
method. An appropriate deposition potential is vital since they influence the
morphology and PEC performance of the as-prepared Cu-TiNT photoelectrode.
A set of deposition potential ranging from -0.2 to -0.6 V has been selected for
this purpose. The structural morphologies of the as-prepared samples were
evaluated using Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FE-SEM)
equipped with energy dispersive X-ray analyzer (EDX). The
photoelectrochemical test conducted under the visible light illumination
demonstrated the highest photocurrent of 105 µA/cm² for Cu/TiNT
photoelectrode deposited at -0.3 V.
Keywords: electrochemical, photoelectrochemical, titania nanotubes, copper
Introductıon
Advancement in nanotechnology has been proliferated with numerous scientific

breakthroughs leading to enrichment in human lifestyle [1-3]. Advanced
functional material such as titania nanotubes (TiNT) is no exceptional to this
phenomenon. TiNT is desirable for its vertical oriented nanostructured, high
surface area, excellent charge transport properties as well as low preparation
cost. Interestingly, TiNT managed to weave through various promising
application technology such as photocatalysis [4, 5], photovoltaic [6],
photoelectrochemical cell [7 - 9], hydrogen generation [10, 11], gas sensing
[12], dye-sensitized solar cells (DSCC), lithium-ions batteries, dielectric,
electrochromic devices, drug delivering, biomedicine [1, 13] and others.
Nevertheless, TiNT is still haunted with two major hindrance. Firstly, a
wide band gap of TiNT (~3.2 eV for anatase) has limit their absorbance in ultra
violet (UV) region which only constitutes about 5% of sunlight. Secondly, TiNT
showed relatively low quantum efficiency due to rapid recombination of
photogenerated electron-holes pairs and thus resulted in low energy conversion
efficiency. Therefore, searching for an efficient photoanode material that can be
functional under sunlight is of great interest.
Cu appears to be an appropiate candidate to be incorporated onto TiNT.
It is known that Cu has a small band gap circa 1.9 – 2.2 eV. Therefore,
fabrication of Cu/TiNT photoelectrode is capable to narrow the band gap of
TiNT. Consequently, an extension of photon absorbance towards visible light is
possible instead of UV light. This is benefical since a huge portion of sunlight
absorbance can be harvested and fully exploit rather than merely depend on UV
lamp.
There are several methods available to deposit Cu onto TiNT. The current
study has selected the potentiostatic deposition as this technique permits
adjustment on deposition parameters such as deposition potential, pH,
deposition time, electrolyte concentration and others [14 - 17]. Thus,
manipulation on the structural morphology, size, and growth orientation of
Cu/TiNT is possible. In this study, we reported on the influence of various
deposition potentials on the photoelectrochemical properties of Cu/TiNT
whereby the surface morphologies and elemental composition of samples were
characterized using FE-SEM and EDX analysis.
Experimental
The TiNT samples were fabricated via electrochemical anodization of Ti foils

(0.127 cm, 99.7% purity) in electrolyte comprising of ammonium fluoride (0.5
wt.%, NH4F) and 98% ethyleneglycol solution. Prior to anodization, Ti foils
were degreased by sonicating in acetone subsequently with isopropanol
followed by deionized water for ten minutes separately. The two-electrode
configuration of electrochemical cell comprised of Ti as the anode and graphite
as the cathode operating at 20V for 30min. Consequently, annealing of TiNT at
500 °C for two hours in air to achieve crystallize form of TiNT. Later, Cu
nanoparticles were deposited onto TiNT at various deposition potentials of -0.2,
-0.3, -0.4, -0.5 and -0.6 V vs. Ag/AgCl in 400mM CuSO4 (Sigma-Aldrich) by
using potentiostat [Autolab PGSTAT302N]. The potentiostatic deposition was
performed in a three-electrode configuration where TiNT was used as the
working electrode, a platinum (Pt) rod as the counter electrode and Ag/AgCl as
the reference electrode. The photoelectrochemical analysis of the as-prepared
samples was adopted with three-electrode cell whereas Cu/TiNT, Pt foil, and
Ag/AgCl were act as working, counter, and reference electrodes, accordingly.
The supporting electrolyte used was a mixed electrolyte of 0.1 M Na 2S and 0.1
M Na2SO4 solution. The working electrode was illuminated with a 300 W
halogen lamp served as the light source. The light was intermittently chopped at
constant frequency to evaluate both dark and photocurrent in a single experiment
using linear sweep photovoltammetry. Additionally, the morphology of as-
prepared samples were characterized using FESEM (Carl Zeiss Supra 40 VP)
attached with EDX analyzer.
173
The top-view FE-SEM micrographs of the unmodified TiNT and modified Cu
deposited onto TiNT with various deposition potentials are presented in Fig. 1.
A uniform and well ordered TiO2 nanotube arrays was successfully grown on
the Ti foil upon anodization at 20V for 30 minutes as shown in Fig 1(a). The as-
prepared TiNT possesses an average internal diameter of approximately 51±0.1
nm with average wall thickness of 17±0.1 nm. Upon electrodeposition at -0.2V
to -0.6V, cloud-shaped of fine Cu particles were deposited on the top surface
and inside the TiNT pores as shown in Fig 1(b) to 1(f). Interestingly, increasing
the deposition potential led to an increment in accumulation of deposited cloud-
shaped Cu particles on the surface of TiNT. In contrast to Cu/TiNT at -0.2V, it
is evidenced that Cu/TiNT prepared at -0.3V onwards has shown accumulation
of deposited fine Cu particle on the tube wall of TiNT in addition to the cloud-
shaped fine Cu particles. However, higher deposition potential is unfavorable to
prevent aggregation of fine Cu particles as manifested in Fig 1(e).
(a) TINT (b) Cu/TiNT -0.2V
(c) Cu/TiNT -0.3V (d) Cu/TiNT -0.4V
(e) Cu/TiNT -0.5V (f) Cu/TiNT -0.6V
Figure 1. FESEM micrograph of unmodified TiNT and modified Cu/TiNT

prepared at various deposition potentials with 70K X magnification except
unmodified TiNT (100K X).
Table 1 shows the EDX result for unmodified TiNT and modified Cu/TiNT
synthesized at different deposition potential. Obviously the higher the
deposition potential the higher the Cu deposited on TiNT substrate. The highest
Cu was observed for -0.6 V (39.8 wt. %) which represent closely to threefold
increment compared to Cu/TiNT at -0.5 V (16.6 wt. %). The EDX result
compliment the finding from FESEM as aggregation of fine Cu particles
detected which signaled increment in the presence of fine Cu particles. This
174
might be due to higher applied potential provides a driving force for Cu
deposition. A thick layer of Cu deposition on the surface of TiNT was visibly
observed with naked eyes upon deposition at high potential (-0.6V). This
condition was undesirable since Cu might block the photon from reaching the
TiO2 nanotubes and eventually diminish the PEC performance. The present
study aims to deposit Cu onto TiNT surface and let the Cu penetrates onto the
nanotubes for PEC enhancement performance of Cu/TiNT. Therefore, -0.3V
appeared as an optimum deposition potential since they demonstrated the
highest photocurrent (104.7 µA/cm²) compared to the others. This claim was
supported with the PEC results as demonstrated in Table 2 and will be discussed
later.
Table 1. EDX result of (a) unmodified TiNT (b) Cu/TiNT -0.2V (c)
Cu/TiNT -0.3V (d) Cu/TiNT -0.4V (e) Cu/TiNT -0.5V and (f) Cu/TiNT -
0.6V. Not available = n. a.
Element
Ti Cu O
Sample
Weight (wt.%) Weight (wt.%) Weight (wt.%)
TiNT 71.4 n.a. 28.6
Cu/TiNT -0.2V 68.6 2.3 29.2

Cu/TiNT -0.3V 63.6 7.7 28.8
Cu/TiNT -0.4V 63.6 8.6 27.8
Cu/TiNT -0.5V 57.4 16.6 26.0
Cu/TiNT -0.6V 37.8 39.8 22.4
All the unmodified TiNT and modified Cu/TiNT synthesized at different

deposition potential applied were evaluated for their photoelectrochemical cell
(PEC) performance as exhibited in Figure 2. Almost negligible photoresponse
was observed for unmodified Ti foil as illustrated in Fig. 2(a). Upon anodization
of Ti, TiNT recorded a photocurrent of 45.3 µA/cm² was produced by TiNT
(Fig. 2b). Deposition of Cu onto TiNT at -0.2V led to a decreased of
photocurrent around 36.6 µA/cm². At -0.3 V, substantial increase in
photocurrent to 104.7 µA/cm² was achieved (Fig. 2c). However, the generated
photocurrent experienced a downward trend for deposition beyond -0.3 V as
shown in Table 2. The PEC finding suggested that the fabrication of Cu onto
TiNT photoelectrode evidently elevates the generated photocurrent with -0.3 V
seems to be an optimum applied potential. Table 2 summarizes the generated
photocurrent achieved from PEC test for all the samples.
175
Figure 2. The voltammetry of (a) Ti Foil (b) TiNT and (c) Cu/TiNT at -
0.3V
Table 2: Photocurrent generated

Sample Photocurrent generated, Iph
(µA/cm²) measured at 0.2V vs.
Ag/AgCl
TiNT 45.3
Cu/TiNT -0.2V 36.6
Cu/TiNT -0.3V 104.7
Cu/TiNT -0.4V 89.1
Cu/TiNT -0.5V not available
Conclusion
In summary, different applied potential is capable to influence the structural
morphology of Cu/TiNT photoelectrode and its photoelectrochemical
properties. The cloud-shaped fine Cu particles were achieved for all Cu/TiNT
samples with aggregation of fine Cu particles observed for those deposited at -
0.5 V onwards. The Cu/TiNT with -0.3V has recorded the highest photocurrent
of 104.7 µA/cm² upon halogen lamp illumination. It is notably a twofold over
increment compared to the unmodified TiNT.
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177
T01_020: THEORETICAL EVALUATION VIA
DFT APPROACH ON D-Π-A SYSTEM OF
ACETYLIDE-THIOUREA MOTIF IN CARBON
DIOXIDE SENSING
Adibah Izzati Daud1,2
Adibah Izzati Daud1,2
Wan M. Khairul1
1. School of Fundamental Science, Universiti Malaysia
Terengganu, 21030, Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu,
Malaysia
2. Faculty of Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis
(UniMAP), Kampus UniCITI Alam, Sungai Chuchuh, Padang Besar,
02100, Perlis, Malaysia
Corresponding author: wmkhairul@umt.edu.my
ABSTRACT
Hybrid moieties of acetylide and thiourea individually offer a wide range of

electronic properties as they consist of electronic delocalization in extended
like-rod rigid π-orbital molecular system in their designated structures. In this
contribution, a new derivative of N-([4-aminophenyl]ethynlbenzonitrile) –N’-
(4-methoxy benzoyl)thiourea (TCMeO) was successfully designed, prepared,
and spectroscopically characterised. The response of acetylide-thiourea
TCMeO towards CO2 gas was evaluated on the basis of density functional
theory (DFT) at B3LYP/6-31G (d,p) TD-SCF level of theory. TCMeO is unique
due to the existence of two potential reactive site, namely –NH-C=O and
acetylide region (C≡C). The sensing ability of both interactive sites were
investigated in term of change in geometric parameters, including interaction
and stabilisation energies provide an effective evidence for the sensing ability
of TCMeO with CO2 gas. In addition, the sensing response was also obtained
from Mulliken charge distribution and energy band gap analysis of TCMeO and
TCMeO-CO2 complexes to show the interaction of CO2 with TCMeO as well as
to provide an understanding mechanism response of TCMeO and CO2.
Excellent interaction was observed for the –NH-C=O site of TCMeO as
compared to C≡C site, illustrating that sensing interaction occurs at –NH-C=O.
Keywords: acetylide-thiourea, stabilization energy, band gap, sensing
mechanism
Introduction
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is generally known as one of the greenhouse gases

definitely contribute to global warming issues leads to a rise of the temperature
at the level of troposphere [1]. Reducing the presence of CO2 at atmospheric
concentration has indeed become a critical issue currently to discuss. In
conjunction previously, inorganic and conductive polymeric based materials
such as tin oxide [2], zinc oxide [3], polyaniline [4], and polypyrrole [5] are
commercially used as conductive active sensing materials which give high
sensitivity with good response associated with high operating temperature.
However, they are also facing with lack of reversibility, durability and stability
performances. Therefore, alternative materials for the simplification and
miniaturization of CO2 sensors are the crucial aims which researchers worldwide
are eager to reach. In this sense, new hybrid moieties of acetylide-thiourea
molecular system introducing N-([4-aminophenyl]ethynlbenzonitrile)–N’-(4-
methoxy benzoyl) thiourea (TCMeO; Figure 1) become a great molecular
candidate to act as single molecular electronic tool in which the system has an
ability to perform as an electron transport through molecular system [6,7] adopts
fundamental importance of interaction with CO2. Indeed, the combination of
moieties containing acetylide (C≡C) into thiourea backbone is considerable
interesting because they potentially enhance the physical properties that derive
individually from the existing of both moieties. Thus, acetylide-thiourea
derivative of TCMeO having two reactive site of carbonyl amide (-NH-C=O)
and acetylide (C≡C) region make it unique from other common thiourea
derivatives. TCMeO has gained much importance due to the presence of
electron withdrawing group of cyano (CN) which has ability to form highly
uniform and compactly adhered film on various electrode substrates. The use of
acetylide-thiourea in carbon monoxide optical sensor has already been reported
[6]. However, to the best of authors’ knowledge, there is no report on the
evaluation of TCMeO as carbon dioxide gas sensing. In this paper, we describe
density functional theory (DFT) based study of sensing ability of TCMeO for
CO2 gas. TCMeO was modelled for CO2 gas sensing and results found that
TCMeO responsive towards CO2 at –NH-C=O site via hydrogen bonding
interaction that make it stable enough for sensing mechanism to occur.
Figure 1: Molecular structure of TCMeO

Experimental
Preparation of TCMeO
A mixture of 4-methoxybenzoyl chloride (0.1 g, 1 mmol) with an equimolar

amount of ammonium thiocyanate (76 mg, 1 mmol) and 4[(4-
aminophenylethynylbenzonitrile)] (0.2 g, 1 mmol) were charged into 2-neck
round bottomed flask in 100 ml acetone and was put at reflux with vigorous
stirring for 5 hours. Once adjudged completion, the mixture was poured into a
beaker containing several ice cubes. The obtained yellowish precipitate was
filtered and purified by recrystallisation from acetonitrile to yield TCMeO as
pale-yellowish single crystalline solids (85% yields).
Computational methodology
Density functional theory (DFT) and time dependent DFT (TD-SCF) at hybrid
functional [Becke-3-Parameter (Exchange), Lee, Yang and Parr] B3LYP/6-31G
(d,p) was employed for the sensing study of TCMeO, CO 2 and TCMeO-CO2
respectively. All involved calculations for geometric and electronic properties
were carried out by Gaussian 09 and the obtained results were analyzed by
Gauss view. The sensing mechanism of TCMeO-CO2 at either –NH-C=O and
acetylide region were optimized at B3LYP/631G (d,p), in which the optimized
geometries were obtained by gradient minimization at DFT method without any
symmetry constraint. Other simulation such as interaction and stabilisation
energies, band gap and Mulliken charges analysis were also carried out at above
mentioned level of theory.

Optimized geometric parameters for TCMeO-CO2 sensing
179
Geometry optimization of TCMeO, CO2, and TCMeO-CO2 either at –NH-C=O
or acetylide, C≡C site were carried out for evaluating the effect of analyte on
geometric parameters of molecular structure

such as bond length, energy band gap, and stabilisation energy. Optimized
geometric structures in term of energy levels for isolated TCMeO, CO2 bounded
complexes (TCMeO-CO2 (NH-C=O) & TCMeO-CO2 (C≡C)) are illustrated in
Figure 1. Small changes in energy level, particularly nearby the Fermi level
associated with change in energy gap (Eg), are considered to bring significant
changes in electrical properties of semiconducting materials [8] where the
changes in electrical properties can be exploited as signal in CO2 sensing device.
It is obvious from the calculated energy gap and Mulliken charge analysis, that
upon interaction with CO2, the energy gap and mulliken charges analysis varies,
depicting their sensitivity towards CO2.
LUMO = 2.23 eV LUMO = 2.22 eV
Eg = 3.69 eV Eg = 3.68 eV
HOMO = 5.92 eV HOMO = 5.90
Figure 1: Atomic orbital compositions of TCMeO and TCMeO-CO2 complex
Mulliken charge analysis is one of the reliable methods to understand the type
of interaction between two species in either neutral, ionic or radical forms. To
get insight into the sensing ability and mechanism TCMeO towards CO2, charge
distribution and charge transfer between TCMeO (sensor) and CO2 (analyte) is
generated. Charge transfer between TCMeO and CO2 analyte alter electronic
properties such as HOMO, LUMO, and energy band gap (Eg), which eventually
change in resistance or conductivity properties of TCMeO. Mulliken charge of
isolated TCMeO and analyte CO2 bound complex are given in Table 1. Results
revealed that, in TCMeO-CO2 CO2 donates about 10.1249 e- charge at NH-C=O
site, while about 4.5743 e- charge was transfer from CO2 to TCMeO at acetylide
(C≡C) site. This occurs due to the high electron density at NH-C=O site
compared to C≡C site for a better interactive site for CO2. In fact, the interaction
energy analysis is also a basis approach to investigate the sensing ability and
mechanism between two species which indeed precisely provides the strength
of the interactive forces between both species. All the calculated energies are
180
tabulated in Table 2. The high stabilisation energies of complex TCMeO-CO2
occur at NH site is 563.85 kJ/mol with intermolecular distance is about 2.14 Ǻ
compared to C≡C site with only 548.63 kJ/mol (2.59Ǻ). The results show the
reasonable data for sensing properties of sensor and analyte that exhibit H-
bonding interaction mechanism.
Table 1: Squared effective charges (Ln χ2) of all carbon atoms in all aromatic
synthesized compounds
BENZENE 1 BENZENE 1 BENZENE 3 TOTAL
MULLIKEN
CHARGES
TCMEO -31.1873 -29.7111 -24.5528 -85.4512
TCMEO-CO2 -38.0951 -29.8621 -24.6189 -92.5761
(NH SITE)
TCMEO-CO2 -35.6320 -29.8407 -24.5528 -90.0255
(C≡C) SITE
Table 2: The Scf Energy For Tcmeo, Co2 And Tcmeo-Co2 Complex
SCF energy SCF energy SCF energy Stabilisation

TCMeO CO2 complex energy
(kJ/mol)
TCMeO-CO2 -1637.6549 -188.2641 -1826.1338 -563.85
(NH site)
TCMeO-CO2 -1637.6549 -188.2641 -1826.1280 -548.63
(C≡C) site
Conclusion
New hybrid single molecular system of acetylide-thiourea tcmeo shows possible
response towards co2 analyte due to the significant changes in physical
parameters and energies calculated via dft method. Tcmeo exhibits h-bonding
interaction with co2 at very reactive site at nh (563.85 kj/mol, 2.14 ǻ) compared
to c≡c site (548.63 kj/mol, 2.59 ǻ)
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank ministry of higher education (mohe) for
research grant ergs 55102, slab/slai and universiti Malaysia Perlis (UNIMAP)
for postgraduate scholarship and Universiti Malaysia Terengganu for research
facilities.
References
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of CO2 and small organic molecules, Chemistry–An Asian Journal, 4(10),
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sensing properties of thin-and thick-film tin-oxide materials, Sensor.
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J. Campos-Alvarez and V. Agarwal, Sputtering temperature dependent
growth kinetics and CO2 sensing properties of ZnO deposited over porous
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H. D. Tong, and C. J. van Rijin, Carbon dioxide sensing with sulfonated
polyaniline, Sensor. Actuat B-Chem, 168, 123-130 (2012).
181
[5] S. A. Waghuley, S. M. Yenorkar, S. S. Yawale and S. P. Yawale, Application
of chemically synthesized conducting polymer-polypyrrole as a carbon
dioxide gas sensor, Sensor. Actuat B-Chem, 128(2), 366-373 (2008).
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conjugated organic molecules: Basis set effects in ab initio calculations.
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Electron transfer through organic molecules. The Journal of Physical
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HOMO–LUMO and interaction energies of poly (o-aminophenol) for
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182
T01_021: WIRE CUT EDM PROCESS
PARAMETER MACHINING OF ALUMINIUM
FOAM TUBE PRODUCE (AFTP)
Ismail Bin Lias a, Mohd Azrul bin Jaafar b, Muhammad
Hussain Bin Ismail*, Aman Mohd Ihsan Bin Mamat
Centre for Advanced Materials Research (CAMAR),

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi
MARA. Shah Alam
a
Department of Polytechnic Education
b
Centre for Instructor and Advanced Skill Training
(CIAST), Shah Alam
*Corresponding Author
ABSTRACT
Wire cut EDM (Electrical Discharge Machining) is one of process of machining
electrical conductivity materials used on hard metal working industry or solid
work piece from the simple to any complex geometry. When using of this method,
extremely complicated shape can be cut and produce automatically,
economically, and precisely, even in material as hard as carbide, stainless steel
or none metal material are used. This study focus on determine of setting
parameter machining process aluminium foam tube produce with using wire cut
EDM facility in CIAST. Before that, sample of aluminium foam must be produce
first with using infiltration method with vacuum-gas. This sample random
produce, will be machining with using wire cut EDM Mitsubishi MV2400R, to
make a shape sampling for testing. For the result, the shape of aluminium
sampling is produce with 2.5 cm diameter and 3cm high and square shape (2cm
x 2cm x 4cm). All this sample, will continuing for testing for identify thermal
conductivity and mechanical behaviour of aluminium foam tube produce. The
conclusion for this method is complex to explain what is exactly suitable
parameter for cutting sample aluminium foam and this is best way for any
researcher to do that any research to find the solution for cutting process for
aluminium foam and identify the parameter.
Keywords: Wire cut EDM, Process Parameter Machining. Aluminium Foam

Tube Produce (AFTP).
Introduction
Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) or Wire cut EDM are also know wire
cutting is the procedure of machining electrically conductive materials by using
exactly precise sparks that happen between an electrode and a workpiece in the
presence of a dielectric fluid [1-3] . The electrode may be considered the cutting
tool. Figure1 illustrates the basic schematic of wire cut EDM process.
This process can also cut plates as thickness maximum 30cm and is
used for making tools, dies and punches from hard metals that are problematic
to machine with other approaches [1-6]. The wire is used, which is regularly
fed from a spool, is held between upper and lower diamond guides. The guides
are usually CNC-controlled and move in the x–y plane. Scheduled most
machines, the upper guide can move autonomously in the z–u–v axis, giving it
a flexibility to cut tapered and transitioning shapes. The upper guide can control
axis movements in x–y–u–v–i–j–k–l–. This supports in programming the wire-
cut EDM, for cutting very complicated and slight forms [1-3].
Recently, researchers have shown an increased interest in the wire-cut
EDM process, water is commonly used as the dielectric fluid. Riddles and de-
ionizing units are used for monitoring the resistivity and further electrical
properties. Wires made from brass are usually preferred. The water also, helps
in throw away the fragments the cutting zone. The throw away the fragments
also helps to determine the feed rates to be given for dissimilar thickness of the
materials [1, 3, 7]. Figure 2 shows the wire cut EDM machine at CIAST,
manufacturing form Mitsubishi machine type MV2400R, the researcher
collaborates with CIAST expert trainer to machining the sample from
aluminium foam tube produce from UiTM Shah Alam Heat Treatment lab.
Figure 1: Basic schematic of wire cut EDM process.
Figure 2: Wire cut EDM machine at CIAST, Shah Alam Selangor.
Aluminium foam is a kind of cellular materials normally considered by

high porosity; it contains a high fraction of pores and enclosed voids. The
recognized properties of foam materials, such as high ability for energy
absorption, good damping behaviour, sound absorption and high specific
stiffness make these materials useful in the automotive industry, aerospace
industry and building construction [8-12].
(a)
(b)
Figure 3: (a) Close cell aluminium foam and (b) Open cell aluminium
foam
Normally, the aluminium foam can be divided into two categories;
closed cell and open cell. Both have different characteristics and applications.
The features of the closed cell that is shown in Figure 3 (a), the pores structure
is isolated and they are not connected to each other. This type of aluminium
foam is suitable for application that requires high level of energy and sound
absorption characteristics. It has been used widely in many structural parts,
particularly in areas exposed to high damping capacity, for example in the
automotive front bumper component [13, 14] .
184
Meanwhile, the open cell is shown Figure 3(b), showing to greater level
of connectivity of the pores. The structure has been accepted and used in many
thermal management applications. One such capable application is as a heat
exchanger, mostly as a cooling medium to transfer heat, due to the development
of its porous structure, which provides greater surface area, thus, enabling
improved heat transfer efficiency [13, 14].
Methodology
Experimental procedure produces aluminium foam tube
The Infiltration method with vacuum-gas was using aluminium as main material
and NaCl particle as space holder with the help of gas. This method was
implemented by Barari [8] to manufacture the metal foam. The NaCl particle
was poured into the mould cavity followed by aluminium ingot on the top of
NaCl. After a few hours of heating, the vacuum pump valve was open to remove
air in the mould. The argon gas valve was immediately open after vacuum pump
valve is closed to purge gas into the mould cavity. The gas will push the
aluminium molten to flow through the NaCl particle.
Set up experiment for machining aluminium foam tube produce.

Table 1 shows the general parameter of cutting aluminium foam tube using
wire cut EDM Mitsubishi MV2400R. All these general parameter, the
researcher must do try and error method until find the suitable parameter
cutting aluminium foam tube produce success.
Table1: Machine unit specification Wire cut EDM Mitsubishi MV2400R

Specification Units Value
Max. workpiece dimension mm 1050 x 800 x 295
(Width x Depth x Height)
Max weight of workpiece kg 1500
Dimension of table mm 840 x 640 (square
table)
Each axis movement amount (X x Y x Z) mm 600 x 400 x 310
Table rapid traverse rate mm/min 1300
Wire diameter mm 0.1 to 0.3
Max. wire feed speed m/min 23
Wire tension N 0.5 to 25
Taper machining unit Opto-linear T/C device
Axis movement amount mm ±75 x ± 75
Working tank volume l 860
Water purifier (ion exchange resin) l 10
Dielectric fluid resistivity control range Ωcm (0.5-100) x 104
Result & Discussion

Table 2 show the comparison between the aluminium foam tubes had been
produced with selected sample range porosity 60%-75%. Form this sample will
be machining using wire cut EDM for making sample for thermal conductivity
and compression test sampling test. Based on Figure 3(b), the sample aluminium
foam is machining and complex to set the suitable parameter for doing the
cutting process for sampling. The researcher must do try an error setting
parameter until successful cutting. From the figure 4 show the machining
process using wire cut EDM Mitsubishi MV2400R.
185
Table 2: Density and porosity and aluminium foam tube [15]
Sample Mass, Height, Volume, Density, Porosity, %
g cm cm3 g/cm3
1 198 2.6 184.70 1.072 60.29
2 139 4.0 221.46 0.628 76.77
5 675 10.5 696.68 0.969 64.11
Figure 4: Machining process using wire cut EDM Mitsubishi MV2400R
Conclusion
This study has found that generally of process machining using wire cut EDM
for selected sample aluminium foam tube produce by using vacuum - gas
infiltration process. Form this process is complicated to measure what is suitable
parameter for cutting aluminium foam and it is deference parameter using when
cutting solid object or any solid metal. The findings of this research provide
insights for how to defined suitable cutting parameter and for recommendation
for future the researcher can focus on method for cutting aluminium foam tube
until successfully.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to express their gratitude to RMI UiTM Shah Alam for
RACE grant 600-RMI/RACE 16/6/2(6/2013) and Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering UiTM Shah Alam, Department of Polytechnic Education, CIAST
and Minister of Education Malaysia and the technicians for their contribution in
this research.
References
[1] E. C.Jameson, "Electrical Discharge Machining," Society of
Manufacturing Engineers Publications. 2001.
[2] E. B. Guitrau, "The EDM Handbook,".Cincinnati:Hanser Garder
Publications. 2009.
[3] C. Sammer and S. Sammer, "Wire EDM Handbook," vol. 4th, 2000.
[4] Vijay D.Patel and R. V. Vaghmare, "A Review of recent work in wire
electrical discharge machining (WEDM)," International Journal of
Engineering Research, vol. 3, pp. 805-816, 2013.
[5] S. Tilekar, S. S. Das, and P. K. Patowari, "Process Parameter
Optimization of Wire EDM on Aluminum and Mild Steel by Using
Taguchi Method," Procedia Materials Science, vol. 5, pp. 2577-2584,
2014.
[6] Y. Takayama, Y. Makino, Y. Niu, and H. Uchida, "The Latest
Technology of Wire-cut EDM," Procedia CIRP, vol. 42, pp. 623-626,
2016.
[7] Sharanjit Singh and A. Bhardwaj, "Review to EDM by Using Water
and Powder-Mixed Dielectric Fluid," Journal of Minerals &
Materials Characterization & Engineering, vol. 10, pp. 199-230,
2011.
186
[8] E. M. E. L. Farzad Barari, Russell Goodall and Robert Woolley,
"Metal foam regenerators; heat transfer and storage in porous metals,"
Journal of Materials Research, vol. Volume 28, pp. 2474-2482, 2013.
[9] R. G. Gael Zaragoza, "Development of a device for the measurement
of thermal and fluid flow properties of heat exchanger materials,"
Measurement, vol. 56, pp. 37-49, 2014.
[10] A. E. Michael F.Ashby, Norman A.Leck,Lorna J.Gibson,John
w.Hutchinson,Haydn N.g.Wadley, "Metal Foams A Design Guide,"
2000.
[11] X. Zhu, S. Ai, X. Lu, X. Ling, L. Zhu, and B. Liu, "Thermal
conductivity of closed-cell aluminum foam based on the 3D
geometrical reconstruction," International Journal of Heat and Mass
Transfer, vol. 72, pp. 242-249, 2014.
[12] G. R. Stefano Guarino, Vincenzo Tagliaferri, Nadia Ucciardello,
"Thermal behavior of open cell aluminum foams in forced air:
Experimental analysis," Measurement, vol. 60, pp. 97–103, 2015.
[13] D. Guan, J. H. Wu, J. Wu, J. Li, and W. Zhao, "Acoustic performance
of aluminum foams with semiopen cells," Applied Acoustics, vol. 87,
pp. 103-108, 2015.
[14] S.-Y. He, Y. Zhang, G. Dai, and J.-Q. Jiang, "Preparation of density-
graded aluminum foam," Materials Science and Engineering: A, vol.
618, pp. 496-499, 2014.
[15] Ismail Lias, Mohammad Irsyadudden Nasir, Muhammad Hussain
Ismail, and A. M. I. Mamat, "Design and Fabrication of Aluminium
Foam Tube for Heat Exchanger Application. ," ARPN Journal of
Engineering and Applied Sciences, vol. 11, pp. 8721-8725, 2016.
187
T01_022: CHEMICAL AND NUTRACEUTICAL
COMPOSITIONS OF PALM OIL EXTRACTED
FROM UNRIPE FRUIT BUNCHES
Suhaini Raeze
Alawi Sulaiman
Faculty of Plantation and Agrotechnology, Universiti
Teknologi MARA Shah Alam, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor,
Malaysia
Zainuri Busu
FTJ Bio Power Sdn. Bhd., Jalan Liku, 59100 Kuala
Lumpur, Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur
ABSTRACT
Palm oil was extracted from unripe fruit bunches (UFB) using Soxhlet
extraction with n-hexane as the exchange solvent. The extracted oil was
analysed for Free Fatty Acid (FFA), Deterioration of Bleachability Index
(DOBI), Peroxide Value (PV), Iodine Value (IV) and determined to be
0.40±0.01%, 1.42±0.02, 1.20±0.07 meq/kg and 42.7±0.92 g/100g, respectively.
Fatty acids, carotene, tocopherol and tocotrienol were also measured and
concluded comparable with the crude palm oil (CPO) grade.
Keywords: Palm Oil, Unripe Fruit Bunches (UFB), Chemical, Nutraceutical.
Introduction
Malaysia is currently the world’s second largest palm oil producer with 18 400
thousand metric tons production annually and 86% for export [1]. It is
understood that the high quality of palm oil and its marketability is dictated by
the maturity or ripeness of oil palm fruits itself. Thus, selecting the best quality
of fresh fruit bunches (FFB) is the main factor that contributes to higher palm
oil extraction rate and profits. The quality of FFB is categorized based on the
texture, shape and colour [2]. Therefore, it is crucial to harvest the FFB at the
right stage to maximize palm oil extraction and production.
Currently, harvesting decision of oil palm FFB quality and maturity is
determined solely by the human harvester eyes that made the evaluation based
on their vision and subjective judgement [3]. According to a study [2], the colour
of the mesocarp (surface of the fruitlet) and number of loose fruits detached from
bunches are important criteria used to decide appropriate time to harvest.
However, this method can often leads to misjudgements and thus compromise
the palm oil production and caused considerable profit losses [2].
Palm oil mill usually received oil palm FFB of different ripeness
conditions. All these FFB will undergo grading at the mill so that only the ripe
bunches will be chosen for further processing due to its high oil quality and
content. Thus, grading process plays a pivotal role because palm oil price
depends on the palm oil FFB quality [4]. The degree of ripeness of FFB can be
categorized into four types; unripe, under ripe, ripe and over ripe [5]. When the
fruit bunch is categorized as unripe, it will be discarded from the processing line.
It will not be processed and this can be seen as wastage because the unripe fruit
bunches (UFB) still contains high percentage of oil which can contribute to
additional income to the millers. Thus, the objective of this study is to determine
the chemical properties and nutraceutical composition of the oil extracted from
the discarded UFBs from palm oil mill.
Materials
The UFB samples were obtained from FELDA Palm Industries, Sg. Tengi,
Selangor. The UFB samples were selected based on the following
characteristics; no loose fruits on the bunch and medium sized fruit bunches
which weighted 10-15 kilograms. The UFB samples were sterilized at 38-42 psi
for 40-55 minutes. Fruitlets that were still attached on the bunch were manually
removed before proceeded to the oil extraction stage.
Oil extraction in UFB

10 g of unripe mesocarp was weighed and stored in an oven for 4 hours at 106°C.
The dried oil palm fruits were cut and sliced to obtain the fruit mesocarp. The
oil content was determined using Soxhlet extraction with n-hexane as the
exchange solvent for 8 hours continuously. The mixture of oil and solvent was
placed in a rotary evaporator to remove n-hexane and later placed in an oven for
2 hours to ensure complete removal of the solvent.
Chemical properties and nutraceutical composition of CPO from UFB

analysis
The extracted oil was analysed for FFA, DOBI, PV and IV using the standard
method [6]. Each sample was measured three times (triplicates) for accuracy.
Fatty acids composition was obtained using the proposed standard method [7].
Nutraceutical composition of carotene, tocopherols and tocotrienols were
analysed using the high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) standard
methods proposed earlier [8, 9].
Chemical properties of CPO extracted from UFB.

The CPO extracted from UFB is a semi-solid compound at room temperature
(25oC) and appeared yellowish to brownish in colour. The chemical properties
of the extracted oil are shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Chemical properties of CPO extracted from UFB

Properties This study [10]
FFA (%) 0.40±0.01 <5.0
DOBI 1.42±0.02 >2.3
PV (meq/kg) 1.20±0.07 <2.0
IV (g/100g) 42.7±0.92 50.4 to 53.7
FFA value is used to determine the quality of the oil by indicating the
level of its deterioration [11, 12]. Table 1 shows that FFA value is 0.40±0.01%
which is quite low compared to the MPOB standard for CPO (<5.0%). Based on
the result, it shows that the CPO extracted from the UFB has not undergone
oxidation yet and thus maintain the good oil quality.
DOBI analysis is an indicator for oxidative status. Commonly the
DOBI of commercial CPO is graded as follow: poor (1.78-2.30), fair (2.31-
2.92), good (2.93-3.24) and excellent quality of CPO will have DOBI above
3.24 [13]. Table 1 shows the DOBI value of 1.42±0.02 which indicates poor
quality. The low DOBI value might be caused by the lengthened thermal
treatment due to sterilization time [14]. Additional thermal time of 8 hours was
also contributed by the Soxhlet extraction time in this study. According to [13],
high percentage of unripe fruit bunches, contamination of CPO with condensate
and oxidation of oils are also factors affecting DOBI value.
189
PV is an indicator used to determine the degree of oxidation in oils and
there are several factors affecting the value such as temperature, storage time,
light and contact with air [15]. Table 1 showed the PV is 1.20±0.07 meq/kg
which is still under permissible range of MPOB standard which indicates that
the CPO extracted from UFB has not undergone critical lipid oxidation and thus
show no rancidity of oil.
IV is an indicator for measuring the unsaturation of oils and can be used
to define the quality and functionality of the fractions [16]. The IV obtained
from this study is 42.7±0.92 g/100g which is slightly lower than the range set
by MPOB [10]. Nonetheless, palm oil is known for its uniqueness in having an
almost equal amount of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids.
Fatty acids composition of CPO extracted from UFB

The fatty acids composition of the extracted oil is shown in Figure 1. The major
fatty acids obtained are palmitic acid (C16:0) 47.92%, oleic acid (C18:1)
36.08%, linoleic acid (C18:2) 9.7% and stearic acid (C18:0) 2.69%. The fatty
acids composition indicates that the oil extracted from UFB contained almost
equal percentage of saturated fatty acids and unsaturated fatty acids. Besides
that, the fatty acids composition of oil from this study is comparable with the
fatty acids compositions in other study [17].
60
47.92 This study
43.5 39.8
[17]
Percentage, %
40 36.08
20 10.2
4.3 9.7
0.71 1.1 0.35 0.2 2.69
0
Fatty acid composition

Figure 1 Comparison of fatty acid composition in the extracted oil
Nutraceutical compositions of CPO extracted from UFB

The nutraceutical composition of the CPO extracted from UFB is shown in
Table 2. Carotenoids are the pigments responsible for the red colour of CPO in
palm oil due to high concentration of the fat-soluble nutrients. In this study, it
was found that the concentration of β-carotene was higher than α-carotene. The
concentration of β-carotene was 532.4 ppm whereas the concentration of α-
carotene is only 8.7 ppm. From the result, it is in accordance with the study by
[8] which states that concentration of β-carotene is higher than α-carotene in
CPO.
Table 2 Nutraceutical composition of CPO extracted from UFB

Minor components (ppm) This study [17]
Carotene
α-carotene 8.7 500-700
β-carotene 532.4
Tocopherol and tocotrienol
α-tocopherol 163
α-tocotrienol 454
β-tocotrienol 20 500-800
γ-tocotrienol 238
δ-tocotrienol 88
190
In a study reported by [16], 70-80% of total vitamin E is constituted by
tocotrienols and palm oil contained highest concentration of tocotrienols
compare to other oils. In addition, the ratio of tocotrienols to tocopherols in palm
oil is (90:10) and the result from this study is also similar. In this study however,
only α-tocopherol is detected among other tocopherols isomers with 163 ppm
concentration. The highest concentration is recorded by α-tocotrienol with 454
ppm, followed by γ-tocotrienol with 238 ppm and δ-tocotrienol with 88 ppm.
Tocotrienol isomer with lowest concentration is β-tocotrienol with only 20 ppm.
The most prominent tocotrienols in palm oil in this study are α, β and γ and the
result is similar with studies by [16]. From this study, tocotrienols has higher
concentration and became the main compounds of tocols due to lipid synthesis
that started after week 18 after anthesis.
Conclusion
The oil extracted from UFB was analysed for its chemical properties and
nutraceutical composition. It was determined that the extracted oil has
comparable chemical properties according to the MPOB standard. The carotene
and tocotrienols values were also high and hence showed a good prospect in
converting UFB biomass into CPO in the future.
References
[1] Saeed, O. M. B., Sankaran, S., Shariff, A. R. M., Shafri, H. Z. M.,

.Ehsani, R., Alfatni, M. S. and Hazir, M. H. M. (2012). “Classification of
oil palm fresh fruit bunches based on their maturity using portable four-
band sensor”. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 82 (2012) 55-
60.
[2] Harun, N. H., Misron, N., Mohd Sidek, R., Aris, I., Ahmad, D.,
Wakiwaka, H. and Tashiro, K. (2013). “Investigations on a novel
inductive concept frequency technique for the grading of oil palm fresh
fruit bunches”. Sensors 2013, 13, 2254-2266.
[3] Fadilah, N., Mohamed-Saleh, J., Abdul Halim, Z., Ibrahim, H. and Syed
Ali, S. S. (2012). “Intelligent color vision system for ripeness
classification of oil palm fresh fruit bunch”. Sensors (Switzerland),
12(10), 14179–14195.
[4] Hazir, M H. M., Shariff, A. R. M., Amiruddin, M. D., Ramli, A. R. and
Saripan, M. I. (2012). “Oil palm bunch ripeness classification using
fluorescence technique”. Journal of Food Engineering 113 (2012) 534-
540.
[5] Wan Ismail, W. I. and Razali M.H., (2012). “Machine Vision to
Determine Agricultural Crop Maturity”. Trends in Vital Food and
Control Engineering, Prof. Ayman Amer Eissa (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-51-
0449-0, InTech.
[6] MPOB Test Method. (2004). A compendium of test on palm oil products,
palm kernel products, fatty acids, food related products and others.
Malaysian Palm Oil Board.
[7] AOAC (1997). Official Methods of Analysis 17 th Ed. Washington, DC:
Association of Official Agricultural Chemists.
[8] Ahmad A. L., Chan C. Y., Abd Shukor S. R. and Mashitah, M.D. (2008).
“Recovery of oil and carotenes from palm oil mill effluent (POME)”.
Chemical Engineering Journal 141 (2008) 383-396.
[9] AOCS, American Oil Chemists' Society. 1990. Official methods and
recommended practices of the American Oil Chemists' Society. Method
Ce 8-89, Champaign, IL.
191
[10] Malaysian Standard, MS 814:2007. Palm Oil – Specification (Second
Revision). Standards and Industrial Research Institute of Malaysia
(SIRIM), Kuala Lumpur, 2008.
[11] Tan, C. H., M. Ghazali, H., Kuntom, A., Tan, C. P., and Ariffin, A. A.,
(2009). “Extraction and physicochemical properties of low free fatty acid
crude palm oil”. Food Chemistry 113, 645-650.
[12] Li, R., Xia, Q., Tang, M., Zhao, S., Chen, W., Lei, X., and Bai, X.,
(2012). “Chemical composition of Chinese palm fruit and chemical
properties of the oil extracts”. African Journal of Biotechnology 11(39),
9377-9382.
[13] Abdul Hadi, N., Ng, M. H., Choo, Y. M., and Ma, A. N. (2012). “Dry
heating of palm fruits: effect on sleected parameters”. American Journal
of Engineering and Applied Sciences, 5(2), 128-131.
[14] Mat Jusoh, J., Abd Rashid, N., and Omar, Z. (2013). “Effect of
sterilization process on deterioration of bleachability index (DOBI) of
crude palm oil (CPO) extracted from different degree of oil palm
ripeness”. International Journal of Bioscience, Biochemistry and
Bioinformatics, 3(4).
[15] Kaleem, A., Aziz, S., Iqtedar, M., Abdullah, R., Aftab, M., Rashid, F.,
Shakoori, F. R., and Naz, S. (2015). “Investigating changes and effect of
peroxide values in cooking oils subject to light and heat”. FUUAST
Journal of Biology, 5(2), 191-196.
[16] Kumar P. K. P. and Krishna A. G. G. (2014). “Physico-chemical
characteristics and nutraceutical distribution of crude palm oil and its
fraction”. Vol. 65, No 2 (2014).
[17] Sundram K., Sambanthamurthi R. and Tan Y. A., (2003). “Palm fruit
chemistry and nutrition”. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition
2003;12 (3); 355-362
192
T01_023: THE CHARACTERISATION OF
PHYTOCHEMICALS FROM MYRMECODIA
PLATYTYREA VIA MASS SPECTROMETRY
Li, A. R. 2, Rasadah, M. A. 2, Muhd Khir, M. A. 2,Fauziah, A.
2
1
Faculty of Pharmacy, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 42300
Puncak Alam, Selangor Darul Ehsan
2
Natural Product Division, Forest Research Institute
Malaysia, 52109 Kepong, Selangor Darul Ehsan
ABSTRACT
Myrmecodia platytyrea (MyP) is locally known as the ant plant. Natural

compounds were identified from fractions retrieved from MyP water extract.
These phytochemicals were analyzed via liquid chromatography mass-
spectrometry (LC-MS) library. The base peak from the chromatogram of the
various compounds resulting from the LC-MS method could be described. The
compounds were cautiously recognized by interpretation of their MS and
comparison with the data from the literature, journals and open-access mass
spectra databases. The summarized MS data of the compounds are recognized,
including theoretically calculated mass of the compounds, experimentally
measured m/z obtained by LC-MS and as well as the proposed compound for
each peak in the fractions. In summary, the separated biomolecules would
include the flavonoids and glucosides.
Keywords: flavonoids, mass, Myrmecodia, phytochemicals, spectrometry
Introduction
Myrmecodia species was extensively studied since it was proven to have
anticancer properties. This plant contains flavonoids e.g. kaempferol, rutin,
luteolin, quercetin and apigenin [1-2]. Some compounds have the beneficial
health effect on human such as apigenin, which was experimentally proven can
kill liver cancer cell [3]. In addition, Myrmecodia plants possess antioxidant
properties as they contain phenolics, which can act as 2,2-diphenyl-1-
picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) scavenger [4]. Previous report showed that this plant has
high content of flavonoid [5], which might be useful to be promoted for human
use. However, the high potency of Myrmecodia to be planted and its usage as
one of herbal medicines must be supported by scientific work to ensure its
safety. To date, many studies were done on Myrmecodia pendans and not many
data was generated for other species. Myrmecodia platytyrea is one of species
in Myrmecodia genus, however it is yet to be much studied. Therefore, MyP was
selected as a sample in this study. The phytochemicals of this herb need to be
determined in order to relate with its efficacy as a traditional medicine. In this
research, the water extract was screened in order to observe the types of
phytochemicals. It is shown that the water extract contains tannins, glycosides,
flavonoids, saponins, steroids, carbonyl compounds, terpenoids and reducing
sugars. Nevertheless, the screening tests were not sensitive at a certain range.
Further study in liquid chromatography mass-spectrometry (LC-MS) are
required in order to identify the biomolecules.
Methodology
Ten percent (10 %) of MyP water extract was prepared by adding 100 g MyP
powder into a beaker containing 1000 ml distilled water and boiled at 100 oC for
15 min. The solution was filtered and the supernatant was concentrated by using
193
rotary evaporator at 50 oC and freeze dried. The 10 % extract powder of MyP
water extract was stored at -80 oC until used.
The chromatographic analysis was performed using AccelaTM U-HPLC system

(Thermoscientific. San Jose, USA) equipped with a quaternary pump, a built-in
degasser, a PDA detector and an auto-sampler. The eluent from the LC was
directed into the electrospray ionisation (ESI) probe. The MS analysis was
performed on an LTQ Orbitrap mass spectrometer (Thermofisher Scientific,
Bremen, Germany) equipped with an ESI probe operating in the positive mode.
Results & Discussion
The mass spectra were used for compound determinations by comparison with
LCMS library and literatures. Fraction 4.2 showed a number of prominent peaks,
which the biggest m/z was 955.77 (Figure 1, Figure 2 and Table 1). The natural
compound with a mass data of 300 g/mol is suggested to be chrysoeriol, a
flavonoid [6].
C:\Xcalibur\data\Servis 2016\Kamal\26 5/3/2016 3:06:27 PM
RT : 0.00 - 4.99
0.16 NL:
100 2.66E5
90 T IC F:
FT MS + p
80 0.29 ESI Full ms
0.42 0.52 0.77 0.90 2.22
Relative Abundance
70 1.39 1.74 1.84 2.09 2.32 2.58 2.74 2.87 3.09 3.19 3.32 3.70 4.19 4.77 [100.00-
1.00 1.26 1.51 3.45 3.93 4.41 4.54 4.89 1000.00]
60 MS 26
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
T ime (min)
26 #6 RT : 0.16 AV: 1 NL: 1.89E4

F: FT MS + p ESI Full ms [100.00-1000.00]
214.09355
18000
16000
14000
553.46899
12000
Intensity
10000
8000
187.03117 489.14520
6000
131.00363 475.42371
4000 685.44849
265.10901 413.27396
2000 301.14682 569.44214 955.77441
382.14102 441.30582 529.46985 641.50677 698.77197 816.46289 885.96484
0
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000
m/z
Figure 1: The LCMS chromatogram and mass intensity peaks for fraction 4.2.
Table 1: The characterization of phytochemicals from fraction 4.2 of MyP water
extract by using LC-MS in positive ionization mode.
Compound Theoretical Observed Ref

Mass Mass
Chrysoeriol 300 301.14 [6]
Methyl (epi)afzelechin-3-O-gallate 440 441.30 [7]
Arjunolic acid 488.7 489.14 [8]
6'-β-glucopyranosil-oleoside 552 553.46 [9]
Polygalaxanthone XI 568 569.44 [10]
Isorhamnetin-3-Glucoside-4'- 640 641.50 [6]
Glucoside
Spirostanol glycoside (25R)- 884 885.96 [11]
spirost- 5-en-3β-ol 3-O-α-L-
rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-O-[β-D-
glucopyranosyl-(1→4)]-β-D-
glucopyranoside
Bidentatoside I 954 955.77 [12]
Methyl (epi)afzelechin-3-O-gallate was suggested based on the molecular

weight of 440 g/mol [7]. A molecular ion of a compound appeared at m/z 489.14
[M-H]+. According to its molecular ion, the molecular weight of the compound
194
was 488 g/mol. The compound with the exact molecular weight was suggested
to be arjunolic acid, a triterpenoid [8]. In addition, a compound was detected
with molecular ion at m/z 553.46 [M-H]+ which was known as 6'-β-
glucopyranosil-oleoside [9]. It was also suggested that the molecular ion at m/z
569.44 [M-H]+ was polygalaxanthone XI [10], which is a type of xanthone,
characterized by a C-glycoside moiety.
The molecular ion at m/z 641.50 [M-H]+ which corresponds to a compound with
molecular mass of 640 g/mol was known as isorhamnetin-3-glucoside-4'-
glucoside [6]. Besides that, anthocyanin was also detected in this fraction 4.2.
The compound that was detected at m/z 698.77 [M-H]+ was suggested as
cyanidin 3-O-(6''-malonyl-3''-glucosyl-glucoside) which has molecular weight
697 g/mol. The compound which was detected with molecular ion at m/z 885.96
[M-H]+ gave out a molecular weight 884 g/mol, as spirostanol glycoside (25R)-
spirost-5-en-3β-ol 3-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-O-[β-D-glucopyranosyl-
(1→4)]-β-D-gluco-pyrano-side [11]. Finally, a compound that was appeared at
the molecular ion of m/z 955.77 [M-H]+ which showed the largest molecule with
954 g/mol molecular weight, was suggested as Bidentatoside I [12].
Chrysoeriol, a flavonoid Arjunolic acid
6'-β-glucopyranosil-oleoside Polygalaxanthone XI, a C-glycoside xanthone
Bidentatoside I
195
Spirostanol glycoside (25R)-spirost-5-en-3β-ol 3-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-
(1→2)-O-[β-Dglucopyranosyl-(1→4)]-β-D-glucopyranoside
Figure 2: The chemical structures of the compounds from M. platytyrea.
Conclusions
The compounds’ mass data were corresponded with information reported in

journals. Based on the LCMS result, several repeating mass data are observed
that could indicate similar compounds are presented in different fractions. For
example, it was shown that bidentatoside I presented in several other fractions.
This occurrence might be due to the compound polarity that affects its solubility
in organic solvents, used for fractionation.
References
[1] A. M. Engida, S. Faika, B. T. Nguyen-Th and Y.H. Ju, “Analysis of major
antioxidants from extracts of Myrmecodia pendans by UV/visible
spectrophotometer, liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry, and
high-performance liquid chromatography/UV techniques,” Journal of Food
and Drug Analysis, 23(2), 303–309 (2015).
[2] A. M. Engida, N. S. Kasim, Y. A. Tsigie, S. Ismadji, L. H. Huynh and J.
Yi-Hsu, “Extraction, identification and quantitative HPLC analysis of
flavonoids from sarang semut (Myrmecodia pendan)”, Industrial Crops &
Products, 41, 392-396 (2013).
[3] K.T. Kim, E. J. Yeo, S. H. Moon, S. G. Cho, Y.S. Han, S. Y. Nah and H.
D. Paik, “Inhibitory effects of naringenin, kaempherol and apigenin on
cholesterol biosynthesis in HepG2 and MCF-7 cells,” Food Sci Biotechnol.
17(6), 1361 – 1364 (2008).
[4] N. F. Mohamad Haris, “A Study on Bioactive Constituents of Myrmecodia
Platytyrea Subsp. Antoinii (Becc.) Huxley & Jebb. Master of Science
Thesis, UiTM, Selangor Darul Ehsan (2014).
[5] A. C. Suwandi, “Identification of Bioactive Compounds in Water Extract
of Sarang Semut (Myrmecodia pendans),” Master's Thesis, National
Taiwan University of Science and Technology (2015).
[6] P. Venkatalakshmi, V. Vadivel and P. Brindha, “Identification of
Flavonoids in Different Parts of Terminalia catappa L. Using LC-ESI-
MS/MS and Investigation of Their Anticancer Effect in EAC Cell Line
Model, ” J. Pharm. Sci. & Res. 8(4), 176-183 (2016).
[7] J. S. Shelembe, D. Cromarty, M. J. Bester, A. Minnaar and K. G. Duodu,
“Characterization of phenolic acids, flavonoids, proanthocyanidins and
antioxidant activity of water extracts from seed coats of marama bean
[Tylosema esculentum] – an underutilised food legume,” International
Journal of Food Science and Technology, 47, 648 – 655 (2012).
[8] T. Hemalatha, S. Pulavendran, C. Balachandran, B. M. Manohar and R.
Puvanakrishnan, “Arjunolic acid: a novel phytomedicine with
multifunctional therapeutic applications,” Indian J Exp Biol. 48(3), 238-
247 (2010).
196
[9] E. Aranda, I. Garćia-Romera, J.A. Ocampo, V. Carbone, A. Mari, A.
Malorni, F. Sannino, A. De Martino and R. Capasso, “Chemical
characterization and effects on Lepidium sativum of the native and
bioremediated components of dry olive mill residue,” Chemosphere 69,
229–239 (2007).
[10] D. Wu, J. He, Y. Jiang and B. Yang, “Quality analysis of Polygala tenuifolia
root by ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass
spectrometry and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry,” Journal of Food
and Drug Analysis 23, 144 – 151 (2015).
[11] C. C. Hu, J. T. Lin, S.C. Liu and D. J. Yang, “A Spirostanol Glycoside from
Wild Yam (Dioscorea villosa) Extract and Its Cytostatic Activity on Three
Cancer Cells. Journal of Food and Drug Analysis, 15(3), 310-315 (2007).
[12] A.-C. Mitaine-Offer, A. Marouf, C. Pizza, T. C. Khanh, B. Chauffert and
M.-A. Lacaille-Dubois, “Bidentatoside I, a New Triterpene Saponin from
Achyranthes bidentate,” J. Nat. Prod., 64 (2), 243–245 (2001).
197
T01_024: SAFE CITY: APPROACH OF CRIME
PREVENTION THROUGH ENVIRONMENTAL
DESIGN (CPTED) IN PUBLIC PARK
1
Wan Hazwatiamani Wan Ismail 2Nor Hanisah Mohd Hashim and 3,4Sharifah
Khalizah Syed Othman Thani,
1
Institute of Graduate Studies,
UiTM Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
Amanie_wan91@yahoo.com
2
Centre of Studies for Park and Amenity Management,
Faculty of Architecture, Planning and Surveying,
3
Centre of Studies for Landscape Design,
4
Centre for Environment-Behaviour Studies,
ABSTRACT
In the current state of development, the various efforts made by the government
to ensure community have a better life to achieve developed nation status and
standing of the State which has built. One of the efforts is to introduce the Safe
City Program. This study was conducted to assess the perceived safety of the
public during recreational activities in selected urban parks. The objective of
this study is to define the Crime Prevention through Environmental Design
(CPTED) principles and their safety elements that are significant in designing
an urban park. The case studies include three different urban parks in the
vicinity of Shah Alam City, which are; Shah Alam Lake Park in Section 14,
Recreational Park in Section 28 and SUK Urban Forest Park in Section 14.
Several criteria of CPTED that could contribute to the better park design were
identified. The findings on the significant influence of safety design and personal
factors on the participant’s perception of urban safety in open space bring out
this innovation. This study shows the respondents’ safety adaptation from social
and psychological perspectives. The significance of the findings shows the
importance of a safety element in urban park for continued use by the future
communities.
Keywords: Safe City, Crime Preventive Through Environmental Design

(CPTED), National Landscape Policy, Jabatan Perancangan Bandar dan Desa,
Shah Alam.
INTRODUCTION
In a mission by Malaysian Government promoting spending quality time with
family, efforts have been made by the government through the establishment of
Malaysia as a National Most Beautiful Park which is in line with National
Landscape Policy emphasizing on the sustainable development of the landscape
[4]. However, as the sustainability concept is acknowledged by people around
the globe, safety factor of the park should be in parallel with the design of the
park by not jeopardising the fun part and visitors’ satisfaction of the park. This
study is oncern on the design of public parks in comply with the CPTED
principle of safety.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Planning Guideline for Open Space and Recreational Area.
Referring to Section 2 (1) of the Town and Country Planning Act 1976 (Act
172), open spaces were meant to be: 'any land whether enclosed or not laid out
or reserved for laying out wholly or partly as a park public interest, public parks,
sports fields and recreation areas, a walkway or as a public place '. Recreation
area an also be defined as an area or public place for the purpose of active and
passive recreation.
Safe City Concept

According to [5], safe city is defined as a city free from all threats of physical,
social and mental. Safe City program has outlined 23-step illustrations of crime
prevention involving local authorities. Emphasis on the security in public areas
is important in order to ensure residents can use them safely. A safe and secured
design of recreation areas is vital to nullify crime activities at the parks as stated
in Strategy 1: Designing the Physical Environment under Research Crime
Prevention through Environment Design Methods.
Principle of CPTED
[2] and [3] state that:
 Natural Surveillance- environment are well maintained to keep the safer,
 Natural Access Control- Vegetation design such as fence,
 Territorial Reinforcement- Segregation between public and private space,
 Maintenance and Management - Park has to be maintained as to avoid
criminal behaviour.
Development Component
 Layout Design
 Access and Pedestrian Walkway
 Soft Landscaping and Urban Design Element
 Car Parks
 Lighting
 Security Devices.
 Management and Maintenance.
STUDY AREA
The selected urban parks that have been chosen to conduct this study are located
within the vicinity of Shah Alam city. Three public urban parks have been
chosen for this study namely Shah Alam Lake Park, SUK Forest Park, and
Section 28 Recreational Park.
METHODOLOGY
Research Design and Data Collection
The study used quantitative method where 384 questionnaires were distributed
among park visitors at the selected areas. The questionnaires were outlined
based on certain criteria of CPTED components.
Data Analysis
Data analysis for the questionnaire was done by using the SPSS (Statistical
Package for Social Science). All questions were individually analysed, taking
into considerations all the available factors and supported with descriptive and
inferential analysis. Analytic Hierarchy Model (AHP) was employed to identify
the best location that practiced the CPTED principles through site observation
and questionnaires.
199
ANALYSIS
Development components at the park
Table 1: Respondent Perception on Development Components
Development Component Higher Mean Best location that applies the
component
Design of park 3.09 Recreational Park in Section 28
Lighting 2.41 Lake Park Shah Alam in Section 14
Signage 3.17 Recreational Park in Section 28
Visibility 3.07 Lake Park Shah Alam in Section 14
Walkway 3.20 SUK Urban Forest Park, Section 5
Seating 3.33 Lake Park Shah Alam in Section 14
Parking 3.50 SUK Urban Forest Park, Section 5
Landscape 3.20 SUK Urban Forest Park, Section 5
Fence 3.78 Lake Park Shah Alam in Section 14
Maintenance 3.19 Recreational Park in Section 28
Entrance 3.23 Lake Park Shah Alam in Section 14
Accessibility 3.95 Lake Park Shah Alam in Section 14
Security patrol 2.59 Lake Park Shah Alam in Section 14
 Design of the park - Most of the respondents believed that the design of the
park should incorporate the safety design principles to reduce crime
occurrence in an urban park.
 Lighting - For the lighting category, the mean value is 2.41, which is
unsatisfactory level. A study done by [7] found that lighting is one of crucial
elements that give safety feeling during night time leisure activities in Shah
Alam urban parks.
 Signage - The mean value of the signage is 3.17 where the respondents feel
that the signage needs to be improved as it shows information of the overall
park layout, visibility and accessibility. It could be useful if the signage are
accessible and friendly to the users.
 Visibility - The mean value is 3.07, where the respondents indicated that
visibility of the location of Shah Alam Lake Gardens is appropriate. The
visibilities of the other two parks need some improvements.
 Walkway - The respondents believed that the existing walkway was at
unsatisfactory level and need some maintenance. A good pedestrian
walkway offered comfortable feeling to the respondents during recreational
activities.
 Seating - Seating is also one of the components that are included in the
development of CPTED. The visibility of the seating structure is also one of
the considerations to nullify the possibility of criminal incidence. The mean
is 3.33 where the respondents stated that the location of seating area needs
some improvement.
 Parking - Most of the respondents indicated that the state of the parking area
at an unsatisfactory level in terms of visitors’ safety. This is especially during
the weekend where there was no ample parking space to cater all vehicles,
therefore visitors need to park their car far from the area. This bothered them
as they do not feel safe when they have to walk to reach the park.
 Landscape and Vegetation - The above table shows the mean value is 3.20,
where the landscape level in Shah Alam Lake Park is at an appropriate level
which does not disturb the landscape and outdoor visibility to the
200
surrounding area. The respondents indicate that the landscape and planting
should be properly designed in order to promote natural accessibility and
visibility of park to the users.
 Maintenance - Poor maintenance also gives bad feelings to the users as it
seems inviting to the criminal behavior.
 Security Patrol - Some of the respondents responded that the security patrol
is needed based on the location and condition of the park. They feel safe if
the park is located near to public spaces rather than isolated and remotely
located. This study agrees with the findings of [6] and [1] where they found
that social surveillance also plays important aspects in improving outdoor
quality of life.
Implementation of CPTED Principles in Shah Alam Public Parks

Table 2 summarizes the best location of Shah Alam’s public parks that
implemented the principles of CPTED. Recreational Park Section 28 was chosen
as the best park among other selected case studies because CPTED principles
are significantly implemented here. Respondents agreed that CPTED is strongly
practiced in this park as compared to SUK Forest Park, Seksyen 5 (moderately
practiced CPTED), and Shah Alam Lake Park which is the least practiced of
CPTED principles.
From this study, the findings indicated that the users’ believed that the
integration of CPTED principles in physical planning and design of their
surrounding; in this case, an urban parks, could help in providing a safer outdoor
environment for recreational activities.
Table 2: Matrix Table of Overall Ranking the Best Implement CPTED in Parks.
Criteria Ranking
Overall Ranking
Scale Hierarchy
Security patrol
Maintenance
Accessibility
EigenVector
Landscape
Walkway
Visibility
Entrance
Lighting
Signage
Seating
Parking
Design
Fence
Indicator
Shah Alam Poorly
Extreme
Lake Park 0.539 0.164 0.172 0.141 0.304 0.141 0.350 0.350 0.159 0.889 0.252 0.159 0.053 0.06 0.262 3 practised
Importance
Section 14 CPTED
Recreational Strongly
Equal
Park 0.297 0.539 0.350 0.334 0.172 0.334 0.478 0.172 0.589 0.352 0.589 0.589 0.196 0.088 0.394 1 practised
Importance
Section 28 CPTED
SUK Forest Moderately
Strong
Park Section 0.164 0.297 0.478 0.525 0.524 0.525 0.172 0.478 0.252 0.259 0.159 0.252 0.084 0.064 0.348 2 practised
Importance
5 CPTED
0.115
0.054
0.127
0.057
0.089
0.041
0.061
0.073
0.132
0.039
1
KEY ASPECTS FOR DESIGNING OUT CRIME IN URBAN PARK

From the findings, these aspects could be recommended:
Short-term planning of crime prevention
 Controlling the vegetation design
 Lighting or illuminate a target area such as roadsides, public recreational
areas
 Overall Research Crime Prevention through Environmental Design Methods
 Increase patrolling around the neighbourhood
 Enforcement of design guidelines
Long-term planning of crime prevention
201
 Running Achievement Level Evaluation Program "Safe City Initiative"
 Conducting Research CPTED and the principle of "defensible space"
 Cooperation between the public, local authorities and Police
 Civic Awareness and Application of Values among Public (Informal Social
Control)
CONCLUSION
From the findings, it can be concluded that the physical layout and the landscape
design of the park have an influence in enhancing the safety aspect. For future
park development, it is vital to further enhanced study on the combination of
natural and social elements where the interrelationship between the landscape
design and the user’s activities are significantly and relevantly correlated.
Throughout the assessment of perceived safety by users and observing peoples’
behaviour in term of offending, this will contribute to the influence of proposed
good surveillance by the design of the environment. Therefore, it will contribute
to a better park design, and therefore reduces the opportunities for crime. The
landscape professionals could incorporate the safety design principles at the
initial stage of the design development. This ensures the surveillance of the
urban parks for future developments, and towards an improvement in the quality
of outdoor lifestyle
REFERENCE
[1] Atoosa, I,, Seyed-Abbas, Y., Seyed-Bagher, B., Saeid, N-M. (2015).
Relationship between Support of Social Activities and Fear of Crime in Iran
Residential Complex. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 170, 575
– 585.
[2] Canterbury Safety Working Party. (2004). Safer Canterbury Creating Safer
Communities. 2004. Canterbury, New York.
[3] Department of Town and Country Planning, (2012). Crime Prevention
through Environmental Design (CPTED).
[4] Department of National Landscape. (2011). Dasar Landskap Negara, 50.
[5] Kamalruddin B. S., (2004). KertasKerja 1: StrategidanPolisi Program.
[6] Muhammad A. E., Mohamad, A.M., MMR Sami E.,Mansor I.(2014).
Impact of Outdoor Environment to the Quality of Life. Procedia - Social
and Behavioral Sciences 153, 639 – 654
[7] Ngesan, M. R., Karim, H. A., &Zubir, S. S. (2013). Image of Urban Public
Park during Nighttime in Relation to Place Identity.Procedia -Social and
Behavioral Sciences, 101, 328–337.
202
T01_025: A STUDY ON COST OF
PRELIMINARIES OF CONSTRUCTION
PROJECTS FOR CIVIL INFRASTRUCTURE
WORKS IN MALAYSIA
Abdul Aziz Abas, Zulhabri Ismail, Faridah Ismail
Faculty of Architecture, Planning and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA
(UiTM), Shah Alam
ABSTRACT
The preliminaries bill of quantities of a construction project provides general
information, mandatory instructions, and setup running costs for the duration
of a construction contract. The bill is crucial and arbitrary in nature. The
objective of the study is to verify the differences of preliminaries between the
building works and civil infrastructure and establish average preliminaries for
the civil infrastructure works. 25 tender documents from six civil infrastructure
tenders were analyzed. Based on the qualitative method and using content
analysis, the average preliminaries for the civil infrastructure works were
established. Comparison between average preliminaries of the building works
and civil infrastructure was carried out to verify any significant deviation due
to their different scopes of construction. The statistical analyses using
Boussabaine's theory and standard deviation method were compared to
establish the most reliable results. The research findings for the preliminaries
of the civil infrastructure works are between 3.26% and 6.38% compared to the
building works between 3.60% and 7.94%. Average preliminaries are higher
than 3% but not exceeding 10% of the tender sum for both scopes of construction
works.
Keywords: civil infrastructure, building work, preliminaries, tender sum
Introduction
Preliminaries are integral components of the bills of quantities in a construction
project [2]. The cost of preliminaries varies between contractors depending on
the complexity of the project. The accuracy of preliminaries being the interest
of many researchers as it contributes significantly to the overall construction
costs. Difficulty in pricing the preliminaries usually ended up with large
variation depending on contractor own interpretation and approach [2]. In
Malaysia, preliminaries constitute some 10% of the tender sum [3].
Preliminaries for building works are usually established to represent the trend in
the construction industry [3][4], however, preliminaries for the civil
infrastructure works are not explicitly defined, thus has spurred concern of the
author to analyze and establish the percentage based on Malaysian construction
industry context.
Are the percentages varying between the building and civil
infrastructure works? This study is assessing the situation by referring to the
present pricing trend by the contractors of class G7 grade CE for civil works.
Literature Review
Building works are defined as the construction or erection or assembly related
to a building or any other structure for the same purpose [5]. Civil infrastructure
is the basic amenities that involve the construction of roads, water supply,
drainage, sewerage etc., that forms a physical system [6].
Average preliminaries for the building works are in the range of 3.60%
and 7.94% [7][8]. In general, preliminaries for the building works in Malaysia
is expected not to exceed 10% of the tender sum [2][3][4]. Preliminaries are
203
crucial and constitute as part of the contractor’s profit margin consideration. In
Malaysia, the typical profit margin for the medium commercial scale is 12.5%
[3].
The percentage of preliminaries was very much affected by the nature
of the project and site constraints. Preliminaries for highly restricted or confined
areas warrants an extra cost of 50% above the average due to extra resources or
special techniques required [1]. However, the geographical factor such as
sloping terrain or poor soil condition would incur additional 23% of the average
cost of preliminaries [1].
Content analysis (Qualitative Method) encompassing the bills of preliminaries
of civil works and statistical analysis were applied. 25 tender documents from 6
separate tender exercises between 2011 and 2015 were analyzed. For
information, the tender documents were shortlisted by the consultant for the
tender evaluation. For sampling purposes, one tender document represents one
contractor. Refer Table 1. The appropriate sample sizes acceptable for the
survey are between 30 and 500 [9][10]. Despite that 10 to 20 samples would be
sufficient for tight controls situation [9][11]. Considering the documents used
for this research is treated as confidential and under strict use. Hence 25 tender
documents were within this ambit and therefore the sample population was
considered sufficient.
Firstly, the average preliminaries for civil infrastructure were
established and compared to previous research finding of the building works.
Secondly, the average civil infrastructure preliminaries were further analyzed
by statistical analyses using Boussabaine's theory and standard deviation method
to establish the most reliable results.
Table 1 : Tender Documents

Tender Scope of Works Tender Year of Tender
Identification Document
Tender 1 Earthwork 3 2010
Tender 2 Road & Drain 3 2015
Tender 3 Road & Drain 5 2015
Tender 4 Main Infra 5 2012
Tender 5 Sewerage 4 2014
Tender 6 Main Infra 5 2011
Total Samples 25
Findings and Discussions
Table 2: Percentage of Preliminaries against Tender Sum

Tender Lowest Average Highest Difference
Tender 1 4.84% 6.06% 7.19% 2.34%
Tender 2 4.55% 5.73% 7.01% 2.46%
Tender 3 3.27% 4.95% 8.48% 5.21%
Tender 4 2.21% 3.23% 4.36% 2.15%
Tender 5 4.73% 6.36% 9.37% 4.65%
Tender 6 1.05% 2.62% 4.88% 3.83%
Average 3.44% 4.82% 6.88% 3.44%
The preliminaries range between 1.05% and 9.37% of the tender sum and the
average percentages are between 3.44% and 6.88%. Refer Table 2. Comparison
between the civil infrastructure and building works i.e. 3.60% and 7.94% [7] [8]
reveals the variants between -4% and -13% respectively. It is noted that the
204
average preliminaries of the building work are slightly higher than the civil
infrastructure but both are not exceeding 10% [2][3]. However, the lowest limits
are less than 5% for both cases. Hence, 5% limit established by [2] is not justified
for the present situation. The finding shows the average percentage of civil
infrastructure preliminaries is 8.5% lower than the building works.
Preliminaries are influenced by the site constraints. For the samples
size, the project sites are situated in the non-restricted areas. Assuming the
slopes and poor soil condition are the constraints, therefore, the tolerance of
±23% of the average preliminaries may be adopted [1]. Hence the average
tolerance is 1.11% as showed in Table 3.
Table 3: Derivation of Tolerance Based on Boussabaine's

Average Addition @ 23% of
Tender
Preliminaries % Preliminaries
Tender 1 6.06% 1.39%
Tender 2 5.73% 1.32%
Tender 3 4.95% 1.14%
Tender 4 3.23% 0.74%
Tender 5 6.36% 1.46%
Tender 6 2.62% 0.60%
Average 4.82% 1.11%
As such average percentages of the civil infrastructure preliminaries are between

3.71% and 5.93%. Refer Table 4.
Table 4: Limit of preliminaries ±1.11%

Preliminaries Percentage (%)
Higher limit 5.93%
Average 4.82%
Lower limit 3.71%
Further verification of the above theory using standard deviation method is

carried out. Refer Table 5.
Table 5: Establishment of Standard Deviation

Tender Average Mean Difference Variance
Tender 1 6.06% 1.23% 0.015%
Tender 2 5.73% 0.91% 0.008%
Tender 3 4.95% 0.12% 0.000%
4.82%
Tender 4 3.23% -1.60% 0.025%
Tender 5 6.36% 1.54% 0.024%
Tender 6 2.62% -2.20% 0.049%
Average Variance 0.024%
Standard Deviation δ 1.56%
Standard deviation is derived based on Equation (1).
Population, N=6
Average variance = (1.23)2+(0.91)2+(0.12)2+(-1.60)2+(1.54)2+(-2.20)2
N–1 (1)
= 0.121
5
= 0.024
Standard deviation δ = √ 0.024
= 1.56
Hence, the higher and lower limits are established. Refer Table 6
205
Table 6: Limit of preliminaries using Standard Deviation ±1.56%
Preliminaries Percentage (%)
Higher limit 6.38%
Average 4.82%
Lower limit 3.26%
In comparison, the variations in both approaches are within 0.5% as presented

in Table 7.
Table 7 : Comparison Between Boussabaine And Standard Deviation

Boussabaine Standard Deviation δ Variation
Higher limit 5.93% 6.38% 0.45%
Lower limit 3.71% 3.26% 0.45%
The author suggests standard deviation approach would result in a

wider tolerance between the lower and the higher limits of the preliminaries
against the tender sum. Standard deviation is reliable for the Statistical Analysis
that deals with uncertainties [12]. Boussabaine's theory may provide a rule of
thumb basis for consideration; however, the tolerance provided by the theory is
narrower compared to the standard deviation method, therefore more stringent.
The author is of the opinion that the standard deviation method would be more
reliable to be adopted.
Conclusion
In conclusion, preliminaries for the civil infrastructure and building works are
between 3% and 10%. As such the limits of 5% and 10% [2] are no longer
relevant for the present situation. The study also concludes that the difference
between the civil infrastructure preliminaries and building works do exist. Civil
infrastructure preliminaries are cheaper by 8.5% compared to the building
works. The study also concludes that the average preliminaries for the
infrastructure works are between 3.26% and 6.38%.
Acknowledgement
The author would like to submit his heartiest thanks to Associate Professor Sr.
Hj. Ruslan Affendy Arshad being a dedicated mentor and supervisor during the
completion of this Master Degree’s dissertation in July 2016. His guidance was
most precious and immeasurable in any forms.
References
[1] A. Boussabaine, Cost Planning of PFI and PPP Building Projects.
London & New York: Taylor & Francis, 2007.
[2] N. A. Ghani, “The importance of preliminaries items,” Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia, 2006.
[3] Turner & Townsend, “International construction market survey 2016,”
2016.
[4] Turner & Townsend, “A brighter outlook : International Construction
Cost Survey 2013,” 2013.
[5] HM Government, “The Building Regulations 2010,” Approv. Doc. L2B
Conserv. fuel power Exist. Build. other than dwellings, vol. 5, p. 5.
[6] Wikipedia, “Infrastructure,” Wikipedia. 2016.
[7] T. A. N. C. Keng and Y. K. A. H. Ching, “A Study on The Cost of
Preliminaries Section in Construction Projects,” no. 1, pp. 1–6, 2012.
[8] T. C. Keng, “Costing for The Preliminaries Section of The
Construction,” in Cost and Contract Administration in Construction,
206
Devine Perspectives, vol. 1, M. F. A. Ayob and M. S. Ibrahim, Eds.
Kuala Lumpur: IIUM Press, 2016, pp. 24–29.
[9] J. T. Roscoe, Fundamental research statistics for the behavioral
sciences [by] John T. Roscoe, 2nd ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1975.
[10] N. M. Rahim, S. H. Mohd Yusoff, and S. Abd Latif, “Assessing
Readiness for E-Learning among Students of Universiti Selangor,” Aust.
J. Basic Appl. Sci., vol. 8, no. 20, pp. 11–14, 2014.
[11] R. Hill, “What Sample Size is ‘ Enough ’ in Internet Survey Research?,”
interpersonal Comput. Technol. An Electron. J. 21st Century, vol. 6, no.
3, pp. 1–10, 1998.
[12] IPCC, “Conceptual Basis for Uncertainty Analysis,” 2000.
207
CHARACTERIZATION OF HEXYLOXY-
SUBSTITUTED C≡C AND C=N DERIVATIVE
Amirah Nabilah Rashid
Wan M. Khairul*
School of Fundamental Science, Universiti Malaysia
Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu,
Malaysia
*
Corresponding author: wmkhairul@umt.edu.my
ABSTRACT
Exploration of conjugated molecules comprising ethynyl and Schiff-base
moieties are surprisingly not widely explored even though these systems are
proven to give many advantages especially in charge transport properties. They
individually offer electronic delocalization in extended π-orbital system arising
from C≡C, C=C (aromatic) and C=N moieties that contributes in electrical
conductivity. Due to these concerns, a novel disubstituted ethynylated-Schiff
base derivative has been successfully designed, synthesized and characterized
via IR, 1H and 13C NMR, UV-Vis and energy band gap study via Gaussian 09.
IR spectra revealed band of interest C=N at 1620 cm-1 which also confirmed by
NMR analysis with the presence of C=N at δH 8.39 ppm and δC 160.00 ppm for
1
H and 13C NMR respectively. The electronic transitions of the desired
compound were observed around 303 nm to 362 nm arising from different
moieties of Ar-H, C≡C, C=N and OC6H13. Theoretical evaluation using density
functional theory (DFT) approach with basis set B3LYP, 6-31G (d,p) was also
carried out to study on the energy band gap and compared with experimental
data. Other than having the highly extended π-orbital, the synthesized molecule,
EB-H6 with ethynylated-Schiff base system also provides further opportunities
to be explored as molecular wire candidates in various molecular electronic
applications.
Keywords: alkyne, Schiff-base, molecular wire, spectroscopic properties,

energy band gap
Introduction
In recent years, preparation of single and novel materials with multi-properties

such as conductivity has grabbed a lot of researchers’ attention. These molecules
are also known as molecular wires [1]. The electrical charge was produced by
the movement of electrons which can transfer easily through the conjugated
pathway in such molecules [2]. As conductivity properties of a molecule were
influenced by the conjugation, in this study, we introduced conjugation in
molecular framework of the mixed moieties featuring ethynyl and Schiff-base
that gives enormous advantages especially in designing single molecular wire
system. The delocalized π-electrons over the conjugated chain make it a
relatively good conductor [3,4]. This behaviour also aroused from the resonance
process occurred among the lone pair of electrons from N and O atoms in the
molecule. In contrast to Schiff-base, the ethynyl derivative has extended rigid π-
system arising from double and triple bonds which also resulted in distribution
of electric charge all over the molecule. Therefore, in this work, a novel
ethynylated-Schiff base derivative as illustrated in Figure 1 was synthesized and
studied for their spectroscopic properties via IR, 1H and 13C NMR, UV-vis and
energy band gap via Gaussian 09.
Figure 1: EB-H6 as candidate molecule bearing hexyloxy-ethynylated-alkene
moiety
Experimental
Materials
All materials used in this study were used as received without further
purification. Chemicals and solvents namely 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde, 1-
bromohexane, 4-iodoaniline, N,N-Dimethylformamide, triethylamine,
dichloromethane and n-Hexane were purchased from Merck while 4-
ethynylaniline, ethanol and ethyl acetate were supplied from Acrós Organics,
HmbG and R&M respectively. The synthetic works involved in this study were
carried out under an ambient condition.
Instrumentation
Infrared (IR) spectra of the synthesized compounds were recorded on Perkin
Elmer 100 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy by using the conventional
potassium bromide (KBr) pellet method in the range of 4000-400 cm-1. In
addition, 1H (500.16 MHz) and 13C (125.77 MHz) NMR spectroscopy analyses
were conducted by using Jeol 500 MHz FT-NMR spectrometer in deuterated
chloroform (CDCl3). Meanwhile for UV-Vis spectroscopy, the UV spectra were
recorded using Spectrophotometer Shimadzu UV-1601PC in 1 cm3 cuvette in
dichloromethane solution with concentration of 1 x 10-5 M.
Synthetic Works
2.3.1 Preparation of 4-hexyloxybenzaldehyde (6BD)

The synthetic and characterization works to obtain the precursor of 6BD
followed Williamson ether synthesis method as reported in literatures [5,6], by
reacting 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde (0.1 mol, 5.22 g) and 1-bromohexane (0.1 mol,
6 mL) with some modification carried out in this protocol to give yellowish oil
of 6BD (Yield: 88%).
2.3.2 Preparation of Bis-(4-aminophenyl)acetylene (ET-H)

Ethynyl derivative was prepared through Sonogashira cross-coupling reaction
following the approaches of the reported works [7,8] with some alteration
between 4-ethynylaniline (1.5 mol, 0.5 g) and 4-iodoaniline (1.0 mol) to afford
brown solid of ET-H (Yield: 80 %).
2.3.3 Synthesis of ethynylated-Schiff base molecule (EB-H6)

To derive Ethynylated-Schiff base molecule, 6BD (2.0 mol, 0.20 g) and ET-H
(1.0 mol, 0.10 g) underwent condensation process (using distillation setup) in
80 mL ethanol resulted in imine formation and removal of H2O by-product
(Scheme 1). The progress of the reaction was monitored by thin-layer
chromatography (n-hexane:ethyl acetate; 3.5:1.5). The remaining mixture (ca.
20 mL) was cooled to room temperature and the precipitate formed was dried,
then recrystallized from dichloromethane to obtain yellow precipitate (Yield: 58
%). C40H44N2O2 [Found (Calcd.)]: C = 84.82 (82.15); H = 5.01 (4.79); N = 7.93
(7.58). IR (KBr): v(CH-alk) 2935 cm-1, v(C≡C) 2208 cm-1, v(C=N) 1620 cm-1,
v(C=C Ar) 1475, 1606 cm-1, v(C-O) 1250 cm-1, v(C-N) 1163 cm-1. 1H NMR
209
(CDCl3, 500.16 MHz): δH 0.91(CH3, 6H, t, 3JHH = 7 Hz), 1.34-1.84 (CH2, 16H,
m), 4.03 (OCH2, 4H, t, 3JHH = 7 Hz), 6.98, 7.19, 7.56, 7.85 (Ar-H, 16H, pd, 3JHH
= 8 Hz), 8.39 (N=CH, 2H, s). 13C NMR (CDCl3, 125.77 MHz): δC 14.02 (CH3),
22.58-31.55 (CH2), 68.22 (OCH2), 89.64 (C≡C), 114.72-152.04 (Ar-C), 160.0
(N=CH), 162.07 (C-O).
Scheme 1: Synthesis of ethynylated-Schiff base derivative EB-H6
Infrared (IR) Spectroscopy Analysis

IR spectroscopy analysis revealed all bands of interest for the ethynylated-Schiff
base molecule. The disappearance of N-H stretching bands in the IR region
3100-3500 cm-1 and the presence of C=N stretching band at 1620 cm-1
confirmed that condensation of all the primary amine and aldehyde had
occurred. This azomethine group v(HC=N) is the most characteristic band of
Schiff-base ligands which was similar with reported result in previous studies
[9,10]. On the other hand, the IR spectrum includes the other stretching bands
of v(C≡C), v(CH-alk), v(C=C Ar), v(C-O) and v(C-N) showed that it is indeed
an ethynylated-Schiff base molecule, EB-H6.
210
6BD
v(1° NH )
2 ET-H
%
T
EB-H6
v(C
≡C)
v(C-O
v(C ether)
v(C-H =N)
alkane str)
Wavenumber
-1
(cm )
Figure 2: IR spectra of 6BD, ET-H and EB-H6

1
H and 13C Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Analysis
The analyses were carried out for further structural elucidation of the
synthesized compound. All of the expected proton and carbon resonances were
recorded at the expected chemical shifts. Appearance of important singlet at δH
8.39 ppm confirms the synthesis of ethynylated-Schiff base molecule, assigned
to imine (HC=N) proton. The recorded value was also in a good agreement with
previous works involving synthesizing Schiff-base ligands [11,12]. Besides,
there is only one singlet peak of such moiety due to symmetrical property of the
synthesized compound. In addition to this, the multiplet signals in the δ H 6.98-
7.85 ppm range are due to aromatic protons [13]. Moreover, presence of the
other resonances; CH3, CH2 and O-CH2 at δH 0.91, 1.34-1.84 and 4.03 ppm
respectively had showed the NMR studies of ethynylated-Schiff-base are
completely consistent with their constituent elements. On the other hand, for 13C
NMR, the symmetry molecule of EB-H6 has only one C≡C resonance at δC
89.64 ppm. The singlet peak at δC 160.00 was assigned to the imine carbon falls
at approximately the same range with works carried out before [11,13] while
aromatic carbons can be found in the range δC 114.72-152.04 ppm [14].
Ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) Spectroscopy and Energy gap study

UV-vis absorption data reveals the important and expected electronic transitions
from the contribution of chromophores namely Ar-H, C≡C, C=N and OC6H13
moieties around λmax = 303 to 362 nm which had ε = 28700 and 54100 M-1 cm-
1
respectively. The absorption band of C≡C was not observed due to its high
211
energy transitions and their positions are sensitive to the presence of any
substituent. However, the absorption of alkynes is usually can be found at
around 170 nm [15]. The optical spectroscopy of EB-H6 was then followed by
theoretical energy band gap study via Gaussian 09. This theoretical simulation
gave HOMO and LUMO values -0.1852 a.u. and -0.06212 a.u. respectively and
the energy gap calculated was 3.35 eV while 3.43 eV from experimental.
Therefore, due to small difference, Eg value obtained from UV-vis spectroscopy
was arguably the same with theoretical result and it has great potential in
semiconductor applications. This is because the electrical and optical properties
of semiconductors are determined by band gap energy as one of the most
essential parameters that need to be considered [16].
Conclusion
A novel disubstituted ethynylated-Schiff base derivative, EB-H6 was

successfully synthesized and characterized via IR, 1H and 13C NMR, UV-vis and
energy gap study using Gaussian 09. Further studies on conductivity behaviour
and theoretical evaluation via Gaussian 09 can be carried out for a better
understanding about the derivative at molecular level. Besides, EB-H6 also has
potential in exhibiting liquid crystalline behaviour due to their unique properties
which are rigid centre, presence of linker/bridge as well as flexible chain tail.
Therefore, the proposed ethynylated-Schiff base system has proven to be an
interesting candidate to be explored in depth due to its potential to be applied as
single conjugated molecular wire in various microelectronic applications.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the support for this work from Ministry
of Higher Education Malaysia (MOHE) through research grant (FRGS 59366),
MyBrain Fund for postgraduate student’s scholarship, School of Fundamental
Science, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu and Faculty of Resource Science &
Technology, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak for the facilities provided.
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213
T01_027: CHARACTERISATION OF THE
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF A
COMPLEX JOINTED STRUCTURE
M.S.A. Sulaiman
M.A. Yunus*
M.N. Abdul Rani
1
Center of Excellence of Dynamics and Control, Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), 40450 Shah Alam,
Malaysia.
ABSTRACT
Every structure that assembled with the joint has a significant effect on the
dynamic behaviour of the structure. Therefore, the overall dynamic behaviour
of the jointed structure highly relies on these joints. However, in finite element
method (FEM), to model an element connector for the jointed structure is very
complex because every jointed structure has joint properties. For some
significant time, research has demonstrated that the huge discrepancies between
finite element analysis and experimental results because of the invalid
assumption on modelling the joints in the finite element. The aims of this
research are to identify the potential element connectors that are available in
commercialised finite element codes to represent the joints for spot welds and
adhesive joints. Moreover, a combination of the predicted and experiment result
are used to evaluate the dynamic behaviour of the complex jointed structure.
The reliability of potential element is quantified by comparing the predicted
result calculated from Altair HyperWorks with the experimental result obtain
from an LMS Scadas. For the experimental work, the shaker testing on modal
testing and the roving accelerometer method are used. In this study, only two
types of the element connectors will be used to model the adhesive joints, and
three types of spot welds were used to named as Type 1, Type 2, Type 3 and Type
4 connector. The model of element connectors has been constructed based on
three types of the case study, firstly is case study 1, secondary is case study 2
and third is case study 3. The comparison reveals that the case study 2, the
combination of Type 2 (ACM2) and Type 3 (CWELD) have a better capability
to represent the joints at the complex jointed structure. The continuous study in
modelling the jointed structure was recommended.
Keywords: complex jointed structure, finite elements, experiment modal
analysis, spot welds, adhesive joints.
Introduction
Joints are broadly utilised within engineering structure, for example, in
mechanical and aviation structures. Those joints in structures are broadly
classified into two classes, permanent joints and non-permanent joints.
Normally, permanent joints cannot be disassembled without damaging the
components. It is because these joints are offering a nature of the force that holds
the two parts, for examples, welded, adhesive, riveted, soldered and brazed.
Therefore, non-permanent joints can be assembled and disassembled the
structure without damaging the components, for examples, screws, nuts and
bolts.
In engineering, the complex jointed structure, such as car hood are
assembled by an arrangement of various sizes of metal sheets and jointed by a
thousand number spot welds and adhesives. Spot welds are recognised as
resistance spot welding (RSW) is a preferable choice for joining the car hood due
to it is simple fabrication process. Nowadays, the modern adhesive has permitted
automotive engineers to reduce spot weld and combine these two joints for
214
assembling the car hood. The car hood that assembled on the car has a significant
effect on the dynamic characteristic of the car structure. Understandably,
imperfections in assembled and jointed the structure can cause variations in
dynamic characteristics, for examples, mode shapes and natural frequencies of
the car hood. Besides, the reliability and the dynamic characteristics of the
jointed structure greatly relies on these joints [1], [2]. For some significant time,
research has demonstrated that the huge discrepancies between finite element
analysis and experimental results because of the invalid assumption on
modelling the joints in the finite element [3].
Finite element analysis (FEA), there have several challenges to predict
the dynamic behaviours, such as natural frequencies and mode shapes. The main
challenges to predict the results is a due to the absence of jointed structure. To
model a connector element for the jointed structure is very complex because
every jointed structure has joint properties. Normally, the predicted result from
finite element analysis presented a huge different than the measured data. It is
because of an invalid assumption of the connector element in finite element
analysis.
The complex jointed structure was designed with a thousand numbers
of the joints to make a structure for the hood of the car. The reliability of the
structure highly depends on upon these joints [1]. Therefore, the engineer must
be worried about the issues of the significant effect of the joints to assemble the
structure. Besides, to model a connector element that represents the joints is
extremely complex because every jointed structure has joint properties. For
model represent the spot welds, Donders et al. have declared that he utilised the
model the connector element using CWELD for jointed the structure [4].
Besides, Heiserer et al. have proposed to use Area Contact Model 2 (ACM2) as
their model of connector element to represent the spot welds [5]. Many
researchers use this type of model to represent their model of spot welds. For
model represent the adhesive joints, Tahmasebi was proposed their model to
NASA Goddard Space Flight Centre [6]. Their model is in 1D element and a
combination between rigid element and a spring element. However, the result of
the dynamic behaviour of the model still has occurred an error.
Therefore, a continuous study about potential element connectors to
represents the joints (spot weld and adhesive joints) for connector element in
finite element need to be done. It is because the overall dynamic behaviour of
the assembled structure depends on the model of the connector element [7], [8].
Thus, the accurate assumption for connector elements in spot welds and
adhesive joints is determined by the accuracy of the dynamic behaviours of the
complex jointed structure. Nowadays, the researcher still studied about the
model of the connector element for spot welds and adhesive joints.
Therefore, inspired by other researchers, the aim of this paper is to
identify the potential element connectors to represent the joints (spot welds and
adhesive joints) for the complex jointed structure. The result will be validated
and confirm the accuracy of the finite element analysis with the experimental
result by comparing the dynamic characteristics (mode shapes and natural
frequencies) [9]. Manipulating the kind of joint has been done with a specific
end goal to get which sort of joint has the best capacities to represent spot welds
and adhesive joints in the finite element model.
Experimental Work
Experimental modal analysis (EMA) is a technique or a process to determine the
dynamic behaviour of the structure, which is mode shapes, natural frequencies
and damping ratios from vibration test [9]. It is also mentioned to as model
testing or modal analysis. Basically, this test measures modal properties such as
natural frequencies, mode shape and damping. Another explanation behind
vibration testing is to check a predicted model proposed for the test framework.
215
The result from finite element model will be verified and compared to
experimental data to get a better outcome. If the result from experimental data,
such as, mode shapes and natural frequencies agree with those predicted by the
finite element model, the model is confirmed and can be used in design and
response prediction with some confidence. Niw Chang Chee has used this
method to verify their model is reliable, and their model can use for another
experiment [10].
Figure 2: Schematic diagram of the complex jointed structure set up
Prior to experimental setup, all of this process must be consider to get

the acceptable result. It is the hanging orientation of the structure, the number of
measuring points or nodes of the structure, the excitation method and the number
of the accelerometers. Meanwhile, the roving accelerometer method and shaker
testing were used to excite the structure.In this paper, the experimental work of
the complex jointed structure was using shaker testing method and roving
accelerometer. The structure was tested on free-free boundary conditions as
shown in Figure 1 where the damping will be neglected because the structure is
lightly damp. Four nylon string with springs were used to simulate the free-free
boundary conditions. The frequencies of interest of the structure were between
0Hz to 200Hz. As a guideline, the results of finite element analysis was utilised
to decide the frequencies of interest and the excitation point. Besides, the mode
shapes from finite element will be used as an initial idea how the mode shapes
behave. The response signal for this experiment was interpreted by LMS
SCADAS analysis.
Finite Element
The complex jointed structure was constructed using finite element analysis
based on a model of the hood of the car. To develop a reliable model is
challenging for dynamic characteristics of the structure. In engineering, the
complex jointed structure, such as car hood is assembled by an arrangement of
various sizes of metal sheets and jointed by a thousand number spot welds and
adhesives. It was developed using Altair HyperMesh software and OptiStruct
was used to analyse the normal, natural frequencies and mode shapes. The
complex jointed structure was discretized into a shell element type which
represents 1mm for their thickness. The frequencies of interest are set between
1Hz to 200Hz and only first six modes were identified. The frequency below
216
1Hz in the finite element for these research is called a rigid body mode, and
upper 1Hz is an elastic mode. A rigid body mode is defined as the free translation
or rotation of a body; there will be six rigid body modes (three translational and
three rotational).
In this study, three types of the element connectors in FEM will be used
to model the spot welds and two types for adhesive joint were used named as
Type 1, Type 2, Type 3 and Type 4 connector. The finite element model of the
jointed structure was constructed using Hypermesh software. Table 2 and Table
3 showing the detail of the properties and FE model for the joints.
Table 3: Details of the FE model of the complex jointed structure without the
joints (Car Hood)
Type of Elements No of Elements Properties Value

QUAD4 28287 Young's Modulus 210 GPa
TRIA3 1700 Poisson's Ratio 0.33
Density 7900kg/m3
Table 2: Details of the properties for the joints
Properties Adhesive Spot Welds

Young's Modulus 5.96 MPa 210 GPa
Poisson's Ratio 0.49 0.3
Density 1000 kg/m3 7900 kg/m3
Table 3: Details of the FE model for the joints
Type of Elements No of Elements

HEXA solid element 93
WELD (1D) 24
Type 1 connector
Type 2 element connector as shown in Figure 2(a) is the rigid body element type
of joint. In this approach, since only rigid body element (RBE2) was used, there
are no mechanical properties and mass apply to the joint. Basically, it is consists
of one independent node and one or more dependent nodes.This element
connector was used as the initial model to compare with the measurement.
Type 2 connector
Type 2 element connector as shown in Figure 2(b). The model of element
connector is for adhesive joint, and only one model has been designed. It was
designed as an Area Contact Model 2(ACM2). This type of element connector
is the combination of HEXA solid combined with RBE2. The patch will be
jointed with the rigid element to the component. The idea of using this type of
connector is the patch of solid element is represented the adhesive so that it can
input and update their properties. Element RBE2 has no properties to update; it
represents the rigid element.
Type 3 connector
Type 3 connector is used CWELD as type 3 connector as shown in Figure 2(c);
the model has already existed at HyperWorks. It is a 1D element and to construct
the model is based on node to node. This element connects between two
components at each node that represents the joint. This type 3 is represented for
spot welds. The size of spot welds diameter and their properties can be updated.
The detail or the properties as shown in Table 2. For example, the type of
properties can be updated such as their material of the connector; young
modulus, poison ration and density.
217
Type 4 connector
Figure 2(d) shows the 1D element that represents for spot welds. Same as Type
3, this type of connector has used the CWELD element, but it is modelled based
on the node to the surface. The name of this model is GA-GB ELPAT. This type
of connector can also input their properties and size of spot welds diameter.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 2: (a) Type 1 connector; (b) Type 2 connector; (c) Type 3 connector; (d)
Type 4 connector.
It has three case studies to represent the joints for adhesive joints and spot welds.
The model of element connectors has been constructed based on three types of
case study, firstly is case study 1, secondary is case study 2 and third is case
study 3;
 Case study 1 – Type 1
 Case study 2 – Type 2 and Type 3 connectors

For this complex jointed structure, the results are shown based on three types of
the case study. Table 4 and Table 5 had shown the comparison of the results
between test data, case study 1, case study 2 and case study 3. It is clearly shown
that the natural frequencies of case study 2 have lower natural frequencies than
the case study 3 which is 35.550 percent and 36.559 percent respectively with
the MAC value above 0.8. Meanwhile, the mode shapes of case study 1, case
study 2 and case study 3 can be seen in Table 6. Based on the result, it is
obviously shows that there are discrepancies between the predicted and test data.
The comparison between test data and case study 1, it is clearly shown the
percentage error is very high other than case study. It is because the joint is
defines a rigid body. Therefore, the complex jointed structure are very sensitive
with the design of joint depend on their stiffness.
Based on Table 5 for case study 2, it is shown that the highest error was
in mode six, meanwhile the mode two shown the least of 1.108 percent with a
total of MAC value 0.73. Meanwhile, for case study two the highest and least
error is same with case study one which is 11.853 percent and 1.230 percent.
218
The reliability a composition of the structure is greatly dependent on the joints
[1]. It is because the overall dynamic behaviour of the assembled structure
depends on the model of the connector element. Therefore, the present of the
error can be blamed to the type of element connectors. By observing the Table
4 and Table 5, it is agreed that the predicted natural frequencies can be vary by
manipulating the element connectors. Therefore, the data for a finite element in
case study 2 is looking more reliable than the case study 1 and 3. It is because
the case study 2 has a lower result for total error than the case study 1 and 3. The
changes in the natural frequencies obtained from the p r e d i c t e d r e s u l t
a n d test data are an indication of the selection the potential element
connectors. The result will be validated and confirm the accuracy of the finite
element analysis with the experimental result by comparing the mode shapes
[9]. Therefore, Table 6 shows the mode shapes based on case study 1, case study
2 and case study 3 that were did from test data and finite element results.
Table 4: The comparison of the natural frequencies between test data and case
study 1
I II III IV V
Test Case
Error MAC
Mode No. Data Study 1
(%) Value
(Hz) (Hz)
1 27.163 41.406 52.435 0.98
2 50.642 71.414 41.017 0.61
3 60.164 83.902 39.455 0.68
4 80.445 120.666 49.998 0.94
5 106.536 - - -
6 113.383 - - -
Total Error (%) 182.905
Table 5: The comparison of the natural frequencies between test data, case study 2
and case study 3
I II III IV V VI VII VIII

Test Case Case
Mode Error MAC Error MAC
Data Study 2 Study 3
No. (%) Value (%) Value
(Hz) (Hz) (Hz)
1 27.163 29.480 8.530 0.97 29.629 9.079 0.97
2 50.642 51.230 1.108 0.73 51.265 1.230 0.73
3 60.164 64.277 6.836 0.79 64.350 6.958 0.79
4 80.445 82.930 3.089 0.84 83.231 3.463 0.85
5 106.536 101.972 4.284 0.81 102.299 3.977 0.82
6 113.383 126.652 11.703 0.81 126.821 11.853 0.81
Total Error (%) 35.550 36.559
Table 6: The comparison of the mode shapes between measured and predicted for
case study 1 and case study 2
Case Study 1 Case Study 2 Case Study 3

Shapes
Mode
EMA FE
219
1
27.163Hz 41.406Hz 29.480Hz 29.629Hz
50.642Hz 71.414Hz 51.203Hz 51.265Hz
60.164Hz 83.902Hz 64.277Hz 64.350Hz
80.445Hz 120.666Hz 82.930Hz 83.231Hz
106.536Hz 101.972Hz 102.299Hz
113.383Hz 126.652Hz 126.821Hz
Conclusion
The first six frequencies of a complex jointed structure of car hood were
investigated experimentally and numerically. Besides, the potential element
connectors that are available in commercialised finite element codes to represent
the joints for spot welds and adhesive joints were identified. The reliability of
potential element is quantified by comparing the predicted result with
experimentally based on two case studies. The comparison reveals that the case
study 2, the combination of Type 2 (ACM2) and Type 3 (CWELD) have a better
capability to represent the joints at the complex jointed structure. However, the
correlation between the numerical and the experimental data can be improved
by applying the finite element reconciliation method to the finite element model
of the complex jointed structure which will be applied to the next stage.
Moreover, the continuous study in modelling the jointed structure was
recommended.
Acknowledgement
The authors gratefully acknowledge the Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia
(KPM) and Research Management Centre (RMC) UiTM for the Research
220
Acculturation Grant Scheme (RAGS) with the file number 600-RMI/RAGS 5/3
(165/2014) for the sponsorship provided in this study and completing this paper.
He also would like to express appreciation to the technician of the Centre of
Structural Dynamics and Vibration Engineering (SDAV) UiTM by Mohamad
Azwan Abd Khair for their technical assistance and laboratory facilities.
References
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Sheet Metal with Bolted and Welded Joints,” 2011.
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Joint,” 1999.
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“Structural Dynamic Properties of Tactical Missile Joints-Phase 3,”
Ntis, no. May, p. 186, 1974.
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221
T01_028: EFFECT OF HSM ON MRR AND
SURFACE QUALITY IN MILLING SODA-LIME
GLASS
Mst. Nasima Bagum
Mohamed Konneh
Department of Manufacturing and Materials Engineering,
Kulliyyah of Engineering, International Islamic University
Malaysia,
Jalan Gombak, 53100 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Corresponding Author: E-mail address: mkonneh@iium.edu.my
ABSTRACT
Glass has been used widely to manufacture products such as semiconductor,
optics, micro-electronics, biomedical lens, mirror and many more. Nevertheless,
machining of glass possess a problem due to its inherent brittleness. High Speed
Machining (HSM) at increased material removal rate has proven can achieve
ductile condition and tool wear rate can also be increased. This research is
intended to optimize the HSM parameters to produce desired surface finish at
high material removal per tool life. Response Surface Methodology (RSM) was
used to predict the relationships among measured responses (surface
roughness, material removal rate per tool life) and input factors such as cutting
speed, feed rate and depth of cut. It was evident from the results obtained that
cutting speed and feed rate have significant positive influence on tool life, while
generating good surface roughness (Ra). Optimization results showed that at
higher value of cutting speed (314 m/min), combinations of moderate feed per
tooth (0.60 μm) and depth of cut (50 μm), material removal per tool life can be
achieved up to 3.29 mm3 per tool life while keeping surface roughness at the
value of 0.52 µm.
Keywords: High speed milling; soda-lime glass; material removal rate per tool
life; surface roughness
Introduction
Defect free machining of brittle material can be achieved by ductile mode

machining [1]. Takeuchi et.al [2] performed glass milling process at a small
depth of cut. Matsumura et al. [3] applied up-cut milling in a large radial depth
of cut (more than 10μm) and at low feed per edge. At low cutting speed, fracture-
free slots in soda-lime glass were cut by micro end milling, while axial depth of
the cut was maintained between 0.4 and 0.6 μm [4]. Even though using low
cutting speed, at higher value of axial depth excessive tool wear causes the
chipping of the cutting edge and mode of machining has transformed from
ductile to the brittle one. Glass machining; therefore, have yet to achieve high
removal rate. Due to the large thrust force [5], ductile regime machining of
brittle materials can be achieved using High Speed Machining (HSM) [6].The
High speed milling generates better surface finish [7] and the same time tool
wear rate also increased. The objective of this research is to identify machining
parameters that can provide higher Material Removal Rate (MRR) per tool life
and better surface finish of soda lime glass using High speed end milling.
Response Surface Methodology (RSM) was used for predicting and optimizing
the process parameters. Finally the predictions were tested by experiments.
Experimental details
End milling was carried out on a numerically

controlled vertical milling centre (Model:
ECM 1) by installing A NSK Planet 550 high
speed milling attachment is shown in Figure
1. Two-flute carbide coated flat end mill
(MS2MS) (2 mm diameter, rake angle - 5º)
was used to machine square pieces of soda
lime glass with dimension of 20 x 20 x 5
mm3. The ranges of parameters were
restricted to ductile regime machining. The
ranges of cutting speed (A) varied from 188
to 314 m/min, feed per edge (B) from 0.45 to
1.25 μm and depth of cut (C) from 20 to 56.21
μm respectively. The statistical software Figure 1: Experimental set up
Design-Expert V6.08 was used to create the design matrix as shown in Table 1
and to analyze the experimental data. Low and constant vibration amplitude
level during machining (KISTLER Accelerometers) ensured the ductile regime
machining. The Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and Surf-Test SV-500
surface profiler was used to examine and measure the surface roughness,
respectively. Each run (constant cutting length, 20 mm) was carried out with the
fresh tool. Optical microscope was used to measure the tool flank wear. Tool
life was calculated based on machining time and tool flank wear rate according
to Viktor P. Astakhov and J. Paulo Davim study on the Taylor Tool Life formula
[8,9]. Initially tool flank wear versus machining time was plotted for all run. A
horizontal line was drawn through the Y axis, which indicates maximum tool
flank wear. By extrapolating the slop of flank wear and cutting time of respective
run, and drawing vertical line at the intersecting point tool life for each run was
calculated. MRR per tool life was calculated using standard equation. RSM was
applied to the experimental data using the same software to develop
mathematical models relating the selected machining parameters to responses.
The adequacies of the models developed and their significant terms were
measured by analyzing variance and other adequacy measures. Finally, these
mathematical models were used to determine the optimal settings of cutting
parameters to ensure the desired output quality. In this study, the desired quality
criteria defined for end milling to determine the optimal settings of input
parameters are- (i) minimization of surface roughness and (ii) maximization of
MRR per tool life.
Table 1: Experimental sequence with response value
Input factors Response factors

Run Cutting Speed Feed /tooth Depth Surface MRR/tool life
(m/min) (µm) of cut roughness (mm3)
(µm) (μm)
1 251.33 0.75 56.21 0.97 3.2377
2 188.50 1.00 35.00 1.2 2.688
3 314.16 0.75 20.00 0.28 1.035
4 251.33 0.75 35.00 0.8 2.289
5 251.33 0.75 35.00 0.75 2.373
6 251.33 0.56 35.00 0.79 1.6292
7 188.50 1.25 50.00 1.4 3.6
8 251.33 0.95 35.00 0.9 2.3023
9 314.16 0.45 50.00 0.38 2.97
10 188.50 0.75 20.00 1 0.864
11 251.33 0.75 13.79 0.59 0.9598
12 251.33 0.75 35.00 0.8 2.289
223
13 314.16 0.60 35.00 0.43 2.52
14 251.33 0.75 35.00 0.82 2.562
15 251.33 0.75 35.00 0.83 2.52

From fit and model summary analysis, the power transform linear model and the
reduced quadratic model was statistically fitted to the experimental data to
obtain the regression equations for Ra and MRR per tool life respectively.
ANOVA Tables 2 and 3, for the selected models summarize the analysis of
variance of each response and illustrate its significant model terms as well. The
calculated “Model F” and “Model p” values indicate that the models are
statistically significant. All the adequacy measures like R 2 adjusted R2 and
predicted R2 values are in logical agreement and indicate significant
relationships. The adequate precision ratios in all cases are greater than 4,
indicates adequate models discrimination. The developed statistical models are,
therefore, fairly accurate and can be used for prediction within the same design
space. The final models as determined by Design- Expert software are given in
Equation (1) and (2).
(Surface roughness) 1.39 = + 1.63277 - 6.6 ×10-3 A + 0.54 B + 0.01 C…………. (1)
MRR per tool life = -30.49 + 0.12 A +35.83 B + 0.095× C – 0.089 AB - 1.22×10-4 (A) 2
- 8.98 (B) 2 – 5.84×10-4 (C) 2 ……………………………………………….. (2)
Table 2: ANOVA Surface roughness
Source Sum of df Mean F p-value

Square Square Value Prob > F
Model 2.59 3 0.86 259.92 < 0.0001 Sig.
A (m/min) 0.60 1 0.60 181.23 < 0.0001
B(µm) 0.14 1 0.14 41.92 < 0.0001
C (µm) 0.26 1 0.26 78.25 < 0.0001
Residual 0.037 11 3.326E-003
Lack of Fit 0.029 7 4.110E-003 2.10 0.2463 not sig.
Pure Error 7.814E-003 4 1.953E-003
Cor Total 2.63 14
R2 = 0.9884 Adj. R2 = 0.9852 Pred. R2 = 0.9761 Adeq. Precision = 60.049
Table 3: ANOVA MRR per Tool life reduced quadratic model
Source Sum of df Mean F p-value

Squares Square Value Prob > F
Model 9.07 7 1.30 60.80 < 0.0001 sig
A (m/min) 0.095 1 0.095 4.43 0.0732
B (µm) 0.45 1 0.45 20.99 0.0025
C (µm) 2.67 1 2.67 125.40 < 0.0001
AB 0.57 1 0.57 26.86 0.0013
A2 0.26 1 0.26 12.37 0.0098
B2 0.43 1 0.43 20.27 0.0028
C2 0.13 1 0.13 6.05 0.0435
Residual 0.15 7 0.021
Lack of Fit 0.083 3 0.028 1.69 0.3056 not sig
Pure Error 0.066 4 0.016
Cor total 9.22 14
R2 = 0.9838 Adj. R2 = 0.9676 Pred. R2 = 0.8210 Adeq. Precision = 25.09
Table 4: Prediction of Optimal cutting parameters
A (m/min) B (μm/tooth) C (μm) Roughness MRR per tool life (mm3) Desirability
(μm)
314.00 0.60 50 0.52 3.2 0.86
224
Table 3 shows that the interaction effect of cutting speed and feed rate has
positive influence on achieving high MRR per tool life. Figure 2 demonstrated
that minimum Ra and maximum MRR per tool life can be achieved at high speed,
moderate feed and high depth of cut combination. At this condition cutting tool
rapidly passed comparatively soft workpiece due to reduced tool path length as
high cutting speed induced thermal softening [6]. Hence tool wear rate
minimized.
Figure 2: Contour surface plot of optimal solution (a, b) for surface roughness,
(c,d) for MRR / tool life.
For efficient production low surface along with high MRR per tool life need to
achieve. The optimization was performed using the desirability function of RSM
and maximum combined desirability 86% can be achieved as shown in Table 4.
Experimental verification of optimum condition showed that at optimized model
recommended machining parameters, roughness (Ra) value was 0.53 μm and
MRR per tool life was 3.8 mm3 with the error in prediction 2% and 6%,
respectively. Figure 3 shows the SEM image of soda-lime glass surface and
optical microscope image of cutting tool, as results of end milling at optimum
cutting condition.
a b
170 µm
Figure 3: (a) SEM image of soda-lime glass, (b) The optical microscope image of
cutting tool flank wear at optimum cutting condition.
Conclusions
From the experimental work that have been done and the data obtained analyzed,
the following conclusions can be drawn:
(i) It is noted that desired surface finish at high material removal rate per
tool life can be achieved under high speed ductile mode machining.
225
(ii) Low surface finish was obtained at higher cutting speed, at moderate feed
per edge and depth of cut combination.
(iii) Optimum material removal rate together with low surface finish was
achieved at the cutting speed 314 m/min, feed per tooth 0.60 μm and
depth of cut 50 μm with 86% desirability.
References
[1] Fang. F and Chen. L, “Ultra-precision cutting for ZKN7 glass,” CIRP
Annals-Manufacturing Technology 49(1), 17-20 (2000).
[2] Takeuchi Y, Sawada. K and Sata. T, “Ultraprecision 3D micromachining of
glass,” CIRP Annals-Manufacturing Technology 45(1), 401-404 (1996).
[3] Matsumura.T, Hiramatsu. T, Shirakashi. T and Muramatsu. T, “A study on
cutting force in the milling process of glass,” Journal of Manufacturing
Processes 7(2),102-108 (2005).
[4] Arif. M, Rahman., M and San. W.Y, “Ultraprecision ductile mode machining
of glass by micromilling process,”Journal of Manufacturing Processes.,
13(1):50-59 (2011).
[5] Cai. M,. Li. X and Rahman., M, “High-pressure phase transformation as the
mechanism of ductile chip formation in nanoscale cutting of silicon wafer,”
Journal of Engineering Manufacture 221(10),1511-1519 (2007).
[6] Schulz. H and Moriwaki. T, “High-speed machining. CIRP Annals-
Manufacturing Technology,” 41(2), 637-643 (1992).
[7] Reddy. M. M, Gorin. A and Abou-El-Hossein. K, 2011. “Predictive Surface
Roughness Model for End Milling of Machinable Glass Ceramic,” in IOP
Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, IOP Publishing
(2011).
[8] V.P. Astakhov and J.P. Davim, Tools (geometry and material) and tool wear,
in Machining.( Springer, 2008), pp. 29-57.
[9] J.P. Davim, Machinability of Advanced Materials.(John Wiley & Sons,
2014).
.
226
T01_029: COMPARISON OF REFERENCE
RATES DETERMINATION IN MALAYSIA
1
Nadhirah Gazali and 2Nurfadhlina Abdul Halim
1,2
School of Informatics And Applied Mathematics, Universiti Malaysia
Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu, Malaysia
E-mail: 1nadhirahgazali08@gmail.com, 2lina@umt.edu.my
ABSTRACT
Conventional finance and Islamic finance have the same aim which is to gain
profit through financial activities. This gain is due to the interest rate, but
interest rate is essentially from reference rate. Therefore, this study aim to
examine the formation of the reference rate framework, namely Base Lending
Rate (BLR), Base Financing Rate (BFR) and Base Rate (BR) with identifying
the existing deficiencies, similarities and differences in this rate based on the
concept and the components used. The results showed despite the value of BLR
and BFR are same, the commodity, maximum limit and the formulation concept
in the interest rate are different. Besides, the differences between BLR/BFR and
BR are base on the components used and change in some of components based
on monetary policy such as liquidity risk and credit risk. If there is a change in
OPR but not in both liquidity and credit risk, this will cause the loss of some
parties whether the bank or the customer.
Keywords: Base Lending Rate (BLR), Base Financing Rate (BFR), Base Rate
(BR).
Introduction
The interest rate is the main component in a variety of transactions carried out
mainly in conventional banking and Islamic banking. However, there are
differences between Islamic banking and conventional banking. The difference
is due to the fact that Islamic banking should be based on the Islamic law
(Shari’ah), whereas conventional banking are not. The general interest rate
formula is given by (1).
r  (1)
with r ,  and  is interest rate, reference rate and spread, respectively.

The determination of interest rates is based on the reference rate and
plus or minus spread value. Therefore, financial institute control interest rates
by referring to reference rate [1]. In general, there are three function of reference
rate. First, reference rate normally link to the bank’s cost of fund as a basis for
the pricing of loans. Second, it can control the banks to vary interest rates to
reflect changes in their costs from the central bank policies and general market
funding conditions. Third, to ensure rate determined more responsive in line
with the monetary policy [2]. So that, since the introduction of the reference rate
in 1983 until now, the construction of reference rate’s components always
changed [3]. This is because, if changes occur in the monetary policy, the
reference rate was changed and then will affect the value of interest rates used
in financial institutions.
2 INTEREST RATE’S FORMULATION

Referring to Table 1, there are three types of reference rate used by commercial
banks in Malaysia, namely the Base Lending Rate (BLR) are used by
conventional banks, Base Financing Rate (BFR) was for Islamic banks and Base
Rate (BR) are for both [1].
Table 1: Computation of Reference Rate
Date Reference Rate (notation )

Apr 2004 BLR or BFR  Fc    xl  xc  Oc  i
Jan 2015 BR  Fc  α
Source: Muhammed Zulkhibri (2010) and Bank Negara Malaysia (2014)
with Fc , Oc ,  , x l and xc is benchmark cost of fund, operating cost,

Statutory Reserve Requirement (SRR), liquidity risk, credit risk and profit
margin, respectively. The maximum value of the profit margin is 4% [7].
Base Lending Rate (BLR)
Referring to Table 1, the last BLR framework is introduced by BNM in April

2004. This framework does not have a special formula. This is because BLR for
each banking institution is based on the cost structure and strategy of the bank
loan is determined individually [1]. The components that used for determining
of BLR are benchmark cost of fund, SRR, credit risk, liquidity risk and operating
cost. The BLR can rise or fall due to changes in the benchmark cost of fund and
changes in the SRR. Where changes may occur depending onto the changes in
Overnight Policy Rate (OPR). The OPR is an interbank rate, the value is decided
by the Monetary Policy Committee of BNM [9]. However, BLR always did not
adjusted equally to the increment or decrement in the OPR [2].
SRR is monetary policy instrument availed to the bank to manage
liquidity and hence credit creation in the banking system. When there are excess
or lacking of liquidity in the banking system, SRR will withdraw or inject money
supply into the system. This stabilize the money market. The value of SRR is
depending on eligible liabilities determined by BNM. In addition, others
components in the BLR also change when the benchmark cost of fund and SRR
change are liquidity risk and credit risk. Liquidity risk depends on the ease with
which the money market instrument can be traded. While credit risk depends on
the perceived credit quality of the borrower and in secured funding markets. So
that, the value of credit risk and liquidity risk also need to changes due to the
changes of others components. To make sure, both parties the bank customers
make a fair financial activity.
The general formula, interest rates for bank loans can be seen in
equation (1). In changes interest rate of conventional bank occurs without inform
to the customers. So that, customer do not know how much money that was paid
for the loan repayment.
Base Financing Rate (BFR)
BFR is the reference rate used in the economic system of Islam. BFR built on
the basis of supply and demand in the market introduced by BNM, this rate is
an approval by Islamic Banking Act 1983 [7]. The frame of the formula used for
BFR is the same as the BLR. So that, BFR value directly with BLR. However,
BFR has a maximum limit of 10.50% [7]. The comparison of BLR and BFR
can be seen in Table 2 [2].
228
Table 2: The Comparison of BLR and BFR
BLR BFR
Has the same value as the same formula is used.
- The concept used is not based on -The concept of Shari’ah. Assets

Shari’ah. Money as a commodity. such as homes and property as a
commodity to avoid riba, gharar
dan masyir.
-No maximum limit. Once the - Has a maximum limit of 10.50%
economic crisis in 1998, the BLR [7]. Then, when the enhancer effect
increased by 12.27% [8]. happen BFR will be limited to
maximum value only.
-Using the concept of addition or -Using the discount concept,
subtraction of spread of BLR to namely the reduction of the BLR
determine the interest rate. based on the agreement to
determine the interest rate.
In Islamic banking for interest rates or the rate of profit is by using the
concept of discount (rebate). For example, let interest rate agreed in the contract
is 10.25%, and then the bank informed the prescribed rate for the first three years
is BFR  1% . So if this time BFR is 6.40%. Customers need to pay an interest
rate of 5.4% only, while in agreement 10.25%. Therefore, if in case of situations
by which interest rate more than 10.25%, the bank will be in accordance with
the agreement of the interest rate which is 10.25%. However, determinations of
interest rate by rebate actually no difference with addition or subtract of spread
of BLR. This is because the value -1% as shown in the example same as spread.
Besides, this value is determined by the bank.
Base Rate (BR)
Effective 2 January 2015, the new framework reference rate is published known
as Base Rate (BR) to replace the BLR and BFR [9]. These changes occur due
BLR/BFR are not relevant to the present situation as interest rates or loan rate
offered at a many discount compared with BLR/BFR [2]. In addition, other than
the cost of funds and SRR changes occur based on the OPR, other components
such as liquidity risk, credit risk and operational costs have also changed the
adjustment BLR/BFR unstable. For example, in 2008 and in 2009, OPR has
decreased by 150 basis points, but BLR / BFR has declined less than 121 basis
points. However, when there are condition OPR increases by 100 basis points,
then BLR/BFR also to increase by 100 basis points [2]. This is bullying the bank
to the customer. This also affects the economic situation of the state. In fact, the
BLR/BFR is not described in the rates charged to cause the borrower or financier
difficult to choose the products offered by the bank [9].
The formation of BR is built on two main components, the benchmark
cost of funds and SRR. Each institution is given a choice in the benchmark cost
of funds appropriate in activities such as KLIBOR that changes every three
months and a composite funding cost namely through retail deposits and
wholesale funding [2]. But most banks make KLIBOR as a benchmark cost of
funds due to the 3-month KLIBOR was new marginal cost of raising funds in
the interbank market through loans. KLIBOR use the BR is to be transparent
because the rates are observed every day [2]. Therefore, BR will change based
on changes in the underlying interbank rate was influenced by the OPR.
229
There are components used for the determination of interest rates that
is credit risk, liquidity risk, operating costs and profit margins. This component
is also known as spread [9]. The formula for the interest rate using the BR is
given by (2).
r  ω  x c  x l  Oc  i (2)
Unlike the BLR/BFR, the spread will not change its value during the life of the
loan specified in the contracts. This is become an issue because the value of
liquidity risk and credit risk should be also changed since benchmark cost of
fund changed. This is because the bank will face lose. For example, if OPR
increase but no change in liquidity risk, then bank will fail to get funding at a
reasonable cost. Besides, bank also will suffer from weak management
efficiency because of diminishing cash. Construction BR does not affect the
interest rate or the effective lending rates. That means even the reference rate
used is different but still got same interest rate [2]. Therefore, the BLR or BFR
comparison with BR can be seen in Table 3 [2].
Table 3: The Comparison of BLR/BFR and BR
BLR/BFR BR
-The formula is constructed -The formula is clear by applying
somewhat unclear as there is no the benchmark cost of funds and
special formula. Institutions are SRR. However, financial
given the freedom to determine institutions have been given the
BLR/BFR based on the cost structure flexibility in choosing the
and strategy of its own loans. appropriate the money market
-When OPR value are changed, then benchmark of borrowing costs.
BLR/BFR value also change same as - OPR rate changes would affect
others cost such as liquidity risk and the benchmark cost of funds and
operational costs. SRR only.
-BLR/BFR value is uniform every
bank. -BR value difference every bank
with the specified range is between
- Less sensitive to changes in market 3.20% - 4.25%.
rates cause the less transparent and -Sensitive to changes in the market
cannot be adjusted. cause rates consistent with the
current situation.
Conclusion
Framework for the construction of the reference rate plays an important role in
determining interest rates. The changes of formulation interest rate from April
2004 until now is same because addition of same component. The difference
this formulation actually base on the concepts of the components used in the
reference rate and character of each component. Changes in the reference rate
are a factor of the current economic situation as well as the transparency of the
financial institutions in that rate gives some flexibility in determining the
components. Therefore, the reform formula that made this change to ensure that
rates used in accordance with the current situation. Besides, to avoid persecution
by some quarters whether financial institutions or customers. This is due to
changes in the market will cause harm to some people if action is not taken to
control the reference rate and the interest rate charged by the banks are also
prevalent and Islamic banking. Therefore, the reference rate should be adjusted
to market rates. But BLR/BFR framework is not in line with market rate.
230
Besides, components in BR such as credit risk and liquidity risk also not in line
with market rate. Since conventional products and products Islam is using the
same reference rate. Thus, Islamic banks must ensure that every component used
in the determination of the reference rate follow the Shari’ah-compliant.
Besides, to ensure there are no element of riba, gharar and masyir to avoid
persecution to customers. Therefore, the new reference rate should be built to
meet the needs of both bank and the customer. Therefore, the comparison was
to evaluate a formula that is created for the understanding and confidence of the
customers in making a choice in the products to be trade.
References
[1] A. M. Muhammed Zulkhibri, “How sticky is the adjustment of retail interest
rates in Malaysia? Empirical evidence from commercial banks and finance
companies,” The Jurnal of the Institute of Bankers Malaysia 218, 3-12
(2010).
[2] Bank Negara Malaysia, “Annual Report 2014,” Kuala Lumpur: Bank
Negara Malaysia (2014).
[3] A. K Zulkefly and S. Z Mohad Azlan, “Dasar kewangan, sasaran matlamat
pertengahan dan matlamat ekonomi,” Jurnal Ekonomi Malaysia 35:13-
35(2001).
[4] B. Baharum, “Kesan SRR kepada pinjaman kecil,”
http://ww1.utusan.com.my/ [14 September 2016] (2011).
[5] Bank Negara Malaysia, “Significant milestones in the Malaysia money
market,” http://www.bnm.gov.my/index.php [07 Februari 2016] (2015).
[6] Bank Negara Malaysia, “Glosari,” http://www.bnm.gov.my/index.php [15
September 2016] (2016).
[7] Nurfadhlina Abdul Halim, “ Pemodelan matematik instrument sewa-beli
Islam alternatif berkonsepkan perkongsian untung-rugi,” Tesis PhD,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (2013).
[8] Malaysia BLR, “Malaysia historical BLR chart,” http://www/blr.my/ [04
Oktober 2016] (2014).
[9] Bank Negara Malaysia, “Rangka kerja rangka rujukan baharu,”
http://www.bnm.gov.my/index.php [07 Februari 2016] (2014).
231
T01_030: PID WITH FIREFLY ALGORITHM
AND PARTICLE SWARM OPTIMIZATION FOR
SEMI-ACTIVE SUSPENSION SYSTEM USING
MR DAMPER
Mat Hussin Bin Ab Talib-1
Ahmad Hafizal Bin Mohd Yamin-2
Intan Zaurah Binti Mat Darus-3
Pakharuddin Bin Mohd Samin-4
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,
81310 Johor Bahru, Johor,
Malaysia.
ABSTRACT
The optimization techniques known as the Firefly Algorithm (FA) and Particle
Swarm Optimization (PSO) are introduced to tune the parameters of
proportional-integral and derivative (PID) controller for a semi-active
suspension system using magneto-rheological (MR) damper. The main objective
is to introduce an alternative method in optimizing the controller’s parameter
which provides more flexibility, faster and accurate. The performance of the
PID controller is optimized by the FA and PSO is investigated for control of a
MR damper. The mean square error (MSE) of the system is set as an objective
function for optimization process of the proposed controller. The performances
of the proposed controllers are compared with the passive system in terms of
sprung acceleration, sprung displacement and unsprung acceleration. The
sinusoidal road profile is set as a disturbance of the system. The simulation
result indicates that the PID-FA exhibits an improvement in terms of sprung
acceleration and sprung displacement response, with 27.0 % and 18.79 % as
compared with the PID-PSO and passive systems.
Keywords: Firefly algorithm, magneto-rheological damper, particle swarm

optimization, PID controller, semi-active suspension system.
Introduction
Global vehicle control systems are currently subjected with many important
issues, not just in the present but also for the future. One of the main issues is
passengers and drivers’ comfort. Controllability and stability of the vehicle is
necessary to ensure the comfort of the driver and passengers. The passive system
which contains fixed damper unit is normally used in a recent automotive
industry. However, it is proven that the passive suspension system is not good
enough to improve the vehicle performance. Thus, the semi-active system is
currently as an attractive area to be investigated by many researchers. The semi-
active system can provide a good improvement of the body vehicle as well able
to be as an active device without requiring a large power source [1]. The variable
damper of a semi-active system can be effectively controlled based on the
required current or voltage in a particular situation. The magneto-rheological
(MR) damper system is an attractive system that can be used as a variable
damper. The system has drowned significant attention from many researchers
due to its fast time response, low power requirement, high dynamic range and
mechanical simplicity [2]. There are four major areas of MR damper technology
research, including mathematical and numerical research [3]-[4], researches on
fluid [5], researches on design and development [6], and researches on MR
232
damper control strategies [7]-[8]. However, among those categories, MR
damper control strategies based on PID controller is used in this study. The main
difficulty in the development of the controller is to optimize the best values of
its parameters (kP, kI, kD). Thus, the particle swarm optimization (PSO) and
firefly algorithm (FA) are used to be an intelligent technique in replacing the
conventional method that currently being used in recent findings. This paper will
be organized as follows. Section 2 presents semi-active quarter vehicle model.
In section 3, the modeling and design of the PID controller based on PSO and
FA will be developed. Section 4 contains the results and discussion and section
5 provides the conclusion.
Semi-active quarter vehicle model

Semi-active system has a variable damper called a MR damper system, which is
different from a conventional passive system and a fully active system. The
different between semi-active and passive system is damping mechanism system
in which the damper system of semi-active can changes the damping force in
real time depending on the dynamics of the controlled masses [9]. A quarter
vehicle model based on the mathematical equation of a semi-active suspension
system can be represented in Figure 1. By using Newton’s second law, the
mathematical equation can be described as follows:
..
ms x u  Fd  k d ( xu  x s )  0 (1)
..
mu x u  Fd  k s ( xu  x s )  k t ( xr  xu )  0
(2)
where ms is sprung mass, mu is unsprung mass, xr is road profile, xu is unsprung

mass displacement, xs is sprung mass displacement, ks is spring stiffness, and Fd
is damper force. The parameter model of the semi-active system is shown in
Table 1. In order to implement the damper into a variable condition, the Spencer
model is used to develop semi-active control for a MR damper and its
parameters are taken from previous findings [10].
Figure 3: Semi-active suspension model
Table 4: Parameter of suspension system

Parameter Value
Sprung mass, ms 80.5 kg
Unsprung mass, mu 18.5 kg
Spring stiffness, ks 45409 N/m
Tire stiffness, kt 274680 N/m
Control design and modeling

PID controller is designed to control the feedback error of sprung velocity from
the system so that the proposed controller can estimate the desired force that can
233
be sent into the system. The critical part in designing the PID controller is to
obtain the best values of its parameters (kP, kI, kD). Thus, the FA and PSO are
selected to be used to optimize the parameter values of the PID controller. The
FA was basically introduced in early 2007 based on the idealized behaviour of
the flashing of fireflies in nature. The behaviour of fireflies is unisex, which is
attracted to other firefly regardless on their sex [11]. Then, their attractiveness
is proportional to the brightness and it is determined by the value of the objective
function. In other algorithms, the PSO was introduced in early 1995 which are
inspired by the behaviour of bird flocking. The swarm represents the number of
potential solutions and the individual in PSO is called particle which mean each
individual in search space can be adjusted dynamically based on the movement
of position and velocity. Position and velocity of particle represent the candidate
solution to the problem and flying direction of the particle, respectively. With a
given fitness function, the particle position can be found with the best
evaluation. The configuration of PID-FA and PID-PSO design in the MATLAB
Simulink and the PID parameter results tuned using FA and PSO are shown in
Figure 2 and Table 2, respectively.
Figure 2: PID control design
Table 2: PID Parameter results tuned using FA and PSO

kp ki kd MSE
PASSIVE - - - 5.8080
PID-PSO 22.32 400 87.18 4.2412
PID-FA 104.9 186.0 93.0 4.2397

Based on Figure 3, it is clearly observed that the PID tuned using FA and PSO
manages to reduce the amplitude oscillation better than passive system for
sprung acceleration and sprung displacement responses. It can be mentioned the
force transmitted from the unsprung to sprung masses has been reduced in order
to improve the body vehicle. It is proven during unsprung acceleration response,
the performance of the semi-active system using PID-PSO and PID-FA are
slightly worse than the passive system. All related results are summarized in
Table 3. For comparison of the proposed optimization technique, the PID
controller tuned using FA has shown slightly better than PID controller tuned
using PSO.
Table 3: MSE and percentage improvement for all parameter of interest

% PID- % PID-
Parameter of
Passive PID-PSO PSO over PID-FA FA over
Interest
Passive Passive
Sprung
5.8080 4.2412 26.98 4.2397 27.0
acceleration
Sprung
6.44×10-7 5.25×10-7 18.47 5.23×10-7 18.79
displacement
234
Unsprung
43.16 50.21 -16.33 49.99 -15.82
acceleration
Figure 3: The time response simulation for all parameters of interest
Conclusion
The proposed PID-FA and PID-PSO controllers for semi-active system have
been developed using MATLAB Simulink. Based on the simulation results, the
PID-FA system shows a better improvement than the PID-PSO and passive
system during sprung acceleration and sprung displacement responses, with 27.0
% and 18.79 %, respectively. It can be concluded that the semi active system
using the proposed controllers are able to improve the vehicle performance as
compared to the passive system.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to express their gratitude to Minister of Higher Education
Malaysia (MOHE) and Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) for funding and
providing facilities to conduct this research.
References
[1] H. H. Tsang, R. K. L. Su, and A. M. Chandler, “Simplified inverse
dynamics models for MR fluid dampers,” Engineering Structures, 28
(3), 327–341 (2006).
[2] J.-H. Koo, F. D. Goncalves, and M. Ahmadian, “Investigation of the
Response Time of Magnetorheological Fluid Dampers,” Smart
Structures and Materials 2004: Damping and Isolation, 5386, 63–71
(2004).
[3] K. Yao, X. Zhao, and Z. Hou, “Damping characteristics modeling and
simulation of MR damper,” in 2009 International Conference on
Information Management, Innovation Management and Industrial
Engineering, (2009).
[4] M. Y. Ye, H. Jiang, Y. S. Xu, and X. D. Wang, “Bouc-Wen hysteresis
model parameter identification by means of hybrid intelligent
technique,” Advanced Materials Research, 108 (1), 1397–1402 (2010).
[5] G. Yang, “Large-scale MR fluid dampers : modeling and dynamic
performance considerations,” Engineering Structures, 24, 309–323
(2002).
[6] H. Fujitani, T. Tomurac, T. Hiwatashid, Y. Shiozakie, K. Hatac, K.
Sunakodab, and S. Mopjshita, “Development of 400kN
magnetorheological damper for a real base-isolated building,” Smart
Structures and Materials 2003: Damping and Isolation, 5052 (2003),
265–276 (2003).
235
[7] J. Yao, W. K. Shi, J. Q. Zheng, and H. P. Zhou, “Development of a
sliding mode controller for semi-active vehicle suspensions,” Journal of
Vibration and Control, 19 (8), 1152–1160 (2012).
[8] M. Khiavi, M. Mirzaei, and S. Hajimohammadi, “A new optimal control
law for the semi-active suspension system considering the nonlinear
magneto-rheological damper model,” Journal of Vibration and Control,
20 (14), 2221–2233 (2013).
[9] M. M. Rashid, N. A. Rahim, M. A. Hussain, and M. A. Rahman,
“Analysis and experimental study of magnetorheological-based damper
for semiactive suspension system using fuzzy hybrids,” IEEE
Transactions on Industry Applications, 47 (2), 1051–1059 (2011).
[10] M. Rahman, M. Mahbubur Rashid, A. G. A. Muthalif, and B. Kasemi,
“Evaluation of different control policies of semi-active MR fluid
damper of a quarter-car model,” Applied Mechanics and Materials, 165,
310–315 (2012).
[11] M. H. Ab Talib and I. Z. Mat Darus, “Intelligent fuzzy logic with firefly
algorithm and particle swarm optimization for semi-active suspension
system using magneto-rheological damper,” Journal of Vibration and
Control, (2015).
236
T01_031: BIOASSAY-GUIDED OF
FRACTIONATED-METHANOL EXTRACTS OF
AGLAONEMA SIMPLEX IN-VITRO PLANTLETS
Zuriah Ismail1*
Aziz Ahmad1,2
Tengku Sifzizul Tengku Muhammad3
1. School of Fundamental Sciences,
2. Center for Fundamental and Liberal Education,
3. Institute of Marine Biotechnology,
Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Nerus, Terengganu,
Malaysia.
*Corresponding author: zuriahismail@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Cardiovascular diseases remain as globally leading cause of mortality
including worldwide. To date statins is the main drug that widely used in the
treatment of atherosclerosis. This metabolites causes a side effects, thus
identification of new drug is crucial particularly the natural products. The
present study, the potential of Aglaonema simplex as a new source of drugs to
reduce the atherosclerosis event via SR-B1 was examined. Effects of a methanol
extracts of A. simplex in-vitro plantlets on the expression levels of SR-B1 were
evaluated. Results showed that the highest luciferase activity has been found in
100% methanol crude extract of roots, 1.72-fold changes compared to the
negative control. Chromatograph fractionation of the extract yielded seven
fractions, but all fractions showed lower luciferase activity than the control. The
result suggests that the root extract exhibited a synergistic interaction between
the phytochemicals. Qualitative phytochemicals screening showed that the root
contains terpenes, steroid, phenolics, alkaloids and glycosides. Thus, the tissue
culture plantlets of A. simplex is suitable materials for sustainable production
of new plant-derived drug in the treatment of atherosclerosis.
Keywords: Cardiovascular, atherosclerosis, luciferase, SR-B1, alkaloids.
Introduction
Despite new dietary guideline released by United State Department of Despite
new dietary guideline released by United State Department of Agriculture on
November 2015 that dietary cholesterol is no more concerning health factors
contributing to the increment risk of heart diseases [1], the increase numbers of
cardiovascular diseases among Asian countries still at alarming state [2].
Currently, the effectiveness treatment by statin in reducing the risk of
cardiovascular disease events comes with adverse side effects such as myopathy,
rhabdomyolysis and elevated level of transminases [3]. Therefore, a new
alternative approach of natural product based-drug that are safe, reliable and
economically has been conducted for recent decades [4].
Previous finding on active fraction of Phaleria macrocarpa leaves
proposed that the bioactive compound bind to the scavenger receptor class B
type 1 (SR-B1) receptor and upregulate the SR-B1 expression at the
transcription level, subsequently increased the uptake of cholesterol ester, thus
more free cholesterol can be eliminate through the bile [5]. Another one of the
potential candidate to be identify is an aquatic plant from Aglaonema genus.
This aquatic plant has been recognized as anti-diabetic agent [6] but limited as
anti-atherosclerosis. Phytochemical study of A. treubii revealed the presence of
polyhydroxy alkaloid (PA) compound which is dihydroxypyrrolidine and
homonojirimycin [7]. In this study, bioassay-guided fractionation of different
methanol extracts was carried out in order to identify the bioactive compound
as an alternative source for SR-B1 ligand via reverse cholesterol transport
process in reducing the risk of atherosclerosis.
Methanol Extraction
An in-vitro plantlets of A. simplex was used as source of extracts. The culture
was proliferate and grow on MS basic medium for four month with conditions
as previously described [8]. At harvest, plantlets were excised, divided to leaves
(L), stems (S), roots (R) and mixture (M), oven-dried at 40ºC until constant
weight and ground to powder form. The powdered samples were extract using
cold maceration for 24 hours with 50% (v/v) aqueous methanol or 100% (v/v)
methanol at ratio 1:10 (g/mL). Extract was filtered using Whatman filter paper.
The extraction process was repeated four times. Filtrates were combined and
concentrated using rotary evaporator at 40ºC. Dried crude extract was kept
refrigerated at -20ºC until further analysis.
Luciferase Assay using ONE-Glo™ + Tox Luciferase Reporter

The effect of extracts on cell viability and luciferase activity were measured
using the ONE-GloTM+Tox Luciferase Reporter and Cell Viability Assay
(Promega). A stable HepG2 cell line transfected with SR-B1 promoter in
complete MEM medium with 70-80 % confluency were seeded into 96 wells
with density of approximately 30 000 cells/well and incubated for 24 hrs. Cells
were then washed with PBS solution twice and 95 µL of new media contained
0.5 % FBS was added. Extracts were dissolved and diluted in various
concentrations by two-fold dilution (Figure 1 and 2). Treated cells with 0.1%
(v/v) methanol was used as negative control, while untreated cells as
background. Five microliters of diluted extracts were loaded into the well and
incubated for 24 hrs at 37°C in humidified, 5 % CO 2 atmosphere. A 20 µL of
5X CellTiter-FluorTM reagent was added and shake orbitally with ~ 500 rpm for
30s. Plates were re-incubated for 30 min at 37ºC. Fluorescence viability of cells
was measured at 380 -400 nmEx/505 nmEm. Hundred microliter of One-GloTM
reagent was added to each wells and incubated at room temperature for 3 min.
Luminescence was measured using Glomax Microplate reader.
Fractionation of Sample using Column Chromatographic

Two grams of ready packed DSC-18 reverse phase silica gel (Supelco) was
conditioning with a ratio of EtOH: H2O: AcOH (9:1:0.1) for twice. The sample
of 100% methanolic root extracts approximately of 200 mg was loaded into
column and eluted with methanol. Fractions were collected according to the
colour of fraction and air-dried to concentrate. Each fraction was designated as
R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6 and R7.
Qualitative Assay of Extract using Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC)

The 100% methanolic root extracts were chromatographed on C-18 reverse
phase–TLC plate using solvent system of EtOH: H2O: AcOH (9:1:0.1). The
phytochemical spots presence on plate was detected using visualization reagent;
the anisaldehyde-sulfuric acid 1 (with glacial acetic acid), anisaldehyde-sulfuric
acid 2 (with ethanol), UV -254 nm, UV -365 nm, ninhydrin, iodine vapour,
vanillin-sulfuric acid and Dragendorff.
Statistical Analysis
Each data were collected in triplicate measurement and expressed as mean ± SD.
One way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to do the statistical
238
comparison followed by Tukey test using GraphPad Prism 6 software. Results
with p ≤ 0.05 are considered statistically significant among groups.

SR-B1 Luciferase Activity
Methanol or ethanol admixed with 25 -50% of water has been commonly used
in extracting the polyhydroxy alkaloid [9]. In this study, both methanol and
ethanol has been pre-screening by TLC which then resulting in the use of
methanol as solvent extraction due to more visualization of spots appeared under
UV- 365 nm. Methanol was then divided into two different percentage (50%
and 100% v/v) to evaluate their bioactivity [10].
Prior to determine the ability of extracts to increase the SR-B1
expression, cytotoxicity test has been carried out using MTS assay. Results
showed that toxicity level of extracts, the IC50 was > 100 µg/mL (data not
shown). Therefore, extracts obtained are nontoxic and practical for further
evaluation as SR-B1 ligand. Figure 1 summarized the result of 50% methanolic
extract of A. simplex. The transcription level changes higher than 1.5- fold was
considered as a significantly expressed [11]. Figure 1 shows that only leaves
sample had activity higher than the control, 1.09-fold change at 1.56 µg/mL
(Fig. 1a), but the activity is considered too low. It is suggests that extracts of
50% methanol had no effects on SR-B1.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 1: Luciferase activity of transfected HepG2 cells treated with two-fold dilution (1.56
to 100 µg/mL) of (a) leaves, (b) stems, (c) roots and (d) mixtures of 50% aqueous methanolic
extracts of A. simplex. The graph bar data represented as mean value ± SD (n=3).
Present study showed that all parts of A. simplex plantlets from 100% methanolic
extracts have a potential as SR-B1 ligand (Fig.2). The highest SR-B1 activity
was extracts from stems (Fig. 2b) and roots (Fig. 2c), 1.61- and 1.72-fold at 1.56
µg/mL, respectively. Leaves extract at 1.56 µg/mL, (Fig. 2a) had increased the
transcription level of SR-B1 up to 11% higher than control. A mixture of all part
extracts at 100 µg/mL (Fig. 2d) had increased the SR-B1 level to 1.21-fold. It is
suggest that leaves and mixture extracts are considered have no activity because
it was lower than 1.5-fold.
Therefore, the pure methanolic extracts are found to be more potently
as SR-B1 ligand compared to the 50% aqueous methanolic extracts. It is
239
proposed that the yield of extraction was affected by the solvent efficiency with
various factors in recovering and isolating the phytochemicals [12].
(A) (B)
(C) (D)
Figure 2: Luciferase activity of transfected HepG2 cells treated with two-fold dilution (1.56
to 100 µg/mL) of (a) leaves, (b) stems, (c) roots and (d) mixtures of 100% methanolic extracts
of A.simplex. The graph bar data represented as mean value ± SD (n=3).
Fractionation and Bioactivity Of 100% Methanol Crude Root

Results on the bioactivity of fractionated 100% methanol crude extract of roots
is shown in Table 1. Unfortunately, none of the fraction expressed SR-B1
transcripts level higher than the control. It is suggest that high transcript levels
of crude compare to fraction might be due to the synergistic interaction of
phytochemical present in the extracts.
Table 1: Sr-B1 Activity Of R100 Fraction Expressed In Mean Of Fold-Change ±

S.D.
CONC.(µG/ML)
1.88 3.75 7.5 15 30
SAMPLE
R1 0.68 ± 0.04 0.71 ± 0.02 0.67 ± 0.02 0.69 ± 0.04 0.81 ± 0.03
R2 0.65 ± 0.03 0.69 ± 0.04 0.67 ± 0.01 0.57 ± 0.03 0.64 ± 0.05
R3 0.72 ± 0.04 0.85 ± 0.06 0.73 ± 0.04 0.57 ± 0.06 0.58 ± 0.04
R4 0.78 ± 0.09 0.72 ± 0.06 0.71 ± 0.03 0.80 ± 0.06 0.73 ± 0.05
R5 0.90 ± 0.11 0.77 ± 0.10 0.73 ± 0.07 0.80 ± 0.05 0.71 ± 0.04
R6 0.74 ± 0.02 0.65 ± 0.02 0.70 ± 0.02 0.72 ± 0.05 0.71 ± 0.06
R7 0.82 ± 0.09 0.85 ± 0.03 0.68 ± 0.03 0.80 ± 0.05 0.67 ± 0.03
Phytochemical Screening by Thin Layer Chromatography

Developed spots (figure not shown) using a different visualization reagent
revealed that the presence of terpene, steroid, phenolic, alkaloid, glycosides and
reducing sugar. Similar findings on of aglaonema hookerianum schott exhibited
the presence of alkaloid, glycoside, tannin, reducing sugar, saponin and gum [9].
CONCLUSIONS
It was found that the phytochemical contains in crude root of 100% methanol
extracts exhibited as the most possible alternative to be sr-b1 ligand compared
to the other methanolic extracts. This bio-actively crude root mixture was
fractionated and it was found that the luciferase activity of the fractionate sample
to be lower than the crude mixture. This might be due to the synergistic
interaction between phytochemical presences in the mixture. The identification
of phytochemical presence in the crude root extracts is on the progress.
240
Therefore, in-vitro culture of a. Simplex plantlet are found to be a potential
sustainable resources as an alternative for atherosclerosis treatment.
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241
T01_032: CHARACTERIZATION OF SOLID
RESIDUE FROM CATALYTIC MICROWAVE
ASSISTED PYROLYSIS OF AUTOMOTIVE
PAINT SLUDGE
Zakiuddin Januria, *Norazah Abdul Rahmanabc, Siti Shawalliah
Idrisac,
a
Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi
MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia,
b
CoRe of Frontier Materials & Industry Applications,
Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor
Darul Ehsan, Malaysia, cCoRe of Green Technology &
Sustainable Development, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450
Shah Alam, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
Corresponding author: *noraz695@salam.uitm.edu.my
ABSTRACT
Solid residue is a solid char that accumulated in the reactor after microwave assisted
pyrolysis process has a potential to use as a solid fuel. This is due to the properties that
almost similar with conventional char-coal. In this paper, the solid residue of APS has
been characterised by using bomb calorimeter, TGA, elemental analyser and FTIR.
Catalyst ZSM-5 is used during the pyrolysis process by mixing homogeneously with the
automotive paint sludge (APS) waste for the purpose to improve the pyrolytic oil. The
results show that catalyst ZSM-5 gave bad effect to the solid residue where it had reduced
its fuel properties. However, it gave good impact to the production of pyrolytic oil and
its quality. Therefore, it shown that the catalytic cracking of APS on the pyrolytic oil by
the addition of catalyst ZSM-5 is successful but solid residue produced cannot be used
as the solid char due to the accumulation of coke on the catalyst .
Keywords: Solid Residue, Catalytic Microwave Assisted Pyrolysis, Automotive

Paint Sludge.
Introduction
Solid char derived from automotive paint sludge (APS) has a potential to use as
the solid fuel since its properties is close to the commercial char-coal. Thus,
conversion of automotive paint sludge (APS) into solid char through pyrolysis
process has been done by several researchers. It has been reported by Kim et al.
(1996) with the collaboration of Ford Automotive industries, automotive paint
sludge had been transformed into the solid char by using pyrolysis process[1].
It also has been report by Muniz et al. 2003, recovery of paint sludge can been
done on three products which are inert solid char, solvent liquid and combustible
gas by using pyrolysis process [2]. Nevertheless, both of these researches were
not focusing on the use of catalyst in the microwave assisted pyrolysis process.
Use of catalyst might improve the pyrolytic oil properties by enhancement of
hydrocarbon breakdown during the pyrolysis [3]. An arrangement of catalyst
with automotive paint sludge is shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4. Arrangement of Catalyst in Microwave Assisted Pyrolysis Process
242
This arrangement might affect the heating mechanism in the reactor and catalyst.
Due to the radiation of microwave wavelength use in the microwave, active site
of the catalyst ZSM-5 was not affected upon this method which required the
combination of two different phase of materials which are slurry form
(automotive paint sludge) and solid form (catalyst ZSM-5). This is due to the
directly bombarded of microwave wavelength to the inner of catalyst molecule
and its active site compared to conventional pyrolysis that use convection
heating mechanism which the heating mechanism affect the surface of sample
and required exposed active site of the catalyst. In addition, any deposition of
ZSM-5 only deactivate the catalyst to a lesser extent, which is mainly attributed
to the tri-dimensional porous structure of ZSM-5 giving way to the circulation
of aromatic coke precursors toward the outside of the zeolite micropores [4].
Properties of solid residue from automotive paint sludge due to the catalyst
addition still not been reported in any research. In order to fill the gap, this paper
was focused on the characterization of solid residue from catalytic microwave
assisted pyrolysis of automotive paint sludge.
Materials and Method
Automotive paint sludge (APS) used in this study has been collected from the
second largest automotive manufacturing company in Malaysia. APS at constant
200g of sample weight loading [5] was mixed homogeneously [6, 7] with
catalyst ZSM-5 which is obtained from Sigma-Aldrich at different mixing ratio.
Catalyst ZSM-5 was calcined in the furnace at 500˚C for 3h as a pretreatment
for activation prior to the reaction before it being used in the microwave assisted
pyrolysis process [8]. Microwave assisted pyrolysis of the automotive paint
sludge sample has been done under the assistance of microwave irradiation by
using modified commercial microwave and is shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5. Microwave Assisted Pyrolysis Equipment Arrangement [9]
Mixed sample was placed in the quartz reactor and nitrogen gas with flowrate
of 250 ml/min is set to 150 ml/min and it is used as the carrier gas during the
microwave pyrolysis. Microwave power and radiation time were kept constant
at 1000W and 30 minutes as taken from previous research [5]. Solid residue left
in the reactor is analyzed for its properties. The energy content of solid char was
analyzed by using Bomb calorimeter model IKA WORKS/C5000 Control
Germany D79019. Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfurs and oxygen content of
the product was analyzed by using Elemental Analyzer, Thermo Electron, Flash
EA 1112 Series. Solid char was analyzed for proximate analysis by using
Thermogravimetric Analyser, Mettler Toledo TGA/SDTA 851, Switzerland,
where 20mg of sample is being placed into the 150µL ceramic crucible.
Nitrogen is used as the carrier gas at a flow rate 20mL/min. The temperature
was ramped at a heating rate of 20°C/min from 25°C to 950°C. Then the carrier
gas was switched to air when the temperature continues to ramped from 950°C
to 1200°C. In proximate analysis, fixed carbon content and fixed ash content
were determined from TGA/DTG graph obtained. Weight loss of the samples
and its rate were continuously recorded during the process.
243
Physical Characteristic of Solid Residue

Physical properties of solid residue were listed in Table 5. Formation of coke
was observed on the catalyst; as a consequence, it had reduced the calorific value
of catalytic solid residue. Thus, it makes the CAPS solid residue has low
potential to burn as solid fuel. Meanwhile, NCAPS solid residue has high
calorific value at 20.62 MJ/kg with low volatile matter and high fixed carbon
content. In addition, pyrolytic oil obtained from the catalytic process has a good
quality compared to non-catalytic process with the increased of its calorific
value from 35.4MJ/kg to 44.7MJ/kg.
Table 5. Physical Properties of Solid Residue
PROPERTIES NCAPS CAPS
Proximate Analysis, %
Moisture 4.13 2.7
Volatile Matter 9.84 11.2
Fixed Carbon 31.73 4.5
Ash 54.3 81.6
Ultimate Analysis, %
Carbon 30.57 16.33
Hydrogen 1.07 2.46
Nitrogen 3.85 4.19
Sulfur 0.04 0
Oxygen 11.03 77.0
Calorific Value, MJ/kg
Gross Calorific Value 20.96 7.86
Net Calorific Value 20.62 7.25
*NCAPS = non-catalytic automotive paint sludge solid residue
CAPS = catalytic automotive paint sludge solid residue
NCV, kJ/kg = Gross Calorific Value (GCV) – 24.44 (9%H + %M)
Addition of catalyst ZSM-5 improved hydrocarbon breakdown by reducing the

oxygenated compound in the pyrolytic oil. The catalytic cracking of ZSM-5
demands less energy as the catalysts used either in situ or online reforming of
pyrolysis volatiles can reduce the activation energy, lowering the required
temperature and optimizing the quality of the product stream [10]. Oxygenated
compounds in contact with zeolite catalysts have been found to undergo a group
of reactions, including dehydration, decarboxylation, cracking, aromatization,
alkylation, condensation, and polymerization [11]. Catalytic cracking with
ZSM-5 began as the decarboxylation reaction occurred on oxygenated
compound and rejects the oxygen in the form of carbon dioxide [6]. It is proven
by the similar research was reported by A. Lopez et. al, 2011, which use catalyst
ZSM-5 mixed with plastic waste sample in order to improve pyrolytic oil
properties. It was proven that pyrolytic oil properties was improved and
increased its calorific value due to direct contact of catalyst active site towards
the plastic waste sample which enhanced preferred reaction of aromatization,
oligmerization, and hydrogenation from catalyst ZSM-5 [12]. However, solid
residue obtained by the plastic waste has low potential to become solid fuel
caused by the coke deposition on the catalyst formed after pyrolysis process
which reduced the energy content of solid residue [12]. In addition, carbon
content also been observed to reduce in the catalytic solid residue. It has been
proven by low amount of fixed carbon content and carbon number in catalytic
solid residue. Most of it had transformed and combined as volatile matter and
released during pyrolysis process. This is showed that the NCAPS solid residue
has more carbon content than the CAPS solid residue and makes the NCAPS
solid residue more feasible to use as solid char. Furthermore, moisture content
in the APS sample does not affect the production of good solid char. For
comparison, a research by Januri et. al, 2015, it was found that kitchen waste
solid residue which has high moisture content about ~80% has high potential to
244
become solid fuel after it has been pyrolyze in the microwave assisted pyrolysis
process [13]. Sample behavior does not affect the properties of the solid residue
as long it still contains high carbon content.
Non-Catalytic Automotive Paint Sludge Catalytic Automotive Paint Sludge (CAPS)

(NCAPS) Solid Residue Solid Residue
Figure 6. Photo-view of Solid Residue
However, catalyst ZSM-5 in the solid residue still can recapture and separate by
burn the solid residue in an air stream at 550˚C which will enables the catalyst
to recover its initial activity [12]. Figure 6 shows photo-view of solid residue
for both non-catalytic and catalytic automotive paint sludge solid residue. Black
porous solid char obtained from non-catalytic automotive paint sludge (NCAPS)
solid residue resembles actual solid char from charcoal. Meanwhile, catalytic
automotive paint sludge (CAPS) solid residue was brownish in color due to coke
formation in the sample.
Chemical Characteristic of Solid Residue

From Table 6, both NCAPS and CAPS solid residue show low hydrocarbon
content through low functional hydrocarbon bond found in the solid residue.
Table 6. FT-IR Spectrum of Solid Residue

Wavelength, cm-1
Functional
Sample 2900-1960 cm-1 1100-1000 cm-1
Group
Peak %T Peak %T
NCAPS 2200 10.5 1090 16.5 Inorganic ions
CAPS 2004 18 - - C-OH
However, both show a high percentage of transmittance at a wavelength range

of 2900 - 1960 cm-1 in the inorganic functional group which indicates the
presence of metal residue from automotive paint sludge itself such as titanium
and alumina accumulated from catalyst ZSM-5. Solid residue from the
automotive paint sludge was necessarily needed pre-treatment before it is safely
can burn as the solid fuel. Moreover, it also indicates that the hydrocarbon
content in the sample have been totally removed as volatile and transform into
pyrolytic oil during the microwave pyrolysis process.
Conclusion
As a conclusion, solid residue from catalytic APS by using ZSM-5 has low potential to
use as the solid char due to the catalyst addition. Present of catalyst ZSM-5 increased ash
content of solid residue thus reduced its calorific value. Nevertheless, non-catalytic solid
residue shows a good potential to become solid char due to high energy content.
However, good properties of pyrolytic oil was produced from the catalytic addition which
proved the success of catalytic reaction of ZSM-5 catalyst in the microwave irradiation
with the homogeneously mixed with samples.
Acknowledgement
This work was financially supported by Ministry of Higher Education through the
Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS/1/2014/TK05/UiTM/02/3), with the
experimental equipment and facility provided by Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM)
and Faculty of Chemical Engineering, UiTM.
245
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5 zeolite in catalytic pyrolysis of plastic wastes," Waste management, vol. 31, pp. 1852-1858, 2011.
[13] Z. Januri, N. A. Rahman, S. S. Idris, S. Matali, S. F. A. Manaf, A. F. A. Rahman, et al., "Solid Char
Characterization From Effect Of Radiation Time Study On Microwave Assisted Pyrolysis Of Kitchen Waste,"
Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, vol. Special Issue on SOMCHE 2015, pp. 70 - 82, 2015.
246
T01_033: PURIFICATION OF SILICEOUS
FRUSTULES ISOLATED FROM MALAYSIAN
MARINE DIATOMS
Syafiqa Hayati Mohd Ali
Norazlina Ahmad
Microalgal Research Laboratory, Faculty of Pharmacy,
UiTM, 42300, Bandar Puncak Alam, Selangor
Khairul Adzfa Radzun

Faculty of Applied Sciences, UiTM, 40450, Shah Alam,
Selangor
ABSTRACT
Diatoms are a major group of microalgae and the most abundant group among
phytoplankton in the ocean. Their uniqueness is projected on their intricate
siliceous cell wall structure called frustules. Due to the porosity and
biocompatibility of the frustules, they can be applied in various biotechnology
related disciplines from medical, pharmaceutical to industrial. Purification of
diatoms frustules are necessary before they can be further studied or use. There
are various methods to purify diatoms frustules and some methods involve
tedious work, and hazardous chemicals. Some methods are not suitable for some
species. This study was conducted to compare two methods of diatoms frustules
purification to obtain a good quality of frustules for future application. Diatoms
were sampled from Pantai Remis, Kuala Selangor and were cultivated in
f/2medium. PCR analysis was executed to identify the species. Diatoms were
harvested at exponential phase and subjected to two frustules purification
methods which are acid-digestion method and oxidization method. Frustules
obtained from both methods were cleaned from impurities and the structures
were intact. The porous structure of the frustules can be clearly examined under
SEM.
Keywords: acid-digestion, oxidization, frustules, diatoms
Introduction
Known to be a robust organism [1], diatoms differ among other microalgae for
the ability to synthesis cell wall made up of silica called frustules [2,3]. In drug
delivery applications, diatoms frustules are a good alternative to synthetic
mesoporous silica materials [4,5]. While in nanotechnology, diatoms frustules
can be applied in various fields for examples in nanofabrication techniques, bio-
sensing and particle sorting [6,7]. In forensic examination, diatoms may
contribute in solving drowning cases where the presence of diatoms in body
tissues reveals the sign of drowning [8].
To date, researchers have employed various approaches of purification
of diatoms frustules in which involving physical or chemical treatments. A study
has been done by employing the use of EDTA buffer and SDS to remove the
organic materials contained in the cells [9]. Then hydrogen peroxide and
pyrolysis will follow for further purification from organic materials. In a study
of fatty acids associated with frustules, the method employed to purify the
frustules is by hot sonication followed by resuspension and centrifugation [10].
Another study has used acid-digestion and oxidant cleaning techniques [11].
There are many other approaches that can be applied and some were found more
convenient and safer than the others. The present study aims to compare two
common methods of diatoms frustules purification which are acid-digestion and
oxidant cleaning of frustules purification techniques to obtain good quality of
frustules for future studies and applications.
Method
Cultivation and identification
Water samples were collected from Pantai Remis, Kuala Selangor (N03°
12.145' E101° 18.329') by filling about 25 mL of seawater into sterile 50 mL
Falcon tubes. The water samples were checked for presence of diatoms under
light microscope. Diatoms isolation was done by serial dilution and multiple
series of agar plating and streaking. Five successful diatoms colonies of different
strains were picked and maintained in agar and liquid medium. The diatoms
isolated were cultivated in f/2 medium in five conical flasks. All flasks were
incubated on orbital shaker at 95 rpm under continuous fluorescence light at 65
µmol m-2s-1. The cultures were then subjected to polymerase chain reaction
(PCR) analysis for species identification purposes.
Purification of diatoms frustules

Diatoms cells were harvested after three weeks of cultivation which is during
the exponential phase. The cells were centrifuged at 4,000 rpm for 10
minutes. Diatoms cells harvested were purified where they were treated with
two different methods which involved acid-digestion and oxidizing agent.
Method 1: Acid-digestion
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) was used in this method. Cultures of diatoms were
centrifuged and treated with concentrated HCl. After 10 min of acid-digestion,
the sample was heated in 60oC water bath for 15 min. Lastly, it was rinsed with
distilled water, and the sample was air dried before observation under SEM.
Method 2: Oxidization
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) was used in this method. Cultures of diatoms were
centrifuged and treated with concentrated H2O2. After 10 min of oxidization, the
sample was rinsed with distilled water, and air dried before observation under
SEM.
Results and discussions

Isolation and identification of diatoms
The isolated diatoms strains were cultivated in vitro both on agar and liquid
medium in repeated steps of serial-dilutions and streaking. They were identified
to species level through PCR analysis. Figure 1 showed the gel electrophoresis
band of successful DNA amplification of five cultures of diatoms.
Successful PCR products were purified and send for sequencing. The
sequencing results were compared in NCBI database using BLAST search.
BLAST results have indicated that the positive control had a 99% maximum
identification with a Cylindrotheca fusiformis. Strain R1, R3 and R5 had a 98%
maximum identification with Thalassiosira pseudonana, Nitzschia sp., and
Cocconeis stauroformis respectively. Meanwhile, strain R2 and R4 both had a
92% maximum identification with Amphora caribaea and Minutocellus
polymorphus respectively.
248
Figure 1: Gel electrophoresis image of successful PCR analysis. Lane M:
marker; Lane 1: positive control; Lane 2: R1; Lane 3: R2; Lane 4: R3; Lane
5: R4; Lane 6: R5
Table 1: Lists of identified diatoms species
Lab ID Species Accession number

Positive control Cylindrotheca fusiformis FR865491.1
R1 Thalassiosira pseudonana HQ912555
R2 Amphora caribaea KJ463428.1
R3 Nitzschia sp. KT860982.1
R4 Minutocellus polymorphus KF925333.1
R5 Cocconeis stauroformis AB430614.1
a b
Figure 2: SEM images of diatoms samples treated with a) acid-digestion method,

b) oxidation method.
Assessment of diatoms frustules
All samples treated with different methods of purification were examined under
SEM and the images are shown in Figure 2. HCl and H2O2 are both the common
chemicals used in purification of diatoms frustules. From the SEM images,
diatoms frustules are successfully cleaned from organic materials. The two
methods are suitable to be used for marine diatoms but both have few
deficiencies for instances, HCl is effective in removing the organic materials but
prolong time of contact with acids may corrode delicate structure of frustules.
H2O2 also is good at purifying the frustules and is gentler than acids [12] but is
best used with samples that require little cleaning such as clear water samples.
In addition, samples treated with peroxide require repeated washing as it is
difficult to be washed off due to the bubbling of solution [13]. Repeated washing
and centrifugation of samples in both methods may result in loss of frustules.
249
Nevertheless, both methods successfully cleaned the frustules and preserved
their intact structure.
Conclusions and recommendations
There was no substantial effect that can be observed on diatoms cells after
purification via acid-digestion or oxidation. Therefore, acid-digestion and
peroxide are both effective in purification of diatoms frustules by removing the
organic materials from the cells and are recommended to be used to obtain a
good quality of cleaned frustules. However, future studies on diatoms
purification techniques can be explored by testing different variables during
cells purification to improve current findings presented.
References
[1] A. A. Jamali, F. Akbari, M. M. Ghorakhlu, M. de la Guardia and A. Y.
Khosroushahi, “Applications of diatoms as potential microalgae in
nanobiotechnology,” BioImpacts 2 (2), 83-9 (2012).
[2] M. J. Hildebrand Doktycz and D. P. M. Allison, “Application of AFM in
understanding biomineral formation in diatoms,” Eur J Physiol 456, 127-37
(2008).
[3] J. P. Smol, H. J. B. Birks and W. M. Last, “Tracking Environmental Change
Using Lake Sediments,” Zoological Indicators 4, 1-15 (2001).
[4] M. Bariana, M. S. Aw, M. Kurkuri and D. Losic, “Tuning drug loading and
release properties of diatom silica microparticles by surface modifications,”
Int J Pharm 443 (1-2), 230-41 (2013).
[5] S. Gnanamoorthy Anandhan, and V. A. P. Prabu, “Natural nanoporous
silica frustules from marine diatom as a biocarrier for drug delivery,” J
Porous Mater 21, 789–96 (2014).
[6] I. Atazadeh and M. Sharifi, “Algae as bioindicators,” Eff heavy Met algae
Dev an algal index Syst Assess water Qual (L LAMBERT Acad Publ
Saarbrücken, Ger, 2010).
[7] J. Wang Cai, Y. Jiang, X. Jiang, and D. Y. Zhang, “Preparation of biosilica
structures from frustules of diatoms and their applications: current state and
perspectives,” Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 97, 453–60 (2013).
[8] R. Singh, R. Singh and M. K. Thakar, “ Extraction methods of diatoms-A
review,” Indian Internet J Forensic Med Toxicol 4 (2), (2006).
[9] A. Jantschke, C. Fischer, R. Hensel, H-G. Braun and E. Brunner, “Directed
assembly of nanoparticles to isolated diatom valves using the non-wetting
characteristics after pyrolysis,” Nanoscale 6 (20), 11637–45 (2014).
[10] M. Suroy, B. Moriceau, J. Boutorh and M. Goutx, “ Fatty acids associated
with the frustules of diatoms and their fate during degradation—A case
study in Thalassiosira weissflogii,”. Deep Sea Res Part I Oceanogr Res Pap,
86, 21–31 (2014).
[11] J. Park and C-H. Koh, “Taxonomic studies on Korean marine benthic
diatoms – LM and SEM observations of the diatom Genus Amphora
(Bacillariophyceae) from Korean tidal flats with the first recordings of A.
arenicola, A. beaufortiana and A. maletractata var. constricta,” J. Ocean
Science 47 (2), 101-112 (2012).
[12] J. C. Taylor, P. A. de la Rey, L. van Rensburg, “Recommendations for the
collection, preparation and enumeration of diatoms from riverine habitats
for water quality monitoring in South Africa,” African J Aquat Sci, 30 (1),
65–75 (2005).
[13] M. Kumar, S. K. Naik, A. Murari and Y. Rani, “Methods of diatom test:
review of literatures,” J Forensic Med Toxicol, 29 (2), 47–54 (2012).
250
T01_034: DATA CENTER DISASTER
MANAGEMENT APPROACH: FEATURES
FINDINGS
Noor Hayati Mohd Zain
Norafida Ithnin
Faculty of Computing, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,
Johor, MALAYSIA.
ABSTRACT
The area of disaster management receives increasing attention from multiple
disciplines of research. One key role of computer scientists has been devising
ways to manage and analyze suitable features in producing a new Data Center
Disaster Management (DCDM) approach. In this paper, we make an effort to
search and summarize the findings regarding to the data center and disaster
management approaches from previous study to be as a guideline in producing
new DCDM approach. Our findings came as a result of a reproducing new
DCDM approach by referring suitable selected features that has been made.
The features selected were DATA MINING (DM), DECISION SUPPORT (DS),
Information extraction (IE), Information retrieval (IR) and Information filtering
(IF). Based on the features finding process, we have observed that the selected
features can be as a guidelines to improve efficiency of new DCDM approach.
Keywords: disaster management, data center, selected features of Data Center

Disaster Management.
Introduction
A place that store a lot of data and information is called data center. The concept
of data center itself is to keep data and information in one isolated place that can
be access by any authorized users [1]. Pooling too many and heavy information
data had cause complexity and hard to be manage. Additionally, this situation
also lead to a disaster event for many causes. One of the disaster is come from
threats. Furthermore, threats is divided into many types such as virus attacks,
phishing, blended attacks, humidity, fire and many more. Details about the type
of threats can be seen in Table 1 [2].
Table 1: Type of Threats attack Data Center
Type of threats Effect

Viruses Damages worth £1.8bn in 12 days on the internet in 2003
Virus back doors Hidden after-effects with potentially devastating impact
Application-specific Advanced SQL injection could be stealing users data
hacks
Phishing Duped end-users could lose faith in IT systems
Blended attacks Criminals use multiple methods to beat even the best
security
Air temperature Equipment failure and reduce equipment life span from
temperature above specification and/or drastic
temperature changes
Humidity Equipment failure from static electricity buildup at low
humidity points
Condensation formation at high humidity points
Liquid leaks Liquid damage to floors, cabling and equipment
Indication of CRAC problems
Human error and Equipment damage and data loss
personnel access Equipment downtime
Theft and sabotage of equipment
Smoke or Fire Equipment failure
Loss of assets and data
Hazardous airborne Dangerous situation for personnel and/or UPS
contaminants unreliability and failure from release of hydrogen
Equipment failure from increased static electricity and
clogging of filters/ or fans from dust buildup
Refer to the Table 1, if disaster happened, it will disrupt within many area
and situations for example; phishing activity by hackers or an unauthorized
parties will finally cause duped end-users lose faith in IT systems. Other
example is if disaster cause by fire, many equipment failure to function and will
loss valuable assets and data in an organization. Effect of losing important data
or assets from disaster event, victims will face much loss to be recover later on.
Scope of the research will focus on the company and organization platform
because they usually keep their data and information all together in one place
called data center.
Disaster Management
Disaster management concepts have gradually developed at different
levels, where people are more aware that there is more to disaster management
than merely reaction to events [3]. Sound that disaster management is the
effective application of holistic management techniques to hazards and their
relationship with vulnerability. In other words, it is the effective application of
risk management techniques to all hazards and all vulnerability factors. The
ultimate aim of disaster management is to manage circumstances in such a way
that the outcome is not a disaster.
The area of disaster management receives increasing attention from
multiple disciplines of research. A key role of computer scientists has been in
devising ways to manage and analyze the data produces in disaster management
situations. Disaster management has been attracting a lot of attention by many
research communities, including Computer Science, Environmental Sciences,
Health Sciences and Business. There are certain features that desirable for
management of almost all disaster such as prevention, advance warning, early
detection, analysis of the problem and assessment of scope, notification of the
public and appropriate authorities, mobilization of a response, containment of
damage and lastly relief and medical care for those affected [3]. Furthermore,
disaster management can be divided into the following four phases like Figure
1; mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery.
Figure 1: Disaster Management Phases
Mitigation phase
252
Mitigation efforts are long-term measures that attempt to prevent hazards
from developing into disasters altogether, or to reduce the effects of disasters
when they occur. For example, building code and zoning, vulnerability analyses
and give public education. Related with threats to data center, this phase is
define as an organizations activities will do to reduce effects before disaster
strike.
Preparedness phase
These activities are designed to minimize loss of life and damage.
General example; by removing people or property from a threatened location
and by facilitating timely and effective rescue, relief and rehabilitation.
Preparedness is the main way of reducing the impact of disasters. In threats
matter, preparedness phase is where all possible steps should be done to
minimize loss cause by threats event on data center area.
Response phase
This is a coordinated multi-agency response to reduce the impact of a
disaster and its long-term results. It activities generally include rescue,
relocation, providing food and water, preventing disease and disability,
repairing vital services such as telecommunications and transport, providing
temporary shelter and emergency health care. In the data center point of view,
response phase is the activity during disaster happen and need to take action
quickly to reduce disaster effect.
Recovery phase
Once emergency needs have been met and the initial crisis is over, the
people affected and the communities that support them are still vulnerable.
Recovery activities include rebuilding infrastructure, health care and
rehabilitation. These should blend with development policies and practices to
avoid similar situations in future. In organization point of view, recovery phase
is focus on data center recovery after disaster strike and what is the next
following steps should be done. All these phases is mainly about to reduce loss
and disruption before disaster, during disaster and after disaster take place.
Narrow down to data center scope area, disaster management approach
is applied and many work had been done. Researchers from previous until
nowadays still running their research in this disaster management parts to
prevent and reduce disaster effects. Refer to Table 2, all features of disaster
management approaches is listed. It will be used as a guidelines for the next
steps on choosing suitable features in producing new DCDM approach.
Table 2: Features of previous Disaster Management Approaches
Journal Disaster Management Features

Approach
Mansourian et. Spatial Data Infrastructure Involved data mining (DM) and
al. (SDI) on web-based decision support (DS)
(2005) [4] system
Hristidis et. al. Investigation on disaster 5 data analysis technologies of
(2010) [5] related situations data disaster related situations:
source 1. Information extraction (IE)
2. Information retrieval (IR)
3. Information filtering (IF)
4. Data mining (DM)
5. Decision support (DS)
Rodriguez et. decision support Applied decision support (DS)
Al methodology which provides
253
(2009) [6] system (DSS) data-based damage assessment for multiple
prototype disaster scenarios to support
Humanitarian NGOs involved in
response to natural disasters.
Kapucu, collaborative decision- Decision making process involved
Garayev making analyzed in the context of:
(2011) in emergency and disaster 1. Information extraction (IE)
management on the 2. Information retrieval (IR)
Emergency Management 3. Information filtering (IF)
Assistance Compact’s
(EMAC) response to the
catastrophic disasters
Hurricanes Katrina and
Rita in 2005.
Karnatak et. Al Spatial mash-up Open source Geographic
(2012) technology and real time Information System (GIS)
data integration
Alamdar et. Al spatial data sourcing and 1. High spatial and temporal
(2014) in situ sensing as an resolution
emerging technology for 2. Wide range of data
sourcing and managing 3. Automated operation
disaster information
Result Discussion
BASED ON THE TABLE 2 SUMMARIZATION, RESULT FOUND

THAT MANY SIMILAR RELATED FEATURES HAD BEEN USED BY
PREVIOUS RESEARCHERS. ACCORDING TO IT, THE FEATURES
MOSTLY USED WERE DATA MINING (DM), DECISION SUPPORT (DS),
Information extraction (IE), Information retrieval (IR) and Information filtering
(IF). The approaches that used similar features were spatial data infrastructure
(SDI), disaster related situations data source, Decision Support System (DSS)
model and the collaborative decision-making model. All listed approaches
mostly connected with data and information safety and maintaining process in
their data center or databases and can be referred in Table 3. Between all
approaches, two approaches that used most similar features for their disaster
management approach are disaster related situations data source and
collaborative decision-making model. By having this result, further research can
be proceed to next level in producing new DCDM approach. Selected features
can be followed as a guidelines in making new DCDM approach better.
TABLE 3: List of Disaster Management Approaches and it Features
DM DS IE IR IF GIS High Wide Automated

spatial range operation
Temporal data
resolutio
n
Spatial Data √ √
Infrastructure
(SDI)
Disaster √ √ √ √ √
related
situations
data source
decision √
support
254
system (DSS)
collaborative √ √ √
decision-
making
Spatial √
mashup
technology
spatial data √ √ √
sourcing and
in situ sensing
Conclusion
Emergency and disaster can be avoid or reduce by having proper
management process taken. Based on this study, research on features selection
can be better by getting an appropriate steps on doing finding and selecting
suitable features for data center disaster management approach.
References
[14] M. Bullock, “Data Center Definition and Solutions,” pp. 1–9 (2009).
[1] Christian Cowan, Chris Gaskins, “Monitoring Physical Threats in the Data
Center,” white paper 102, pp.5.
[2] V. Hristidis, S. Chen, T. Li, S. Luis, and Y. Deng, “The Journal of Systems
and Software Survey of data management and analysis in disaster
situations,” J. Syst. Softw., vol. 83, no. 10, pp. 1701–1714 (2010).
[3] Mansourian et. al. “Using SDI and web-based system to facilitate,”
Computers & Geosciences 32, 303–315 (2005).
[4] Hristidis et. al. “Survey of data management and analysis in disaster
situations,” The Journal of Systems and Software 83 (2010) 1701–1714.
[5] Rodriguez et. al. “A general methodology for data-based rule building and
its application to natural disaster management,” Computers & Operations
Research 39 (2012) 863–873.
255
7th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE
on POSTGRADUATE EDUCATION
Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM)
1 December 2016
T01_035: DETERMINATION OF
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
SOIL CHEMICAL PROPERTIES WITH
INCIDENCE OF BASAL STEM ROT DISEASE
IN OIL PALM
Muhammad Firdaus Bin Ihwaan
Zaiton Binti Sapak
Faculty of Plantation and Agrotechnology, Universiti Teknologi MARA
40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
Idris Bin Abu Seman

Muhammad Izzuddin Bin Anuar
Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB), Biological Research Division, No. 6,
Persiaran Institusi, Bandar Baru Bangi, 43000 Kajang Selangor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
The most destructive disease of oil palm in the Southeast Asia is basal stem rot
(BSR) caused by white pathogenic fungus, Ganoderma boninense. The disease
has a significant impact to the oil palm growth and productivity. To date,
available control methods are only able to delay the aggressiveness of
pathogen but not to cure the disease totally. Better understanding on the
disease development and the pathogen interactions with soil environmental
factors is crucially needed for better management of the disease. This present
study aims to investigate the interaction and relationship between soil
chemical properties with the BSR incidence. The field study was conducted at
the Teluk Merbau plantation and soil samplings were carried out at two
different soil depths to evaluate three types of soil chemical properties in
relation to BSR incidence. These study findings showed that BSR incidence is
not influenced by soil pH and soil cation exchange capacity regardless of soil
depth tested. In contrast, soil organic carbon has significant correlation
(p<0.05) (r = -0.52) with the BSR incidence. This gathered information on the
relationships between soil chemical properties with BSR incidence in oil palms
would provide better understanding that would lead to the better management
for BSR.
Keywords: Ganoderma, basal stem rot, oil palm, soil chemical properties,
disease incidence
Introduction
1 December 2016
Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) is a major industrial cultivation in Southeast

Asian countries including Malaysia and Indonesia. Malaysia contributed
around 17.45 million tonnes of palm oil that represented 37% of world export
[8]. Since oil palm has been introduced as commercial planting in 1917, several
of pest and disease managements have been applied to maintain yield
productivity and palm oil quality. The major obstacle to oil palm lifespan is a
disease known as basal stem rot (BSR). About 68 to 455 million of economic
losses of oil palm industry due to the disease in a year [10]. The disease begins
to attack young oil palms of 10 to 15 years old and even very young palms of
12-24 months after planting [4]. The infestation of BSR caused by G.
boninense became serious when the disease spread occurs on below ground
through root contact with the disease inoculum source in soil debris and
infected roots [5,13]. In relation to soil factor, North Sumatra of Indonesia and
the zone lies in Western coastal zones of Peninsular Malaysia are the most
severely affected areas by BSR [14,2]. This fact suggested that the infection
could be associated with the soil properties. Currently, there are very minimal
reports on the relationship between soil and BSR incidence are available.
Therefore, this present study aimed to evaluate the influence of soil chemical
properties which are soil pH, soil cation exchange capacity (CEC) and soil
organic carbon (OC) towards the BSR incidence. This research would be
expected to provide better understanding on the relationship between soil
chemical properties and BSR incidence in oil palm plantation.
The study was carried out at, Teluk Merbau plantation, Sungai Pelek, Sepang,
Selangor. The study site was established on the coastal terrain of Selangor-
Kangkong soil series (Aeric Tropic Fluvaquent). The region is humid in
tropical climate with annual rainfall between 2000 to 2250 mm and annual
temperatures of 24 – 32.9 0C. On the soil profile aspects, the soil mainly
deposited with marine alluvial clay and low water table. This study was carried
out with BSR census to assess the percentage of Disease Incidence (DI). Then,
soil samplings were performed to evaluate three types of soil chemical
properties; soil pH, soil CEC and soil OC and relate to the BSR incidence. A
plot study of ten hectares of oil palm plantation was selected and the plot were
divided into 28 subplots with each plot consists of at least 16 palms (4 x 4
rows). Each plot has six sampling points which soil samples were taken at two
different soil depths (0-15 cm and 15-30 cm). The total number of 168 samples
was used to assess three soil chemical properties. The soil samples were dried
at 1090C for 24 hours by using a laboratory oven. The soil samples were then
air-dried at 210C of room temperature to remove the remaining moisture
content in the soil. The soil samples were then crushed gently and sieved
Determination of Relationship Between Soil Chemical Properties with Incidence
through a 2 mm sieve. The larger particles were discarded and the fine particles
were further used for the experiment.
The assessment of BSR incidence was initially started with classify the oil
palms in each plot into three categories based on visual disease symptoms such
as wilting green fronds, few unopened new fronds, yellowish fronds and
existence of pathogen bisidiomata on the trunks [6]. The three categories used
in this study as proposed by MPOB were (i) the uninfected palm consists of
healthy palm (H), (ii) the infected palm clearly caused by Ganoderma disease
(G) and (iii) vacant palm due to Ganoderma disease (VG). These categories
were then used to distinguish healthy and infected palm due BSR for the
disease incidence (DI) assessment. The DI value can be calculated based on
the number of infected oil palm divided by a total number of oil palm assessed
in the plot area and the data of DI are normally presented as percentage value.
Based on BSR census study, all subplots with the different scale of DI were
grouped into three incidence scales which are high (> 60%), intermediate
(30%-60%), and low (< 30%). These scales were developed based on
observation of fresh fruit bunch yield losses due to BSR in five years planting
reported by [14,9].
Soil pH analysis was conducted in supernatant suspension of 1:2.5
soil:water. Meanwhile CEC was determined through a comprehensive
technique of leaching method which involved distillation unit. Soil organic
carbon was determined by using a wet oxidation method in Walkley-Black
procedure without external heating to oxidized SOC. Details of soil analyses
can be referred in [15]. All experimental data were subjected to analysis of
variance (ANOVA) and correlation by using Minitab statistical software
(Version 16.1). The significant treatment means from ANOVA were compared
using Tukey’s honest significant difference (HSD) at P ≤ 0.05.
This study finding showed that BSR incidence was not influenced by
soil pH regardless of soil depths (0-15 cm and 15-30 cm) at all three disease
incidence (DI) scale. Determination of the interactions within the disease
incidence scales was required to assess the influence of particular scale on the
soil chemical properties. Similar result was found in the soil CEC analysis,
where both soil depth and DI scale are not significantly different with p = 0.870
and p = 0.241 respectively. However, SOC was found to have interaction with
the BSR incidence (p = 0.001) at the different DI scales but not significant at
soil depth (p = 0.255). Based on correlation analysis, SOC was also the only
significantly correlated with BSR incidence (p = 0.048), while soil pH (p =
0.35) and soil CEC (p = 0.659) are not correlated. The coefficient correlation
for both soil pH and soil CEC were found weak positive correlation (r = 0.26
and r = 0.12) as compared to SOC which intermediate negative correlation (r
= -0.52). Since SOC was significantly correlated to the different scales of BSR
incidence, Tukey’s test (HSD) was applied to find the relationship of SOC
towards three scales of DI. Among these groups of scale DI, the BSR incidence
was significantly at low and intermediate incidence with 2.4 ± 1.51 g/kg and
1.9 ± 1.06 g/kg respectively of soil organic carbon as compared to the high
incidence (1.6 ± 0.63 g/kg). No statistically significant difference between the
intermediate and high incidence scale.
In the Table 1, an increment of soil pH was observed as the BSR
incidence low. High incidence (> 60%) recorded low pH of 3.58. Besides, the
soil pH is slightly changed and keep increased in the intermediate DI (30% -
60%) with pH 3.62. As the disease scale decreased, soil pH obtained from the
low DI (< 30%) area was found slightly increased with pH value of 3.64.
Meanwhile, soil CEC showed an increasing of value as the DI low. High
incidence recorded the lowest of soil CEC with 17.92 cmol/kg. Besides that,
the value of soil CEC increased in the intermediate scale with 18.23 cmol/kg
and gradually increased with 19.02 cmol/kg as the disease scale decreased low
incidence. On the other hand, high incidence reported low soil OC of 1.6 g/kg
and gradually increased with 2.0 g/kg in the intermediate incidence. However,
SOC at the low incidence was progressively increased with 2.4 g/kg. Even
though these findings shows that the BSR incidence was not statistically
influenced by soil pH and CEC, the changes of values and distribution pattern
at each incidence scale showed that soil pH and CEC have relationship towards
BSR incidence but very marginal to be explained by statistical analysis.
Table 1: The distribution of soil chemical properties on different scale of BSR

incidence.
Soil chemical Scale of Range of
Mean
properties incidence incidence scale (%)
High > 60 3.58
Soil pH Intermediate 30-60 3.62
Low < 30 3.64
High > 60 17.92
Soil CEC
Intermediate 30-60 18.23
(cmol/kg)
Low < 30 19.02
High > 60 1.6
Soil OC (g/kg) Intermediate 30-60 2.0
Low < 30 2.4
In this study, high BSR incidence was found at the areas of the lowest
soil pH recorded (3.58) which slightly lower than pH studied by other
researchers [11]. The authors reported that mycelial growth of Ganoderma
boninense was favoured in range of pH 3.7 to 5.0. Moreover, other study was
also found the BSR disease concentrated at a range soil pH between 4 and 5
[7]. The current study shows that Ganoderma disease favours the lower pH
range in soil than the proposed by the laboratory finding. The result of
insignificant correlation could be due to low variability of soil pH values in all

selected subplots that also could be affected by other factor of soil
characteristics. Furthermore, declining of SOM would cause indirect
implication to the soil nutrient cycling which is an important aspect to the plant
nutrient availability. Several previous studies were also claimed the similar
evidence of OM reduction in other phytopatogenic diseases such as bud rot
disease (BRD) [1] and black root rot [12]. Low organic matter was reported in
the infected palm of BRD as comparing to healthy palm. The low amount of
OM leads to indirect consequences towards disease infection. One of the major
effects is disruption on soil structure and soil physical properties. Depletion of
soil organic carbon also closely influenced the bulk density to increase as
briefly explained in other study [3]. In the meantime, the palms root that
suffering due to abiotic stressors could promoting the disease infection in root
tissues.
In conclusion, the BSR incidence is only significantly influenced by
SOC. This study also only conducted on coastal soil, therefore, soil sampling
on other soil types also need to be carried out to have more evidences on the
interactions of soil chemical properties with BSR incidence. Consideration
variables into other soil characteristics of soil chemical such as soil physical
and soil biological as following future research strategies can facilitate for
better disease control and management.
References
[1] Acosta, A. and Munévar, F., Bud Rot in Oil Palm Plantations: Link to
Soil Physical Properties and Nutrient Status. Better Crops
International, 17 (2) : 22-25, (2003).
[2] Ariffin, D. and Idris, A. S., Progress and research on Ganoderma basal
stem rot of oil palm. Proc. of the Seminar on Elevating the National Oil
Palm Productivity and Recent Progress in the Management of Peat and
Ganoderma. MPOB, Bangi. 5-6 May 2002, pp.1, 67-205 (2002).
[3] Blum, J., Giarola, N. F. B., da Silva, A. P., Filho, O. G., Silva, S. G. C.,
Eberhardt, D. N. and Araújo, E. S. R., Assessment of soil physical
attributes at sowing row and inter-row under no-till system. Revista
Ciência Agronômica, 45 (5): 888-895 (2014).
[4] Cooper, R. M., Flood, J. and Rees, R. W., Ganoderma boninense in oil
palm plantations : current thinking on epidemiology, resistance and
pathology, The Planter, Kuala Lumpur, 87(1024): 515-526 (2011).
[5] Idris, A.S., D. Ariffin, T.R. Swinburne and T.A. Watt, The identity of
Ganoderma species responsible for basal stem rot (BSR) disease of oil
palm in Malaysia – Pathogenicity test. Malaysian Palm Oil Board
Inform. Series 103, MPOB TT No. 77b (2000).
[6] Khairunniza-Bejo, S. and Vong, C. N., Detection of basal stem rot
(BSR) infected oil palm tree using laser scanning data, Agriculture and
Agricultural Science Procedia 2. Paper presented at 2nd International

Conference on Agricultural and Food Engineering, Kuala Lumpur,
Malalysia, pp. 156-16 (2014).
[7] Lisnawita, Hanum. H., Tantawi, A. R., Survey of basal stem rot disease
on oil palms (Elais guineensis Jacq.) in Kebun Bukit Kijang, North
Sumatera, Indonesia, IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental
Science 41 (2016).
[8] Malaysian Palm Oil Council (MPOC), Annual Report 2015, Market
overview, pp. 21-24 (2015).
[9] Mior, M. H. A. Z, Idris, A. S., Wahid, O. and Ahmad Kushairi, D.,
Spatial temporal and hotspot analysis of basal stem rot disease caused
by Ganoderma in oil palm. Paper presented at International Palm Oil
Congress (PIPOC). Kuala Lumpur: Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB)
(2009).
[10] Muniroh, M. S., Sariah, M., Zainal Abidin, M. A., Lima, N. and
Paterson, R. R. M., Rapid detection of Ganoderma-infected oil palms
by microwave ergosterol extraction with HPLC and TLC. Journal of
Microbiological and Methods, 100: 143-147 (2014).
[11] Nawawi, A. and Ho, Y. W., Effect of temperature and pH on growth
pattern of Ganoderma boninense from oil palm in peninsular Malaysia,
Pertanika, 13(3): 303-307 (1990).
[12] Oliveira, M. L., Melo, G. L., Niella, A. R. R. and Silva V. R., Black
root rot caused by Rosellinia pepo, a new disease of the clove tree in
Brazil. Tropical Plant Pathology , 33 (2): 90-95 (2008).
[13] Rees, R., Flood, J., Hasan, Y., Potter, U. and Cooper, R. M., Basal stem
rot of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis); mode of root infection and lower
stem invasion by Ganoderma boninense. Plant Pathology, 58 : 982–989
(2009).
[14] Singh, G., Ganoderma - The scourge of oil palm in the coastal areas.
The Planter, 67 (786) : 421 – 444 (1991).
[15] Van Reeuwijk, L. P., Procedures for soil analyses, 6 th ed., International
Soil Reference and Information Centre, pp 2-9 (2002).
7th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON POSTGRADUATE EDUCATION
1 December 2016
T01_036: EFFECT OF PARTICLE SIZE ON

BITTER GOURD (MOMORDICA CHARANTIA)
EXTRACT YIELD BY SUPERCRITICAL
CARBON DIOXIDE EXTRACTION
N.A. Aris1,2, Mohd Azizi Che Yunus1,2*, Lee Nian Yian1, Zuhaili Idham1, Wan
Nurul Diyana Ramli1,2, Ahmad Hazim Abdul Aziz1,2
1
Centre of Lipid Engineering and Advanced Research (CLEAR), Ibnu Sina
Institute for Scientific and Industrial Research, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,
81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor
2
Faculty of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,
81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor
*Corresponding author: azizi@cheme.utm.my
ABSTRACT
This study aimed to investigate the best particle size to obtain the highest extract
yield from bitter gourd (Momordica charantia) by supercritical carbon dioxide
(SC-CO2) extraction. Bitter gourd is able to reduce the blood glucose level, so
it acts as a traditional herb or alternative medicine for diabetes mellitus Type
II. SC-CO2 is a clean extraction method by using carbon dioxide (CO2) as the
solvent. Therefore, the extract obtained was free from solvent, non-toxic with
higher purity because CO2 can be easily separated from the extract after
depressurization. The means particle size of bitter gourd studied were 0.2, 0.3,
0.5 and 0.7 mm with constant parameters of 20 MPa, 60 ºC and 4 mL/min of
CO2. The results showed that mean particle size of 0.3 mm gave the highest
extract yield due to larger surface area and therefore it is easier for CO 2
molecules to penetrate deep into solute particle as compared with the larger
particle size.
Keywords: bitter gourd; particle size; supercritical carbon dioxide.
Introduction
Momordica charantia from Cucurbitaceae family is a scientific name for bitter
gourd/bitter melon which is known widely by local to treat diabetes traditionally
[1]. The components responsible for anti-diabetic properties are charantin,
insulin-like peptide (p-insulin), cucurbutanoids, momordicin, and oleanolic
acids [2].
In supercritical fluid extraction, the determination of moisture content and
particle size are very important as a preliminary study before the real extraction
process. Dunford and Temelli [3] stated that high moisture content in the sample
will affect the solubility and mass transfer kinetic during the extraction by
reducing the SC-CO2 – sample contact. Meanwhile, the larger particle size will
reduce the surface area of the solid particle and create longer diffusion path for
SC-CO2 – sample contact [4]. Therefore, the oil yield decrease due to smaller
surface area and longer diffusion path for solvent-solid contact.
Up to this date, a study on the total moisture content of Momordica charantia
and effect of particle size on Momordica charantia extract yield by using
supercritical carbon dioxide has yet to be released. Therefore, the aim for this
study were to determine the total moisture content of the Momordica charantia
fruits as well as the best particle size to give the highest extracted oil yield using
SC-CO2 extraction method. The extract yield from SC-CO2 extraction was
compared with the extract yield using Soxhlet extraction.
263
Material and methods

Sample Preparation
Unripe bitter gourds (Momordica charantia) grown in Simpang Renggam
(Johor, Malaysia) were purchased from a local market. The fruits were cleaned
and cut into half, and then oven dried together with the seeds at 50 oC for 24
hours. The dried sample was then ground by commercial blender (Waring, U.S).
The ground sample was sieved using Endecotts Octagon 2000 Digital Sieve
Shaker. The mean particle sizes prepared were 0.2, 0.3, 0.5 and 0.7 mm. The
sample was stored in a freezer (-20 oC) until use.
Total Moisture Content Determination

The determination of total moisture content was performed based on Official
Method of Analysis by Association of Analytical Chemists (AOAC) with some
modification [5]. About 2 g of Momordica charantia fruits sample was weighed
accurately in a glass dish that was dried previously in an oven and weighed after
cooling. The sample was spread evenly over the base of dish and dried in the
oven that previously been set to operate at 135 ± 2 oC for three hours. The dish
was weighed after it had been cooled until no weight changes observed. The wet
basis moisture content taken as percentage by mass of the samples was
calculated using Equation (1).
𝑚1 −𝑚2
Moisture content (%) = × 100 (1)
𝑚1 −𝑚0
where, mo = mass of glass dish (g)
m1 = mass of glass dish with sample before drying (g)
m2 = mass of glass dish with sample after drying (g)
Supercritical Carbon Dioxide (SC-CO2) Extraction

The supercritical carbon dioxide extraction was carried out over 5 g of
Momordica charantia at constant pressure 20 MPa and temperature 60 oC using
a lab scale supercritical fluid extraction unit as shown in Figure 1, which consist
of force ventilation oven (MMM Group, German) fitted with a 50 mL stainless
steel extraction vessel.
Figure 1: Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction schematic diagram.
Pressure in the vessel was regulated by means of a back-pressure (Tescom

Corp.,U.S) valve installed in the line between the extraction vessel and the
separator. The depressurization using the valve will convert the supercritical
state of carbon dioxide into gaseous state with the help of water circulation bath
(Daihan Scientific. Co Ltd, Korea) which then can separate the CO 2 from the
extracted oil. Pure 99.9% gas CO2 (Mega Mount Industrial Gases Sdn Bhd,
Malaysia) was liquidized using a refrigerated bath circulator (Daihan Scientific.
Co Ltd, Korea) and pumped to extractor using carbon dioxide liquid pump
(Tokyo, Japan) with a constant flow rate of 4 mL/min. The extraction process
264
was done dynamically for total extraction of 2 hours with 20 min interval time
to collect the oil yield. The extracted oil yield was weighed using the analytical
balance (Ohaus, U.S) with an accuracy up to 0.0001 g. The percentage of
extracted yield was calculated using Equation (2). The extracted oil was stored
in a freezer (-20 oC) until further analysis.
𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 (𝑔)
Extract yield (%) = × 100 (2)
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 (𝑔)
Soxhlet Extraction
Solvent extraction was carried out using Soxhlet apparatus with 40 g of
powdered Momordica charantia. The sample was extracted with 400 mL of pure
ethanol (Merck, Malaysia) for up to 8 hours. The remaining solvent trapped with
the extracts was removed via rotary evaporator (Heidolph, German). The
extracted oil yield was weighed and then compared with the oil yield from SC-
CO2 extraction before stored in a freezer (-20 oC) until further analysis.
Results and discussions

Total moisture content determination
The total moisture content of Momordica charantia fruits sample was found to
be 93.03% as per calculated using Equation (1). Hence, the samples need to
undergo drying phase before it can be extracted using SC-CO2 since the
extraction system will be disturbed if the moisture content in the solid particles
are more than 10%.
Mean particle Size Determination using SC-CO2 Extraction

The result for the best mean particle size is presented by graph in Figure 2. The
highest extract oil yield obtained was 1.29% using 0.3 mm mean particle size
after 2 hours of extraction followed by 0.96 and 0.45% using 0.5 and 0.7 mm
respectively.
1.5 MEAN PARTICLE SIZE

OIL YIELD (%)
0.5
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0.2 mm TIME (MIN)
0.3 mm 0.5 mm 0.7 mm
Figure 2: The percentage of Momordica charantia extract yield at different mean

particle sizes using SC-CO2 extraction.
However, the smallest mean particle size of 0.2 mm can only obtain 0.90% oil
yield after 2 hours of extraction. This is because the solid particle is too compact
for the SC-CO2 molecules to penetrate into it. Kluson, et al. [6] suggested that
the decrease in oil yield for smallest particle size is due to solid particle
compactness and therefore SC-CO2 molecules can only remove oil on the solid
surface only.
Smaller particle size definitely widen their surface area and thus shorten the
diffusion path between SC-CO2 – solid particle contact. Therefore it is easier for
the SC-CO2 molecules to diffuse into and out of the solid particle. Furthermore,
the grinding process broke the cell walls of the solid particle leading to more oil
release onto the surface and easily dissolved in the SC-CO2. Hence, the
265
extraction yield increases as we decrease the particle size by grinding. Özkal and
Yener [7] suggested that the fraction of the oil released is represented by
grinding efficiency, G whereby more oil will be released when the particle size
is decreasing due to more broken oil cells.
Comparison between sc-co2 and soxhlet extraction

The highest extract oil yield obtained from Momordica charantia fruits sample
was 12.4 % using 0.2 mm mean particle size after 8 hours of extraction followed
by 8.67, 7.52 and 5.09 % for particle size 0.3, 0.5 and 0.7 respectively. The
results obtained is in agreement with the statement stated by Klein-Júnior, et al.
[8], the smaller particle size will increase the extraction yield due to their larger
surface area and accessibility of solvent to penetrate into solute solid despite
different extraction method used. The same trend also occur in study done by
Chupin, et al. [9] where the smaller particle of pine bark gave the highest extract
yield due to the specific surface area for solvent-solid contact and better
penetration of the microwaves.
Nevertheless, if we compare these results with oil yield obtained from SC-CO2
extraction method, smaller particle or too fine particle will reduce the solvent-
solid contact and decrease the extraction yield due to the bed caking formation
inside the vessels for SC-CO2 extraction method [10]. Particle size
determination is very important in SC-CO2 extraction because it controls the
surface area and diffusion path for solvent-solid contact as stated by Kluson, et
al. [6] whereby the mass transfer kinetics and access of SC-CO2 towards soluble
components are control by particle size.
Conclusion
In this study, the smaller particle size within 0.3 mm gave the highest extract
yield for Momordica charantia. However, the extract yield decreased with the
smallest mean particle size of 0.2 mm. Meanwhile, SC-CO2 was the best
extraction method as compared with Soxhlet extraction. Even though the total
yield obtained was slightly higher when using the Soxhlet extraction method,
however SC-CO2 extraction method used a non-hazardous solvent towards the
environment and human. On the other hand, the extraction time for SC-CO2
method was shorter as compared to conventional method of Soxhlet extraction
as well as the higher purity of extract was obtained using SC-CO2 method
without any organic solvent.
Acknowledgement
We would like to acknowledge the financial support from the Ministry of
Agriculture (MOA) for NRGS grant scheme (R.K130000.7943.4H025) and
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia for professional development research university
grant (Q.J130000.21A2.02E85).
References
[1] Marles and Farnsworth, "Antidiabetic plants and their active
constituents," Phytomedicine, vol. 2, pp. 137-189, 1995.
[2] Malik, Singh, and Sharma, "Neuroprotective effect of Momordica
charantia in global cerebral ischemia and reperfusion induced
neuronal damage in diabetic mice," Journal of Ethnopharmacology,
vol. 133, pp. 729-734, 2011.
[3] Dunford and Temelli, "Extraction Conditions and Moisture Content
of Canola Flakes as Related to Lipid Composition of Supercritical
CO2 Extracts," Journal of Food Science, vol. 62, pp. 155-159, 1997.
266
[4] Zhao and Zhang, "A parametric study of supercritical carbon dioxide
extraction of oil from Moringa oleifera seeds using a response surface
methodology," Separation and Purification Technology, vol. 113, pp.
9-17, 2013.
[5] AOAC and Official Method 930.04, "Moisture in Plants," in Official
Methods of Analysis of AOAC International W.H.Horwitz and
G.W.Latimer, Eds., 18th ed Gaithersburg, MD, USA: AOAC
International, 2007, pp. 0-935584-78-1.
[6] Kluson, Maksimovic, Ivanovic, and Skala, "CHISA 2012Supercritical
Extraction of Essential Oil from Mentha and Mathematical
Modelling– the Influence of Plant Particle Size," Procedia
Engineering, vol. 42, pp. 1767-1777, 2012.
[7] Özkal and Yener, "Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of flaxseed
oil: Effect of extraction parameters and mass transfer modeling," The
Journal of Supercritical Fluids, vol. 112, pp. 76-80, 2016.
[8] Klein-Júnior, Vander Heyden, and Henriques, "Enlarging the
bottleneck in the analysis of alkaloids: A review on sample
preparation in herbal matrices," TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry,
vol. 80, pp. 66-82, 2016.
[9] Chupin, Maunu, Reynaud, Pizzi, Charrier, and Charrier-El
Bouhtoury, "Microwave assisted extraction of maritime pine (Pinus
pinaster) bark: Impact of particle size and characterization," Industrial
Crops and Products, vol. 65, pp. 142-149, 2015.
[10] Sodeifian, Saadati Ardestani, Sajadian, and Ghorbandoost,
"Application of supercritical carbon dioxide to extract essential oil
from Cleome coluteoides Boiss: Experimental, response surface and
grey wolf optimization methodology," The Journal of Supercritical
Fluids, vol. 114, pp. 55-63, 2016.
1 December 2016
T01_037: LOW-POWER ACTIVE RFID SYSTEM

USING NRF24L01
Ahmad Azzreen Bin Dalawi
Assoc. Professor Dr. Fahmi Bin Samsuri
Faculty of Electrical &
Electronics Engineering
University Malaysia Pahang (UMP)
26600 Pekan, Pahang, Malaysia
azzreen_dalawi@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
A low-power active Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) system based on
nRF24L01 RF transceiver is designed and implemented. The nRF24L01 is used
to act as both reader and active tag of RFID system respectively. The nRF24L01
is chosen due to its low-power and it also operates at 2.4 GHz in which lies on
ultra-high frequency (UHF) band. Significant power consumption is reduced by
operating in standby mode, transmitting mode and receiving mode at 29µA,
10.25mA and 6.92mA current rating respectively. In addition, nRF24L01 can
interact with microcontroller which retain the circuit simplicity.
Keywords: Radio Frequency Identification (RFID); nRF24L01; Standby Mode;
Active Tag.
Introduction
RFID is the wireless use of electromagnetic fields to transfer data, for the
purposes of automatically identifying and tracking tags attached to objects.
Since 1980s, it has been a hot automatic identification technology. What makes
it so widely used is because of its low price and power consumption, small sizes,
and etc. RFID system consists of two main parts which are tag and reader. Tags
have unique identifications stored in them and equipped to the objects
meanwhile a reader executes the tag interrogation process to interpret an object
by releasing wireless RF signals to interpret the identification (ID) of the
equipped tags.
Aside of RFID, barcode was also commonly used. From automatic
identification perspective, both share a couple of common characteristics. One
of the characteristic of RFID over barcode is that it can read multiple items
equipped with RFID tags simultaneously. Unlike earlier barcode technology,
RFID enables identification from a distance without the requirement of line of
sight [1]. This feature is crucial to the application that involves reading and
identifying important objects such as in supply chains.
In the applications where power supply is limited, power consumption
is always a remarkable criterion in the design of tags. One drawback of the active
RFID systems is the precise synchronization requirement between the reader
and tags. Tags are put to sleep mode most of the times in this study, in which all
circuitry of tags are turned off. One tag is only activated by the reader command
in the small fraction of one reading cycle. So, tag is basically inactive for most
portion of the time.
Similar studies on power consumption were conducted in [2]-[5].
These studies have used different approaches and equipment. However, the
problem with these studies are they have significantly higher power
consumption. In this paper, we optimize the complexity of RFID system by
using nRF24L01 RF transceiver.
Method of power supply equipping in tags is one of the most important
classification of RFID. Passive tags don’t have any internal power source. They
will only be activated when the reader is around by withdrawing the energy from
268
the reader wave. Short-range applications such as smart cards is the application
that this type of RFID is used for. Contrary to passive RFID tags, active RFID
tags are designed having their own power source, which is our work is all about.
They even act out the range of magnetic field of the reader. RFIDs are designed
at the standard frequency ranges: low-frequency (LF), high frequency (HF),
Ultra High Frequency (UHF) and Microwave. In the comparison of different
types of RFIDs, lower frequencies don’t penetrate or transmit around metals,
handle only small amounts of data and slow the data transfer. The main
advantages of microwave frequencies are smaller size, smaller antenna and
higher data range than other frequencies [6].
The automation such as in freight consignment in harbors is essential
due to advance technology and improving the economy of the world as a whole.
Large amount of time and cost will be restored and the safer transportation
method is provided by using RFID. The RFID interrogate zone should be large
enough to cover a broad range of huge area at the ports [7,8].
Hardware Design
Control Unit
The Arduino Uno was selected as the microcontroller unit (MCU), which is a
cost-efficient device and has low-power technology from Nordic
Semiconductor. It also based on ATmega328P chip. It is a low-power, highly
integrated, high-performance and applications-oriented. It has 14 digital
input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a
16 MHz crystal oscillator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header, and
a reset button. The MCU is used for data management and processing,
interaction with the reader and tags. It operates all the commands for the reader
and tags through libraries uploaded in its flash memory. The communication
with the reader and tags is provided via USB interface. Other communication
processes with the host system are carried out by USB interface.
RFID System
The project is focus on nRF245L01 RF transceiver as RFID system which are
consist of reader and tag respectively. It operates at 2.4 GHZ which classified as
UHF. It has low power consumption which is very helpful for the work. It also
has all the data link layer operation and physical layers. For the project, it is
responsible for transmitting (TX) and receiving (RX) data. It also used as data
storage. Just in case if internal storage memory is insufficient, additional
external storage can be used as backup. One of many the benefits of using
nRF24L01 is that it only needs small amount of peripheral devices such as
rectifier, crystal oscillation circuit, filter circuit and reset circuit. Figure 2 below
shows the circuit diagram of an nRF24L01 and microcontroller.
The SPI bus for nRF24L01 are CSN pin, SCK pin, MOSI pin, and
MISO pin. These pins responsible for communication between microcontroller
and nRF24L01 as they stimulate SPI bus timing sequence. These four pins also
connected to 7 pin, 13 pin, 11 pin and 12 pin of microcontroller respectively.
Other important pins are IRQ pin and CE pin. Both are connected to 6 pin and
7 pin of microcontroller respectively. IRQ is an interrupt pin. The nRF24L01
has an active low interrupt IRQ pin. The IRQ pin is activated when TX_DS IRQ,
RX_DR IRQ or MAX_RT IRQ are set high by the state machine in the STATUS
register. The IRQ pin resets when microcontroller writes '1' to the IRQ source
bit in the STATUS register. The IRQ mask in the CONFIG register is used to
select the IRQ sources that are allowed to assert the IRQ pin. By setting one of
the MASK bits high, the corresponding IRQ source is disabled. By defaults all
IRQ sources are enabled. CE pin represents the activity of the nRF24L01.
269
Basically when CE mode is set as high, the current mode is either TX mode or
RX mode. However, when CE pin is set as low, it is currently in standby mode.
RF circuit can communicate with microcontroller in the shock burst
mode meanwhile nRF24L01 chip at the low speed. Arduino Uno can still access
FIFO register without activation that eventually reduces the overall power
consumption. RFID system that is implemented has all capabilities of a
microcontroller and RF transceiver module in the same single integrated circuit
chip. So, the function of all RF processing and all baseband can be executed
together. On top of that, it can prevent any noise when interfacing process
between microcontroller and RF transceiver.
Normally, RFID tags are located in the environment where the resource
is deficient as memory storage, computational capacity and power consumption
are limited. Some issue need to be addressed when dealing with active RFID
[11]. The lifetime of active RFID tag is key to overall system performance
especially in power department. Since active RFID tag is powered by internal
supply, how long the lifetime of the tag simply depends on the internal supply
itself. With peak RX/TX currents lower than 14mA, a sub μA power down
mode, advanced power management, and a 1.9 to 3.6V supply range, the
nRF24L01 provides a true power saving solution enabling months to years of
battery lifetime when running on coin cells or AA/AAA batteries. Hence,
explains the reason behind why is nRF24L01 is chosen in the first place. It has
low-power and with microcontroller that can put the system to power down
mode to save power.
Software Design
The RFID system is a communication system between two non-equivalent
nodes: the RFID reader and the RFID tag. The most important function of the
software design is to communicate between tags and reader [12]. When tag is
absent, a lot of power loses occur due to constant process of powering-up the
component blocks of the reader for example the demodulator and RF generator.
This is basically a norm due to the typical system tries to read/detect the tag. So,
in order to save power, algorithm and hardware to detect the presence of the
RFID tag is proposed and subsequently will give continuous supply to all the
blocks of the circuit in the presence of the tag.

To get the idea of how RF signal of nRF24l01 react to the distance between them
is important. In Figure 1, a distance (20 cm) is set properly for nRF24L01 signal
strength. By using Keysight’s spectrum analyser, the outcome is very precise.
The distance is the critical parameter in power consumption. The rest distances
are shown in Figure 2. As the result shown, the as the distance further, the signal
strength of nRF24L01 is weaker as expected. Table 3 shows the power
consumption in terms of current consumption of nRF24L01 in 3 modes, standby
mode, transmit TX mode and receive RX mode.
270
Figure 1: nRF24L01 Signal strength versus distance (20 cm)
Figure 2: nRF24L01 Signal strength versus various distances
References Standby Mode TX Mode (mA) RX Mode (mA)

(µA)
This work 29 10.25 at 0dBm 6.92 at 2Mbps
output power air data rate
[5] 32 11.3 at 0dBm 12.3 at 2Mbps
output power air data rate
Table 1: Result comparison of current consumption in three different modes
Conclusion
In this work, a low-power RFID system based on nRF24L01 RF transceiver is
implemented and designed. The power consumption of the system is reduced
due to tag is standby mode in most of times. Current consumption of three modes
at 29µA (standby mode), 10.25mA (TX mode) and 6.92mA (RX mode) are
significantly lower than reference [5]. A couple of reference values and the
circuit diagram are given. The chosen nRF24L01 as active RFID tag has fast
read-write-speed and high data rate. This system can be used for various
applications such as activation access, vehicle transportation and freight
tracking and so on.
271
References
[1] R. Want, “An Introduction to RFID technology,’’ Pervasive
Computing, IEEE, vol.5, pp. 25-33, 2006.
[2] D. Moeinfar, H. Shamsi, F. Nafar, “Design and implementation of a
low-power active RFID for container tracking at 2.4 GHz frequency,’’
Electrical Faculty, K. N. Toosi University of Technology, Tehran, Iran,
10 January 2012.
[3] Z. Chenyuan, L. Jian, S. Fangyang, Y. Yang. “Low-power CMOS
power amplifier design for RFID and the Internet of
Things,’’Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science,
University of Kansas, KS, USA; Department of Power Management,
Texas Instruments, TX, USA; Department of Computer System
Technology, New York City College of Technology, NY, USA, 3 June
2015.
[4] S. Jinpeng, W. Xin’an, L. Shan, Z. Hongqiang, H.Jinfeng, Y. Xin, F.
Xiaoxing, G. Binjie, “Design and Implementation of an ultra-low
passive UHF RFID tag,’’ Key Laboratory of Integrated Microsystems,
Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen, China, Vol.
33, No 11, Jounal of Semiconductors, November 2012,
doi:10.1088/1674-4926/33/11/115011.
[5] S. Shi, T. Lu, H. Zhang, L. Xu, T. A. Gulliver, “A Design of Active
RFID Tags Based on nRF24L01,’’ College of Information Science and
Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China; Department
of Electrical Computer Engineering, University of Victoria, Victoria,
Canada, 2013.
[6] Z. Min, L. Wenfeng, W. Zhongyun, L. Bin and R. Xia, “A RFID-Based
Material Tracking Information System,” 2007 IEEE International
Conference on Automation and Logistics, Jinan, 18-21 August 2007,
pp. 2922-2926.
[7] Y. Sun, Y. Zhang and P. Peng, “Design and Realization of 2.45 GHz
Active RFID System,” 2nd International Conference on Intelligent
Computation Technology and Automation, Changsha, 11 October
2009, pp. 582-585. doi:10.1109/ICICTA.2009.147
[8] X. Huang, G. Zhang, Q. Sun and D. Qing, “Container Transportation
System Using 2.45 GHz Active RFID Technology,” International
Conference on Remote Sensing, Environment and Transportation
Engineering, Nanjing, 24 June 2011, pp. 3030-
3033.doi:10.1109/RSETE.2011.5964953
[9] Arduino, ‘’AIAA OC Rocketry,’’ Arduino Uno Datasheet, April 2014.
[10] Nordic Semiconductor, ‘’ Single Chip 2.4 GHz Tranceiver,’’
nRF24L01 datasheet, July 2007 [Revised Sept. 2008].
[11] Y. Hao and Z. Hong, ‘’Development of a Low-Cost Active RFID
Platform,’’ IEEE 2007 International Symposium on Microwave,
Antenna, Propagation, and EMC Technologies for Wireless
Communications, Hangzhou, 16 August 2007, pp. 152-155.
[12] A. Ashry, K. Sharaf, M. Ibrahim, “A Compact low-power UHF RFID
tag,” Microelectron. J (2009), doi:10.1016/j.mejo.2009.01.013
272
T01_038: AN OVERVIEW ON THE

DEVELOPMENT OF DESIGN AND PROPERTIES
FOR RAIL SUPPORT AND SLEEPER
MATERIALS FOR RAILWAY INDUSTRY
Zuraidah Salleh
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Shah
Alam, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Railway system considered as a complete system when consist all the structure
or components which is wheel (train) rail, sleeper, ballast, sub-ballast and
subgrade on track. The chosen of its particular design and material generally
involves a decision for its life time to hold for 20 to 50 years or above. This
implies that the demands for rail support and sleeper will increase and the need
for reliable material will be extensive in the next future. The development of rail
support materials changed from porcelain, ceramic, aluminum, steel and
nowadays made from glass reinforce plastic (GRP). While sleeper material
started to change from wooden/timber sleeper to concrete, steel, composites and
near the future is hybrid composite sleeper material as the performance, design
application, technology and demand increase with the improvement of railway
system. This paper extensively reviews the development of design and properties
for rail support and sleeper materials for railway industry in Malaysia for better
understanding on its fundamental physical behavior and for engineers to choose
the specific design and materials as time passing depend its application in
particular area and demand. To achieve extraordinary advances in the future,
the transportation industry requires designs and materials that are lighter,
stronger, safer and more affordable than conventional materials.
+
Keywords: Design, Properties, Material, Rail Support, Sleeper.
Introduction
The questions of railway industry have arisen about finding a new design and
material that fully satisfies the strength, durability and economy aspects for
railway sleeper and its rail support. This review will discuss and focusing only
on the rail support and railway sleeper since many people did not notice how
important of this selection part design and material contributed to the successful
operation, maintenance and service of their structure and components. It is
started to developed from time to time to become modern railroad or trains with
the increasing of speed, changing of the compartment, transformation engine
used , and also the changes of design components and materials itself. The rail
transport containing structure or components that are very important to be called
as a complete railway system as referred in Figure 1. Each parts of this structure
and component having its own maintenance and service. For rail support to be
functional, it must be operated at the third rail system. Third rail system is a
method of supplying electric power to a railway train through a semi-continuous
rigid conductor placed alongside or between the rails of a track.
273
Figure 1: Track with the components: rail, rail-pad/fastening (fastening are not
shown in this figure), sleeper, ballast, and subgrade.
This rail support and sleeper is one of the most important components
in railway track system industry [14]. Railway sleeper is called as the beam or
ties laid that underneath the rails to support its track. From the past of years, the
development of railway sleeper materials has been widely discovered and used
gradually as a replacement for old material in the railway industry.
Development of Design, Material and Properties for Rail Support

The invention and development for the improvement of the design and materials
for rail support is meant for supporting the third rail. Live-rail support is used as
supports for bottom contact live rail and the insulator were used as supports for
top contact. With the development of material used nowadays, the mechanical
stability for this material produce high static and dynamic stability, less
susceptible to cracking than ceramic or resin insulators, and good impact
resistance material [15]-[16].
Figure 2: Installation of Rail Support for Third Rail System [11]
Height Adjustable GRP (glass reinforced plastic) Insulators was developed in

partnership with both Network Rail and Transport for London by REHAU that
provides the insulators both for over-ground and tunnel applications. This
Insulator is manufactured in the high-technology tough and chip-resistant GRP
material, outperform the traditional porcelain alternative. Before this
development, the contact rail insulators are made either of porcelain or fiberglass
and being installed at each supporting bracket location as can be seen in Figure
2. The left side picture show the image installation for power rail holder and the
right side show the image for porcelain insulator on track installation [9].
Concept for insulator pots is very simple. The porcelain glazed based is the
actual insulator which is non-conductive to electricity and embedded into the
top which hold the actual rail is a metal bracket [13].
Figure 3: GRP Support for Top Pick-Up Live Rail/Height Adjustable GRP
Insulator [11]
The insulators that produced by glass reinforced plastic (GRP) material are light,
and easy to handle that can improve logistics and reduce installation time. It is
274
very quick and simple to install and give greater strength and increased safety
to the railway system. This insulator was designed with adjustable which can be
adjusted in use without unbolt them or use multiple pads that minimum
disruption to service as shown in Figure 3. This type of insulator were produced
and assemble with low–friction bearing surface with extended dry path that
make it suitable for wet tunnel applications with protected creepage high
electrical insulation [11]. Mostly, the adjustable GRP insulators were used at the
region that possibilities of flood occur. Therefore, the high will be adjusted due
to the increasing water level to keep the track in operation.
Due to the suitability of installation, the material, design and properties of rail
support was changed from time to time as shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Material, design and properties for rail support
Material Designed shape Properties Ref.

Porcelain Act as insulator
-Allow a large diameter
conductors for easy tying [3]
comply with industry
standard
Ceramic Act as insulator

-Provide higher insulation [11]
than steel insulators
Steel Act as insulator

-Designed according to the [4]
track, end plate and
fastening system
Aluminum For bottom pick up live rail

support [11]
-High static and dynamic
stability
Glass For top pick up live rail

Reinforced support [11]
Plastic -Excellent long term
(GRP) behavior
-Can withstand a limited
load even in case of
overload
Development of Railway Sleeper Material

The ongoing track replacement and upgrades being carried out around the world,
then make the sleeper market is huge. Many studies have examined the material
that is being used from traditional timber to ultra-modern hybrid composites
sleeper. Millions of these sleepers are manufactured and distributed every year
to satisfy demand for network expansions and line upgrades worldwide [24]. In
return, the interesting solution such as development within this concerned areas
have been studied and discovered. Another type of sleeper construction such as
wood, steel and concrete is the most common types used in track. However,
plastic, composite and hybrid composite sleeper is presented and being used
nowadays. The main reason why the railway industry need and use a variety of
sleeper materials rather than stick with the only one material is that none of the
existing materials satisfactorily meet all the requirements as a sleeper.
275
Wood/Timber Railway Sleeper

Wood or Timber sleeper is the earliest material used and more than 2.5 billion
timber components have been installed widely around the world because of their
adaptability, excellent dynamic, electrical and sound-insulating properties [7].
Wooden or timber sleeper is the ideal type of sleeper, hence there are universally
used. The utility for this kind of sleeper has not diminished due to the passage
of time. They are cheap and easy to manufacture, easy to handle without damage
and more suitable for all types of ballast. In addition, it can absorb shocks and
vibrations better than other types of sleepers, ideal for track circuited sections
and the fittings are few and simple in design means no complicated assembly
equipment is needed [17]. Due to it lacking and sensitivity to its use around
1880s, an alternative railway sleeper which is steel railway sleeper were
introduced to replace the timber or wooden sleeper. Operators are replacing the
timber with concrete or composites especially in area where sun and damp can
warp or rot the timber [30].
Steel Railway Sleeper Material

Steel railway sleepers are often seen as a middle ground between wood and
concrete. It is sturdier than timber and less expensive than concrete. Indeed, in
some areas steel sleeper are still performing adequately after 50 years of service.
Australia has developed a world reputation in technology related to the design
and performance of steel railway sleepers. Steel sleeper can be interspersed with
the existing track but in a fixed interspersing pattern in order to reduce the
variation in the track geometry and to prevent the early in service failure of
sleepers. However, steel sleepers only being used on more lightly travelled
tracks and regarded as suitable only where speeds are 160 km/h or less [3]. The
advantages of using steel sleepers is it more durable and lesser damage during
time handling and transport, it is not susceptible to vermin attack and fire and
its scrap value is very good [28]. It also settled a greater amount of rail
deflections under imposed vehicle track loading.
Concrete Railway Sleeper Material

Concrete sleepers have become widely and successfully accepted for railway
sleeper usage especially in high speed lines. Although concrete sleepers have
captured only a small fraction of the market in the US, but in Europe and Japan
where the transport is arguably a higher priority, concrete sleepers have been
gaining ground since the end of World War II [26]. In Australia, concrete is used
for most railway sleepers, and in the UK, rail operator Network Rail replaces
200,000 wooden sleepers with concrete ones every year [26]. Their technical
advantages and economic are the results for longer life cycles and lower
maintenance costs for this type of sleepers [29]. The concrete assure optimal
position permanence and stability installation even for traffic at high speeds with
their great weight [23]. The developments of concrete sleepers enable us to use
faster and heavier trains and help to compensate the excess cost of reinforcement
[20]. In addition, many concrete sleepers nowadays have been developed and
become standard in the railway tracks system and already successfully tested
with other material such as rubber-concrete sleeper [1]-[25].
Composite Railway Sleeper Material

Composite demonstrate the material for the future generation sleeper. The global
market for composites is rapidly increases because of the main advantages
including high strength to weight ratio, excellent resistance again corrosion,
moisture and insects, thermal and electrical non-conductivity [5]. This kind of
material can be engineered according to the specific requirements for railway
sleepers [2]. The composite sleeper can be a suitable alternative material for
existing concrete, steel, timber ones in both mainline and heavy haul rail
276
networks [18]-[27]. The usage of composite materials in concrete beams, the

field of concrete reinforcement was encountered to a new development. The
composition of composite and concrete will remove the weakness of concrete
sleeper under tension and also bring the great effects in development of both
materials. By using of two types of composite materials such as glass/epoxy and
carbon/epoxy, it is used to improve the capacity of load for concrete sleepers
[6].
Recycle Plastic Composite Sleeper Material

Sleeper produced by using recycled materials are of interest, recently. By
recycling plastic waste, considerable amount of money can be kept from ending
up in the landfills. As composite sleeper are strong, durable and reliable, they
require less maintenance and have longer life than common railroad sleeper.
Therefore, they are excellent, cost effective and long-term solution. In 2002,
recycled plastic composite sleeper manufactured from recycled plastic bottles
combined with glass fiber reinforcement were introduce in the USA as
replacements for old sleepers and their performances in real tracks now are being
tested [10]-[21].
Hybrid Composite Sleeper Material

Hybrid composite materials are composites containing of two constituents or
two different reinforcement fibers or other structural components at the
nanometer or molecular level. Commonly one of these compounds is inorganic
and the other one organic in nature. This technique has still developed and
continuously improved by time passes. Hybrid structures to be obtained by
combination of composites and traditional materials such as wood-bamboo [22]
exhibited satisfactory properties which make them also an alternative [19].
Moreover, the use of hybrid composite material reduced both energy
consumption and operating costs which is why they are increasingly being used
in the Railway Industry worldwide. It also can be called as the material of the
future since many researcher and engineer starting and ongoing to explore
further this kind of sleeper.
Currently, there are experiments and research a lot with previous types
of railway sleepers as referred in Table 2 that shows the comparison between
sleeper types. It can observe that the hybrid composite sleepers respond very
well to the properties requirements as compare with other types of sleeper [3].
Over 1,000 kilometers of railway lines, by using hybrid composite sleeper
material, were made to the same dimensions as the wooden sleeper are tested
successfully for 25 years in main lines, bridges, tunnel, switching and crossing,
almost of them in Japan [8].
Table 2: Comparison between Railway Sleeper Types
Properties Wood/ Steel Concrete Composite Hybrid

timber (recycle composite
plastic)
Durability small small high high high
Adaptability easy difficult difficult easy easy
Workability easy difficult difficult easy easy
Availability small Very big high medium medium
Maintenance high high small small small
Replacement easy difficult difficult easy easy
Fastening good bad Very good good good
Impact Very good medium small small small
277
Electrical small high medium small small

conductivity
Handling and easy difficult difficult easy easy
Installation
Sleeper- Very good bad Very good Very good Very good
ballast
interaction
Weight, kg 60-70 70-80 285 80 80
Life span 20-30 50 60 50 60
years
Conclusions
The widespread deterioration of most sleepers and declining supply of good
quality for replacement sleepers results the railway industries to relying on the
alternative materials for replacement of sleeper and rail support as well to
maintain its functionality of structure during its service life. Engineers nowadays
are pursuing these ideal parameters by increasing precision in both design and
manufacture to achieve greater uniformity and predictability in material
performance where the performance improvements are significant.
Development up-to date suggest further research on such alternative materials
with regard to their advantages compares to existing railway sleepers. With this
development using the changes design and new material component for railway
system, it can be an alternative solution to replace the existing components
depending on the suitability during installation for railway industry.
References
[1] A. Manolo and T. Aravinthan,“A review of alternative materials for
replacing existing timber sleepers,”Composite structures 92(1), 603-611
(2010).
[2] Van Erp and G. Mckay, “Australian developments in fibre composite
railway sleepers,” Electr J Struct Eng 13 (1), 62–66 (2013).
[3] Kish A, Samavedam G and D. Wormley, “Fundamental of track lateral
shift for high-speed rail applications,” Proceedings of the European Rail
Research Institute’s Interactive Paris, France, December 8-9, 1998.
[4] Kaewunruen S. “Sleepers and fastenings-track design fundamentals,”
Rail Engineering Course, Rail Corporation, 2010.
[5] Ganga Rao HVS, Taly N and Vijay PV, “Reinforced concrete design
with FRP composites,” CRC Press, 2007.
[6] Tsai SW and Thomas Hahn, “Introduction to composite materials,”
USA Technical Publication, 1980.
[7] “History and development of the wooden sleeper,” CH-2855, Glovelier:
Ets Rothlisberger SA, 2014.
[8] “Synthetic Sleeper I Railway Technology,” SEKISUI Chemical Co, Ltd,
2014.
[9] US Department of Transportation “Tunnel Construction And System,”
FHWA,Washington, DC, 2005.
[10] R. G. Lampo “Recycled plastic composite railroad crossties,”7 January,
2014.
[11] “REHAU Unlimited Polymer Solutions”, Rehau, German, 2015.
[12] Railway track and structures January 2008.
[13] C.Banks, W, U.S. Patent No.1, 984,245 (1934).
[14] Schmid, E. S, East Williston, New York. Patent No. 2,502,756 (1950).
[15] Donaldson, R. W, Ohio, New Jersey. Patent No. 3,071,656
(1963).
[16] H. Decker,W, Skaneateles, New York. Patent No. 1,264,616 (1918).

[17] S.H.Hamzah and K.Din,“Appraisal of used wooden railway
278
sleeper,”Journal of Engineering Science and Technology 3(3), 224-233

(2008).
[18] W. Ferdous, A.Manolo, T.Aravinthan and G.V.Erp “Composite railway
sleepers: new developments and opportunities,”IHHA 2015
Conference, Perth, Australia, June 21-24, 2015.
[19] A. Manolo and T. Aravinthan, “Mechanical behaviour of a new type of
fibre composite railway sleeper,”APFIS 2012, Hokkaido University,
Japan, February 2-4, 2012.
[20] J. Taherinezhad, M. Sofi, P.A. Mendis and T. Ngo, “A review of
behaviour of prestressed concrete sleepers,”Electronic Journal of
Structural Engineering 13(1) 2013.
[21] C.Jain, S.Khandelwal, S.Mehrotra and R.Gupta, “A review paper on use
of composite material for railway sleepers in railway track,”SSRG
International Journal of Civil Engineering 3(1) May 2016.
[22] S.Xiao, H.Lin, S.Q.Shi and L.Cai, “Optimum processing parameters for
wood-bamboo hybrid composite sleepers,”Journal of Reinforced Plastic
and Composites 33(21), 2010-2018 (2014).
[23] C.G.Nicieza, M.I.Alvarez-Fernandez and A.Menendez-Diaz, “Failure
analysis of concrete sleepers in heavy haul railway tracks,”Engineering
Failure Analysis 15(1), 90-117 (2008).
[24] W.Ferdous and A. Manolo, “Failures of mainline railway sleepers and
suggested remedies-review of current practice,” Engineering Failure
Analysis 44(1),17-35 (2014).
[25] Afia S.Hameed and A.P.Shashikala, “Suitability of rubber concrete for
railway sleepers,”Perspectives in Science 8(2), 32-35 (2016).
[26] O.Kerokoski, A.Nurmikolu, T.Rantala and V.Lilja, “Structural
behaviour and failure mechanisms of concrete monoblock railway
sleeper,”World Congress Railway Research, Lille, May 22-26, 2011.
[27] Shokrieh M M, Rahmat M, “On the reinforcement of concrete sleepers
by composite materials,”Composite Structures 76(1), 326–337 (2006).
[28] Rantala, T, “Damage mechanisms of a steel sleeper,”Master of Science
Thesis,Tampere University of Technology, 2011.
[29] Mohammad S and Vahabi E, “Time-dependent reliability analysis of
pre-stressed concrete sleeper subject to deterioration,”Engineering
Failure Analysis 18(2), 421-432 (2011).
[30] Susi P, Aktuganov G, Himanen J, Korpela T, “Biological control of
wood decay against fungal infection,”Journal Environmental Manage
92(1), 1681–1689 (2011).
1 December 2016
T01_039: GRAPHITIC CARBON NITRIDE

MODIFIED TITANIUM DIOXIDE (G-C3N4@TIO2)
FOR IMPROVED PHOTOREDUCTION OF CO2
TO METHANOL UNDER UV LIGHT
David Oluwatobi Adekoya
David Oluwatobi Adekoya
Nur Umisyuhada Mohd Nor
Nor Aishah Saidina Amin*
Chemical Reaction Engineering Group
Faculty of Chemical and Energy Engineering
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
81310 UTM Johor Bahru
Johor
ABSTRACT
Graphitic carbon nitride modified with titanium dioxide nanocomposite was

synthesized by chemical precipitation method for selective photoreduction of
CO2 to methanol under UV light. The synthesized catalysts were characterized
using X-ray diffraction and photoluminescence. The XRD spectra identified all
characteristic peaks of g-C3N4 and TiO2 in the nanocomposite. The
nanocomposite, g-C3N4/TiO2, conferred the lowest recombination rate. The
highest yield of methanol was obtained when the ratio of each constituent in the
composite was 50:50. The yield of methanol, while using the 50:50 composite,
was found to be ten times of that obtained with pure TiO2. The improvement in
the yield of methanol can be traced to the synergistic relationship between g-
C3N4 and TiO2 for superior photoactivity.
Keywords: Graphitic carbon nitride, composite, methanol, photoreduction, UV

light.
Introduction
Two sources of energy that have proven sustainable and green are solar and wind
but of the two, solar can be considered the most reliable. Photocatalysis is one
of the off-shoots of solar energy deployment and photoreduction of CO 2 to
hydrocarbon fuels is one of the applications of photocatalysis. It is symbolic of
the photosynthetic process in that it focuses on producing hydrocarbon fuels
from the photoreaction between a semiconductor (the photocatalyst), CO 2 (the
feed), a reductant (the reaction medium) and a light source (artificial source of
solar energy) [1].
TiO2 remains the most reliable of all photocatalysts but despite its many
advantages, TiO2 is still limited as a result of its wide band gap of 3.2 eV and
the fact that it is only active in the UV region when it is in bare TiO2. Modifying
TiO by methods such as doping (metal and non-metal), co-doping, synthesis of
composites and sensitization (dye and quantum dots) could overcome the
limitation [1]. Although these methods of modification have been effective in
one application or the other, modification by synthesis of composites is gaining
ground. Combination of TiO2 and other wide band gap semiconductors with
narrow band gap semiconductors such as g-C3N4 is one way by which
photocatalysts with improved activity can be synthesized [2]. Graphitic carbon
nitride is photochemically stable, easy to prepare and can be produced from
natural precursors such as urea. It has a medium band gap of 2.7 eV and a
relatively high CB (conduction band) of -1.12 eV.
280
The main challenge experienced by most semiconductor photocatalysts

is the rapid recombination rate which means the rate at which their electron hole
pairs recombine after photoexcitation. This paper focuses on the synthesis of a
g-C3N4/TiO2 composite for photoreduction of CO2 to methanol under UV light
irradiation. The composites with different ratios of g-C3N4:TiO2 (30:70, 50:50
and 70:30) were prepared by chemical precipitation method while g-C3N4 was
synthesized by a simple calcination method. From the characterization and
activity results, the insights about the electrons mobility and oxidation/reduction
reactions can be elucidated.
Experimental
Catalyst Preparation
The graphitic carbon nitride was prepared by calcination of melamine as the
precursor. Typically, 5 g of Sigma Aldrich AR ≥99% melamine was measured
into a crucible, calcined at 550 °C in a furnace for 3 h and washed in 0.1 mol/L
Sigma Aldrich AR grade HNO3 and distilled water. After the calcination and
washing process, the sample was oven dried for 12 h at 70 °C [3]. The titanium
dioxide anatase nanoparticle used was commercially obtained from Sigma
Aldrich and was >99% trace metal basis. The g-C3N4/TiO2 composite was
prepared by a chemical precipitation method. 2 g of g-C3N4 and 2 g of anatase
TiO2 nanoparticle was dispersed in 70 mL of methanol (Merck, 99 % purity
Absolute). The solution was stirred for 24 h with a magnetic stirrer. After
centrifugation, the mixture was dried in an oven at 80 °C for 12 h after which it
was calcined at 400 °C and a heating rate of 5 °C min−1 for 1 h. The g-C3N4/TiO2
nanocomposite of 50:50 ratio was obtained based on the ratio of each constituent
used. Preparation of other the composite ratios were achieved by varying the
weight percent of the constituents (g-C3N4 and TiO2) [4].
Catalyst Characterization
Determination of the crystallinity of the synthesized catalysts was accomplished
using X-ray diffraction (XRD) recorded on a powder diffractometer (Bruker
Advance D8, 40 kV, 40 mA). The radiation source was Cu Kα in the 2θ range
of 5-80 ° while the step size was 0.05 ° based on a counting time of 5 s. A Perkin
Elmer LS 55 Luminescence Spectrophotometer was used to measure their rate
of photoluminescence (PL) to determine the rate of recombination of electron-
hole pairs in the synthesized catalysts.
Photocatalytic experiment
Photoreduction of carbon dioxide to methanol was carried out in a 1 L slurry
type custom made photoreactor secured in a black casing (to shield operator
from light rays) and equipped with a 365 nm UV mercury lamp (UVP Pen ray).
A measured quantity of the catalyst powder was s dispersed into the reaction
medium. For the photoreduction process, 400 ml of NaOH was measured as the
reaction medium while 0.2 g of each catalyst was added to it. Before the actual
photoreduction takes place, ultrapure CO2 was passed into the NaOH at a flow
rate of 20 ml/min for 30 min. After full absorption of CO2 for 30 min, the light
and the stirrer were turned on to initiate the photoreduction process for 2 h. Next,
the liquid sample was collected using a syringe and filtered with a 0.45μ filter
before the sample was injected into the GC-FID (DB-WAX column). The yield
of methanol was determined by using an external standard (99 % purity absolute
methanol, Merck) using a calibration curve.

Characterization of Photocatalysts
The crystalline nature of the synthesized catalyst samples can be seen from the
XRD spectra shown in Figure 1. Characteristic peaks of titanium dioxide are
281
found at 25.1 °, 37.6 °, 48 °, 55 °, 62.6 °, 68.7 ° and 70.3 ° and these are related
to the (101), (004), (200), (105), (204), (220), and (215) planes respectively.
These peaks are significant representations of the anatase form of titanium
dioxide while 37.5 °, 38 ° and 53.8 ° are peaks identifiable with rutile form of
titanium dioxide.
The XRD peaks located at 13 ° and 27 ° are a confirmation that the
thermal decomposition of melamine yielded carbon nitride [4]. The peak at 27.3
° assigned to plane (002) represents the interlayer stacked conjugated aromatic
system and the peak at 13 ° listed at plane (100) symbolizes the intra-planar
structural packing of the aromatic system. The peaks at 13 ° and 27 ° are in
agreement with that obtained in previous literature and [3] and with data from
JCPDS card no: 86-1156.
Figure. 2 shows the PL spectra of the synthesized catalysts and helps
in identifying the one with the lowest recombination rate. As a standard rule,
rate of electron hole pair recombination is a function of the intensity of a material
in the PL spectra [5]. This means the material with the lowest intensity in the PL
spectra is the one with the lowest electron hole pair recombination rate and is
hence most suitable for photoreduction of CO2 in this application. Considering
Figure 2, it is evident that the catalyst sample with the lowest intensity is the g-
C3N4/TiO2 (50:50) composite while bare TiO2 has the highest intensity.
TiO2
1000 TiO2
3.5 g-C3N4
g-C3N4
30:70
800 g-C3N4/TiO2
50:50
Intensity (a.u.)
3.0
Intensity (a.u.)
70:30
600
2.5
400
2.0
200
1.5 0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 475 480 485 490 495 500
2 (degrees) Wavelength
Figure 1: XRD patterns of TiO2, g-C3N4, Figure 2: Photoluminescence spectra of
and g-C3N4/TiO2 of different ratios. TiO2, g-C3N4 and g-C3N4/ TiO2
Performance of
photocatalysts
Figure 3 gives an assessment of the photocatalytic activity of the catalysts in the
photoreduction of CO2. Considering the result shown in Figure 3, it can be said
that the composite catalyst was more effective in the photoreduction of CO 2 to
methanol and the 50:50 ratio of the composite specifically gave the optimum
yield of methanol. The yield of methanol obtained while using g-C3N4 was
higher than that of TiO2 and this can be traced to the band gap of both catalysts.
Although bare g-C3N4 is known to be a visible light responsive (VLR)
photocatalyst [2] it is also active in the UV region. Apart from the issue of light
irradiation, it is known that g-C3N4 has a medium band gap of 2.7 eV [2]
compared to TiO2 which has a wide band gap of 3.2 eV . This difference in band
gap makes it easy for photoexcitation of electrons from the valence band (VB)
of g-C3N4 to migrate to the CB [4].
As seen in Figure 3, the g-C3N4/TiO2 composites record a higher yield of
methanol than the other two parent catalysts due to the synergistic relationship
between the constituents. It is worthy to note that the band engineering of g-
C3N4 allows easy hybridization with other wide band gap semiconductors [3].
Graphitic carbon nitride has a medium band gap of 2.7 eV and a relatively high
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CB of -1.12 eV. This means it allows photoexcited electrons from its CB to

easily transfer to the other semiconductors like TiO2. Since its CB value is more
negative than that of TiO2, its photogenerated electrons have greater tendency to
photoreduce CO2 to CH3OH [6]. Due to these advantages that g-C3N4 has,
combining it with TiO2 creates a composite, which possess the uniqueness of
both constituents thereby deploying their outstanding properties.
From the results obtained in Figure 3, the yield of methanol from the
process was also dictated by the ratio of each constituent in the composite. This
is expected because a case of excess loading of one constituent may result in
blockage of the active site in the other catalyst thereby reducing its ability to
perform effectively. Also, since the light used is UV and g-C3N4 is essentially a
visible light active catalyst (though it is also active in the UV region), increasing
its quantity more than that of TiO2 as in the case of 70:30 ratio will only cause
a sharp decline in yield of methanol. Conversely, higher quantity of TiO 2 (as in
the case of 30:70 ratio) because it is a more UV active photocatalyst, will only
results in a fairly higher methanol yield. The 50:50 ratio seems to be a balanced
proportion for effective CO2 photoreduction. The yield of methanol started to
decline for the 70:30 ratio because g-C3N4 is essentially a visible light catalyst
hence it is not very active under UV light therefore making it 70 wt.% and TiO2
30 wt.% limits the light absorption and utilization of the composite (g-
C3N4/TiO2).
Yield of Methanol in mole/gcat.
1000
800
600
400
200
0
TiO2 g-C3N4 30:70 50:50 70:30
Catalysts
Figure 3: Yield of MeOH for all catalysts under UV light irradiation over a 2 h
irradiation time.
Conclusion
A g-C3N4/TiO2 nanocomposite with lower recombination rate and higher yield

of methanol was synthesized by chemical precipitation method. The synergy and
lower recombination rate of electron hole pairs in the composite was responsible
for the higher yield of methanol. The ratio 50:50 of both constituents in the
composite resulted in a methanol yield that was ten times that obtained using
bare TiO2. This work shows the benefits of synthesizing composite
photocatalyst for photoreduction of CO2 to hydrocarbon fuels.
Acknowledgement
This work is supported by Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) Malaysia

through Nanomite Long Term Research Grant Scheme (LRGS) No.
R.J130000.7844.4L839.
References
283
[1] M. Tahir, N.S. Amin, "Advances in visible light responsive titanium oxide-
based photocatalysts for CO2 conversion to hydrocarbon fuels," Energy
Convers. Manage., (76), 194-214 (2013).
[2] Z. Zhao, Y. Sun, F. Dong, "Graphitic carbon nitride based
nanocomposites: a review," Nanoscale, (7), 15-37 (2015).
[3] A.O. David, M. Tahir, N.A.S. Amin, "Copper modified TiO2 and g-C3N4
catalysts for photoreduction of CO2 to methanol using different reaction
mediums," Mal. J. Fund. Appl. Sci., 11 (2015).
[4] B. Chai, T. Peng, J. Mao, K. Li, L. Zan, "Graphitic carbon nitride (g-
C3N4)-Pt-TiO2 nanocomposite as an efficient photocatalyst for hydrogen
production under visible light irradiation," Phys Chem Chem Phys, (14)
16745-16752 (2012).
[5] J. Wang, W.-D. Zhang, "Modification of TiO2 nanorod arrays by graphite-
like C3N4 with high visible light photoelectrochemical activity,"
Electrochim. Acta, (71), 10-16 (2012).
[6] Y. He, Y. Wang, L. Zhang, B. Teng, M. Fan, "High-efficiency conversion
of CO2 to fuel over ZnO/g-C3N4 photocatalyst," Appl. Catal., B, (1-8), 168-
169 (2015).
1 December 2016
T01_040: AN INTEGRATION OF FIVE

SELECTION STRATEGIES FOR SELECTING
CANDIDATE ATTRIBUTES AND TUPLES IN
DATABASE WATERMARKING
Abd. S. Alfagi, A. Abd. Manaf
Advanced Informatics School Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Selecting candidate attributes and tuples for either embedding or generating

the watermark information from database relation is a significant factor
which may positively or negatively affects the tradeoff between the digital
watermark requirements. Although there are many options for selecting the
candidate attributes and tuples, however most of existing database
watermarking schemes use only one selection strategy for selecting
candidate attributes and tuples. In this paper the authors present a method
of integrating five selection strategies for selecting the candidate attributes
and tuples for database watermarking schemes. The most significant
objectives for integrating some of selection strategies are to satisfy one of
most important watermark requirement, which is Key-Based system. In
addition, to have flexible options for selecting candidate attributes and
tuples as well as to make the scheme suitable for different databases. the
experimental results show that database watermarking scheme is able to
authenticate the database relation after four different attacks with different
attack percent rates when different selection strategies used. In addition, the
scheme satisfies one of the main requirement of digital watermark, which is
a Key-Based System.
Keywords: Selection Strategy and Database Watermarking.
Introduction
Digital watermark considered a significant solution for many security issues
including ownership, protecting copyright, fingerprinting data, and
authenticating digital contents [1-3]. Recently, the researchers’ community
have expanded the application of digital watermark to be an effective solution
for protecting database relations as well. According to [4] and [5] database
watermarking schemes can be categorized into distortion based and distortion
free. Regardless whether the watermarking schemes are a distortion based or
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distortion free, in this paper the focusing is on the strategies of selecting the
candidate attributes and tuples. Attributes and tuples selection strategy is
referring to the method of selecting the candidate attributes (carrier) and the
candidate tuples (embedding location) for generating the watermark bits or
embedding the watermark bits. Different common methods for selecting
attributes and tuples have been reviewed and listed in this paper include;
arbitrary attributes and tuples selection method (Arbitrary), selecting all
attributes or all tuples (All), select attributes and tuples based on secure hash
function (SHF) or pseudo-random sequence generator (PRSG), partitioning
attributes and tuples into group (Partitioning), or select candidate attributes
and tuples based on the weight of attribute or the weight of tuples (Weighted
based), or select attributes and tuples based on their properties (Property).
Attributes and tuples selection method can significantly weaken or enhance
the tradeoff between the key requirements of digital watermark such as Key-
Based system and flexibility of watermarking databases with different size.
For instance, [4] proposed a database watermarking scheme based on
selecting all attribute and tuples (All) without applying the key-based system
in selecting the candidate attributes and tuples. Consequently, generating the
same watermark for the purposes of ownership claim is possible. Add to that,
selecting all attributes and tuples in a huge database relation to be
watermarked considered inefficient and not required. Furthermore, selecting
all attributes and tuples may not achieve high fragility. Therefore, in this
paper, the authors proposed a method for integrating five selection strategies
using a switch case statement. The significant objective for integrating five
selection strategies is to enhance the tradeoff between the key requirements
of digital watermark such as key-based system. In addition, integrating five
selection strategies aimed to make the watermarking schemes have more
flexibility in the method of selecting candidate attributes and tuples.
Related work
In this section, the authors followed the systematic literature review SLR
guidelines as in [6] in reviewing (51) recent database watermarking schemes
to shortly explain how each strategy work, statistically highlight the most
common selection strategies, discuss the current schemes in term of the
methods of selecting the candidate attributes and tuples, and to evidently
justify the need of integrating five selection strategies. To the best of our
knowledge most of existing database watermarking schemes select the
candidate attributes and tuples based on one of the following selection
strategies:
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1. Arbitrary: in this selectin strategy, an arbitrary attributes and tuples are

selected for generating or embedding the watermark bits. In this strategy,
the attributes(s) for watermarking is/are arbitrarily chosen by the data
owner or algorithmically whereas tuples are randomly selected. In some
cases of arbitrary selection, a subset of attributes and tuples are selected
by the data owner. For example, [7] an arbitrary selected number of
attributes and tuples for embedding the watermark bits.
2. All: in this selectin strategy all attributes or all tuples are selected to be
used for generating or embedding the watermark. For example, [4]
selected all attributes and tuples in generating the watermark.
3. SHF based: in this selectin strategy a secure hash function (SHF) is used
to select the candidate attributes and tuples for generating or embedding
the watermark. For example, [8] hashed the primary key of each tuple or
attributes’ name with concatenation of secret key to determine which
attributes and tuples will be selected for embedding the watermark.
4. PRSG based: in this selectin strategy a pseudo-random sequence
generator (PRSG) is used to select the candidate attributes and tuples for
generating or embedding the watermark. For example, [9] uses seeded
random sequence generator for generating unpredictable sequence of
numbers and then based on these sequence the tuples are determined.
5. Partitioning: in this selectin strategy all tuples are partitioned into groups.
For example, [10] partitioned the tuples horizontally into group based on
the categorical attribute then each partition assigned to embed one or
many bit(s) of the watermark.
6. Weighted based: in this selectin strategy the selection of the attributes or
the tuples are based on the weights’ of attribute or the weights’ of tuples.
For example, [11] weighted the hash value of attributes name and based
on the weight a decision will be taken to include or exclude that attribute.
7. Property: in this selectin strategy the selection is based on some particular
properties of attribute. For example, [12] selected attributes that have
multi words only. Whereas [13] determined the population size then
based on the property of population the attributes will be selected.
However, this selection strategy does not meet the key-based criteria
whereby anyone know the method can do the same.
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A statistical analysis has been conducted on five selection strategies;

Arbitrary, All, SHF, PRSG and Partitioning to statically highlight the most
common one. A column chart has been drawn as shown in Figure 7. Based
on the Figure, most studied watermarking schemes (32%) use an arbitrary
strategy for selecting candidate attributes and tuples. In contrast, the strategy
Figure 7: Statistical analysis for Common Selection Strategies
of selecting All attributes and tuples recoded the lowest percentage (10%)
among others. Whereas SHF, PRSG and Partitioning have almost similar
percent rate 14% and 16% respectively. However, in the studied
watermarking schemes, only one selection strategy was used to select the
candidate attributes (carrier) or to select the tuples (embedding location).
As each coin has two sides, the selection strategies have both pros and cons.
On one hand, using only one selection strategy to identify the candidate
attributes and tuples can dramatically tradeoff between the key requirements
of digital watermark such as selecting all attributes and tuples provide a high
embedding capacity especially for embedding few information in large
number of tuples. On the other hand, using only one selection strategy
probably weaken the security of the embedding location such as using an
arbitrary or All attributes and tuples. For example, [12] proposed copyright
database watermarking scheme by targeting certain attributes of an arbitrary
selected subset of tuples to be watermarked. Firstly, the image is transformed
into bits then the bits are segmented into short binary strings to be encoded in
multi-word attributes. At the embedding process, each short string is
converted to its equivalent decimal value then a double-space will be created
at location determined by the decimal value. By its very nature, if the number
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of words in the selected tuple is less than the decimal value consequently the
watermarking process could potentially fail due to lack of bandwidth. Besides
that, there is no security achieved in such scheme since any simple tool (e.g.
spelling check) may delete the whole watermark. however, the proposed
scheme by [12] is constrained by the method of selecting candidate attributes
and tuples, therefore this scheme could not be used for watermarking small
size of database relation because arbitrary select candidate attributes and
tuples from small size relation will produce few embedding locations. Yet
another example, [4] proposed distortion-free relational database
watermarking scheme by considered all attributes and tuples of the database
relation in generating a fragile watermark. Then the generated watermark is
registered at certification authority. The security of Khan and Husain scheme
is based on encrypting the watermark before registration. However, if the
attacker knows the algorithm he/she could generate the same watermark for
the purposes of ownership claim. Besides that, selecting all attributes and
tuples from a huge database relation to be watermarked considered inefficient
and not required. Also, selecting all attributes and tuples may yield large
information such as [15] and [10] where a fixed number of most significant
bits (MSBs) and least significant bits (LSBs) of the selected partition are used
for generating a gray scale image as a watermark of that particular partition.
Consequently, the size of the generated image is depending on the size of that
partition.
Overall, selection strategy is an important factor for achieving better tradeoff
between the key requirements of digital watermark. Though there are several
common selection strategies for selecting candidate attributes and tuples, but
the watermarking schemes are limited to have one method so they weaken
the tradeoff between the key requirements of digital watermark such as Key-
Based system and flexibility of watermarking databases with different size.
Therefore, having different selection strategy options in one scheme
overcome the limitation of constraining the watermarking scheme for
generating watermark from all attributes tuples without secure selection as in
[4] or arbitrary attributes tuples as in [12]. In addition, it overcome the issue
of generating large size of information as in [10, 15].
The proposed method for integrating five Selection Strategies
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In this section, the proposed method of integrating five selection strategies

namely; All, Arbitrary, SHF, PRSG and Partitioning is explained. In addition,
the subsections explant with example each option. During watermarking
process, the proposed method displays a dialog box that displays a menu with
Figure 9: A Displayed Menu of Five Selection Strategies Options
MyChoice = Display a menu as push button

With five Selection Options
Switch MyChoice
Case Option1 % Option1:= Securely select
All Attributes and Tuples
Execute Algorithm 1
Case Option2 % Option2:= Arbitrary
Attributes And Tuples will be
selected
Execute Algorithm 2
Case Option3 % Option3:= Attributes and
Tuples will be selected
based on SHF
Execute Algorithm 3
Case Option4 % Option4:= Attributes
and
Tuples will be selected
based on PRSG
Execute Algorithm 4
Case Option5 % Option5:= Attributes
and
Tuples will be partitioned
Execute Algorithm 5
Otherwise
% If no condition is true
(a) The Flowchart of the Switch case (b) The Switch Case Structure
Figure 8: (a) The Flowchart of the switch case (b) The Structure for integrating five selection
strategy options
five selection strategies options as a push buttons as shown in Figure 9 in
order to easily select one of them.
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Each selection strategy option has its own algorithm. A switch case statement
is used to control the execution flow of the algorithms and allowing to only
the algorithm of selected strategy option to be executed. Each push button as
shown in above figure will run only one algorithm. The flowchart and the
switch case structure that used to perform the secure attributes and tuples
selection strategy is shown in Figure 8 (a) and (b) respectively.
Securely Select All Attributes and Tuples (Option 1)

This option is used to select all attributes and tuples in a secure way. When
the push button of this option is selected the switch case executes Algorithm
1. This algorithm requires two main inputs; the database relation to be
watermarked and two integer numbers denoted as K1 and K2. Both K1 and
K2 considered as secret parameters that known to the database owners only.
The pseudocode of Algorithm 1 is presented in Algorithm 1 followed by an
explanation on how algorithm 1 selects all attributes and tuples in secure way.
At line 1-3, used to inputting the required information which are the desired
database relation to be watermarked as well as K1 and K2. Line 5 shows the
(1) Input : Selected DB to be watermarked (DBR)

(2) : Integer K1 for secure shift of DBR columns
(3) : Integer K2 for secure shift of DBR rows
(4) Output : All attributes and Tuples in secure manner
(5) Secure_Candidatae_Attributes_Tuples=circshif(DBR,[K1,K2])
(6) Return Secure_Candidatae_Attributes_Tuples
Algorithm 1: which Securely Select all Attributes and Tuples
circular shift function circshift, which is used to circularly shifts the rows of
the DBR by K1 positions along K2 dimensions. K1 represents the shift
amount of array’s rows, which shifts rows down (if the K1 is positive integer),
or up (if the K1 is negative integer). Whereas K2 is the dimension to operate
along. Thus, this algorithm provides secure strategy to select all attributes and
tuples securely.
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An example for visualizing the input and the output of Algorithm 1 is shown
in Figure 10. Noticeably, the rows’ order is changed. The change of rows’
order was based on the circshift function which is controlled by two secret
parameters K1 and K2.

(2) : Integer int1 for specify number columns to be used
(3) : Integer int2 for specify number rows to be used
(4) Output : Arbitrary attributes and Tuples
(5) Read int1, int2
(6) If int1 › 0 And ≤ v Then %where v is the number of attributes
(7) If int2 › 0 And ≤ n Then %where n is the number of Tuples
(8) Secure_Candidatae_Attributes_Tuples= DBR(1:int2,1:int1)
(9) End if
(10) End if
Algorithm 1
Algorithm 2: Select Specific Number of Attributes and Tuples
Figure 10: An Example on The Input and The Output of Algorithm 1.

1.3.1 Arbitrary Select Specific Number of Attributes and Tuples
(Option 2)
This option is used to arbitrary select specific number of attributes and tuples
from the database relation to be used as a candidate attributes and tuples for
generating the watermark. When the push button of this option is selected,
the switch case executes Algorithm 2, which requires two main inputs; the
database relation to be watermarked and the number of candidate attributes
and tuples which specified by entering two integer values (int1 and int2). It
is to be noted that both int1 and int2 considered as secret parameters that
known to the database owners only. The pseudocode is of algorithm is
presented in Algorithm 2. At line, 1-3 the DBR, int1, and int2 are inputted to
the algorithm. When the inputted int1 and int2 are less than or equal to the
number of attributes v and number of tuples n respectively, then line 8 selects
all columns from 1 to int1 and all rows from 1 to int2. The obtained columns
and rows is a subset of DBR which is returned as the candidate attributes and
tuples.
For example, consider the matrix shown below is the selected database
relation to be watermarked DBR where T represents the tuples, n represent
the number of tuples inside DBR, PK is the primary key attribute, A is the
attributes, x is the value, and v is the number of attributes in the DBR.
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𝐷𝐵𝑅 =
𝑃𝐾 𝐴1 𝐴2 … … … 𝐴𝑛𝑣 𝑃𝐾 𝐴1 𝐴2 … … … 𝐴𝑛
𝑇1 𝑥 𝑥1,1 𝑥1,2 … … … 𝑥1,𝑣 𝑇1 𝑣 𝑣1,1 𝑣1,2 … … … 𝑣1,𝑛
𝑥 𝑥2,1 𝑥2,2 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑇2
𝑇2
… … … …
…
…………… 𝑥…2,𝑣 … …𝑣 𝑣2,1 𝑣2,2 …
… … …… … …
… … 𝑣2,𝑛
𝑇𝑛 ( 𝑥𝑛 𝑥𝑛,1 𝑥𝑛,2 … … … 𝑥𝑛,𝑣 𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑡2 (𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑡2 𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑡2,1 𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑡2,2 … … … 𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑡2,𝑖𝑛𝑡1
) )
The output matrix is a result of Algorithm 2 after specify int1<v and int2<n.
Thus, the candidate attributes and tuples are securely selected form DBR
based on two secret parameters that known to the database owner only.
Select Tuples Based on SHF (Option 3)

This option is used to securely select specific number of attributes and tuples
from the database relation to be used for generating the watermark. The
selection strategy of this option is based on Secure Hash Function SHF,
known as cryptographic hash function which is used to compute a hash value
or a message authentication code MAC for tuples’ primary key concatenated
with secret key. Several hash functions algorithms such as MD5, SH-1, or
SH-2 can be used to compute MAC with different equation forms [16]. In this
research, the chosen algorithm to compute MAC value is MD5 algorithm also
called Message Digest 5 with the equation form 𝑇𝑖 . 𝑀𝐴𝐶 = ℋ(𝑇𝑖 . 𝑃𝐾||𝑆𝐾 )

(2) : Secret Key SK to be concatenated with tuples’ primary key
(3) : Integer m to controls number of tuples
(4) Output : Secure_Candidatae_Attributes_Tuples
(5) For each Tuple T € DBR Do
(6) % Concatenate tuple’s primary key 𝑇𝑖 . 𝑀𝐴𝐶 with secret key SK
(7) % Compute MAC value using Message Digest 5
(8) 𝑇𝑖 . 𝑀𝐴𝐶 = ℋ(𝑇𝑖 . 𝑃𝐾||𝑆𝐾 )
(9) % Compute mod of 𝑇𝑖 . 𝑀𝐴𝐶 when divided by m
(10) 𝑅𝑒𝑚(𝑖) = 𝒎𝒐𝒅(𝑇𝑖 . 𝑀𝐴𝐶, 𝑚)
(11) If 𝑅𝑒𝑚(𝑖) =0 then
(12) Insert the i tuple to
Secure_Candidatae_Attributes_Tuples
(13) End If
(14) End For
Algorithm 3: Select Tuples Based on SHF

where 𝑇𝑖 . 𝑃𝐾 is the value of primary key of the ith tuple, SK is the secret Key
and || is the concatenation operator. When this option is selected, the switch
case executes Algorithm 3, which requires two main inputs; the database
relation to be watermarked and the secret key SK and an integer number m.
The SK is used to be concatenated with tuples’ primary key and m for
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controlling the number of tuples. The pseudocode of is shown at Algorithm

3. At line, 1-3 the DBR, secret key SK, and integer m are inputted. Line 8
concatenates each tuple’s primary key with the SK to be inputted to the hash
function as one value as following ℋ(𝑇𝑖 . 𝑃𝐾||𝑆𝐾) where i =1 to the number
of tuples n. Then, the MAC value of 𝑇𝑖 . 𝑃𝐾||𝑆𝐾 is computed using MD5. At
line 10, the modulo function is used to compute the remainder after division
for each 𝑇𝑖 . 𝑀𝐴𝐶 when it is divided by m. Then lines 11 to 13 conditionally
select only tuples that have zero remainder. Thus, only secure tuples from
DBR are selected as candidate tuples to generate a watermark.
Select Tuples Based on PRSG (Option 4)

In this option, the selection of candidate tuples is based on a pseudorandom
sequence generator PRSG that generates a randomized sequence of integer.
Different random function can be used in Matlab such as rand, randi or
randperm. In the proposed method, a random permutation function randperm
that initialized with a seed (Sd) is used. This function has the form
randperm(n,Td), which produce a row vector containing a unique randomly
generated integers based on the number of tuples n in the relation and desired
number of tuples Td which is inputted via input request. Both Td and the Sd
considered as secret parameters known to the database owner only. When this
option is selected, the switch case executes Algorithm 4, which requires the
following inputs; the database relation to be watermarked, the initial seed Sd
and the desired number of tuples Td.
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The pseudocode is shown in Algorithm 4. At lines 1-3, the algorithm reads

the required input which are the DBR, initial seed Sd and desired number of
tuples Td. Line 6 will put the random number generator to its default setting
in order to repeat the same setting whenever it is needed. Whereas line 9
initialize the random number generator using Sd to make the produced
numbers unpredictable without knowing Sd. At line 14, the random
permutation function randperm() is used to generate a row vector of random
numbers based on n and Td. The desired number of tuples Td will control the
maximum number in the row vector. Finally, the for each loop presented in
lines 17-21 selects the rows from the DBR based on the row vector. Thus,
secure tuples from DBR are selected as candidate tuples to generate a
(1) Input: Selected DB to be watermarked (DBR)

(2) : Desired number for candidate tuples (Td)
(3) : Initial seed (Sd) to generate random number using seed
(4) Output : Secure tuples array
(5)% Put the random number generator (rng) to its default setting
(6) rng(‘default’)
(7)% Initialize the random number generator using seed to make
(8)% the produced numbers unpredictable without knowing seed
(9) rng(Sd)
(10)% Compute number of tuples n in DBR
(11) n= size(DBR,1)
(12)% Perform random permutation function to generate
(13)% row vector of random numbers based on n and
(14)% the desired number of Tuples (Td)
(15) row_vector =randperm(n,Td)
(16)% use row vector to select candidate tuples
(17) For each row € row vector Do
(18) If DBR(i)= row_vector (i) then % where i=1 to n
(19) Insert this tuple to the secure tuples array
(20) End If
(21) End For
(22) Return Secure Tuples array
Algorithm 4: Select Tuples Based on PRSG

watermark.
As an example, on the output of algorithm 4, consider the DBR with total

number of tuples n=10 as shown in Figure 11 (a). Whereas the random
number generator is set to its default, the initial seed Sd=5, and the desired
number of tuples Td =5. Therefore, the form of permutation function will be
randperm(10,5) which produce a row vector of five elements as shown in
Figure 11 (b), each element containing a unique random integer. The row
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Raw
A1 A2 … Aj Secure Tuples Array
T1
T2
A1 A2 … Aj
T3 randperm(10,5) T6
T4 T1
T5 ↓
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vector is then used to select only T6, T1, T10, T2 and T8 from DBR and insert
them to the secure tuples array as shown in Figure 11 (c).
Partitioning the tuples into Groups (Option 5)

This option is used to virtually partitioning the database relation horizontally
based on three parameters; tuple’s primary key 𝑇. 𝑃𝐾, secret key SK and
number of partitions m. The algorithm of this option also uses a one-way
secure hash function SHF to generate MAC value for each T.PK concatenated
with SK. By using secure hash function for partitioning an attacker cannot
guess tuples to which partition has been assigned without knowing secret key
as well as the number of partitions m [10]. Similarly, this algorithm
partitioning all tuples of the database relation into logical groups named
(Tpar0, Tpar1, …., Tparm-1) where each partition consists on average of n/m.

(2) : Secret Key SK to be concatenated with tuples’ primary key
(3) : Integer m to specify number of partitions
(4) Output : partitions array Tpar=Tpar0, Tpar1, …., Tparm-1
(5) For each Tuple T € DBR Do
(6) % Concatenate tuple’s primary key T.PK with secret key SK
(7) % Compute MAC value using Message Digest 5
(8) 𝑇𝑖 . 𝑀𝐴𝐶 = ℋ(𝑇𝑖 . 𝑃𝐾||𝑆𝐾 )
(9) % Compute mod of 𝑇𝑖 . 𝑀𝐴𝐶 when divided by m
(10) 𝑅𝑒𝑚(𝑖) = 𝒎𝒐𝒅(𝑇𝑖 . 𝑀𝐴𝐶, 𝑚)
(11) For r=0 to m-1 % Where r =0 to m-1
(12) If 𝑅𝑒𝑚(𝑖) =r then
(13) Insert this tuple to Tpar(r)
(14) End If
(15) End For
(15) End For Each
(16) Return partitions array (Tpar)
Algorithm 5: Partitioning
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296
When this option is selected, the switch case executes Algorithm 5, which
requires two main inputs; the database relation to be watermarked, the secret
key SK and an integer number m. The SK is used to be concatenated with
tuples’ primary key and m for specify the number of partitions. The
pseudocode of Algorithm is shown in Algorithm 5. Recall that from option
section 1.3.3, At lines 1 to 10 the same steps are performed to compute the
remainder after division for each 𝑇𝑖 . 𝑀𝐴𝐶 when it is divided by m. Then lines
11 to 15 use the remainder to assign each tuple to one partition. If the
remainder of the ith tuple Rem(i) is equal to the partition number r then the ith
tuple will be inserted to r partition. Where r =0 to m-1.
For example, on the input and the output of algorithm 5, consider the
imported database relation into the DBR as shown in Table 7 where the
Emp_No represents the primary key and the number of tuples n=10.
Table 7: An Example on the selected Database Relation DBR
ith Emp_No Emp_Name Emp_Rank Emp_Salary Emp_email

1 100 John Manager $1,320 John12@gmail.com
2 101 David Programmer $945.50 David_Pro@yahoo.com
3 102 Albert HR $888.90 Albert7@iium.edy.my
4 103 Ali Lecturer $940 Ali_L@yahoo.com
5 104 Salem Manager $800 Salem7@Zwa.edy.Ly
6 105 John Manager $1,320 John12@gmail.com
7 106 David Programmer $945.50 David_Pro@yahoo.com
8 107 Albert HR $888.90 Albert7@iium.edy.my
9 108 Ali Lecturer $940 Ali_L@yahoo.com
10 109 Salem Manager $800 Salem7@Zwa.edy.Ly
To illustrate how the algorithm 5 partitioning the DBR of the obave example.
Table 8 illustrates and simplifies the steps of the algorithm 5. Firstly, the
algorithm concatenates the tuple’s primary key with secret key (e.g
SK=Salem1234) as shown in Table 8 column 3. Then, the algorithm
computes the MAC value using MD5 for each Ti.PK||SK, which produce a
hexadecimal value as shown in Table 8 column 4. After that, the algorithm
uses Matlab function hex2dec() that convert hexadecimal to decimal value as
shown in Table 8 column 5. Finally, the algorithm will compute a remainder
of modulo operation when divided by the partition number m=5 as shown in
Table 8 column 6.
Table 8: steps of the algorithm 5
convert
Ti.P
ith Ti.PK||SK Ti.MAC= ℋ(𝑇𝑖 . 𝑃𝐾||𝑆𝐾 ) Ti.MAC Rem(i)
K
to decimal
296
297
=Ti.M
AC
mod m
1 100 100Salem1 F6F3E703E66FD8B987D0CA4E8F 3.28E+38 0
234 A71E6F
2 101 101Salem1 316304A336F29B28CD89C4A689A 6.56E+37 2
234 F91AB
3 102 102Salem1 C65BAEFE77DAC96EC2F65F7D84 2.64E+38 4
234 3B93ED
4 103 103Salem1 06668801FB6E53FF3B31B08905CF 8.51E+36 0
234 A552
5 104 104Salem1 9E2EA60975EF6F657542756A1013 2.10E+38 2
234 5ABF
6 105 105Salem1 4BBDA03BF6C69C9494DA15EC12 1.01E+38 1
234 8500E3
7 106 106Salem1 3F459781AB3D2206B92ADB7E1D 8.41E+37 3
234 EDABE6
8 107 107Salem1 EB3A55A676C35B558B67CA27055 3.13E+38 0
234 4DD3E
9 108 108Salem1 EF72E1DCD332157632ED7D6777C 3.18E+38 3
234 86FDE
10 109 109Salem1 AAAB505B9567EFBD06EAA66098 2.27E+38 4
234 2DD610
Then the last column of table is used to assign each tuple to a partition in
which the remainder value is equal to the partition number as shown in Figure
Figure 12 Assigning Each Tuple to a Partition Based on The Remainder Value
12.
In this section, the authors reported the experimental results to demonstrate
the feasibility of the proposed method. The implementation performed using
MATLAB 2014a and tested on Medical database relation (Heart disease),
available at UCI Machine Learning Repository [17]. The evaluation of the
297
298
proposed method was based on achieving two requirements; (i) the method
of selecting candidate attributes and tuples should not affect the ability of
authentication, since we generate a fragile watermark for authentication
similar to [18]. (ii) Key-Based System whereby the candidate attributes and
tuples should depend on secret parameters in any selection strategy. The
proposed scheme shall achieve requirements (i) and (ii) when any of the
integrated selection strategy option (All, Arbitrary, SHF, PRSG or
Partitioning) is applied for generating the fragile watermark.
Authentication Analysis
In this set of experiments, we generated a fragile watermark using each
selection strategy option then maliciously tampering with the watermarked
relation contents by simulating insertion, deletion and alteration to test the
proposed method against the first requirement. The watermark distortion rate
WDR indicates the tampering amount occurred by the attacks on the contents
of the watermarked database relation and reflects the fragility of the
watermark. The higher the value of WDR the higher fragility obtained. When
the WDR is zero that means, the watermarked database relation authenticated
as original. The fragility of the watermark when the watermark generated
using option 1, option 2, option 3, option 4 and option 5 are shown in figure
(a), (b), (c), (d) and (e) respectively. The x-axis represents the attack percent
rate that ranged from 10% to 90% and the y-axis represents the fragility of
the watermark. From the figures, it is clear that the generated watermark
adversely affected by even minor attacks which make the scheme able to
authenticate the watermarked relation after insertion, deletion and alteration.
For example, after insertion attack, a high fragility watermark obtained when
the watermark generated by any selection strategy options. However, in all
cases, the generated watermark adversely affected by even minor attacks
which make the scheme able to authenticate the watermarked relation after
insertion, deletion and alteration. Consequently, the integrated selection
strategies did not affect not affect the ability of authentication when any of
the integrated selection strategy option is applied for generating the fragile
watermark. In addition, the results illustrate the highest fragility is obtained
when the watermark generated by partitioning all attributes and tuples (option
5) which is ranged from 98 to 100. Thus, for generating a high fragile
watermark from Medical database relation (Heart disease), option 5 is the
best option that can provide high fragile watermark among the other options.
The significance of the obtained results is that the integration of the strategies
is possible and can be applied with any scheme.
298
299
Insertion Deletion Insertion Deletion

100 100
95 95
90 90
WDR
WDR
85 85
80 80
75 75
70 70
65 65
60 60
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Attack Percent Rate Attack Percent Rate
(a) Fragility of the watermark when the watermark is (b) Fragility of the watermark when the watermark
generated based on option 1 generated based on option 2
Insertion Deletion Insertion Deletion

100 98
95 93
90
WDR
WDR
85 88
80 83
75 78
70
65 73
60 68
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Attack Percent Rate Attack Percent Rate
(c) Fragility of the watermark when the watermark is (d) Fragility of the watermark when the watermark i
generated based on option 3 generated based on option 4
Insertion Deletion Alteration

100
WDR
100
99
99
98
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Attack Percent Rate
(e) Fragility of the watermark when the watermark is
generated based on option 5
299
300
Figure 7: The fragility of the watermark when the watermark generated based on different selection
strategy options. (a) Fragility of the watermark when the watermark is generated based on option 1, (b)
Fragility of the watermark when the watermark is generated based on option 2, (c) Fragility of the
watermark when the watermark is generated based on option 3, (d) Fragility of the watermark when the
watermark is generated based on option 4 and (e) Fragility of the watermark when the watermark is
generated based on option 5
Key-Based System Analysis

In the watermarking schemes the security relay on the secret parameters not
on the watermark algorithms. As discused in section 1.3, each selction
strategy option selectes the candidate attributes and tuples based on secret
parameters. Therefore, all the integrated ooptions are a key-based system
whereby selecting the candidate attributes and tuples at verification phase is
based on the same secret parameters that used at generation phase.
Flexibility Analysis
Most existing database watermarking schemes are constrained by the method
of selcting the candidata attributes and tuples. For example, schemes that
selecting all attributes and tuples is suitable to be applied on small size
database relation while applying it on a huge database relation to be
watermarked considered inefficient. In addtion, selecting attrbiutes and tuples
based on SHF in small database relaions may yeld insufficent carreir
compared to the size of the embedded informaiton. However, the propsed
method of integrating five seleciton strategies which may allow to a single
watermarking scheme to be applied for different database size.
Comparitive study
Herein, the authors compared the proposed scheme with recent watermarking
schemes in term the options of selecting candidata attributes and tuples.
Table 9: Comparison Table

Attributes and tuples selection strategies
Author(s)
Arbitrary SHF Partitioning PRSG All
[4] ✓
[10] ✓
[12] ✓
[15] ✓
Proposed Scheme ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
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301
The comparison shows that the proposed scheme has itegrated five common
options for selecting candidate attributes and tuples which make the scheme
able to generate a watermark based on different secure seleciton strategies.
This frature, allow the watermarking scheme to overcome the limitation of
constraining the watermarking scheme for generating a watermark from all
attributes tuples without secure selection as in [4] or arbitrary attributes tuples
as in [12]. In addition, it overcome the issue of generating large size of
information as in [10, 15].
Conclusion
Attributes and tuples selection method can significantly weaken or enhance
the tradeoff between the key requirements of digital watermark. In this paper,
the authors systematically reviewed and discussed the most common methods
for selecting the candidate attributes and tuples. In addition, the proposed
method for integrating five selection strategies using a switch case statement
was explained in details. Furthermore, each selection strategy option has been
explained in terms of the required input and how the algorithm of that option
work. The results show that, the integrated strategies have no effect on the
authentication ability. The integrated strategies are key-based system sicne
all of them based on scure paramters. Applying this method in watermaking
database relaions makes the scheme achieves the security and flexibility.
Besides that, it can be used to test which selection strategy option that give
high fragility in the watermark. In addition, it provides a simple way to select
which strategy to be used during the watermarking process. In the future
work, the intent is to test the five selection strategies on different databases.
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to express greatest appreciation to Advanced
Informatics School (AIS), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) for
financial support. Furthermore, Full thanks to be supported by Ministry of
Defense, Libya under the Ph.D. scholarship programs.
References
[1] Halder, R., S. Pal, and A. Cortesi, Watermarking Techniques for

Relational Databases: Survey, Classification and Comparison. J. UCS,
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[3] Abdullah, S.M., A.A. Manaf, and M. Zamani, Capacity and quality
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[7] Sion, R. Proving ownership over categorical data. in Data
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[8] Farfoura, M.E. and S.-J. Horng, A Novel Blind Reversible Method for
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[10] Bhattacharya, S. and A. Cortesi, Distortion-Free Authentication
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[12] Al-Haj, A. and A. Odeh, Robust and blind watermarking of relational
database systems. Journal of Computer Science, 2008. 4(12): p. 1024.
[13] Jawad, K. and A. Khan, Genetic algorithm and difference expansion
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[14] Iftikhar, S., M. Kamran, and Z. Anwar, RRW:A Robust and Reversible
Watermarking Technique for Relational Data. IEEE Transactions on
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Distortion Free Watermarking. in ICSOFT (1). 2010. Citeseer.
[16] Farfoura, M.E., et al., A blind reversible method for watermarking
relational databases based on a time-stamping protocol. Expert
Systems with Applications, 2012. 39(3): p. 3185-3196.
[17] Lichman, M. UCI Machine Learning Repository. 2015; Available
from: https://archive.ics.uci.edu/ml/datasets/Covertype.
[18] ALFAGI, A.S., et al., A Zero-Distortion Fragile Watermarking
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1 December 2016
T01_041: LOCAL SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS

ON FUZZY WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT
MODEL: A CASE STUDY
1
Herman Umbau Lindang
2
Zamali Hj. Tarmudi
3
Ajimi Jawan
4
Mazlin Mokhtar
1
School of Biological Sciences
Faculty of Applied Sciences
Universiti Teknologi MARA Shah Alam, 40450
Selangor
2
Department of Mathematics
Faculty of Computer and Mathematical Sciences
Universiti Teknologi MARA Sabah, 88997 Kota
Kinabalu Sabah
3
Department of Biological Sciences,
Faculty of Applied Science,
Universiti Teknologi MARA Sabah, 88997 Kota
Kinabalu Sabah
4
Institute of Environment and Development (LESTARI)
Universitit Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi
Selangor
ABSTRACT
Sensitivity analysis (SA) plays a fundamental role in determine the effects
of change in a parameter of an assessment model. By adapting Local
Sensitivity Analysis using one-at-a-time (OAT) approach, a water
assessment model was validated. This study has adapted a numerical
example based on the water data collected from Inanam-Likas River Basin.
Findings shows that the assessment model has respond to the perturbation
of input; increasing and decreasing of input value. The outcome of
perturbed input slightly deviates from its initial output. Hence, this study
Local Sensitivity Analysis on Fuzzy Water Quality Assessment Model: 305
found that SA is able to prove the Fuzzy Inference System water assessment
model is consistent and robust.
Keywords: Local Sensitivity Analysis, Water Quality Assessment, Fuzzy

Inference System
Introduction
Sensitivity analysis (SA) plays a fundamental role in determine the effects

of change in a parameter of an assessment model. Its effectiveness in
measuring the robustness of a model is significant especially to the
environment related assessment model. For example, the different kingdom
of biotic organism in the aquatic ecosystem requires different environment
condition for their continuous growth and survival. The difference of
interest in managing the aquatic ecosystem creates uncertainty and
conflicting of interest in an assessment model. SA acknowledges the ability
of a model to have an unpredicted behaviour; be it promoting or impending
of input. By perturbing the initial input value, SA reflects the robustness and
consistency of the proposed model. SA can provide valuable insights on
how robust a model respond to its various input of parameters.
Local SA is one of the sensitivity analysis approaches to validate a
mathematical model. SA has been adapted to test and validate mathematical
modelling in hydrological, bioremediation, monitoring human health and
groundwater model [1]–[5]. Local SA analyse the impact of small
perturbations of the inputs. Manipulating the initial parameter can provide
information on its influence toward the output of simulated model. It can be
done through several approach such as one-at-a-time approach (OAT), finite
difference approximation and direct differential method [6], [7]. It examines
the influence on changing only one parameter in the mathematical model
while others kept constant.
Hydrological data is usually vast and complex because of its
numerous classification and parameters to be execute for water assessment.
Different water parameters have different range and each parameter exhibit
different classification. A high concentration of a parameter will not always
reflects the excellent condition of the water and low concentration of a
parameter does not indicate the water is in poor condition. The various
pattern of each parameter suits well with the Local SA as to test each
parameters consistency performance in the assessment model. Therefore,
the present study aimed to validate a water quality assessment model by
examines the model using local SA. To do so, this paper is structured as
306Local Sensitivity Analysis on Fuzzy Water Quality Assessment Model:
follows: The SA approach is presented, numerical example via a case study,

discussion of case study and finally the conclusion of this study.
The Proposed Sensitivity Analysis Approach
A one-at-a-time (OAT) local SA is an approach on examining the effect of

perturbation of input value against the outputs of an assessment. The local
SA addresses small variations around a nominal operating condition and
gives out either deviation or constant output. Previous studies done by
Jurina et al., Gul et al., and Borgonovo et al. [1,3,7], suggested that
perturbation by certain percentage has indeed succeed to validate their
assessment model. Hence, this study has adapted perturbation with
approximation of 10% increase and 10% of decrease on the model input.
For example, an assessment model of five parameters, (X 1, X2, X3, X4, X5)
with a possibility to execute five different outputs, (OX1, OX2, OX3, OX4,
OX5). The initial output would then be considered as the base case for later
reference. Then, perturbation of 10% on all of the input one at a time would
deduce to different output accordingly. The perturbed output would be
labelled as (POX1, POX2, POX3, POX4, POX5). Finally, to observe the
robustness and consistency of the model, a line graph of base case and
perturbed output would be constructed. If deviation between plotted line
graphs obtained were small, hence the model is sensitive to perturbation,
robust and consistent. If the deviation was large and shows different pattern
compare to the reference line, hence the model would be inconsistent and
not robust. The local SA was evaluated by using Microsoft Excel and
Matlab R2016. Microsoft Excel was used for perturbing the initial input,
while Matlab R2016 was used for executing the water quality assessment
model.
Numerical Example via a Case Study
A numerical example have been adapted from Lindang et al. [8] with
modification to show the proposed SA on water quality assessment. The
establish water assessment model was constructed based on the Fuzzy
Inference System (FIS). The assessment model uses experts advise among
policy makers in Sabah to develop the assessment model. The established
assessment model was named Fuzzy Water Quality Index (FWQI). The
water parameters adapted in FWQI were Dissolved Oxygen (DO),
Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH4), Turbidity and pH Value. Each water
parameters has their own distinct Membership Functions (MFs). The final
output of the assessment model was in a range of [0,1]. It reflects the
different water quality status of a river.
To demonstrate our proposed validation method by using SA, we
adapted the water data taken from Inanam-Likas River, Sabah into FWQI.
The suggested perturbation of input was based on [5] with modification.
The perturbation of each input on respective stations was tabulated as shown
in Table 10. Then, the perturbed input was then executed into the
established FWQI. The output generated on each execution was recorded
and tabulated as shown in Table 11. Since the purpose of this paper was
only for validating the established assessment model, the formulation
process and analysis of FWQI will not be discussed and it can be found in
Lindang et al. [8].
Table 10: Perturbation of initial input on every station based on OTA

approach
FWQI Sampling
Baseline SA (+10%) SA(-10%)
Parameter Station
S1 8.737 9.611 7.863
S2 8.78 9.661 7.905
S3 8.8 9.683 7.922
pH S4 8.56 9.421 7.708
S5 8.41 9.252 7.569
S6 8.32 9.157 7.492
S7 8.61 9.474 7.752
S1 4.939 5.433 4.450
S2 5.33 5.864 4.798

DO
(mg/l)
S3 5.54 6.098 4.989
S4 2.54 2.790 2.286

S5 4.58 5.043 4.126
S6 1.46 1.608 1.315
S7 2.6 2.862 2.340
S1 0.127 0.140 0.114
S2 0.3 0.331 0.270
S3 0.3 0.331 0.270

Ammoniacal
Nitrogen S4 9.91 10.902 8.919
(mg/l)
S5 0.65 0.718 0.585
S6 0.95 1.043 0.855
S7 9.46 10.402 8.514
S1 524.495 576.945 472.046
S2 439.74 483.713 395.766
S3 535.77 538.352 482.193

Turbidity
S4 692.19 761.410 622.971
(NTU)
S5 568.82 625.706 511.941
S6 750.38 825.419 675.342
S7 838.1 921.905 754.290
Table 11 : FWQI output after perturbation based on parameter
FWQI Sampling Initial SA SA

Parameter Station FWQI (+10%) (-10%)
S1 0.407 0.340 0.483
pH
S2 0.306 0.155 0.460
S3 0.283 0.155 0.460
S4 0.221 0.155 0.221
S5 0.430 0.155 0.430
S6 0.255 0.155 0.255
S7 0.226 0.155 0.226
S1 0.407 0.407 0.388
S2 0.306 0.306 0.306
S3 0.283 0.295 0.283

Dissolved
S4 0.221 0.241 0.194
Oxygen
S5 0.430 0.460 0.392
S6 0.255 0.255 0.255
S7 0.226 0.235 0.201
S1 0.407 0.396 0.421
S2 0.306 0.306 0.306
S3 0.283 0.283 0.283

Ammoniacal
S4 0.221 0.221 0.221
Nitrogen
S5 0.430 0.430 0.430
S6 0.255 0.255 0.255
S7 0.226 0.226 0.226
S1 0.407 0.407 0.407
Turbidity S2 0.306 0.306 0.306
S3 0.283 0.283 0.283

S4 0.221 0.221 0.221
S5 0.430 0.430 0.430
S6 0.255 0.255 0.255
S7 0.226 0.226 0.226
Discussion and Conclusion
Figure 1 shows the increment of 10% to the input of Dissolved Oxygen

(DO) for each sampling station. The line graph indicates constant value of
FWQI on Station 1, 2 and 3. Increasing the input value as well had increases
the value of FWQI to Station 2, 3, 4, 5 and 7. The decrement of 10% was
also adapted to the input of DO and the FWQI output shows decreasing
pattern for all stations. As the input increases, it alters the centre of gravity
(COG) of overlapping membership function during aggregation phase of
FIS and increases the final index of FWQI. In a situation when DO had been
increases, it indicates an excellent water quality, hence showing higher
FWQI index. Similar situation observed as DO input was decrease. Lower
DO concentration means decreases of water quality. Hence, the execution
of the assessment model shows lower FWQI output.
As for the perturbation on pH value as shown in Figure 2,
decreasing the input by 10% had increased the final FWQI index. The
increasing of FWQI index shown on Station 1,2 3, and 4, meanwhile, FWQI
index for other stations were remain constant. On the contrary, the
perturbation of input by positive 10% shows decrement of final index of
each station. After the positive perturbation, Station 2 until 7 shows a
consistent performance by classifying the water status with the same index
as initial. Our findings shown constant output even after pH value had been
increase on all stations. It was because of the classification of all perturbed
value was in the same category and having the same value during execution
of water assessment.
Meanwhile for NH4 as shown in Figure 3, the perturbation on input
shows consistent on almost all of the stations except for Station 1. Increasing
of initial input of NH4 lead to lower FWQI and decreasing of initial input
lead to higher FWQI. Almost similar to the situation in Figure 2, the
constant output of FWQI after perturbed of input was also because of the
manipulated number was still in the same range of membership function

compared with its initial value.
A different situation reflected on Turbidity in Figure 4. Neither
increment nor decrement of input value changes the final FWQI outcome.
This was because of the parameter has only two classifications of
membership functions. Even though perturbation had been done on each
station, the altered value was still in the same category of membership
function and executes the same output.
Figure 1 : Alteration on the input of Dissolve Oxygen against FWQI
Figure 2: Alteration on the input of pH against FWQI

1 December 2016
Figure 3: Alteration on the input of Ammoniacal Nitrogen against FWQI
Figure 4: Alteration on the input of Turbidity against FWQI
Perturb of initial index for validating the assessment model had

proven a consistent and robust respond. The evaluation of SA on FWQI
shows the increment and decrement of input value to a certain extend, are
able to produce outcome with a higher or lower FWQI. The variation of
FWQI output was solely influence by the membership functions of each
parameter. This condition was clearly reflected in Figure 2 and 3 where by
increasing of input value will cause lower FWQI and decrement of input
value shows opposite results.
Conclusion
The assessment model has responded to each perturbation of input and most
of the outcomes deviate slightly from the initial output. In a nutshell, the
assessment model shows a consistent and robust assessment model.
1 December 2016
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to acknowledge Ministry of Higher Education

(MOHE) of Malaysia for providing fund through MyBrain15 and research
grant: 600-RMI/RACE 16/6/2 (17/2013) and Universiti Teknologi MARA,
Malaysia.
References
[1] T. Jurina, A. J. Tušek, and M. Čurlin, ‘Local sensitivity analysis and
metabolic control analysis of the biological part of the BTEX
bioremediation model’, Biotechnol. Bioprocess Eng., vol. 20, no. 6,
pp. 1071–1087, 2015.
[2] T. Yu, L. Xiaohui, W. Hao, and J. Yunzhong, ‘Research on Parameter
Sensitivity Analysis of Distributed Hydrological Model in Karst
Watershed’, 2010 Int. Forum Inf. Technol. Appl., pp. 200–203, 2010.
[3] R. Gul, C. Schutte, and S. Bernhard, ‘Mathematical modeling and
sensitivity analysis of arterial anastomosis in the arm’, Appl. Math.
Model., vol. 40, no. 17–18, pp. 7724–7738, 2016.
[4] Z. Chunhu, ‘Parameter Sensitivity Analysis of 3D Numerical
Simulation in the High-pressure Groundwater’, 2011.
[5] H. Gharibi, A. H. Mahvi, R. Nabizadeh, H. Arabalibeik, M.
Yunesian, and M. H. Sowlat, ‘A novel approach in water quality
assessment based on fuzzy logic.’, J. Environ. Manage., vol. 112, pp.
87–95, Dec. 2012.
[6] D. M. Hamby, ‘A review of techniques for parameter sensitivity
analysis of environmental models’, Environ. Monit. Assess., vol. 32,
pp. 135–154, 1994.
[7] E. Borgonovo and E. Plischke, ‘Sensitivity analysis: A review of
recent advances’, Eur. J. Oper. Res., vol. 248, no. 3, pp. 869–887,
2016.
[8] H. U. Lindang, Z. H. Tarmudi, and A. Jawan, ‘Fuzzy Assessment for
Water Quality in Inanam Likas River Basin, Sabah, East of
Malaysia’, Int. J. Dev. Res., vol. 6, no. 6, pp. 8013–8019, 2016.
1 December 2016
T01_042: REAL-TIME ACTIVE VIBRATION

CONTROL OF FLEXIBLE BEAM
Intan Zaurah Mat Darus-3
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai.
Mohd Sazli bin Saad-3

School of Manufacturing Engineering, Universiti
Malaysia Perlis
ABSTRACT
This paper presents an implementation of real-time controller for active
vibration control of a flexible beam using LabVIEW programming software.
The PID controller is implemented as the control algorithm to suppress the
unwanted vibration of a flexible beam system for the first mode of the
resonant frequency. A fixed-free mode of flexible cantilever beam is chosen.
Three components P, PI, and PD control schemes is developed as
preliminary study as a benchmark for further controller development. The
performance of this controller is validated in terms of vibration transient
time, vibration attenuation and frequency domain. Based on the
experimental results, PD-controller has performed better compared to P
and PI controller methods with average attenuation level is 30dB.
Keywords: LabVIEW, PID, Active Vibration Control, Flexible Beam
Introduction
The utilization of light weight flexible structure in various engineering
applications e.g. in aircrafts, ship, aerospace and submarine has been
considerably increased over the past years in order to improve productivity
in industries [1, 2]. Flexible structure elements such as beam and plate are
commonly used in industries due to its technical important and fulfil the
demand. To decrease the overall weight of a mechanical structure, the
designers need to reduce the cross sectional area of the structural elements.
However, the side effect of this reduction increasing the flexibility of the
structure. Thus, this lightweight flexible structures can be more easily
affected by unwanted vibrations which ca be led to structural failure [1, 2].
Since then, many attempts have been proposed by researcher in order to
reduce the unwanted vibration of the flexible beam by considering passive
315
and active controls. The simplest way to cope with this problem is to make
the structure more rigid where the unwanted vibration can be reduced.
However, this will increase the weight penalty which may not always
acceptable. In fact, it is a trend in industries to reduce the weight of
mechanical structures where it is possible to substantially decrease the costs.
Another method proposed for vibration suppression of flexible beam is
using passive control. But, this method cannot cope at low frequency range
and only work wells at high frequency range [3, 4].
Recently, significant advances have been made in Active Vibration Control
(AVC). Many researches have been reported and implemented using AVC
method in various applications. The concept of AVC initially was proposed
by Lueg in 1936 for noise cancellation [5-9]. The concept of AVC is
generating secondary source of vibration at a desired location to interfere
destructively with the unwanted vibration source and thus result in vibration
suppression on the flexible beam system. The AVC is realized by detecting
and processing the unwanted vibration with a suitable sensor and actuator
so that the cancellation will be achieved when superimposed occurred [10,
11].
Although, several studies have been conducted on active vibration control
of flexible beam but only very few literature discussed on the control of
unwanted vibration of flexible beam experimentally. Therefore, there is an
open area of research to study and develop the control strategies on flexile
beam. The purpose of this study is to develop a real-time controller for
active vibration control of flexible beam using LabVIEW programming
software. The fixed-free mode of flexible cantilever beam was chosen. The
performance of this controller was validated through time and frequency
domain.
Methodology
An experimental rig was developed to measure and control the vibration on
a flexible beam as shown in Figure 1(a), an aluminium type cantilever beam
of length 450m, width 50mm, and thickness 1.4mm was used.
316
Laser displacement
sensor
LM10 ANR 1151
Flexible beam Piezo actuator Piezo actuator

Disturbance signal Control signal
PI P-876.A12 PI P-876.A12
Piezo amplifier Piezo amplifier Laser displacement
E-835 DuraAct E-835 DuraAct signal conditioning
(mm/V)
LM10 ANR 5231
Analog output Analog input

(Monitoring system) DAC ADC
Graphical user interface SCC-68 SCC-68
LabVIEW programming environment
Computer control system Data Acquisition Card
NI PCI-6259
(a)
(b)
Figure 1: (a) Actual experimental test rig; (b) Experimental setup
Two piezoelectric patches were surface bonded to the beam act as

disturbance actuator and control actuator. The location of the piezo actuator
and disturbance were located close to each other for better vibration
suppression [14]. A laser displacement sensor was used to measure beam
displacement with range 50  10mm. This experiment was conducted in
non-collocated control where the locations of the sensor and control actuator
are not in the same position as shown in Figure 1(b). The PID control
algorithm was developed with LabVIEW programming software as
discussed later. LabVIEW programming is suitable for computer control
application where interfacing between input-output and the computer
system can be done easily using National Instruments data acquisition card.
The sampling rate for the acquisition system was set to 1 kHz which enough
to capture the data with 1000 samples per second [14]. In order to evaluate
the performance of the controller, a sinusoidal disturbance signal with
frequency near to the natural frequency which approximately about 3.2Hz
with amplitude of 3V was applied to the disturbance actuator which makes
the beam to vibrate at resonance frequency.
u P (t )
P u P (t )  K P e(t )
+
SP(t) e(t) u I (t ) + u (t ) y (t )
 
t
I u I ( t )  K I  e ( t )dt System
0
+ _ +
de ( t )
u D (t )
D u D (t )  KD
dt
MV (t )
Figure 13: PID control scheme

317
Figure 2 shows the schematic diagram of PID control scheme. The PID
controller consists of three parts namely as proportional, integral, and
derivative. The PID reads the error, e(t) as an input parameter and output
u(t) is the sum of the P, I, and D parts of the PID controller [12]. The aim of
the controllers are to reduce the sensitivity of the system when extra
disturbances are applied and maintain the suppression vibration for
optimum zero deflection [13]. Figure 3 consists of two main parts which is
physical hardware and LabVIEW programming environment. Physical
hardware comprises of flexible beam and instrumentation equipment. While
the LabVIEW programming environment as labelled Figure 3 consists of:
(A) Comparator to compute the error e(t). (B) PID algorithm to compute for
a new updated parameter of the respective gain which run and updated in
real-time computer control system with every changes response from the
beam system cause by the external disturbance. (C) Disturbance signal
which excite the beam.
LabVIEW
Programming (B) PID Controller
Environment
PID gains Proportional
kp
kd Control
ki Output,
Integral u(t)
(A) Comparator Error,
e(t)
d(t)
Derivative
Displacement
Control System Output, y(t)
(C) Disturbance signal DAC
Actuator (Beam)
Laser
DAC Disturbance
displacement
Actuator
sensor
Physical hardware
ADC
Figure 14: The schematic diagram of conventional PID in LabVIEW software

318
2
1
4
Figure 15: Visual of developed GUI
Figure 4 shows the developed Graphical User Interface (GUI) for the study.
The GUI consists of four section. Area (1) enables user change the
disturbances, controller, and PID gains. The online chart display panel at
area (2) and (3) displays real-time data on a PC screen. The system is
updated at each sample interval. Finally, the frequency response at area (4)
which show the attenuation level in term of magnitude (dB).
Results
Three different combinations of controller action implemented; P-
controller, PI-controller and PD-controller. The proposed controller is tuned
heuristically were several different gain coefficients while the structure was
under excitation. Sinusoidal type signal was used as the excitation
disturbance.
Vibration signal (kp=2.5) X: 3.304 Vibration signal (kp=7.5)
2 2 Y: 1.281
Deflection (mm)
Deflection (mm)
1 1
X: 9.077
0 Y: 0.7365 0
-1 X: 29.01
X: 32.9 -1 Y: -0.2703
Y: -0.6952
-2 -2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Time (seconds) Time (seconds)
X: 2.489 Vibration signal (kp=12.5) Vibration signal (kp=17.5)
2 2
Y: 1.127
Deflection (mm)
Deflection (mm)
X: 26.99
1 1
Y: 0.1954
0 0
X: 31.03
-1 Y: -0.1541 -1
-2 X: 5.645
-2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Y:0-1.347 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Figure 16: Time response of vibration suppression for P-Controller
Figure 5 illustrates the capability of the P-controller to suppress the beams

deflection. Kp value is increased from small value till the point at which the
system become unstable. The optimum proportional gain control is kp=15
has reacted effectively to attenuate the vibration. The beam become unstable
319
and windup over the set point when higher gain is applied to the system. It
can be concluded that the P-controller can suppress the vibration when it
reached the optimum value gain. The deflection of the beam is decreased
when the actuator is switched ON about 1.30mm, 0.59mm, 0.33mm, and
0.36mm respectively as shown in Figure 16.
Table 12: P controller tuning results

Kp Settlin Attenuatio
Reductio
Controller OFF gai g time n level
0 n (mm)
P=2.5 n (s) (dB)
P=7.5 2.5 23.82 1.330 4.19
Magnitude (dB)
-20
P=12.5 5.0 23.88 0.761 9.01
-40 P=17.5 7.5 25.71 0.594 12.58
-60 10. 34.79 0.402 16.05
0
-80 12. 28.54 0.330 17.21
0 10 20 30 40 5
Frequency (Hz)
15. 25.75 0.253 21.28
Figure 17: Frequency response 0
with different P coefficients 17. 21.35 0.364 20.95
gains 5
12. 18.24 0.293 14.56
0
Vibration signal (kp=15, ki=0.5) Vibration signal (kp=15, ki=2)

2
Deflection (mm)
Deflection (mm)
1 X: 26.19 1 X: 28.31
Y: 0.1529 Y: 0.1838
0 0
-1
-1
X: 3.271
-2 X: 4.454
Y: -1.349
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Y: -1.336 Time (seconds)
Time (seconds)
Vibration signal (kp=15, ki=4) Vibration control (kp=20, ki=0.5)
2
Deflection (mm)
Deflection (mm)
1 X: 28.68 X: 19.64
Y: 0.168 1
Y: 0.1329
0 0
X: 9.5 X: 6.073
Y: -1.327 Y: -1.435
-1 -1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 -2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Figure 18: Time response of vibration suppression for PI-Controller
The frequency of the vibration signals for the first resonance mode were
obtained using the frequency spectrum shown in Figure 6. Proportional
control scheme has shown its capability in reducing the unwanted vibration
signal of the system. The performance of the controller in rejecting the
unwanted vibrations depends on the value of proportional gain coefficients.
Increasing the gain may significantly reduce the amplitude of the system. It
320
is observed that, the proportional gain, kp, is set from 2.5 to 20 where the
corresponding proportional gains have attenuated the first resonance mode
of the beams deflection by 4.19, 12.58, 17.21, and 20.95 dB respectively.
The higher the proportional gain, kp, the better suppression can be obtained.
However, from the experimental results indicate increasing the kp gain
beyond some acceptable value, the actuator force become saturated which
will cause instability and amplify the noise from the actuator. Thus, in real
application, the saturated signal may extremely reduce the actuator lifetime
[15]. The summary of the P-controller can be shown at Table 1. From this
result it is worth noted that, the proportional gain action needs to be added
another control action which is integral and derivative in order to get the
desired optimum deflection. Thus, this clearly shows the drawback of
proportional control scheme which needs to be addressed by an effective
control scheme.
Figure 7 further represents the experimental results for PI-controller. It
show that the deflection of a flexible beam has reduced significantly after
the controller was set ON. The deflection decreases to 0.28mm peak to peak
deflection when reach gain kp=15 and ki=3. It can be seen that there is small
difference between P and PI controller which give better settling time about
19.18s. Details representation of vibration attenuation can be observed from
the frequency spectrum in Figure 8. When value kp and ki is increased, the
controller became not stable thus the beam create another deflection and the
second mode of natural frequency appears. The summary of PI-controller
can be shown at Table 2. It can be seen that vibration suppression obtained
by P-controller is better than PI-controller.
Figure 9 shows the time response for the vibration of the flexible beam to
reach a good steady state for PD-control schemes. From the overall results,
it can be seen that PD resulted with the fastest settling time 6.55s. P control
is the slowest with 25.75s.The summary of PD-controller is shown in Table
3. PD-controller reaches steady state oscillation with the amplitude of about
0.056mm. It can be seen that vibration suppression obtained by PD is better
than P and PI control. Furthermore, the actuator voltage produced by the P
and PI control seems to be more acceptable, while the actuator voltage
produce by PD is quite noisy. This phenomenon may be due to the
derivative terms in PD controller.
Conclusion
The behaviour of PID controller has been clearly demonstrated. How P, I,
and D components effect the response of flexible beam system also has been
321
analysed. This fundamental performance of PID controller can also become

a benchmark for comparison with others controller for further study. This
study has proved that the development of PID controller is able to reduce
the unwanted vibration for flexible beam using LabVIEW programming
software. Based on the results PD-controller has performed the best
compared to P and PI controller methods.
Controller OFF Table 13: PI-controller tuning results

0 kp=15,ki=0.5,
Kp Ki Settlin Attenuatio
kp=15,ki=2 Reductio
Magnitude (dB)
-20 kp=15,ki=4 gai gai g time n level

n (mm)
-40 kp=20,kd=0.5 n n (s) (dB)
-60
15 0.5 22.92 0.342 18.00
15 1.0 21.51 0.301 18.49
-80
15 2.0 23.86 0.331 18.49
0 10 20 30 40
Frequency (Hz) 15 3.0 20.87 0.289 20.63
Figure 19: Frequency 15 4.0 19.18 0.281 19.06
15 5.0 19.18 0.316 18.35
response with different PI
20 0.5 13.57 0.312 18.26
coefficients gains 20 1.0 11.85 0.296 16.70
1 December 2016
X: 2.724 Vibration signal (kp=15, kd=0.5) Vibration signal (kp=30, kd=0.5)

2Y: 1.334
Deflection (mm)
Deflection (mm)
1X: 2.619
Y: 1.335
0 0
X: 7.578
X: 6.864
-1 Y: -0.06549
Y: -0.1653
-2
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
X: 3.3
Vibration signal (kp=60, kd=0.5) Vibration signal (kp=150, kd=1)
2 Y: 1.334
Deflection (mm)
Deflection (mm)
1 1
0 0
X: 9.47 X: 10.16
-1 Y: -0.009442
-1 Y: -0.03231
X: 2.33
-2
Y: -1.253
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20
Figure 20: Time response of vibration suppression for PD-Controller
Table 14: PD-controller tuning results

Controller OFF
Kp Kd Settlin Reductio Attenuatio
0
kp=15,kd=0.5, gai gai g time n (mm) n level
kp=30,kd=0.5
Magnitude (dB)
-20 n n (s) (dB)

kp=100,kd=1
-40 kp=150,kd=1 15 1.00 4.19 0.197 23.22
-60 20 1.00 4.16 0.187 24.06
-80
20 2.00 8.59 0.078 22.60
0 10 20 30 40
25 2.00 11.08 0.204 22.33
Frequency (Hz) 30 1.00 6.36 0.108 27.90
Figure 21: Frequency 30 2.00 3.88 0.111 28.10
response with different PD 40 0.50 5.77 0.130 27.25
coefficients gains 60 0.50 7.14 0.080 30.34
60 1 5.40 0.056 33.62
100 1 6.55 0.056 37.06
150 1 6.86 0.038 38.61
References
[1] A. R. Tavakolpour, “Mechatronic design of intelligent active vibration control systems
for flexible structures,” Ph.D Thesis, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), 2010.
[2] T. A. Z. Rahman and I. Z. Mat Darus, “Active vibration control using pole placement
method of a flexible plate structure optimised by genetic algorithm”, IEEE Conference
on Control, Systems and Industrial Informatics (ICCSII), Bandung, Indonesia, 23-26
September, 2012.
[3] C. Fuller, “Active Vibration Control,” in Handbook of Noise and Vibration Control,
2007, pp. 770–784.
[4] M. S. Saad, “Evolutionary optimisation and real-time self-tuning active vibration
control of a flexible beam system,” Ph.D Thesis, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM),
2014.
323
[5] A. Rashid and C. Mihai Nicolescu, “Active vibration control in palletised work-holding
system for milling,” Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf., vol. 46, no. 12–13, pp. 1626–1636,
2006.
[6] M. Moshrefi-Torbati, A. J. Keane, S. J. Elliott, M. J. Brennan, D. K. Anthony, and E.
Rogers, “Active vibration control (AVC) of a satellite boom structure using optimally
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220, 2006.
[7] M. H. Fernandes, I. Garitaonandia, J. Albizuri, J. M. Hernández, and D. Barrenetxea,
“Simulation of an active vibration control system in a centreless grinding machine using
a reduced updated FE model,” Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf., vol. 49, no. 3–4, pp. 239–
245, 2009.
[8] A. Rama Mohan Rao and K. Sivasubramanian, “Optimal placement of actuators for
active vibration control of seismic excited tall buildings using a multiple start guided
neighbourhood search (MSGNS) algorithm,” J. Sound Vib., vol. 311, no. 1–2, pp. 133–
159, 2008.
[9] Y. H. Guan, T. C. Lim, and W. S. Shepard, “Experimental study on active vibration
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[10] M. O. Tokhi and M. A. Hossain, “Self-tuning active vibration control in flexible beam
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[11] M. O. Tokhi and R. R. Leitch, “Design and implementation of self-tuning active noise
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[12] R. Rogers, “Building a Benchtop PID Controller,” Keithley Instruments, vol. 3243, no.
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Vib. Control, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 449–460, Jul. 2013.
[15] D. J. Spearritt and S. F. Asokanthan, “Torsional vibration control of a flexible beam
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.
1 December 2016
T01_043: VIERENDEEL BENDING FAILURE

MECHANISM OF CELLULAR STEEL BEAMS
(CSBS) WHEN EXPOSE TO FIRES: A REVIEW
Fariz Aswan Ahmad Zakwan
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi
MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor
Renga Rao Krishnamoorthy

Azmi Ibrahim
Abdul Manaff Mohd. Ismail

MARA (Pulau Pinang), 13500 Permatang Pauh, Pulau
Pinang
ABSTRACT
Nowadays, sustainable material and cost effective measures are key

important role in constructions sectors. Cellular steel beams (CSBs) is one of
the way to minimize the cost expenditure in terms of material cost. Numerous
advantage can be obtained when using CSBs, rather than solid steel beam.
Lightweight material, higher strength, less hassle during assemble process
and pure aesthetic value are some of the key advantages of CSBs application.
CSBs is highly risked to fire exposure in any buildings or structures.
Structural elements, especially steel beam sections will exhibit decreasing of
strength and stiffness when exposed to fires. Two main failure can be clearly
seen from CSBs, namely Vierendeel bending failure mechanism and web post
buckling. The aim of this research to investigate the behaviour of the CSBs
with fire protection system when expose to elevated temperatures. Detailed
research will be focused on the failure mode of Vierendeel bending failure
mechanism. Performance based approach will be use to predict all the failure
325
modes in CSBs. Alternatively, a general purpose ABAQUS finite element

simulation will be employ to investigate and predict the critical behaviour of
the CSBs. Numerous researches available will be gathered to review the
significant effect of the Vierendeel bending failure mechanism onto CSBs. At
the end of the research, all the feedback from previous research will be
scrutinized and in depth analysis for future works undertaken related to
CSBs.
Keywords: Performance based approach, cellular steel beam (CSBs),

Vierendeel bending failure mechanism, fire protection, elevated temperature.
Introduction
Unlike to solid steel beam, cellular steel beams (CSBs) design has not been
specifically outlined in any design codes. The most reliable design
approach, known as prescriptive based approach can be found in the Annex
N of BS EN 1993-1-1 [1], [2]. However, the conservative approach have
several arising issues that leads to be superseded due to reliability concern.
The code does not consider several failure modes in design approach stage
that may occur for CSBs, namely Vierendeel bending failure mechanism
and web post buckling. When SCBs were exposed to extreme fire exposure,
the stiffness of the CSBs is degraded in comparison with the beam strength.
In addition, the measured temperature at the bottom tee section of the CSBs
exhibit higher temperature in comparison with top tee section. Due to this
scenario, the top tee section counteract the vertical shear greater which leads
to commit higher web post moment. When the CSBs were exposed to fires,
both failure modes of Vierendeel bending failure mechanism and web post
buckling will appeared along the beam length [3]–[5]. Coupled with static
load imposed along the beam will further jeopardized the stability of the
beam that can leads to failure of the beams. In order to predict the behavior
of the CSBs in designing and checking the stability of the CSBs, the Steel
Construction Institute (SCI), UK has developed and propose the a new
design code called P355 [6]. The publish code dealing with analyzing the
failure modes for a wide range of steel beam section and perforated steel
beams. In addition, several researcher has developed their own design that
complement the failure modes of the CSBs [3]–[5], [7]. Other researcher
also has come up with several design procedures for steel beams and
composites beams with the addition rectangular web openings [8]–[11]
326
(a)
(b)
Figure 1: Vierendeel bending failure mechanism for (a) rectangular web opening
shape of perforated steel beams [4]; (b) circular web opening shape of CSBs [5]
Web post buckling

[4] used a ‘strut’ model to predict web post buckling behavior along the
diagonal strut in compression. In this model, the shear loads on top of the slab
due to applied load were distributed and resist within the slab. Following that,
the remaining of the applied load were imposed and discharged between the
top and bottom tee sections of the CSBs. This is to ensure that web post
moment were lowered down which postulate higher shear at the bottom tee
section of CSBs. If the applied load were impose beyond the elastic region of
the CSBs, the web post section started to deform and vertical deflection will
takes place along the web section of CSBs.
327
Vierendeel bending failure mechanism

Due to vertical shear dissemination along the tee section between top and
bottom tee (along the web opening), it instigate secondary moments at top
and bottom tee section of the web opening [4]. From this point onwards, the
critical failure mode called Vierendeel bending failure mechanism takes place
around the web opening sections [4], [12]. The failure mode can be illustrates
as shown in Figure 1.
In order to verify the stability of the beams due to Vierendeel bending failure
mechanism, it can be explicitly detailed as follows [4]:
2𝑀𝑏𝑇,𝑁𝑉,𝑅𝑑 + 2𝑀𝑡𝑇,𝑁𝑉,𝑅𝑑 + 𝑀𝑣𝑐,𝑅𝑑 > 𝑉𝐸𝑑 ℓ𝑒 (1)
where; 𝑀𝑏𝑇,𝑁𝑉,𝑅𝑑 = bending resistance of the bottom tee web opening

section
𝑀𝑡𝑇,𝑁𝑉,𝑅𝑑 = bending resistance of the top tee web opening section
𝑀𝑣𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = bending resistance of the concrete slab
𝑉𝐸𝑑 = applied shear at the center of the web opening section
It is much more accessible in dealing with interpretation of the shear and

moment capacity of the perforated steel beam. Notwithstanding, it is very
challenging to approach the moment strength at top and bottom tee section of
the web opening. The presence of both axial force and shear force as a result
of global bending response that makes it difficult to analyze the moment
strength [3]. In his research, two main techniques were introduce to
investigate the structural behavior web opening sections of perforated steel
beams. The first technique is tee section design, which is rather difficult.
Second technique involving perforated section design, where the web section
opening is the decisive section to be weighed in design stage.
The severity of the failure modes Vierendeel bending failure mechanism are
depends to several factors, namely the depth of the web opening section and
web opening sizes [13]. Various web opening sizes and shapes of CSBs were
328
conducted numerically. When the web opening sizes is smaller, there are no
changes of shear capacity of the CSBs. However, there are significant effect
can be seen when the web opening sizes were raise. In terms of long span
beam, the CSBs deteriorate cause by bend from reduced moment capacity. In
comparison between solid steel beams and CSBs, the shear capacity drops
than moment capacity as long as web opening were present in the beams.
[14] investigate different types of web opening shape (fillet corner shape) of
perforated steel beam as shown Figure 2. The moment-shear interaction were
used in designing stage to evaluate load bearing capacity of the perforated
steel beam. The advantages using this types shape of web opening is it only
needs one cut to create the opening shape in comparison with circular,
rectangular and hexagonal shape which needed two cuts to form the
perforated web section. Due to this reason, manufacturing cost can be reduce
significantly.
Four parametric study has been analyze to determine failure mode behavior,
namely fillet radius of web opening, expansion ratio, web opening length and
web opening shape. Different sizes of fillet radius doesn’t have serious effect
on the bending moment capacity of the perforated steel beam under natural
bending condition. However, the expansion ratio, web opening length and
various web opening shape do have impact to the load bearing capacity which
leads to failure modes of the perforated steel beam. Due to this reason,
Vierendeel bending failure mechanism will be increase based on larger web
opening length and lower vertical shear capacity of the perforated web
opening beam.
329
Figure 2: Fillet wen opening shape of perforated steel beam [14]
Conclusion
Clearly from all the numerous research available, failure modes for both web
post buckling and Vierendeel bending failure mechanism has been presented
in detail for CSBs and perforated steel beams when expose to elevated
temperatures. Notwithstanding, behavior of the CSBs with fire protection
systems has not been widely presented in any research or studies in the
researches community. Explanation regarding the failure mode of Vierendeel
bending failure mechanism are very limited. The addition of fire protection
system (intumescent coating) which subsequently reduce the overall web post
buckling behavior and Vierendeel bending failure mechanism, has not been
recorded in the literature. Numerical simulation of the protected CSBs when
expose to fires will be suggested later on for further investigation.
Furthermore, parametric investigation of various thickness intumescent
coating will be conducted at near future. Let alone, various web opening size
and also beam length will be further discussed at later stage.
References
[1] BSI, “BS EN 1993-1-1:2005 Design of steel structures — Part 1-1:
General rules and rules for buildings,” 2005.
[2] BSI, “NA to BS EN 1993-1-1:2005 Design of steel structures - Part
1-1: General rules and rules for buildings,” 2005.
[3] K. F. Chung, T. C. H. Liu, and a. C. H. Ko, “Investigation on
330
vierendeel mechanism in steel beams with circular web openings,” J.

Constr. Steel Res., vol. 57, pp. 467–490, 2001.
[4] S. Bake, “Design of beams with large web openings,” pp. 30–31,
2011.
[5] P. Panedpojaman and T. Rongram, “Design Equations for Vierendeel
Bending of Steel Beams with Circular Web Openings,” World Congr.
Eng. 2014, vol. II, no. c, pp. 0–5, 2014.
[6] R. M. Lawson and S. J. Hicks, Design of beams with large web
openings (SCI P355). SCI, 2011.
[7] J. K. Ward, Design of composite and non-composite cellular beams.
Steel Construction Institute, 1990.
[8] D. Darwin, Steel and Composite Beams with Web Openings.
American Institute of Steel Construction, 1990.
[9] P. R. Knowles, Design of Castellated Beams: For Use with BS 5950
and BS 449. Steel Construction Institute, 1986.
[10] R. M. Lawson, Design for openings in the webs of composite beams.
CIRIA, 1987.
[11] R. Redwood and S. H. Cho, “Design of steel and composite beams
with web openings,” J. Constr. Steel Res., vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 23–41,
1993.
[12] F. Erdal and M. P. Saka, “Ultimate load carrying capacity of
optimally designed steel cellular beams,” J. Constr. Steel Res., vol.
80, pp. 355–368, 2013.
[13] K. D. Tsavdaridis and C. D’Mello, “Vierendeel Bending Study of
Perforated Steel Beams with Various Novel Web Opening Shapes
through Nonlinear Finite-Element Analyses,” J. Struct. Eng., vol.
138, pp. 1214–1230, 2012.
[14] P. Wang, Q. Ma, and X. Wang, “Investigation on Vierendeel
mechanism failure of castellated steel beams with fillet corner web
openings,” Eng. Struct., vol. 74, pp. 44–51, 2014.
331
1 December 2016
T01_044: HETEROLOGOUS EXPRESSION OF

FK506-BINDING PROTEIN35 FROM
PLASMODIUM KNOWLESI USING SYNTHETIC
GENE AND CODON OPTIMIZATION
Carlmond Goh Kah Wun, Wan Nur Shuhaida binti Wan Mahadi, Cahyo
Budiman, Lau Tiek Ying
Biotechnology Research Institute, University Malaysia Sabah, Kota
Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
Lee Ping Chin

Faculty of Science and Natural resources, University Malaysia Sabah, Kota
Adam Leow Thean Chor

Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Science, University Putra
Malaysia, Pahang, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Plasmodium knowlesi is a primate malaria parasite that recently found
abundantly in Southeast Asia. Attempts to reduce the prevalence of this
parasite are limited by the resistance of the parasite towards widely used
antimalarial drugs. Despite, the immunosuppressive drug FK506 displayed
an antimalarial effect with no resistance has been reported so far, this drug
is not feasible to be used for combating disease for long term due to side effect
of FK506 in reducing the immune system. This effect is believed due to ability
of FK506 to specifically inhibit FK506-binding protein 35 inside the parasite
cell. In attempts to develop novel antimalarial drug with no resistance effect,
comprehensive studies on FKBP35 from P. knowlesi (Pk-FKBP35) is
unavoidable. The studies might require functional and high amount of
FKBP35 which feasible to be addressed through recombinant technology. In
this study, DNA sequence of Pk-FKBP35 was optimized for expression in
prokaryote system. The optimized sequenced was then synthesized, cloned
and expressed in Escherichia coli BL21(DE3). Results show that Pk-FKBP35
was highly expressed in E. coli, and fully produced in soluble form. This
indicates that the codon optimization of gene encoding Pk-FKBP35 allows
333
this protein to fold properly under heterologous expression system. This

should allow further functional and structural studies of Pk-FKBP35 as a
platform for designing selective antimalarial drug.
Keywords: Plasmodium knowlesi, FKBP35, antimalarial drug, heterologous

expression, FK506
Introduction
Human malaria is one of the major risks to human health over the tropical
and subtropical regions especially at Southeast Asia, where almost half of the
human population belong [1]. Plasmodium falciparum, P. vivax, P. olave, and
P. malariae are four types formerly malarial parasite that caused human
malaria. P. knowlesi is the fifth species recently found to cause human malaria
especially in Southeast Asia, which usually misdiagnosed as P. malariae [2].
This parasite naturally found in long-tailed and pig-tailed macaques and
transmitted to humans through bites of female Anopheles mosquito [3, 4]. In
Malaysia, 38 % of malaria caused by P. knowlesi was reported in the year of
2012, which is the highest among all plasmodium species [5]. This brings us
to the need of discovering new anti-malarial drug since study reported that
most of the malarial parasites developed resistance towards most anti-
malarial drugs [6].
One of the strategies in drug designing is by revisiting and
redesigning existing anti-malarial drug. FK506 (Tacrolimus), a 23-member
macrolide lactone binds to peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase (PPIase)
domain of various FK506-binding proteins (FKBPs), that can be found in
most malaria parasites, as an effective drug towards malaria without
resistance effect, simultaneously promising the drug target site. By the
knowledge that of FK506 binds to FKBP35, comprehensive study on the
functions of Pk-FKBP35 easier the drug design process [6].
Effort through genomic analysis resulting identification of FKBP
family protein in P. knowlesi (Pk-FKBP35) where it shows high sequence
similarity to FKBP35 from P. falciparum (Pf-FKBP35) in catalytic core
domain, and also similar structural architecture resembles of multiple
tetratricopeptide repeat domain (TPRD) with Pf-FKBP35 and FKBP35 of P.
vivax (Pv-FKBP35) [6]. FKBP family proteins exhibit PPIase and chaperone
activities. The high sequence similarities ensure Pk-FKBP35 containing
FKBD and TPRD as in Pf-FKBP35, which proposed that Pk-FKBP35 might
exhibit both activities [1].
334
Currently, mechanisms of both PPIase and chaperone activities

remain unclear. Towards the better understanding on the biological function
of Pk-FKBP35, high production level of this protein is feasible to be achieved
through recombinant technology under homologous expression. However
this approach is limited by the issue of compatibility of the gene with the
expression machinery of the host cell.
Since P. knowlesi and E. coli taxonomically reside in different
kingdom hence might have different genetic regulation on their gene
expression. Direct insertion of eukaryotic gene into prokaryote vector might
cause several problems such as splicing, post-translational modification,
folding, insolubility or even function and in expression level. Synthetic gene
was designed to increase the compatibility of the target gene with the features
of host cell for recombinant product. This approach is promising to be applied
for Pk-FKBP35 in order to having high amount and functional Pk-FKBP35
through recombinant system [7].
In this study, the codon of Pk-FKBP35 was optimized for expression
in E. coli. The optimized Pk-FKBP35 was synthesized with addition of
polyistidine-tag at N-termini in pET29 cloning vector and transformed into
E. coli BL21(DE3). The results demonstrated that the synthetically designed
Pk-FKBP35 was expressed in soluble form in E. coli carrying the similar size
as expected.
Materials
Ni-NTA column, Superdex 16/200 Column, and pre-stain protein markers
were from GE Healthcare (UK). Other chemicals were purchased from
Nacalai Tesque (Japan).
Construction of bacterial expression vectors for Pk-FKBP35 of primer

The gene sequence was retrieved from PlasmoDB.org with accession code
(Gene ID) PKNH_1467100. The codon sequence was optimized using
OptimumGeneTM for the expression in E. coli system. The optimized
sequence was then chemically synthesized under GenScript Service (NJ,
USA). The gene was then amplified using service of primer containing NdeI
site (5’- CATATGGGCTCCTCGCATCATCATCATCATC - 3’); reverse
primer contains XhoI site (5’-
CGGAGGATTTCTTTTCTTCATACAGGATGC - 3’). The amplified
sequence of DNA fragment was digested with NdeI and XhoI and the
335
resulting product was inserted into pET29b to generate pET29-Pk-FKBP35

with polyhistidine-tag at N-terminus [1].
Expression of optimized Pk-FKBP35 Gene

The expression was performed according to previous method with some
modifications on incubation temperature after induction at 25ºC [1]. The
presence of the protein after induction was observed using SDS-Page
according to [8].
Figure 1: Allignment of original and optimized DNA sequences of Pk-FKBP35

336
Optimization of Pk-FKBP35 gene sequence

Pk-FKBP35 gene sequence was optimized and synthesized under GenScript
service (NJ, USA). The optimization was introduced at 4 to 975 of its DNA
sequence (Figure 1). In this case, the original gene sequence harbours tandem
rare codons that might reduce the efficiency of translation or even disengage
the translational machinery.
Codon Adaptation Index (CAI) value indicates gene expression level, the
codon usage bias in the optimized sequence was improved by upgrading the
CAI from 0.67 to 0.88 (Figure 2) after optimized. A value of 1.0 is considered
to be perfect in the desired expression organism, and a CAI greater than 0.8
is regarded as good, indicates that the expression level of Pk-FKBP35
increase after optimized [9].
(a) After optimization (b) Before optimization
CAI: 0.88 CAI: 0.67
Figure 2: The distribution of codon sage frequency along length of the gene
sequence of Pk-FKBP35 showing the Codon Adaptation Index (CAI) before (b)
and after (a) optimization.
(a) After optimization (b) Before optimization
GC Content: 43.57% GC Content: 39.72%
Figure 3: Comparison of GC content of PK-FKBP35 before (b) and after (a)

optimization.
337
GC content and unfavourable peaks have been optimized to prolong

the half-life of the mRNA. After optimized, the CG content in the optimized
sequence was improved by showing increment in the average percentage of
GC content from 39.72% to 43.57% (Figure 3). The ideal percentage range
of GC content of E. coli is between 30-70%, this indicates high expression
level of Pk-FKBP35 in E. coli.
In addition, the optimization process has screened and successfully
modified negative CIS-acting sites as listed in Table 1 below.
Table 1: Optimization of CIS-Acting Elements in Pk-FKBP35
CIS-Acting Elements Optimized Origin

E. coli_RBS(AGGAGG) 0 1
PolyT(TTTTTT) 0 1
PolyA(AAAAAAA) 0 4
Chi_sites(GCTGGTGG) 0 0
T7Cis(ATCTGTT) 0 0
SD_like(GGRGGT) 0 1
The main purpose for codon optimization towards the gene sequence
of Pk-FKBP35 was to ensure compatibility of the interest gene with the
expression machinery in the target host cell (in this study, E. coli is used)
hence improved the expression level of the interest gene. There are variety of
parameters that are critical to the efficiency of gene expression such as codon
usage bias, GC content, CpG dinucleotide content, mRNA secondary
structure, cryptic splicing sites, premature PolyA sites, internal chi sites and
ribosomal binding sites, negative CpG islands, RNA instability motif (ARE),
repeated sequences (direct repeat, reverse repeat, and Dyad repeat) and
restriction sites that may interfere with cloning. Since heterologous
expression involves the incorporation of gene from one organism to another
organism with different system, the chances of expression success become
varied or most probably lower. For instance, in this experiment, the origin of
replication (ORI) of Pk-FKBP35 and the host cells E. coli are different. Each
organism has their own preference in terms of GC ratio for expression. Thus,
this again emphasizes the important of codon optimization in heterologous
expression as highlighted [10]. Some reports on codon optimization for
heterologous expression in E. coli revealed that expression levels of between
10% and 20% of total E. coli soluble protein were obtained [11]. More typical
increases in expression for codon-optimized mammalian proteins in E. coli
338
are between five- and 15-fold and can frequently yield as much as 5% of the
E. coli soluble protein [10].
Expression of Pk-FKBP35
Pk-FKBP35 was fully expressed in soluble form (Figure 4). This proved that
synthetic Pk-FKBP35 gene can be expressed using E. coli and protein was
expressed in soluble form at ~38 kD. The additional of polyhistidine tag at
N-terminal was designated to allow purification process by using Ni-NTA
metal affinity chromatography. Previous studies reported that FKBD
homologous from P. falciparum and P. vivax, designated as Pf- and Pv-
FKBD, were actually solubly expressible in E. coli system, yet in lesser
percentage [1, 12]. Noteworthy, Pf- and Pv-FKBP35 were expressed without
the use of codon optimization approach which might account for less
solubility as compared to PK-FKBP35 in this study. Besides, there is no
report of post-translational modification of Plasmodial FKBP35 reflecting
that this protein is basically expressible in E. coli without codon optimization,
yet the optimization might play important roles in modulating solubility of
the protein as shown in this study.
kD 1 2 3 4
97
66
45
30
20.1
Figure 4 : SDS-PAGE of the Pk-FKBP35. Pk-FKBP35 (indicated by arrow) was

expressed and induced as described in Material and methods. Lane 1
corresponding to protein marker; Lane 2 refers to E. coli cell lysate without
IPTG induction; Lane 3 is IPTG-induced lysate in soluble form after sonicate;
Lane 4 indicates insoluble form of IPTG-induced lysate of Pk-FKBP35.
Conclusion
This study confirmed the codon optimization and heterologous expression

platform were successfully used to express Pk-FKBP35 in soluble form.
Native gene employs tandem rare codon that can reduce the efficiency of
339
translation or even disengage the translational machinery. CAI increases from

0.67 to 0.88, while adjusted GC content rises from 39.72% to 43.57%.
Synthetic Pk-FKBP35 was fully expressed in E. coli BL21(DE3). The
successful of soluble expression of Pk-FKBP35 protein provides window for
various structural and functional studies of this protein in the frame of drug
development.
References
[1] H. R. Yoon, C. B. Kang, J. Chia, K. Tang and H. S. Yoon,

“Expression, purification, and molecular characterization of
Plasmodium falciparum FK506-binding protein 35 (PfFKBP35),”
Protein expression and purification 53 (1), 179-185 (2007).
[2] B. Singh and C. Daneshvar, “ Human infections and detection of
Plasmodium knowlesi,” Clinical microbiology reviews 26 (2), 165-184
(2013).
[3] J. J. van Hellemond, M. Rutten, R. Koelewijn, A-M. Zeeman, J. J.
Verweij, P. J. Wismans, C. H. Kovken and P. J van Genderen,
“Human Plasmodium knowlesi infection detected by rapid diagnostic
tests for malaria,” Emerg Infect Dis 15 (9), 1478-1480 (2009).
[4] J. Cox-Singh and B. Singh B. “Knowlesi malaria: newly emergent and
of public health importance?,” Trends in parasitology 24 (9), 406-410
(2008).
[5] Ministry of Health Malaysia. “Management Guidelines of Malaria in
Malaysia,” (2015).
[6] M. Kotaka, H. Ye, R. Alag, G. Hu, Z.Bozdech, P. R. Preiser, H. S.
Yoon and J. Lescar, “Crystal Structure of the FK506 Binding Domain
of Plasmodium falciparum FKBP35 in Complex with FK506,”
Biochemistry 47 (22), 5951-5961 (2008).
[7] M. Welch, S. Govindarajan, J. E. Ness, A. Villalobos, A. Gurney, J.
Minshull and C. Gustafsson, “Design parameters to control synthetic
gene expression in Escherichia coli,” PLoS One 4 (9), 7002 (2009).
[8] U. Laemmli, F. Beguin and G. Gujer-Kellenberger, “A factor
preventing the major head protein of bacteriophage T4 from random
aggregation,” Journal of molecular biology 47 (1), 69-85 (1970).
[9] P. M Sharp, E. Cowe, D. G. Higgins, D. C. Shields, K. H. Wolfe and
F. Wright, “Codon usage patterns in Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis,
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Drosophila
melanogaster and Homo sapiens; a review of the considerable within-
species diversity,” Nucleic acids research 16 (17), 8207-8211 (1988).
340
[10] C. Gustafsson, S. Govindarajan and J. Minshull J, “Codon bias and

heterologous protein expression,” Trends in biotechnology 22 (7), 346-
353 (2004).
[11] L. Feng, D. A Gell, S. Zhou, L. Gu, Y. Kong, J Li, M. Hu, N. Yan, C.
Lee and A. M. Rich, “Molecular mechanism of AHSP-mediated
stabilization of α-hemoglobin,” Cell 119 (5), 629-640 (2004).
[12] R. Kumar, B. Adams, A. Musiyenko, O. Shulyayeva and S. Barik,
“The FK506-binding protein of the malaria parasite, Plasmodium
falciparum, is a FK506-sensitive chaperone with FK506-independent
calcineurin-inhibitory activity,” Molecular and biochemical
parasitology 141 (2), 163-173 (2005).
341
T01_045: ENHANCEMENT OF BIOACTIVE
CONSTITUENTS IN ORTHOSIPHON STAMINEUS
PLANT GROWN UNDER NITROGEN STRESS
CONDITIONS.
Noorhaslina Hashim* and Abdul Razak Shaari,
School of Bioprocess, Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP),
Kompleks Pusat Pengajian Jejawi 3,
02600 Arau,Perlis, Malaysia.
(leein16@yahoo.com; razakshaari@unimap.edu.my)
ABSTRACT
This study aimed to investigate the effect of nitrogen stress on the accumulation of
bioactive constituents in the Orthosiphon stamineus’s leaf. Experiment was
conducted under plastic rain shelter and plant was allowed to grow in pots. The four
levels of nitrogen fertilization and applied three times immediately after
transplanting. Urea was used as N source. Phosphorus and potassium were applied
at the rate as recommended by MARDI (Yaacob & Maarof, 2005). Application of N,
P, K is on a plant basis. The experiment is factorial and arranged on a Randomized
Complete Design (RCBD) with 4 replicates. The present study have showed the
concentration of bioactive compounds (rosmarinic acid (RA), 3’-hydroxy-5,6,7,4’-
tetramethoxyflavone (TMF), Sinensetin (SEN) and eupatorin (EUP) in O. stamineus
leaf was increased greatly when imposed with the medium nitrogen stress level (110
kg/ha rate of N). The present study have showed that the concentration of RA, TMF,
SEN and EUP in O. stamineus’s leaf significantly increased compared to control,
low and high levels of N stress. However, the accumulation of TMF was extremely
elevated when imposed to medium N stress level. It is hope that the content of
bioactive compounds can be increased and endure improved the quality of herbal
raw material produced with optimum application of N fertilizer.
Keywords: O. stamineus; bioactive compounds; nitrogen stress; concentrations.
Introduction
Nitrogen is one of the most important nutrients for plant growth and also as a major
nutrient of plants. In plants, the nitrogen often comes from fertilizer application,
and, although the atmosphere [1]. Sources of nitrogen in plants can be categories
into two sources; inorganic form (include nitrate (NO-3); and nitrite (NO-2); as well
as ammonium (NH-4) [2] and organic form (urea (NH2)2CO) which applied as a
342
fertilizer. Commonly, fertilizer act as a supplement for the plants. The fertilizer
(nitrogen sources) is a constituent sources of plant proteins, chlorophyll (the green
plant pigment important to photosynthesis), nucleic acids (DNA, RNA), and other
plant substances. Usually, the potential rate of nitrogen use by growing plants
generally exceeds the rate at which nitrogen becomes available [3].
Previously, nitrogen deficiency affect root hydraulic conductivity resulted in
reduction of pressure. Besides that, it was reported that deficiency of nitrogen
source also affects in accumulation of phenolics, such as flavonols, anthocyanins
and coumarins [4]. The effect of low nitrogen availability on plant biomass, nitrate
uptake and root architecture has already been widely studied [5]. Previous studies
on Labisa pumila performed with different nitrogen fertilizations have shown that
high nitrogen can reduce the production of secondary metabolites in this herb due
to reduced phenyl alanine lyase (PAL) activity. It found to correlate with low
carbon or nitrogen ratio, photosynthetic rates and total nonstructural carbohydrate
[6].
Orthosiphon stamineus (O. stamineus) is a Malaysian important herbal species. It
is locally known as misai kucing. This plant is also commonly found in tropical
countries such as Thailand, Indonesia, Philippines, Brunei. O. stamineus contains
more than 20 phenolic compounds, including nine caffeic acid derivatives,
including rosmarinic acid and 2,3-dicaffeoyltartaric acid, two flavonol glycosides
and nine lipophilic flavones [7]. The main components of O. stamineus leaves are
polyphenols (caffeic acid derivatives and the polymethoxylated flavonoids [8].
The therapeutic effects of O. stamineus have been recognized mainly to its
polyphenols which form the most dominant constituents in the leaf. These
constituents have been reported to be effective in reducing oxidative stress by
inhibiting the formation of lipid peroxidation products in biological systems [8].
Meanwhile, the application of stressors has been proven to enhance the production
of phytochemicals in a number of herbal plant [9], it is expected that nitrogen
treatment might also enhance the production of specific medicinal secondary
metabolites of O. stamineus. Therefore, the main objective of the present research
was to examine the effects of nitrogen stress on the accumulation of O. stamineus
bioactive compounds. It is hope that the content of bioactive compounds can be
increased and endure improved the quality of herbal raw material produced.
Material and methods
Chemicals and reagents
All chemicals for HPLC analysis such tetrahydrofuran (THF) [HPLC grade] and
methanol (HPLC grade) obtained from AR Alatan (K) Sdn Bhd. Sinensetin
343
(SEN), eupatorin (EUP), Rosmarinic acid (RA) and 3’-hydroxy-5,6,7,4’-
tetramethoxyflavone (TMF) were purchased from RASIAH Sdn. Bhd.
Plant materials
O. stamineus (misai kucing) was grown at the UniMAP Agrotechnology Research

Station farm in Perlis. The experiments were conducted under plastic rain shelter
using potted plants. The experimental plants were propagated by stem cuttings and
grown in peat moss in trays. For 4 weeks old seedlings were transferred into pots
containing soil mixture of top soil, peat and sand (ratio 3:2:1).
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
The experiments were conducted under plastic rain shelter using plant grown in
pots. The experiments were consisted of four levels nitrogen fertilization [0 N
kg/ha (high N stress)), 110 N kg/ha (medium N stress), 170 N kg/ha (low N stress)
and 250 N kg/ha (Control)]. The nitrogen fertilization was split into three
fertilization phases (after sowing, week 4 and week 6) and each phase was applied
at 33.3% of total nitrogen fertilization. As shown in table 1, the rate of nitrogen
fertilization during the experiment.
Table.1: Nitrogen fertilization levels of O. stamineus plant during the

experiment.
N/ha)nitrogen fertilizer per plant3 (g)

Rate of nitrogen (kgTotal
0 0
110 1.14
170 1.76
250 2.59
Urea (46%) was used as N source. Each of nitrogen treated plants were received
TSP (Triple Super Phosphate; 46% P) and MOP (Muriate Of Potash; 60% K) at
the standard rate equivalent 167 kg/ha (the rate as recommended by MARDI
[10])at planting of 14,800 plants per hectare. The plants were allowed to stress for
periods of 12 weeks without the intensity of stress becoming excessive. Plants
were harvested at week 12 and immediately dry for further experiment analysis.
The experiment was factorial and arranged on a Randomized Complete Design
(RCBD) with 4 replicates and 8 plants per plot.
344
Bioactive extraction
The O. stamineus plant which was grown at UniMAP Agrotechnology Research
Station, Sg. Chucuh, Perlis was randomly harvested at 8.00 am in the morning and
the leaf of plant were dried at 400C for 5 days. The dried leaf of O. stamineus plant
were weighed and grounded to powder form and used for extraction process. One
gram of O. stamineus dry powder was accurately weighed into 250 ml conical
flask and mixed with 100% methanol solution. The conical flask were sealed with
cotton wool and wrapped with aluminium foil to prevent spilling of mixture. Then
the mixture was shaken at 150 rpm by using water bath shaker with temperature
control 400C.
Quantification of Bioactive Compounds
HPLC quantification of O. stamineus marker compounds, namely rosmarinic acid
(RA), 3’-hydroxy-5,6,7,4’-tetramethoxyflavone (TMF), sinensetin (SEN) and
eupatorin (EUP) were conducted according to the method used by Akowuah et al.
(2005) [11]. Methanolic extract was used for this quantitative analysis. HPLC
analysis were performed by using a system equip with an automatic injector,
a column oven and a UV detector. A LiChrosorb RP-18 column (250 mm x 4.6
i.d. mm, 5 ml particle size) (Merck Darmstadt, Germany) were used for this
experiment. The temperature was maintained at 25oC with injection volume of 20
microliter and flow rate of 1 ml/min. The following reference compound were
used as a marker: Rosmarinic acid (RA), Sinensetin (SEN), 30-hydroxy-5,6,7,40-
tetramethoxyflavone (TMF) and eupatorin (EUP).
Statistical analysis
Data analysis was carried out by using the JMP software. The t-test was used to
determine differences level of stress between different intervals, and treatment of
each stage. Differences between treatments in the plant were determined by using
analysis of variances (ANOVA).

The HPLC procedure was applied to determination of the concentration of
Rosmarinic acid (RA), 3′-hydroxy-5, 6, 7, 4 ′-tetramethoxyflavone (TMF),
Sinensetin (SEN) and Eupatorin (EUP) in O. stamineus plant which treated with
different rates of nitrogen supplied. As shown in table 3, the concentration of
rosmarinic acid for O. stamineus leaf treated with medium level of N stress was
significantly increased compared with other levels of N stress. It was indicated
that the RA concentration obtained as 454.51 [µg/g] dw. These results indicated
that the optimum supplied of nitrogen was most effectively compared with high
345
nitrogen supplied in O. stamineus plant. It should be considered that appropriate
supplied of nitrogen fertilizer can be managed efficiently to avoid costly.
Table 3: The concentration of Rosmarinic acid (RA), 3′-hydroxy-5, 6, 7, 4 ′-

tetramethoxyflavone (TMF), Sinensetin (SEN) and Eupatorin (EUP) compounds
in O. stamineus’s leaf.
Level of N stress (kg/ha) Concentration ([µg/g] dw)

RA TMF SEN EUP
High (0 N kg/ha) 216.07b 147.54c 50.17bc 221.63b
Medium (110 N kg/ha) 454.51a 498.19a 130.54a 450.26a
Low (170 N kg/ha) 206.63b 303.83b 58.31b 176.29b
Control (250 N kg/ha) 181.00b 178.74bc 31.05c 129.24b
Different letters in rows for each extract indicate significantly different values of
means (P < 0.05).
Then, the concentration TMF of O. stamineus’s leaf was also significantly

elevated on medium N stress level compared with others level of N stress
treatment. It was obtained as 498.19 [µg/g] dw of TMF concentration. However,
the high, low and control level of N stress insignificantly declined to 147.54[µg/g]
dw , 303.83 [µg/g] dw and 178.74[µg/g] dw respectively of TMF concentration.
Due to the facts, large quantities of nitrogen supplied were not produce the high
concentration of TMF on O. stamineus’s leaf. Recently, considerations on nitrogen
supply are the most important factor to acquire high accumulation of bioactive
compounds. The same situation was observed in the leaf treated with medium N
stress level, whereas the SEN concentration contains as 130.54 [µg/g] dw.
Comparing with low, high and control levels of N stress insignificantly dropped
to 50.17[µg/g] dw, 58.31[µg/g] dw and 31.05[µg/g] dw separately of SEN
concentration. Considering the importance of nitrogen supplied also most
influenced the production of bioactive compounds. Nonetheless, the sufficient
supplied of nitrogen fertilizer also be considered for the plant. Besides that, the
nitrogen stress also significantly affected the eupatorin concentration especially
on leaf of O. stamineus plant. It was observed that the O.stamineus leaf treated
with medium level of nitrogen stress was significantly increased compared with
other levels of stress in leaf. It was recorded that the EUP concentration contains
450.26[µg/g] dw. Nevertheless, the O. stamineus treated with low, high and
control level of N stress insignificantly decrement to 221.63 [µg/g] dw, 179.29
[µg/g] dw and 129.24 [µg/g] dw individually.
It appears that the nitrogen stress and their application supplied were flatteringly
influenced in the bioactive constituents’ production exclusively on plant leaf.
346
These studies were manipulated the accumulation of bioactive contents with
sufficient supply of nitrogen fertilizer. According to [12] the different dosage of
N treatments to lavender plant (Lavandula angustifolia Mill.) was produced high
accumulation of constituents of leaf essential oil (1.8-cineole, borneol, camphor,
α-terpineol, myrtenal) and mineral. The same situation was also reported by
Kováčik & Klejdus (2014) in Matricaria chamomilla plants. It was observed that
N deficiency plants were revealed an increase in phenolic metabolites compared
to sufficient N fertilizer. Whereas, the arginine compound was revealed strongly
accumulated in ammonium (NH4) fed plants compared to ammonia nitrate (NO3)
fed plants while aspartic and glutamic acids considerably decreased. In this view,
balanced application of nitrogen supply may increase accumulation of desirable
phenolic metabolites in this medicinal plant.
Conclusion
As we can concluded that, the concentration of bioactive compounds (RA, TMF,
SEN and EUP) in O. stamineus leaf was increased highly when imposed with the
medium nitrogen stress level (110 kg/ha rate of N). Nevertheless, stem shows high
accumulation of TMF, SEN and EUP on high stress level (0 kg/ha rate of N). But,
the RA of stem shows the accumuation high on medium stress level. The root of
O. stamineus plant shows different response where the accumulation of RA and
SEN were increased highly on high stress level with 0 kg/ha rate of N. Besides
that, the accumulation of TMF and EUP were highly increased on low stress level
(170 N kg/ha).
Acknowledgement
This research project has been supported by the Ministry of Higher Education
Malaysia (MOHE) and the School of Bioprocess Engineering, UniMAP, Malaysia
especially to the UniMAP Agrotechnology Research Station, Sg. Chucuh, Perlis.
References
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Berker, and D. Ozyurt, “Comparative evaluation of various total antioxidant
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polyphenols of Orthosiphon stamineus and evaluation of the free radical-
scavenging activity,” Food Bioprod. Process., vol. 93, pp. 311–317, 2005.
[12] A. Chrysargyris, C. Panayiotou, and N. Tzortzakis, “Nitrogen and
phosphorus levels affected plant growth, essential oil composition and
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Prod., vol. 83, pp. 577–586, 2016.
[13] J. Kováčik and B. Klejdus, “Induction of phenolic metabolites and
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348
T01_046: USING DELPHI
TECHNIQUE: MAKING SENSE OF
CONSENSUS IN CONCEPT
MAPPING STRUCTURE AND
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
(MCQ)
Rusnani Ab Latif1,
Akehsan Dahlan2
Zamzaliza binti Ab Mulud3
Mohd Zarawi Mat Nor4
1,2,3 Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia. 4Universiti
Sains Malaysia, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
The Delphi technique is a widely used and accepted method for
gathering data from participants within domain of expertise. The
objective of this study is to discuss the process of the three rounds
Delphi technique in seeking a consensus of concept mapping
structure and MCQ in Diabetic Mellitus subject. In the first, round,
participants were given a structured questionnaire regarding item of
concept mapping structure and MCQ in Diabetic Mellitus subject. In
the second were add mean and median value of round one. In the
third round were add mean and median value of round two.
Participants were asked to rate the categorized responses from round
1 on a scale of 1 to 5, with 1 being “Very Irrelevant” and 5 being
“Very Relevant”. This technique does not require that participants
be collocated or meet face-to-face, thereby making it useful to
conduct surveys with qualified people over a wide geographic area.
The feedback process allows and encourages the selected Delphi
participants to reassess their initial judgments about the information
provided in previous iterations. Data was analyzed to check for the
consistency of experts’ responses between rounds. Instrument
developed from the Delphi technique research findings is also
examined and it obtains validation from the experts for the content
validity and constructs validity. The analysis of consensus data of the
experts was done based on median, inter quartile range and quartile
349
deviation on Round 1, 2 and 3 data. As a conclusion, the concept
mapping structure and MCQ questions have meets consensus when
all the statements got the medium consensus above 4, which reported
that level of importance of the statements were high and low if the
median value is less than 3.5. Therefore, the Delphi technique is an
appropriate methodology for identifying the significant issues related
with academic.
Keywords: Delphi technique, concept mapping structure, MCQ

(Multiple Choice Questions)
Introduction
The Delphi technique was developed by the Rand Corporation in the
1950’s by Dalkey and Helmer [1]. The Delphi technique is a method
for the “systematic solicitation and collation of judgments on a
particular topic through a set of carefully designed sequential
questionnaires interspersed with summarized information and
feedback of opinions derived from earlier responses” [2]. Predicated
on the rationale that, “two heads are better than one, or...n heads are
better than one” [3]. It is well suited as a method for consensus-
building by using a series of questionnaires delivered using multiple
iterations to collect data from a panel of selected subjects [1, 4, 5, 6,
7, 8]. Members of the groups are selected because they are experts or
they have relevant information.
Delphi process
In this cases, researcher has decided to use three round for validate
concept maps structure and questionnaire. Three rounds Delphi can
achieve group consensus on the issue or problem which are under
consideration [2]. Regarding the criteria used to guide the selection
of Delphi subjects, individuals are considered eligible to be invited to
participate in a Delphi study if they have somewhat related
backgrounds and experiences concerning of knowledge related to the
target issue. Experts are defined as persons who have knowledge and
experience, and ability to influence policy [9]. There are four
requirements for expertise: i) Have knowledge and experience with
the issues under investigation: ii) Capacity and willingness to
participate; iii) Sufficient time to participate in the Delphi; and iv)
Effective communication skills [10]. Another problematic issue
surrounding the Delphi investigations is the size of panel required
[11]. There is no agreement regarding the size of the panel and in the
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Delphi literature it is indicated that panel size varies from a few to
hundreds of experts [12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17]. The size of the
respondent panel is variable. With a homogenous group of people,
ten to fifteen participants might be enough [2]. A good result can be
obtained even with small panels of 10-15 individuals [18, 19, 20].
Based on literature review, it appears that Delphi is the most popular
consensus method because of the need and value of obtaining
consensus opinions and may be applied to evaluate clinical,
educational, and policy issues in oral health care [21].
Advantages of Delphi techniques

i. Provide anonymity to respondents
The Delphi techniques are the ability to provide anonymity to
respondents, a controlled feedback process, and the suitability of a
variety of statistical analysis techniques to interpret the data [3, 22,
23] One of the primary characteristics and advantages of the Delphi
process is subject anonymity which can reduce the effects of
dominant individuals which often is a concern when using group-
based processes used to collect and synthesize information [3].
According to Dalkey [3], noise is that communication which occurs
in a group process which both distorts the data and deals with group
and/or individual interests rather than focusing on problem solving.
ii. Established and effective technique
The researcher uses the Delphi techniques because it is established
technique and widely uses. By using the Delphi techniques the
experts was able to focus on rating, revising, and commenting on the
items presented without the distractions normally associated with
more traditional face to face meeting in get consensus of concept
mapping and MCQ. The Delphi techniques were used in many
industry sectors, for instance in robotic and advanced automation
[24], policy research [25, 26] and nursing [17].
iii. Delphi technique is popular way of harnessing opinion
In this technique, the experts were given free comments related the
issues and it is free of bias. Delphi technique may be characterized as
a method for structuring a group communication process so that the
process is effective in allowing a group of individuals, as a whole, to
deal with a complex problem [5].
Disadvantages of Delphi techniques

i. Potential of Low Response Rates
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The researcher believe that the good communication skills is
important to make sure the experts panels stay involved in three
rounds of Delphi to avoid poor response rate. The specifically
addresses subject motivation as the key to the successful
implementation of a Delphi study and investigators need to play an
active role in this area to help ensure as high a response rate as
possible[27]
ii. Time Requirements
Lack of time consuming, the researcher allocates 45 days of time to
the participants to complete the questionnaires. A minimum of 45
days for the administration of a Delphi study is necessary [27, 28].
With regard to the time management between iterations, giving two
weeks for Delphi subjects to respond to each round is encouraged [2].
The challenging aspects of conducting a Delphi study and do require
proper planning and management because during developing the
instrument, collecting the data, and administering the questionnaire
are interconnected between iterations, ensuring Delphi subjects
respond to the investigators on time in analyzing the data and
developing a new instrument based upon the prior responses.
iii. Manipulated consensus
The consensus reached in a Delphi may not be a true consensus; it
may be a product of specious or manipulated consensus [29]. A
specious consensus does not contain the best judgment. Instead, it is
a compromise position [30].
Reliability and Validity

Validity can be divided into three namely: face/ content validity,
criterion- related validity and construct validity [31]. For the validity
of assessment using concept maps structure and content (Appendix
IV), the Delphi technique was done by given to the experts’ panel to
evaluate the validity before implementation. The Delphi technique
was used to collect data and the validity of the survey was enhanced
due to the use of experts in the validation process [4, 32]. There are
ten expert panel involving in validated the concept mapping structure
and questionnaire from University Sains Malaysia (USM), lecturer
nursing from USM and Kolej Kejururawatan Kubang
Kerian,Kelantan. The Delphi process can be continuously iterated
until consensus is determined to have been achieved. Delphi
technique is designed as a group communication process that aims at
conducting detailed examinations and discussions of a specific issue
352
for the purpose of goal setting, policy investigation, or predicting the
occurrence of future events [28, 33, 34].
Data Collection
The Delphi technique involves the use of questionnaires as
instrument for data collection. This study have three rounds modified
Delphi technique and the duration was two months: Starting from
September 2015-November 2015. All the questionnaires were
distributed via emails and mail. Each expert was given a code name
[i.e. P1= Panel 1; P2= Panel 2 etc] to allow for tracking of returned
responses and to track the individual’s feedback. It also to make
easier when do data analysis. To ensure ease in completion and return
of the questionnaires, a user friendly questionnaire was developed by
using word document. It is similar in study done by Chou [35].
The major statistics used in Delphi studies are measures of central
tendency and level of dispersion (standard deviation and inter-
quartile range) in order to present information concerning the
collective judgments of respondents [36]. Generally, the uses of
median and mode are favored. In the literature, the use of median
score, based on Likert-type scale, is strongly favored [37,38, 39].
One criterion recommends that consensus is achieved by having 80
percent of subjects‟ votes falling within two categories on a seven-
point scale [28]. Green [40] suggests that at least 70 percent of Delphi
subjects need to rate three or higher on a four point Likert-type scale
[41,42 ] and the median has to be at 3.25 or higher [42].
i. Delphi round 1
In the first round, respondents were given a structured questionnaire
regarding item of concept mapping and MCQ in Diabetic Mellitus
subject. The researcher provided a guideline for the expert’s panel
regarding the score to given. The total score is 100%. In the first
round, the Delphi panels were provided with closed-ended, 5-point
Likert scale questions in order to elicit their level of agreement with
a series of statements regarding the relative importance of concept
mapping structure that developed by researcher and MCQ (Multiple
Choice Questions). In round 1, offers a suitable environment to
the experts to anonymously discuss and express themselves.
After receiving participants’ responses, researcher needs to convert
the collected information into a well-structured questionnaire.
Participants were asked to rate the categorized responses from round
1 on a scale of 1 to 5, with 1 = Very irrelevant; 2 = Not relevant; 3 =
Less relevant; 4 =. Relevant and 5 = Very relevant). This
353
questionnaire is used as the survey instrument for the second round
of data collection. It should be noted that it is both an acceptable and
a common modification of the Delphi process format to use a
structured questionnaire in Round 1 that is based upon an extensive
review of the literature. The use of a modified Delphi process is
appropriate if basic information concerning the target issue is
available and usable [43]
The returns of the Round 1 questionnaires were analyzed. The return
of the round 2 questionnaires was analyzed by applying SPSS version
23 for descriptive statistics. The researcher uses the mean and median
score from five point Likert-type scale results. In the literature, the
use of median score, based on Likert-type scale, is strongly favored
[37,38, 39]. Basically, consensus on a topic can be decided if a certain
percentage of the votes falls within a prescribed range (44). One
criterion recommends that consensus is achieved by having 80
percent of subjects’ votes fall within two categories on a seven-point
scale [28]. At least 70 percent of Delphi subjects need to rate three or
higher on a four point Likert-type scale and the median has to be at
3.25 or higher [40]. The major statistics used in Delphi studies are
measures of central tendency (means, median, and mode) and level
of dispersion (standard deviation and inter-quartile range) in order to
present information concerning the collective judgments of
respondents [36]. Generally, the uses of median and mode are
favored. The degree of importance and consensus are justified after
each Delphi round before making interpretation. The group response
median value and the inter quartile range distribution are usually
referred as the reference for the degree of importance and consensus
in the past research [45,46, 47]. For the example of this study, the
analysis of consensus data of the experts was done based on median,
inter quartile range and quartile deviation on Round 1 data, Round 2
data and Round 3 data. After the median value, inter quartile range
and quartile deviations are identified, the subsequent analysis
technique is classifying items according to the consensus level and
importance level.
ii. Delphi round 2
In round 2, again two weeks were given to the panel to respond. After
a given a date, a few follow up emails, messages via Short Messaging
Service(SMS) or telephone calls was made. In round 2, the
question was modified based on the experts’ panel
comments. Results round 1 also indicated that most of
354
experts were give score between 4 to 5, Due to many valuable
responses the format of questionnaire was changed from portrait to
the landscape layout, so that to easier for the experts understanding,
where in this round 2 the researcher add result of min and median that
got from respond round 1. When get the feedback from participants’,
the researcher will combine together all the feedback in one summary
of the comments. In the second round, each Delphi participant
receives a second questionnaire and is asked to review the items
summarized by the investigator based on the information provided in
the first round. Accordingly, Delphi panellists may be required to rate
or “rank-order items to establish preliminary priorities among items.
As a result of round two, areas of disagreement and agreement are
identified” [27]. In some cases, Delphi panellists are asked to state
the rationale concerning rating priorities among items [39]. In this
round, consensus begins forming and the actual outcomes can be
presented among the participants’ responses [39].
iii. Delphi round 3
As with Round 1 and round 2, two weeks were given to the panel
members to respond in round 3. In the third round and often final
round, each Delphi panellist receives a questionnaire that includes the
items and ratings summarized by the researcher in the previous round
and are asked to revise his/her judgments in order to get the
consensus. Participants were asked to review their response, respond
again using the same rating scale, and add any comments regarding
the responses. Some of these comments have been cited in the
text and some others are presented in the Delphi technique
round 3. The survey was successful in providing a general
consensus regarding MCQ and concept mapping structure.
This round gives Delphi panellists an opportunity to make further
clarifications of both the information and their judgments of the
relative importance of the items. The list of remaining items, their
ratings, minority opinions, and items achieving consensus are
distributed to the panellists. In the third round, the experts can retain
their original answer as given in round two where their answers are
given as interquartile ranges. Experts might change their answer in
the third round if their initial responses fell outside the interquartile
range or the experts may choose to retain their answers that fall
outside the interquartile range, and give their reasons for retaining
their answers. The third round is aimed at achieving consensus and
narrowing the range of differences in opinion among the experts.
355
After the third round, the data were analyzed and the median as well
as interquartile range calculated. Findings from the Delphi third
round were used to answer the research question.
Result and Analysis
Formula: QD = Inter-quartile range
2
= (Q3-Q1)
2
Level Of Consensus And Importance
Quartile Level of Median Level of
Deviation(QD) Consensus Importance
Less or equal to 0.5 (QD≤0.5) High 4 and above High
(M≥4)
More than 0.5 and less than or Moderate 3.5 and less Low
equal to 1.0 (0.5≤QD≤1.0) (M≤3.5)
More than 1.0 (QD≥1.0) Low and no - -
consensus
Formula by Norizan [45] on classifications of consensus was
determined at three levels
Table 1: Consensus In Concept Mapping Structure Through

Three Round Delphi Technique.
Item Round of Delphi
Round 1 Round 2 Round 3

Median Mean QD Median Mean QD Median Mean QD
Statement 1 5.0 4.7 0.5 5.0 4.7 0.5 5.0 4.7 0.5
Statement 2 5.0 4.7 0.5 5.0 4.7 0.5 5.0 4.7 0.5
Statement 3 5.0 5.0 0 5.0 4.7 0.5 5.0 4.7 0.5
Statement 4 5.0 5.0 0 5.0 4.4 1.0 5.0 4.7 0.5
Statement 5 5.0 5.0 0 5.0 4.4 1.0 5.0 4.7 0.5
Statement 6 5.0 5.0 0 5.0 4.7 0.5 5.0 4.7 0.5
Statement 7 5.0 4.7 0.5 5.0 4.1 1.5 5.0 4.7 0.5
Statement 8 5.0 5.0 0 5.0 4.7 0.5 5.0 4.7 0.5
Statement 9 5.0 5.0 0 5.0 4.7 0.5 5.0 4.7 0.5
Table 1 show that in first, second and third Delphi rounds, all the
Quartile Deviation(QD) of the statements was less or equal to 0.5
(QD≤0.5), it indicate that the level of consensus was high. In others
word all expert panel responses lying into scale of 5 (Very relevant).
The median score was used to analyze the level of consensus of
experts and result shows that in all three round Delphi the medium
356
result more than 4. It reported that level of importance of the
statements were high. In conclusion the concept mapping structure
reaching consensus in Delphi Technique and provided a reliable
manner to conclude that ten of expert panels overall agreement upon
the nine statements assumed.
Table 2: Consensus In Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
Through Three Round Delphi Technique.
Item Round of Delphi
Round 1 Round 2 Round 3

Median Mean QD Median Mean QD Median Mean QD
Statement 1 4.0 3.5 2.0 4.0 4.0 1.0 5.0 4.6 0.5
Statement 2 4.0 3.8 1.5 4.0 4.0 1.0 4.5 4.5 0.5
Statement 3 4.0 3.8 1.5 4.0 4.3 0.5 3.5 4.4 1.0
Statement 4 4.0 4.4 0.5 3.0 3.8 1.0 4.0 4.4 0.5
Statement 5 4.0 4.1 1.0 5.0 4.4 1.0 5.0 4.6 0.5
Statement 6 4.0 3.5 2 4.0 3.7 0.5 5.0 4.8 0.5
Statement 7 4.0 3.8 1.5 3.0 3.4 0.5 4.5 4.7 0.5
Statement 8 4.0 3.8 1.5 4.0 3.7 0.5 4.5 4.6 0.5
Statement 9 4.0 4.1 1.0 5.0 4.4 1.0 5.0 4.7 0.5
Statement 10 4.0 4.1 1.0 5.0 4.4 1.0 4.5 4.5 0.5
Statement 11 4.0 4.0 0 4.0 4.4 0.5 5.0 4.8 0.5
Statement 12 5.0 4.7 0.5 4.0 4.1 1.0 4.5 4.5 0.5
Statement 13 3.0 3.3 0.5 5.0 4.7 0.5 4.0 4.4 0.5
Statement 14 4.0 4.0 0 5.0 4.4 1.0 4.5 4.5 0.5
Statement 15 3.0 3.3 0.5 4.0 4.4 0.5 4.0 4.3 0.5
Statement 16 4.0 4.4 0.5 5.0 4.4 1.0 5.0 4.6 0.5
Statement 17 4.0 3.5 2.0 4.0 3.4 1.0 4.0 4.1 1.0
Statement 18 4.0 3.5 2.0 4.0 4.0 0 4.0 4.4 0.5
Statement 19 4.0 3.8 1.5 4.0 3.7 0.5 4.5 4.5 0.5
Statement 20 3.0 3.2 2.0 4.0 4.0 0 4.0 4.2 1.0
Table 2 show that in the first Delphi round, there are statements have
low and no consensus which were statements 1, 2,3,6,7,8,17,18,19
and 20. The Quartile Deviation (QD) may be above 1. Respectively,
there may be a case where the experts panel responses lying into scale
of 2(Not relevant). However after the correction were made, were
denoting overall consensus among ten statements. This in turn can
conclude that ten of expert panels overall agreement upon the twenty
statements assumed. The median score was used to analyze the level
of consensus of experts. In first Delphi round, the statements was less
than 3.5 were statements 13, 15 and 20. In Delphi round two, after
the modified was done based on the comments of experts, these
357
statements got the medium result of 3.5. However the statements of
item 4 and 7 got the median less 3.5. In Delphi round three, all the
statements got the medium consensus above 4,which reported that
level of importance of the statements were high, except statements no
3, got medium 3.5.
Summary
From the study, researcher found that the cooperation from
participants’ in Delphi as the key to the successful implementation of
a Delphi study and investigators need to play an active role in this
area to help ensure as high a response rate as possible. The Delphi
technique is one of the methods to get the consensus from the
selection of experts’ panels. As a conclusion, the concept mapping
structure and MCQ questions have meets consensus by using three
Delphi techniques when all the statements got the medium consensus
above 4, which reported that level of importance of the statements,
were high and low if the median value is less than 3.5.
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362
T01_047: AN APPROACH OF
FINDING FOREGROUND MARKER
FOR COMPLEX BACKGROUND
IMAGE
Wan Mahani Abdullah
Kulliyyah of Technology & Multimedia Creative, Kolej
Universiti Insaniah, Kuala Ketil, Kedah
Shahrul Nizam Yaakob School of Computer and

Communication Engineering,
Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Arau, Perlis
ABSTRACT
Obtaining the marker for leaf segmentation from complex

background, which is a critical step in watershed
segmentation, is a challenging task as leaf usually irregular
in shape, overlapping with other leaves and the soil, residue
and etc. as the background. Because of complexity of image,
some mostly-occluded and shadowed objects cannot be
marked, which means that these objects will not be
segmented properly in the end result. In this paper, an
accurate and robust algorithm for the automatic
internal/foreground marker is proposed. The marker is used
in order to overcome the problem of over segmentation in
watershed segmentation. The morphological operation is
used to obtain the marker. The experiment was run on 59
samples of leaves with complex background. From the result
obtained using the proposed technique, we found that 93 %
gave successful results. In the other hand, 93% gave the
appropriate mark for the foreground marker.
Keywords: foreground marker, morphological operation.
INTRODUCTION
Watershed arithmetic is a kind of nonlinear segmentation of
mathematical morphology, and often used to separate
connected objects. Its input is gray gradient image or
363
distance transform of binary image, and its output is
continuous single pixel edge line. But, because of influence
of gradient noise, quantization error and dense texture of
object interior, if gradient operator is directly used, over-
segmentation phenomenon will be caused after watershed
transform. That is, a uniform region could be segmented into
several regions [1].
Various techniques including pre-processing,
region merging, marker-controlled watershed segmentation
approach, etc. are applied to solve the over-segmentation
problem. The most popular technique is a marker-controlled
watershed segmentation approach which is based on the
concept of markers whose aim is to pinpoint regions that are
homogeneous in terms of texture, colour and intensity. The
regions are then merged to get relatively accurate
segmentation. For the case of touching, overlapping and
occlusion objects, morphological operation is more suitable
in separating the object of interest from others. This situation
is considered as complicated background.
Various papers can be found in literature using this
technique to overcome the problem mentioned in previous
paragraph. There are several approaches proposed for the
automatic leaf extraction from complicated background by
using the image processing and machine learning techniques
in the literature. Xiaodong Tang, Manua Liu, Hui Zhao and
Wei Tao [2] developed leaf extraction algorithm to extract
leaf from the image with complicated background. They
proposed the marker -controlled watershed segmentation to
the H and S components leaf classification and plant species
identification, since the thresholding, edge detector and
morphological processing cannot perform well to segment
the target leaf from complicated background.
Lin Kaiyan, Wu Junhui, Chen Jie and Si Huiping
[5] proposed the system to overcome the problem of
difficulty in segmenting of plant from complicated
background by introducing a colour segmentation approach
consisting of fuzzy c-means clustering, morphological
operation and blob analysis while Liying Zheng, Jingtao
Zhang and Qianyu Wang [6] proposed the algorithm to
364
improve the segmentation rate of the images containing
green vegetation by introducing mean-shift procedure into
segmentation algorithm. Then, they classified image into
green and non green vegetation. The result showed that this
method is better when compared to index method Exg (2g-
r-b) and CIVE. Furthermore, this method improved the
segmentation rate for image containing green vegetation.
But the drawback of this technique was taking too long time
running. Therefore, this technique is not suitable for real
time. Chunlei Xia, Jang-Myung Lee, Yan Li, Yoo-Han
Song, Bu-Keun Chung and Tae-Soo Chon proposed an in
situ detection method for multiple leaves with overlapping
and occlusion in greenhouse conditions. They focused on
segmentation and classification using MLP. Detection rate
for leaves with overlapping and occlusion was achieved in
the MLP-ASM followed by boundary-ASM compared to the
conventional ASM.
Xianghua Li, Hyo-Haeng Lee and Kwang-Seok
Hong [7] proposed system for plant leaf contour extraction
in a complex background. To solve the problem of
overlapping and detects leaf contours in complex wild
environments, they proposed leaf contour extraction method
by detection of four edge points and boundary tracing. They
used well known method for extracting leaf contour The
method mentioned above is Intelligent Scissors (SI) by
Mortensen and Barrett which draw a contour manually based
on a number of manually selected points on a visually
identified contour, providing route that minimizes the sum
of local costs. The leaf contour tracing is based on the
construction of cost function of IS that uses Canny edge cost
terms and colour gradient costs terms.
Xiao-Feng Wang, De-Shuang Huang, Ji-Xiang Du,
Huan Xu and Laurent Heutte [1] proposed an efficient
classification framework for leaf images with complicated
background. They used automatic marker-controlled
watershed segmentation method and morphological
operation for image segmentation. The extraction of shape
involved seven Hu geometric moments and sixteen Zernike
moments while image classification involved the technique
of moving center hypersphere (MCH).
365
In this paper we focus on marking the region of
interest for watershed segmentation. Most popular technique
to mark interested region is by using morphological
reconstruction and gradient modification. But for leaf with
complex background, the technique is not suitable since they
usually irregular in shape and could overlapped with other
leaves. The modification need to be applied if the technique
still need to be used. However, the important keywords
involve in this method are internal/foreground marker and
background marker. Internal marker I(f) are inside each of
the objects of interest, whilst external markers E(f) are
contained within the background. These markers are used to
modify the image wherefore regional maxima takes place
only in marked location. The image obtained by marker
image M(f) is a binary image such that pixel belonging to
homogeneous region will be marker.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows.
Section 2 gives more details about the basic research
concepts. Section 3 briefly explains the process of getting
the foreground marker. The results of an experiment are
presented in Section 4. Section 5 offers conclusions.
Basic Research Concepts

Mathematical Morphology
Morphology is the study of shape and was originally
developed as a method by which the structure of shapes
within an image could be cleaned up and studied. It works
by comparing each pixel in the image against its neighbours
in various ways, so as to add or remove, brighten or darken
that pixel. Applied over a whole image, perhaps repetitively,
specific shapes can be found and/or removed and modified.
Mathematical morphology mostly deals with the
mathematical theory of describing shapes using sets. In
image processing, mathematical morphology is used to
investigate the interaction between an image and a certain
chosen structuring element using the basic operations of
erosion and dilation. The structuring element is usually
small relative to the image.
366
(a) Dilation and Erosion
These operations are fundamental to morphological
processing. With A and B as sets in Z2, the dilation of A by
B, denoted A  B , is defined as

A  B  z ( Bˆ ) z  A   
(1)
In morphological operations, set B is commonly referred to
as the structuring element. The dilation of A by B then is the
set of all displacements, z, such that and A overlap by at least
one element [3].
For sets A and B in Z2 the erosion of A by B, denoted AӨ

B, is defined as
A Ө B  z ( B) z  A
(2)
In words, this equation indicates that the erosion of A by B
is the set of all points z such that B, translated by z, is
contained in A. From the experimental observation, we can
say that dilation expands an image and erosion shrinks it.
Opening and closing
There are two other important morphological operations
which are opening and closing. Opening generally smoothes
the contour of an object, breaks narrow isthmuses, and
eliminates thin protrusions. Closing also tends to smooth
sections of contours but, as opposed to opening, it generally
fuses narrow breaks and long thin gulfs, eliminates small
holes, and fills gaps in the contour [3].
The opening of set A by structuring element B, denoted
A  B , is defined as
A  B  ( AB)  B (3)
It means that the opening A by B is the erosion of A by B,
followed by a dilation of the result by B.
In the other hand, the closing of A by structuring element B,
denoted by A  B , is defined as
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A  B  ( A  B)B (4)
which in words says that the closing of A by B is simply the
dilation of A by B, followed by the erosion of the result by
B [3].
Research Method
Morphological Operation Extensions To Grayscale
Images
(b) Dilation and erosion
In this research, the morphological operations will be
applied to a gray-level image, not a binary image. The
generalization of dilation to gray-level images is that the
gray-level value at any point is replaced by the maximum
intensity value covered by the flat structuring element [3].
It is denoted as

( f  b)( s, t )  max f (s  x))  b( x) (s  x)  D f and x  Db 
(5)
Erosion of gray-level images is defined in a similar manner
to dilation: the gray-level value at any point is replaced by
the minimum intensity value covered by the flat structuring
element [3]:
The expression can be defined as

( fb)( s, t )  min f ( s  x))  b( x) ( s  x)  D f and x  Db 
(6)
where Df and Db are the domains of f and b, respectively.
(c) Opening and Closing
The expressions for opening and closing of grayscale images
have the same form as their binary counterparts. The
opening of image f by sub image (structuring element) b,
denoted f  b , is
f  b  ( fb)  b (7)
368
Similarly, the closing of f by b, denoted f  b , is
f  b  ( f  b)b (8)
Algorithm To Get The Internal/Foreground Marker
Many researcher obtained each marker which
indicates a specific place within the image (also called
“segmentation function”) to force that region to be a global
minimum of the image by using the minima imposition
technique. In this paper, a new approach is done since for
image with arbitrary shape which is overlapped with other
arbitrary objects in complex background, the traditional
marker-controlled watershed segmentation technique failed
to give sufficient results. Because of complexity of image,
some mostly-occluded and shadowed objects cannot be
marked, which means that these objects will not be
segmented properly in the end result.
To overcome this problem, a new method is introduced in
this paper. The morphological opening operation is done and
finding the maximum intensity value as a foreground
marker. The detailed procedures are described as shown in
Figure (1).
Gray scale image Morphological open Find the region of

operation maximum intensity value
Foreground Morphological erosion

marker operation
Figure 1: Flow chart of an algorithm for obtaining

foreground marker
Results And Analysis
Algorithm To Get The Internal/Foreground Marker

We apply the proposed algorithm to 59 samples of
grayscale images. The morphological opening was
employed to every samples for varies size of the structuring
element. The shape of ‘disk’ is choose since the shape of
leaves are roughly similar to the shape of disk. From the
369
visualization observation, the best structuring element is
around 60. This is the optimal size to get the correct marker
for all the sample. By employing the morphological
opening, we find the maximum intensity of the opening
image. That maximum intensity is consider as the
foreground marker for the image. The final foreground
marker is obtained by applying the morphological erosion
on the binary image. The marker now shrinks to the size that
suit to our single leaf that we going to segment. The syntax
used are shown below.
se = strel('disk',60);
Io = imopen(I, se);
Is = max(max(Io));
fgmarker1=Io==Is
se = strel('disk',40);
fgmarker2 = imerode(fgmarker1, se);
where se is the structuring element, I is the grayscale image,
Io is the image after employing the opening operation, Is the
image with maximum intensity and fgmarker1 is the
foreground marker before erosion while fgmarker2 is the
aim image which is the foreground marker.
Morphological opening operation is used to get the
internal marker. That is, gray scale image, I gray is firstly
carried out morphological open to the gray scale image
named as “Io”. The size of structuring element of disk is
choosed to be 60 since this is the best size for the images to
be tested. And then, the maximum value of opening gray
scale image is detected named as “Is”. Maximum region of
gray image (Io) is labelled as foreground marker named as
“fgmarker1”. Since the size of marker is bigger than the
original leaf image which will lead to over-segmentation, a
disk structure element which radius is 40 pixels is used for
morphological erosion operation in order to erode these
marks a bit. Finally, modified foreground marker named as
“fgmarker2” is gained. All of the result mentioned above is
shown in Figure (2).
370
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Figure 2: The step of obtaining foreground marker (a)
Gray Scale Image, (b) Opening (Io), (c)
Region with Maximum Value, (d) Foreground
Marker, (e) Regional maxima superimposed
on original image
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3: Result for different size of structuring elements (a)
original gray scale image, (b) structuring
element size of 40, (c) structuring element size
of 80
The experiment extended for various size of
structuring elements. Figure 3 shows the result for
structuring element of the size less than 60 and greater than
60. Images in the middle results from the morphological
opening with the structuring size of 40. The right column
shows the result of the same operation with the size of
structuring element of 80. We can conclude that for
structuring element size less or greater than 60, the marking
of region of interest as foreground marker are not accurate.
Some cases which the structuring element size greater than
60 results in white image. This is because the size of
structuring element affects the maximum intensity of image
after operation of morphological opening. The chosen of the
size of structuring element of 60 is obtained by trial and error
method.
371
Figure 4 shows the foreground marker
superimposed on the original gray scale image. It illustrates
the white region as foreground marker from the proposed
technique and the standard regional maxima. It is shown that
the marker from the proposed technique is exactly on the
interest leaf compared to the standard regional maxima.
(a) (b)
Figure 4: The resulting foreground marker from (a)
proposed technique, (b) standard regional
maxima as shown in Figure 4(a) – (b).
Table 1 shows the performance of the proposed

technique compared to the standard regional maxima in term
of obtaining foreground marker for 59 samples image of leaf
with complex background.
Methods Satisfied Unsatisfied

Proposed
55 4
technique
Standard
Regional 24 35
Maxima
Conclusion
This paper presents the method to obtain the marker
for leaf segmentation from complex background, which is a
critical step in watershed segmentation. The simple
technique was introduced that is based on the use of
morphological open to find the region with maximum
intensity. Also, the erosion was applied to obtain the
appropriate foreground marker. This study shows that the
proposed technique is able to obtain the foreground marker
in a better way than the foreground marker using standard
372
regional maxima. Furthermore, the standard technique more
suitable for objects with uniform shape. Otherwise the
manual setting of structuring element is needed for every
single image of leaves to obtain an appropriate foreground
marker. Experimental results show that 55 of leaves are
successfully marked with appropriate foreground marker
which gives the percentage of 93%.
References
[1] Classification of plant leaf images with complicated
background, Xiao-Feng Wang, De-Shuang Huang, Ji-
Xiang Du, Huan Xu, Laurent Heutte, Applied Mathematics
and Computation 205 (2008) 916-926
[2] Leaf Extraction from Complicated Background,
XiaodongTang, Manhua Liu, Hui Zhao, Wei Tao, Image
and Signal Processing, 2009. CISP '09. 2nd International
Congress on IEEE
[3] An Automatic Segmentation Method for Multi-tomatoes
Image under Complicated Natural Background, Yin
Jianjun, Mao Hanping, Hu Yongguang, Wang Xinzhong,
Chen Shuren, Agriculture and Hydrology Applications of
Remote Sensing, Proc. of SPIE Vol. 6411, 641118, 2006
[4] Digital Image Processing Using MATLAB: Prentice Hall,
Rafael C. Gonzalez, Steven L. Eddins, Richard E. Woods:
Fremdsprachige Bücher
[5] A Real Time Image Segmentation Approach for Crop Leaf
Lin Kaiyan, Wu Junhui, Chen Jie, Si Huiping, 2013 Fifth
Conference on Measuring Technology and Mechatronics
Automation.
[6] Mean-shift-based color segmentation of images containing
green vegetation, Liying Zheng, Jingtao Zhang, Qianyu
Wang, Sciendirect, Computer and Electronicsin
Agriculture 65 (2009) 93-98
[7] Leaf Contour Extraction Based on an Intelligent Scissor
Algorithm with complex background, Xianghua Li, Hyo-
Haeng Lee, Kwang-Seok Hong, 2012 2nd International
Conference on Future Computers in Education, Lecture
Notes in Information Technology, Vols. 23-24
373
T01_048: THE CHARACTERISTICS
OF MALAY HOUSE AND ITS
USAGE AS A HOMESTAY
Yasmin Nur Amirah Binti Yaman
Rohaslinda Binti Ramele,
ABSTRACT
This paper aims to clarify the outlines and characteristics of
Malay house in the traditional village (Malay Kampung), and
to analyze the usage of Malay house as a homestay.
Interviews were held with the headmen of selected villages,
and field investigations were conducted at five houses in
Farm villages, Selangor. Findings show that Malay house is
used as a tourist accommodation and new usage style is
created at Malay house, where the owners separate their
houses into two parts: public space (space for tourist) and
private space (space for family).
Keywords: Malay House, Usage, Homestay, public space,
private space
Introduction
Research Background
A Malay house is referred to a traditional house inhabited by
a Malay family, who mainly populate the traditional village
(Malay Kampung). However, most of the Malay houses that
can be found today have been influenced by the urbanization
and modernization, and a typical traditional Malay house
with the original materials and architectural style can hardly
been seen. Today, many of rural Malays participate in the
homestay program as a solution to the issue of empty rooms
in the Malay houses occurred due to migration of their
children to the urban areas. This research is aimed to identify
the new spatial usage of Malay house due to the participation
in the homestay program, after being modernized from the
original spatial usage of traditional Malay house.
Purpose of Research
This research is carried out on selected Malay houses, which
have been used as homestays by the owners in the traditional
374
village (Malay Kampung). The research is aimed to clarify
the transformation occurred on a Malay house and its usage
after participating in the homestay sector.
Research Method
A review on the traditional Malay houses is carried out based
on research by Nasir and Teh (1996), Lim (1987), and Gibbs
(1987), [1] [2] [3]. A homestay program called the
Banghuris Homestay, which is located in three traditional
villages in Selangor and five Malay houses, which are used
by the owners as homestays, is selected as a case study.
Interviews with the house owners were conducted and field
investigations were carried out at the selected houses
according to external survey; the existing traditional
architecture of raised house level, timber structure, “rumah
ibu” and “rumah dapur”.
Overview and Usage of the Malay House
Overview and features of the Malay house

Nasir and Teh (1996) indicated that the characteristics of
each Malay house in each state in Malaysia and described
that a Malay house can be defined as ‘a traditional house,
which is occupied by Malays who live in the rural village,
and a house that is built according to terms of lifestyle and
custom of Malays [1].
Thus, according to Lim (1987), a traditional Malay
house can be described from its typical characteristics of the
external environments such as raised floor level, storage
space under the house, compound with no boundary,
drainage under the kitchen, well, a jitra toilet, attap roof and
coconut trees that are planted surrounding the house. The
Malay house are divided into two parts: the “rumah ibu” (the
main house) and the “rumah dapur” (the kitchen house). In
some states, both these houses were connected by a “selang”
(corridor). The space under the “rumah ibu” is used for
storing farming tools, farming product, or bicycle while the
space under the “rumah dapur” is used as sewage. The well
and toilet are built separated and far from the house [2].
In addition, according to Gibbs (1987), the spatial
usage in a Malay house is influenced by the Islam religion,
375
which discourages relationship between female and male
outside the family. The male of family members and guests
usually use the entrance in front of the “rumah ibu” which is
called “anjung” (verandah). Meanwhile, the “rumah dapur”
is used for female members in the family and children who
use the entrance that is located adjacent to “rumah dapur”
which is sometimes located at the “selang”. The
multifunctional spaces of Malay house and the separated
built system of “rumah ibu” and “rumah dapur” allows
house to be expended at any part of the house [3].
In the traditional additional system, “serambi
gantung”, “serambi samanaik”, and “lepau” are built
adjacent to the “rumah ibu” while “kelek anak” in the
“rumah dapur”. The external environment and spatial usage
in the traditional Malay house is shown in Figure 1.
According to Ahmad (1998), the usage of space is
defined by the floor height where the “rumah ibu” is
considered as the most important part of a Malay house
where women normally spent their time and carries out the
household duties in this house while men are working
outside [6]. The open space under the house reflect
neighborliness and satisfy the communal needs of the
residents. The openness of the internal space, the compound
and the floor culture of Malays allow the inhabitants to held
“kenduri” for wedding ceremony and other religious events
in the house and “gotong-royong” works on the compound.
376
Figure 1: The External Environment and the Internal

Usage of Traditional Malay House
(Source: Lim, 1987; Gibbs, 1987)
Modernized Malay house

According to Gibbs (1987), modernization on the Malay
house began during the British colonial period when modern
facilities of the new building materials and living equipment
are imported. Zinc is introduced as the material for the new
roof, brick and cement become new building material that
replacing timber, and modern furniture are used such as sofa
and tables [3].
Modernization on a Malay house from the
traditional Malay house is clearly seen when the
characteristics of male-female separated space in the “rumah
377
ibu” and “rumah dapur” is weakening due to transformation
from the wide space into a construction of private bedrooms.
Extension is done at the “rumah ibu” and sometimes
“anjung” is moved due to construction of the room inside the
“rumah ibu” in order to provide larger space of living rooms
for guests and family members.
Malay house as a homestay

According to Hamzah (1997), homestay has been used as an
accommodation in rural areas since the 1970s, which it is
influenced by the United Kingdom where it is derived from
the concept of a “bed and breakfast” [4]. Homestay has been
introduced by a Malay lady who lived in a Malay Kampung
in Pahang who had been providing accommodation to the
tourists at her house. In the late 1980s, homestays in the
Malay Kampung were used by the Japanese youth as
accommodations during the student exchange programs.
Homestay was officially established and opened to all rural
villages in Malaysia in 1995 when the Ministry of Tourism
saw the potential of Malay Kampung as a tourism product.
Most of the houses that are used for homestays are
among houses with empty rooms, where the children of the
owners migrated to urban areas. The empty rooms are used
for tourists where extension are also done in order to provide
extra rooms for tourists and family bedrooms.
Usage of the Malay house in the Banghuris Homestay

The Banghuris Homestay was established by three villages;
Kampung Hulu Chuchoh, Kampung Bukit Bangkong, and
Kampung Ulu Teris, in 1995 with 16 host families and
increased sharply to 80 host families by 1997. The homestay
is led by the former village headman of Kampung Hulu
Chuchoh, who is also one of the homestay owners or the host
families. Today, in the Banghuris homestay, 87 families
participated as the host families to provide 87 Malay houses
as homestays with 118 rooms for 236 tourists at one time
[5].
Figure 2 shows the spatial usage of the selected
traditional Malay houses after participating as homestays in
the Banghuris Homestay. In Case 1, both “rumah ibu” and
“rumah dapur” become public spaces where an extension is
378
done at the back of the house as a private space. This house
is the house of the homestay committee chairman where the
existing of “rumah ibu” is used for tourists and guests, and
“rumah dapur” are used for family members.
In the house other than Case 1, the “anjung” and
“rumah ibu” are used as tourist entrance, living room and
tourists bedrooms. In this living room, the family members
will be spending time interacting and having meals either
breakfast or dinner with the tourists during their stay.
Meanwhile, the “rumah dapur” has becoming the family
entrance, living room, bedrooms and kitchen.
In Case 2, a new built house is constructed separately at the
house compound in order to provide more bedrooms and
more privacy for the tourists with private bathroom and
toilet in the new house. In addition, the houses that are built
with more than two meters of raised floor level such as in
Case 3, Case 4 and Case 5, the spaces under the houses are
used for both tourists and family external living room where
sometimes they are used for serving meals to tourists.
After participating in the homestay program, the
family bedrooms in the “rumah ibu” are transformed into
tourist bedrooms and the family members will be sleeping in
the bedrooms in the “rumah dapur” or in the extension part
at the side or back of the house. Due to this transformation,
the “rumah ibu” is becoming the space mainly used by the
tourists which it considered as a public space where it is used
as tourists living room, interaction with host family, having
either breakfast or dinner and tourists bedrooms. Meanwhile
“rumah dapur” as the mainly space that are used by family
members and it becomes a private space where the family
members mostly spent their daily activities in the “rumah
dapur” and sometimes are restricted for tourists.
379
Figure 2: The transformed spatial usage of the traditional

Malay houses in the Banghuris Homestay
380
The Banghuris Homestay is visited by the tourists mostly

every weekend and sometimes on the weekdays where the
host families received more than 100 people every year at
their houses. Therefore, it is easier for maintenance where
the family members spend their daily activities in the
“rumah dapur”, the extension part or at the space under the
house including on the days when the tourists are not
visiting.
Conclusion
In this paper, the outline and characteristics of Malay houses
have been clarified. In addition, Malay house is used as an
accommodation for tourists where they stay with the
registered host family and experience the daily lifestyle of
the family while participating the other homestay program
activities. After participating in the Banghuris Homestay,
the Malay houses of the host family have created a new
usage; “rumah ibu” is used as a space for tourists (public
space) and “rumah dapur” as a space for the family members
(private space). Figure 3 shows the transformation of the
spatial usage on the Malay house from the original space to
modernized space, until after participation as homestays. It
can be clearly seen that the separated spatial usage between
male and female has been disappeared during modernization
era and has recreated during the participation as homestays.
Participating in the homestay program has regenerated the
functions of these two parts and somehow bringing back the
original spatial usage of traditional Malay house.
381
Figure 3: The Transformation on Spatial Usage of

the Malay House
References
[1] Nasir, A. H., Teh, W. H. W., “The Traditional
Malay House,” Fajar Bakti Press, Malaysia, pp. 8-
10 (1996).
[2] Lim, J. Y., “The Malay House: Rediscovering
Malaysia’s Indigenous Shelter System,” Institute
Masyarakat, Malaysia (1987).
[3] Gibbs, P., “Images of Asia: Building a Malay
House,” Oxford University Press, Singapore
382
(1987).
[4] Hamzah, A., Stabler, M. J., “The Evolution of
Small-scale Tourism in Malaysia: Problems,
Opportunities and Implications on Sustainability,
Tourism and Sustainability,” Principles and
Practices, pp. 199-217 (1997).
[5] Ministry of Tourism, “Progress Report of Malaysia
Homestay Program by December 2012,” (2013).
[6] Ahmad, Y., “Encyclopedia of Malaysia, V05 –
Architecture: Malay Kampong”, Archipelago
Press, Malaysia, pp. 18-19 (1998).
383
T01_049: PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-
BEING OF MOTHERS WITH LOW
BIRTH WEIGHT AMONG INFANTS
WHO ARE ADMITTED IN SPECIAL
CARE NURSERY (SCN): CROSS
SECTIONAL STUDY
Rusnani Ab Latif 1
Noraini Hashim1
Faculty Health Sciences
University Teknologi MARA, Campus Puncak Alam
42300, Puncak Alam
Selangor Darul Ehsan
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Mothers of infants admitted in Special care

Nursery (SCN) are believed to have heightened distress
especially when their infants were premature and low birth
weight that required hospitalization. This will causes
psychological distress and depression for the mothers.
Methods: A cross-sectional study to investigate the

psychological well being of mothers with low birth weight
infants admitted to the SCN. It was conducted on one
hundred and thirty (n=130) of mothers who delivered their
babies at labor room, HRPZ II, Kota Bharu, Kelantan.
Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS-21) score were used
adapted from Lovibond & Lovibond(1995). The statistical
analysis was done by software SPSS version 19.0 for
Windows. Data were analyzed using the Chi-square tests.
Statistically significant with p-value < 0.05.
Results: There was statistically significant between

maternal age and anxiety (χ²=22.106, p=0.036) and stress
(χ²=17.509, p=0.041) by using chi square test. There was no
significant association between maternal age and
384
depression (χ²=10.373, p=0.321). For others demographic
variables, there was no statistically significant with
depression, anxiety and stress of mothers (p>0.05).
Conclusion: Findings of this study demonstrated that

maternal age 29 years or less contributed to the
psychological well being of mothers with low birth weight
infants. Based on the finding in this study, most of the
respondent’s having anxiety compared with depression and
stress. Therefore, as a nurse must have knowledge and skills,
especially in terms of psychology, in handling cases related
to the mother who gave birth to low birth weight (LBW)
because parting with their children due to the relatively long
hospitalization.
Key words: Infants, low birth weight, psychological well-

being mothers, SCN, DASS-21 score
Introduction
In developing countries, low birth weight (LBW) is a
contributing factor to the increase in deaths among infants.
Weight gains for babies with low weight are more prone to
the risk of death or dying or suffering disabilities, this shows
the importance of the baby's weight is a major health
indicators [1]. The incidence of die among LBW infants 40
times more than those with normal weight [2]. The
prevalence of low birth weight (LBW) is higher in Asia than
elsewhere, predominantly because of under nutrition of the
mother prior to and during pregnancy [3]. Mothers with
premature babies or low birth weight when born are at risk
to suffer from psychological stress and depression, however,
these symptoms tend to decrease over time, and there is half
a mother still under pressure [4].
Literature review
Every pregnant mother wants their baby to be born in normal
and healthy conditions. Therefore, it would become a
stressful event that might cause psychological distress or
even emotional crisis in mother’s when their infants were
premature and low birth weight that required hospitalization
especially in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU) or
385
Special care Nursery (SCN). Many researchers have
investigated and demonstrated the impact of premature and
low birth weight of hospitalization of baby in the NICU and
the psychological health of parents. Similar finding stated
that a premature birth and the following hospitalization
constitute an emotional and physical strain both on mother
and father [5]. Neonatal intensive care facilities improved
over the past few decades to improve the lives of low birth
weight babies. In addition, skilled nursing and medical
treatment is required and the responsibilities handed over to
hospital staff who are experienced in taking care of sick
newborns and small [6]. Currently study in Malaysia more
focus on the prevalence of low birth weight, previous study
reported that the prevalence LBW infant admitted in SCN
was 8.8%.[7].However study on the relationship between
psychological well being of mothers having LBW not yet be
exploring further. Therefore this research was exploring the
psychological well-being of mothers with LBW admitted in
Special Care Nursery (SCN).
Factors associated psychological well-being of mother

with LBW infant
Various maternal socio-demographic factors contribute to
the onset of depression in the postpartum period, such as
lower socioeconomic status [8]. The socioeconomic status
was lower in a group of high-risk preterm infants than in
groups of low risk preterm infants and full term infants ([9].
In another study low professional occupation with lower life
satisfaction connected to other factors (e.g. infant’s low birth
weight and disappointment with delivery) were associated
with risk of depression [10]. Socioeconomic status and
family structure are associated with the quality of the
mother–infant relationship and the infant’s development
[11]. However, contrast finding found that the maternal
income has during pregnancy has no effect on the risk of
delivery of LBW babies [12]. The association between birth
weight and life chances in a bidirectional framework,
finding that the relationship between income and low birth
weight may be counterintuitive. Specifically, they find that
income during pregnancy has no effect on the risk of
delivering a low birth weight (less than 2,500 grams, or five
386
pounds, eight ounces) baby when hereditary risk is
controlled, either through inclusion of parental birth weight
status or by deployment of family fixed-effects models[12].
Methodology
This study is a cross-sectional study design, carried out at
SCN at Hospital Raja Perempuan Zainab 11, Kota Bharu,
Kelantan. A simple random sampling were used to selected
those entire mothers with LBW baby who are admitted in
the SCN and fulfill inclusion criteria were selected. The
sample size was 130 based on the prevalence of LBW
admitted in SCN were 8.8 % [7]. The Dependent variable
was psychological well-being of mother’s with low birth
weight(LBW) infant and the independent variables was
socio demographic characteristic of mother. Data analysis
using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version
19.0 for Windows. Descriptive data analysis, including
frequency, mode, mean and standard deviation was and Chi-
Square test was used to estimate the probable association
between the variables concerned like age, education,
occupation, and family income of mothers with
psychological well-being. Statistically significant data was
considered to be those had a p- value less than 0.05.
Inclusion criteria: All mothers with LBW infant who are

admitted in the SCN; mothers being able to read and
understand Bahasa Melayu and English language and
mothers with no previous experience in SCN.
Exclusion criteria
Mother’s with BBA (Birth Before Arrive); mother’s with
normal baby; mother’s with large for gestational age (LGA):
weighs above 4000 grams and mothers who not volunteer to
participate.
Data collection procedures

The researcher divided the questionnaire into 3 different
parts: Part A: factors socio demographic of mother, Part B:
factors socio demographic of infant and Part C: Depression
Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) 21 adapted from Lovibond &
Lovibond [13]. The Depression Anxiety Stress Scales
387
(DASS) 21 is a self-report instrument designed to measure
the negative emotional states of depression, anxiety and
stress was used. DASS-21 is a self-report questionnaire to
assess anxiety, depression, and feelings of stress in adults
(8). It contains 21 items covering the past week, rated on a
four-point scale, ranging from ‘not at all’ (=0), to ‘very
much, or most of the time’ (=3). By summing item scores,
three syndrome scores of each seven items can be derived:
Depression, Anxiety and Stress.
Validity and reliability

The bahasa melayu DASS-21 item has been validated by
Ramli et al. [14]. The content validity index of the DASS-21
questionnaire was 0.904(CI 95%) thus proved its validity.
Cronbach’s alpha coefficient produces a reliability
coefficient that ranges between .00 and 1.00 with the higher
values of coefficient reflecting the more stable of the
measure.
DASS 21 Scoring
The 21 items form of the DASS was incorporated into the
questionnaire to measure severity of symptoms common to
anxiety and depression and the prevalence of co-morbid
depression and anxiety. Women were asked to use a 4-point
severity or frequency scale to rate the extent to which they
had experienced each symptom over the past week from
'never' to 'most of the time'. Each item consists of four
alternative statements graded in severity and scored from 0
to 3.
1) For questions numbered 3, 5, 10, 13, 16, 17, 21 add up
the numbers circled then multiply that number by 2 and
enter it here: Depression
2) For questions numbered 2, 4, 7, 9, 15, 19, 20 add up the
numbers circled then multiply that number by 2 and enter it
here: Anxiety
3) For questions numbered 1, 6, 8, 11, 12, 14, 18 add up the
numbers circled then multiply that number by 2 and enter it
here: Stress
Rating Depression Anxiety #2 Stress #3

#1
388
Normal 0-9 0-7 0-14
Mild 10-13 8-9 15-18
Moderate 14-20 10-14 19-25
Severe 21-27 15-19 26-33
Extremely 28+ 20+ 37+
Severe
Results
Socio demographic characteristic of the mothers
A total of 130 respondents were participated in this study
giving a response rate of 100%. The majority of the
respondents involved in this study were Malay (n=129,
99.2%) and followed by Chinese only 1(0.8%). The age of
the respondents ranged from 16-45 years old and the Mean
(SD) was 29.03  6.48. The majority of respondents
belonged to the age group of 20-29 years was 62 (47.70%).
The majority of the respondents was 108(83.1%) had
attained secondary education (PMR, SPM, STPM),
18(13.8%) had attained tertiary or above (Diploma/ Degree
/Master) qualifications while the remaining 3.1% or 4
subjects had completed primary education and below (Ujian
Penilaian Sekolah Rendah(UPSR).
Most of the respondents were house wife, 91(70%), working

as professional 27(20.8%) and only 12(9.2%) were working
as non professional. The occupations status of father was
categorize into two groups: professional and non
professional. Majority of father occupations were from the
non professional that made up 100(76.9%) compared to
professional group 30(23.1%). A family income was divided
into four categories. Most of the respondents have family
income <RM1000 about 66(50.8%), between RM1000-
RM1999 were 34(26.2%), between RM2000-2999 were
14(10.8%) and above RM3000 were 16 (12.3%). The Mean
(SD) of number of dependents was 4.151.34. Most of the
respondents have the number of dependents between 3-5
were 113 (86.9%), while 15 (11.5%) respondents were on
number of dependents 6-8, and 2 (1.5 %) were 9-11 numbers
of dependents.
Birth characteristic of the infants

389
Most of the respondents which is 90(69.2%) delivered their
infants by spontaneous vaginal delivery while 40
respondents (30.8%) delivered by caesarean section. By
using the WHO classification of infant’s birth weight, the
low birth weight was divided into three categorical. The
LBW infants seen in the period were distributed as follows:
LBW was 93(71.5%), VLBW was 29(22.3%) and ELBW
was 8(6.2%).The majority of infant was born preterm
76(58.5%), full-term infant was 49 (37.7%) and post date
infant was 5(3.8%). The overall Mean (SD) low birth weight
was 1849.38 ±523.32 grams, with minimum weight is 800
gram and maximum weight is 2480 gram.
Prevalence of depression, anxiety and stress by using

DASS 21 scales
Prevalence of depression
The prevalence of psychological well-being of mothers was
identified by DASS 21 item score. Score of this scale ranged
from 0-37+. The researcher found that the psychological
well-being of mother by using DASS-21 scales shows that
for those mothers having depression in 'mild' rating was
18(13.8%), ‘moderate’ was 20(15.4%) and ‘severe’ was
4(3.1%) for depression.
For the depression score, the highest mean score was item
13 with the means (SD) was 0.91(0.709), which asked for
responses to the statement “I felt down-hearted and blue”.
For this item score 1 (applied to me to some degree, or some
of the time) was 70(53.8%), score 2(applied to me to a
considerable degree, or a good part of time) was 21(16.2%)
and score 3 (applied to me very much, or most of the time)
was 2(1.5%). The lowest mean was item 21 with the Mean
(SD) was 0.14(0.462), which asked for responses to the
statement “I felt that life was meaningless”. The score 0(Did
not apply to me at all) was 116(89.2%), score1 was 12(9.2%)
and score 2 was 2(1.5%). The overall the mean± SD for
depression score was 7.72±5.61.
Prevalence of anxiety
390
The prevalence of mothers reporting symptoms in the 'mild'
range on the DASS-21 scales was 11(8.5%), ‘moderate’ was
39(30.0%), ‘severe’ was 14(10.8%) and extremely severe
was 12(9.2%) for anxiety. For the anxiety score, the highest
mean score was item 2 with the means (SD) was 1.32(0.737),
which asked for responses to the statement “I was aware of
dryness of my mouth”. For this item score 1 (applied to me
to some degree, or some of the time) was 65(50.0%), score
2(applied to me to a considerable degree, or a good part of
time) was 44(33.8%) and score 3 (applied to me very much,
or most of the time) was 6(4.6%). The lowest mean was item
4 with the Mean (SD) was 0.36(0.610), which asked for
responses to the statement “I experienced breathing
difficulty (eg, excessively rapid breathing, breathlessness in
the absence of physical exertion)”.The score 0(Did not apply
to me at all) was 91(70.0%), score 1 was 32(24.6%), score 2
was 6(4.6%) and score 3 was 1(0.8%). The overall the
Mean± SD for anxiety score was 9.64±6.25.
Prevalence of stress
Meanwhile prevalence for stress of mothers reporting
symptoms in the 'mild' range on the DASS-21 scales was
29(22.3%), ‘moderate’ was 15(11.5%) and ‘severe’ was
6(4.6%) for stress. For the stress score, the highest mean
score was item 18 with the means (SD) was 1.44(0.807),
which asked for responses to the statement “I felt that I was
rather touchy”. For this item score 1 (applied to me to some
degree, or some of the time) was 51(39.2%), score 2(applied
to me to a considerable degree, or a good part of time) was
53(40.8%) and score 3 (applied to me very much, or most of
the time) was 10(7.7%). The lowest mean was item 6 with
the Mean (SD) was 0.37(0.572), which asked for responses
to the statement “I tended to over-react to situations”. The
score 0(Did not apply to me at all) was 88(67.7%), score 1
was 36(27.7%) and score 2 was 6(4.6%). The overall the
mean± SD for stress score was 12.80± 6.98.
Table I: Prevalence of depression, anxiety and stress by using DASS 21

scales (n=130)
Rating Depression n Anxiety n Stress n
(%) (%) (%)
Normal 88(67.7) 54(41.5) 80(61.5)
391
Mild 18(13.8) 11(8.5) 29(22.3)
Moderate 20(15.4) 39(30.0) 15(11.5)
Severe 4(3.1) 14(10.8) 6(4.6)
Extremely severe - 12(9.2) -
Relationship between socio demographic factors and

psychological well being of mothers (Depression) n=130
Table 2 show that the relationship between socio
demographic factors and psychological well-being of
mothers (depression) by using DASS 21 scales. The Chi-
Square was used, statistically significant with p- value <
0.05. The distribution of depression according to age of the
mothers showed that there was no significant association
between maternal age and depression (χ² =10.376, df=9,
p=0.321). In other word maternal aged not affect the
depression. There was no significant association between
maternal education and depression (χ²=9.275,df=6,
p=0.159). In explore the impact of maternal occupation with
depression, the result found that there was no significant
association between maternal occupation and depression
(χ²= 2.370,df=6, p=0.883). There was no significant
association between income level groups and depression
(χ²=5.362, df=9, p=0.802).
Table 2: Relationship between socio demographic factors and

psychological well being of mothers (Depression) n=130
Variable Depression χ²(df) p-

value
Normal Mild Moderate Severe Extremely
n(%) n(%) n(%) n(%) severe n(%)
Maternal 10.373(9) 0.321
age (years)
<19 5(55.6) 3(33.3) 1(11.1) - -
20-29 38(61.3) 1117.7) 11(17.7) 2(3.2) -
30-39 39(79.6) 3(6.1) 5(10.2) 2(4.1)
>40 6(60.0) 1(10.0) 3(30.0) - -
Maternal 9.275(6) 0.159
education
Primary 2(50.0) 1(25.0) - 1(25.0) -
Secondary 72(66.7) 16(14.8) 17(15.7) 3(2.8) -
Tertiary 14(77.8) 1(5.5) 3(16.7) - -
Occupation 2.370(6) 0.883
(Mother)
Housewives 61(67.0) 13(14.3) 13(14.3) 4(4.4) -
392
Professional 18(66.7) 4(14.8) 5(18.5) - -
Non 9(75.0) 1(8.3) 2(16.7) - -
Professional
Estimation 5.362(9) 0.802
of family
income
<RM1000 43(65.2) 10(15.2) 10(15.2) 3(4.5) -
RM1000- 22(64.7) 4(11.8) 7(20.6) 1(2.9) -
RM1999
RM 2000- 9(64.3) 3(21.4) 2(14.3) - -
RM2999
>RM3000 14(87.4) 1(6.3) 1(6.3) - -
*Significant P<0.05

psychological well being of mothers (Anxiety) n=130
demographic factors and psychological well-being (anxiety)
of mothers by using DASS 21 scales. The distribution of
anxiety of mothers according to age of the mothers showed
that there was a statistically significant association between
maternal age and anxiety (χ²=22.106,df=12,p =0.036). The
result found that there was no association between maternal
educations and anxiety (χ²=8.367, df=8, p= 0.398). There
was no significant association between occupations of
mothers and anxiety (χ²=9.162, df=8, p= 0.329). Result
found that there was no statistically significant difference
between four income level groups with anxiety (χ²=12.123,
df=12, p=0.436).

psychological well being of mothers (Anxiety) n=130
Anxiety χ²(df) p-
Variable value
Normal Mild Moder Severe Extremel
n(%) n(%) ate n(%) y
n(%) Severe
n(%)
Maternal 22.10 0.036
age (years) 6(12) *
<19 1(11.1) 2(22.2) 6(66.7) - -
20-29 27(43.5 4(6.5) 13(21.0 11(17 7(11.3)
) ) .7)
30-39 24(49.0 3(6.1) 15(30.6 3(6.1) 4(8.2)
) )
>40 2(20.0) 2(20.0) 5(50.0) - 1(10)
393
Maternal 8.367 0.398
education (8)
Primary 1(25.0) 1(25.0) 1(25.0) - 1(25.0)
Secondary 42(38.9 10(9.3) 33(30.6 12(11 11(10.2
) ) .1) )
Tertiary 11(61.1 - 5(27.8) 2(11. -
) 1)
Occupation 9.162 0.329
(Mother) (8)
Housewives 32(35.2) 11(12 29(31 10(11.0) 9(9.9)
.1) .9)
Professional 14(51.9) - 8(29. 3(11.1) 2(7.4)
6)
Non 8(66.7) - 2(16. 1(8.3) 1(8.3)
Professional 7)
Estimation 12.12 0.436

of family 3(12)
income
<RM1000 23(34.8) 7(10. 21(31 7(10.6) 8(12.1)
6) .8)
RM1000- 14(41.2) 3(8.8) 10(29 6(17.6) 1(2.9)
RM1999 .4)
RM 2000- 6(42.9) 1(7.1) 5(35. - 2(14.3)
RM2999 7)
>RM3000 11(68.8) - 3(18. 1(6.3) 1(6.3)
8)
*Significant P<0.05

psychological well being of mothers (Stress) n=130
demographic factors and psychological well-being of
mothers (stress) by using DASS 21 scales. The distribution
of stress of mothers according to age of the mothers showed
that there was a statistically significant association between
maternal age and stress (χ²=17.509, df=9, p=0.041). There
was no significant association between maternal educations
and stress (χ²=7.186, df=6, p=0.304). Result found that there
was no significant association between occupations of
mothers and stress (χ²=6.767, df=6, p=0.343). The result
found that there was no significant association between four
income level groups and stress (χ²=8.840, df=9, p=0.452).

psychological well being of mothers (Stress) n=130
Variable Stress χ²(df) p-

value
394
Nor Mild Moderate Sever Extremely
mal n(%) n(%) e severe n(%)
n(%) n(%)
Maternal 17.509( 0.041*
age 9)
(years)
<19 4(44.4 1(1 2(22.2 2(22.2) -
) 1.1) )
20-29 33(53. 18( 8(12.9 3(4.8) -
2) 29.0 )
)
30-39 37(75. 6(1 5(10.2 1(2.0) -
5) 2.2) )
>40 6(60.0 4(4 - - -
) 0.0)
Maternal 7.186(6 0.304
education )
Primary 2(50.0 - 1(25.0 1(25.0) -
) )
Secondary 65(60. 27( 12(11. 4(3.7) -
2) 25.0 1)
)
Tertiary 13(72. 2(1 2(11.1 1(5.6) -
2) 1.1) )
Occupati 6.767(6 0.343
on )
(Mother)
Housewiv 51(56. 24( 10(11. 6(6.6) -
es 0) 26.4 0)
)
Profession 20(74. 4(1 3(11.1 - -
al 1) 4.8) )
Non 9(75.0 1(8. 2(16.7 - -
Profession ) 3) )
al
Estimatio 8.840(9 0.452
n of )
family
income
<RM1000 39(59. 14( 9(13.6 4(6.1) -
1) 21.2 )
)
RM1000- 19(55. 10( 3(8.8) 2(5.9) -
RM1999 9) 29.4
)
RM 2000- 8(57.1 3(2 3(21.4 - -
RM2999 ) 1.4) )
>RM3000 14(87. 2(1 - - -
5) 2.5)
*Significant P<0.05
Discussion
Prevalence of psychological well-being of mothers
Based on the finding in this study, most of the respondent’s
having anxiety compared with depression and stress. This
study evaluated the indicators for depression anxiety and
395
stress in mothers of infants born with low birth weight (<
2,500 grams) during hospitalization of the baby in the SCN.
Several studies indicated that compared to the parents of
healthy infants, parents of preterm or low weight infants
experience higher levels of anxiety and depression [15].
Having an infant born preterm was dominated by feelings of
anxiety. Feeling closeness to the child was important, and
separation from the child was a very stressful experience.
The high scores were found for state-anxiety in mothers of
preterm infants, which caused difficulties in confronting the
situation of the infant’s prematurity [16]. In addition a higher
number of parents of NICU infants had clinically relevant
anxiety and depression when assessed within 3 weeks of
infant admission, compared to a control group of parents of
full term infants [17]. In the month following the birth of
their infant, mothers of NICU infants, when compared with
control mothers, scored higher on measures of the following:
difficulty making decisions, depression, anxiety, and
obsessive-compulsive behaviors [18].
Relationship between maternal age and psychological

well-being of mothers
Most studies have documented a tendency of increasing
birth weight with maternal age. Maternal age and health are
significant predictors of birth outcomes [19]. Another
finding study found that the rate of low birth weight babies
among teen mothers was 35 percent higher than that among
mothers aged twenty to twenty-nine (9.6 percent as against
7.1 percent) [20]. The rate among the youngest teens, those
fifteen and younger was 14.1 percent, higher than in any age
group except forty-five to fifty-four. Adolescent mothers <
20 years of age had 1.5 times more risk of delivering LBW
baby [21]. The result research finding show that mother’s
age increased significantly (p<0.005) with the decrease in
LBW. In this study found that by using DASS 21 scales,
shows no significant association between maternal age and
depression (χ²=10.373, p=0.321). However, there was
statistically significantly association between maternal age
and anxiety (χ²=22.106, p=0.036) and stress (χ²=17.509,
p=0.041). These finding results was similar with study who
reported that mothers, aged 30 years or less, had in general
396
more depression than the mothers aged 31 years or
more[22]. However, maternal age did not affect the
persistence of depressive symptoms. Age has claimed to
associate with postnatal depression; both older and younger
women are at increased risk [23]. On the other hand, in
various studies mother’s social class, education, race, age or
parity has not been associated with postnatal depressive
symptoms [24,25].
Relationship between maternal education and

psychological well-being of mothers
Low birth weight is associated with a number of key
developmental, educational and socio-economic outcomes
in later life [26]. Maternal education, itself, is possibly a
result of both genetic and environmental conditions. This
issue aside, it is important to control for this measure when
estimating the effects of other hereditary or environmental
measures. Most of the respondents have secondary
education (PMR/ SPM/ STPM) considered equal to
108(83.1%). This study found there was no significant
association between educational of mothers and depression
of mothers (χ²=9.275, p=0.159), anxiety (χ²=8.367, p=0.398)
and stress (χ²=7.186, p=0.304). Similar finding by previous
study found that there was no correlation between maternal
depression and a low socioeconomic status and level of
maternal education in a preterm population [27]. However,
contrast finding reported that mother’s higher education has
been reported to be a protective factor and lower age was a
risk factor for depression [28].
The socio-cultural variables like maternal education, hard

manual labor, and place of residence have significant effects
on birth weight [29]. There was a strong association between
mother’s educational status and birth weight, and a trend of
increasing birth weight with higher education, where the
correlation coefficient of income and mothers' education
was found to be positive[30]. The mother’s educational
status is an important predictor of a LBW infant. Several
studies suggest that paternal education also plays a role in
LBW. As maternal educational level increases, the risk of a
397
LBW infant decreases, making maternal education a
protective factor for LBW [31,32,33,34]. This might be due
to the fact that educated mothers are well informed about
antenatal care and other precautions to be taken during the
child bearing period, which obviously favorably affect the
weight of the newborn babies. Education may also have
independent effects, above and beyond income, because
more highly educated mothers may know more about family
planning and healthy behaviors during pregnancy [33, 34].
Relationship between family income and psychological

well-being of mothers
Social and economic factors are even harder to pin down.
Women living in poverty are far more likely than more
affluent women to have LBW and/or preterm babies, even
when known biological or medical risk factors are taken into
account. Most of the researchers are not certain why low
socioeconomic status per se increases the risk for LBW. The
experience of delivering a low-birth weight infant and the
possibility of infant death place mothers at increased risk for
psychological distress during the neonatal period [35]. In
this study, there was no significant association between the
family income and depression (χ²=5.362, p=0.802), anxiety
(χ²=12.123, p=0.436) and stress (χ²=8.840, p=0.452).
However, other study found that mothers from lower SES
families reported stronger beliefs in their ability to parent
their infants than did mothers from higher SES families [36].
The infant admitted in hospital especially the infant is

premature, the normal parental process and the mental
preparation of parenthood are interrupted [37]. Socio-
economic deprivation has an effect on both these pathways;
being independently associated with both premature
delivery and with babies who are not born early but who are
born under developed [38]. A preliminary systematic review
of the effect on income inequality and macro-level social
policy on infant mortality and low birth weight in developed
countries was recently published [39]. Previous studies
shown that lower social class is associated with an increased
398
risk of various adverse pregnancy outcomes including
prenatal mortality, premature birth and LBW [40].
However, another study did not find a correlation between

maternal depression and a low socioeconomic status and
level of maternal education in a preterm population [41].
Low socio-economic status is the underlying cause of low
birth weight. Low birth weight can be prevented by
improving socio-economic status and health status among
pregnancy mothers. Indicators of socio-economic status act
as proxy measures for the risk of poverty. Socioeconomic
status is typically measured according to occupational status
but can also be measured by means of income or educational
attainment. Infants with LBW will be susceptible to death
and then bring grief to the families [42]. A high incidence of
LBW babies reflects poor maternal reproductive health, poor
nutritional status of women, improper practices during
pregnancy, and low socioeconomic status of pregnant
women.
Relationship between mother’s occupations and

psychological well-being of mothers
Women of low socio economic status are at increased risk
for delivering low birth weight babies, whether
socioeconomic status is defined by income, occupation, or
education. The results of this study show that there was no
statistically significant different between mother’s
occupations with depression (χ²=2.370, p=0.883), anxiety
(χ²=9.162, p=0.329) and stress (χ²=6.767, p=0.343). The low
professional occupations with lower life satisfaction
connected to other factors (e.g. infant’s low birth weight and
disappointment with delivery) were associated with risk of
depression [10]. The occupation played a significant role in
birth weight determination where they found that the infants
from “cultivators” family have the lowest birth weight (2670
gram) and the infants from service holder family have the
highest birth weight (2844 gram) [30].
Conclusions
399
Considering the findings of this study, the implementation
of psychological intervention programs, is recommended for
the purpose of promoting meeting between mothers, in a
protected setting, so that mothers feel free to express their
feelings. Improving women's health before, during, and after
pregnancy is the key to reducing the human and economic
costs associated with infant mortality and morbidity.
Mothers’ situations could be facilitated if nurses had
increased knowledge and understanding about how mothers
experience this situation. In summary, in this study
researcher found that there was a statistically significant
association between maternal age with anxiety and stress.
Nurses must have critical thinking such as determining what
psychosocial variables affect maternal health behaviors;
intervention programs designed to promote healthy
behaviors can be developed. With the implementation of the
program of psychological intervention in the neonatal unit
aimed at encouraging mothers to express feeling and
expenses incurred by them express their feelings. With this
method the nurse can identify the level psychological mother
and refer them to a counselor as emotional support. And the
most important thing is to implement pre emptive measures
which sustained health promotion efforts aimed at
improving the health of the baby must be in the early stages
of pregnancy longer practice as a precautionary measure to
reduce the morbidity and mortality rates among premature
or LBW infants.
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404
T01_050: SYNTHESIS AND
SPECTROSCOPIC
CHARACTERIZATION OF E-4-((4-
CHLOROPHENYL)ETHYNYL)-N-(4-
(HEXYLOXY) BENZYLIDENE)
ANILINE POTENTIALLY EXHIBITS
LIQUID CRYSTALLINE
PROPERTIES
Yasmin Ridwan Morgan
Wan M. Khairul*
School of Fundamental Science,
Universiti Malaysia Terengganu 21030
Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu,
Malaysia.
*Corresponding author:
wmkhairul@umt.edu.my
ABSTRACT
A unique combination of acetylene and Schiff-base
derivatives has promising future as molecular wire due to
their numerous electronic properties resulted from transfer
of electrons and overlap of orbitals in C=N, C≡C and
phenyl rings. A new ethynylated-Schiff base molecule
consists of donor-bridge-acceptor system was successfully
designed namely (E)-4-((4-chlorophenyl)ethynyl)-N-(4-
(hexyloxy) benzylidene) aniline (3). This compound has been
spectroscopically characterized by Infrared spectroscopy
(IR), 1H and 13C Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) and
UV-visible spectroscopy. The IR spectrum of 3 showed three
important stretching bands of interest which are v(C=N),
v(C≡C) and v(C-O). The 1H NMR result showed, the
important moiety for compound 3 was HC=N which can be
found at ca. δH 8.4 ppm, whereas 13C NMR showed C=N and
C≡C can be observed at δC 87-95 ppm and δC 160 ppm,
respectively. This molecule also has potential to act as liquid
crystalline material due its rigid rod –like molecular
framework that can give thermotropic behaviour. Therefore,
405
ethynylated-Scifff base is an interesting candidate to be
explored further due to its potential as single molecular wire
in various applications.
Keywords: Spectroscopy, molecular wire, ethynyl, imine,
liquid crystal.
Introduction
Conjugated molecular wire derivatives have attracted many
researchers to further explore the systems due to their
electronic properties and conjugation of electrons in
molecule. From the previous studies, it was proven that
acetylide and Schiff base molecules can act individually in
various molecular electronic applications [1-3]. Therefore,
in this study we combined both of these systems to
investigate their interaction abilities. Ethynylated-Schiff
base molecule consist of electron donating group (alkoxy
chains) and also electron withdrawing group (Chloro-
substituent) are believed can give an excellent effect toward
the electron densities in the molecular framework [4]. These
combinations also have potential as liquid crystalline
material due to the rigid centre and flexible alkoxy chain
behave as thermotropic liquid crystal. Besides, the work-up
involved simple procedure which can be conducted at
ambient atmosphere in a short time of reaction and produced
high yield of targeted product. Hence, this study is expected
to give some contribution towards molecular electronic
application since the idea of using ethynylated-Schiff base
molecules is still new and largely unexploited.
Materials and Instrumentations

Chemicals and reagents used were purchased from standard
commercial suppliers and used as received without further
purification. All reactions were carried out under an ambient
atmosphere and no special procedures were taken to exclude
air or moisture during work up. Infrared (IR) spectra of the
synthesized compound were recorded from potassium
bromide (KBr) pellets by Fourier Transform-Infrared
Spectrometer (FTIR), Perkin Elmer Spectrum 100 in the
spectral range of 4000-400 cm-1. NMR spectra were
406
recorded on Bruker Avance III 400 spectrometer using
deuterated chloroform as a solvent and internal standard
within range δH 0-15 ppm for 1H NMR and δC 0-200 ppm for
13
C NMR.
Synthetic Works
Preparation of 4-(hexyloxy)benzaldehyde (1)

Synthesis of 4-(hexyloxy)benzaldehyde (1) was
accomplished via Williamson ether synthesis as reported in
literature [5] through equimolar amount of 4-
hydroxybenzaldehyde (5.2g, 42.7 mmol), bromohexane (6
ml, 42.7 mmol), potassium carbonate (5.9g, 42.7 mmol) and
potassium iodide (1g, 6 mmol), to give light yellowish oil of
the title compound, 1 (Yield 85%).
Preparation of 4-((4-chlorophenyl)ethynyl)aniline (2)

4-((4-chlorophenyl)ethynyl)aniline (2) was prepared
through Sonogashira cross-coupling reaction as reported in
previous work [6], through iodobenzene (2g, 8 mmol), 4-
ethynylaniline (1.4g, 12 mmol), Pd(PPh3)Cl2 (5% mmol)
and CuI (5% mmol) to afford compound 2 as orange solid
(Yield: 75%).
Synthesis of monosubstituted ethynylated-Schiff base

compound (3)
The synthesis of (E)-4-((4-chlorophenyl)ethynyl)-N-(4-
(hexyloxy) benzylidene) aniline (3) involved a reaction
between 4-(hexyloxy)benzaldehyde (0.1 ml, 4 mmol) and 4-
((4-chlorophenyl)ethynyl)aniline (0.1g, 4mmol) which
produced orange solution after reflux (using Dean-Stark
condenser) and stirred in 150 ml ethanol for ca. 5 hours. The
progress of the reaction was monitored by using TLC in the
solvent system hexane: ethyl acetate (3:2). When adjudged
completion, the mixture were cooled to room temperature
before filtered to obtain the yellow precipitate. The yellow
precipitate was then recrystallized from acetone to afford the
title compound, 3 as yellow crystalline solid (Yield: 85%).
The synthetic pathway is described in Scheme 1. In turn, 3
was then characterized by using typical spectroscopic
407
techniques namely IR, 1H and 13
C NMR and UV-Vis
analysis.
Scheme 1: General outline of synthetic work in producing 3
IR Spectroscopy Analysis
The infrared spectrum for 3 showed four absorption bands
of interest namely v(C-H), v(C≡C), v(C=N) and v(C-O)
which ranging from weak, moderate and strong intensities.
The IR spectrum showed strong v(C-H) absorption band at
2920 cm-1, a weak v(C≡C) absorption band at 2214 cm-1, a
moderate v(C=N) absorption at 1619 cm-1 and a strong v(C-
O) absorption at 1257 cm-1. The stretching vibration due to
N-H of primary amine and C=O of carbonyl of the reactants
were absent in the spectrum of 3, while the C=N band was
observed around 1619 cm-1 [7, 8]. The presence of imine
indicated the formation of Schiff base molecule and the
result was in the same argument with previous studies [9].
Usually, imine frequency can be found in the range 1603-
1680 cm-1 due to the H, alkyl or phenyl groups bonded to the
carbon or nitrogen atoms [9]. The C≡C frequency in the
region 2214 cm-1 indicated the formation of acetylide moiety
for 3 [10]. Hence, the presence of bands C=N and C≡C
proved that 3 was an ethynylated-Schiff base molecule.
408
1
H and 13C Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
Analysis
The 1H NMR spectrum for 3 showed proton resonance of
alkoxy group in the range of δH 0.92-1.85 ppm. For R-O-
CH2, the signals were detected in range δH 4.00-4.05 ppm as
triplet resonance. The protons were deshielded due to the
electronegativity of oxygen atom in alkoxy chain [11]. The
aromatic protons were observed around δH 6.97-8.24 ppm
which show pseudo-doublet. Imine moiety can be found at
δH 8.38 ppm as singlet resonance [12].
Table 1: 1H and 13C NMR data for 3
1 13
H NMR C NMR
Moiety Chemical Moiety Chemical
Shift, δH Shift, δC
(ppm) (ppm)
(t, 3JHH = 2Hz, 0.92 (CH3) 14.08
3H, CH3)
(m, 4H, 2CH2) 1.34-1.37 (4xCH2) 22.61-
31.78
(m, 2H, CH2) 1.45-1.52 (CH2-O) 68.29
(m, 2H, CH2) 1.78-1.85 (C≡C) 87.42-
95.05
(t, 3JHH = 7Hz, 4.03 (C6H4) 114.81-
2H, O-CH2) 132.90
(m, 12H, C6H4 ) 6.97-8.24 (C-N) 153.18
(s, 1H, N=CH) 8.38 (C=N) 160.41
(C-O) 162.29
Whilst, 13C NMR spectrum of 3 showed the alkoxy group

which can be detected in the range δC 14.08- 31.78 ppm.
While the chemical shift for R-O-CH2 presence around δC
68.29 ppm due to the deshielding effect of an oxygen atom
[11]. The resonance of aromatic ring can be observed in the
range of δC 114.81-132.90 ppm. Ethynyl and imine moieties
can be seen at δC 87.42-95.05 ppm and δC 160.41 ppm,
respectively, as reported in previous study [12]. The
disappearance of carbonyl group in the spectrum, and the
appearance of ethynyl and imine resonances showed that the
synthesized compound was an ethynylated-Schiff base
409
molecule. Table 1 shows the complete and detail chemical
shift of 1H and 13C NMR for 3.
Conclusion
Monosubstituted ethynylated-Schiff base molecule namely
(E)-4-((4-chlorophenyl)ethynyl)-N-(4-(hexyloxy)
benzylidene) aniline (3) has been successfully synthesized
and characterized via IR, 1H and 13C NMR and UV-vis.
Further studies on liquid crystalline behavior can be
conducted using Polarised Optical Microscope (POM),
Differential Scanning Microscope (DSC) and X-ray
Diffraction (XRD) for structural analysis and identification
of the mesomorphic phase since this molecule possess rod-
like molecular framework consist of rigid center and flexible
alkoxy chain.
Acknowledgement
Authors would like to thank Ministry of Higher Education
Malaysia (MOHE) for financial support (FRGS 59366),
MyBrain Fund for postgraduate student’s scholarship,
School of Fundamental Science and Institute of Marine
Biotechnology, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu for their
cooperation and support throughout the study.
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C. Ho, T.-S. Hu, J.-Y. Yan, L.-H. Chen, G.-H. Lee,
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412
T01_051: CRITICAL
CONSIDERATION FACTORS IN
ADOPTING MODULAR
CONSTRUCTION
Vivian Anne Thomas Tarang1,
Mohammad Fadhil Mohammad
1
Faculty of Architecture, Planning and
Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA
(UiTM), Shah Alam
ABSTRACT
Construction industry in Malaysia is one of the major
cornerstones that the other industries are depending on it in
order to contribute to Malaysia’s Gross Domestic Product
(GDP). However, the construction industry is performing
slowly in delivering construction products. This is due to the
fact that construction industry is very complicated to
compare to other industries in Malaysia; in term of the
method of application. This inefficient deliver-ability of
construction industry has came to the extend of the usage of
Industrialised Building System (IBS) in Malaysia; which it
has emerged to the introduction of Modular Construction.
Industrialized Building System (IBS) were introduced as
solution to issues related with dependencies of foreign
workers, raising demand of affordable accommodations and
improving image, quality and productivity of construction
industry. Modular Construction is newly implemented in this
country that has the same application like IBS but in a 3D
version. The usage of modular construction among
construction players needs few considerations that has to be
taken into account. Justification and opinions from parties
involved like contractors, suppliers, clients, stakeholders
and developers plays important roles in ensuring the
deliver-ability of the usage of modular construction. Thus,
this research is conducted to establish Critical
Consideration Factors that needs to be taken prior to
adopting Modular Construction in Malaysia using few
413
methods; like analysing the data collected from

questionnaires in order to achieve the mean of the research.
Therefore from this research, it was found that firm
determination at early stage is the most crucial factors to be
considered before using modular construction. Modular
construction application can be widely implemented if there
is a proper and firm decision on coordination and planning;
together with efficient knowledge transfer from the other
countries like England, Australia, Japan, Thailand and
India.
Keyword: Modular Construction, Industrialised Building
System (IBS), Construction Technology, Critical
Consideration Factors, Malaysian Construction Industry
INTRODUCTION
There are studies made by researchers to overcome the
problem of slow deliver-ability of the end product in
construction. The introduction of Industrialised Building
System (IBS) has gives impact especially faster delivery of
the construction product. Besides, in view of meeting the
government’s ambition to transform the Malaysian
construction industry into adopting the modern method of
construction; there is a call for the industry players towards
the usage of IBS. The usage of IBS has been promoted and
encouraged by the Construction Industry Development
Board (CIDB) through Construction Industry Master Plan
(CIMP) which highlighted the IBS Roadmap 2011-2015 . It
is being continued by Construction Industry Transformation
Plan (CITP) which also outlined to promote the larger scale
of the IBS usage.
Many sectors of construction are shifting away from this
traditional paradigm and towards the use of prefabrication
and modularization due to advantages which include shorter
project schedules, lower costs, increased safety and
improved quality control [1,2,3]. Thus, in order to shift from
conventional method of construction to modular
construction method, it is important to study the
consideration factors before implementing modular
construction in a construction project.
414
LITERATURE REVIEW
A) Problem Statements
[4] in their study state that,

“The industry is under a constant pressure to improve
its performance. This method is labour intensive
involving formwork fabrication, steel bending and
concreting. It requires many wet trades on site
such as skill carpenters, plasterers and brick
workers. The process can hamper by quality issue,
unfavorable site condition, skilled labour shortage
and bad weather conditions.” [4]
Supporting that statement, [5] highlighted that the

problems associated with the construction industry
such as, decreasing quality and productivity,
labour shortages, occupational safety and inferior
working condition have highlighted the need for
innovative solution within the industry, including
the push for further use of industrialization and
construction automation and robotics application
on site. Modular construction can offer more than
the conventional method in term of construct-
ability; the time, in term of cost, quality,
productivity, and safety. But somehow there are
few shortcomings of the implementation of
modular construction that need to be considered.
i) Limitation of design variation in modular

construction project.
Somehow in his paper, [6] stated that construction
industry is complicated in nature. Through a study held
by [7] they found that complexity in modular
construction design makes the design flexibility
decreases and this is supported by [8] who supports that
modular construction system causing limitation in the
design of the building.
ii) Expensive in the long term of the adoption.
Based on report by United State Director of Technical
Services in 2008, the cost can be proved to be
415
expensive in a long run especially one associate with

maintenance. [9] in their studies stated that the modular
construction activities are highly cost intensive.
Besides, the cost of implementing modular
construction may be slightly higher to compare to
conventional method as the availability of cheap
labours [10].
iii) Problem with parties dealing with Modular
Construction in Malaysia.
[11] studied that labor experience affects the modular
construction performance as certain types of modular
construction are still new in Malaysia and the labor
force is still not familiar with the special erection
procedure required by those systems. [9] in their
research found that the problems with modular
construction industry are supply delay, bad weather,
and shortage of raw material. In addition, [11] stated
that logistics and transportation matters in ensuring a
success modular construction. Besides that [4] in their
paper supported the argument and adding such failure
is due to fragmentation and underpinned by poor
relationship among parties involved. In addition, in
their study; [4] stated the the culture of the construction
practitioners who have rigid mindset of refusing to
change the methods of construction technology; they
prefer to apply the traditional method as they already
familiar with the method instead of modular
construction.
B) Modular Construction
Table 1: Definition of Modular Construction

Definition
Republic of Modular construction is from USA and Europe, an
Korea [11] architectural system whose fundamentals technologies
that are already been developed where this method is a
production and construction method of buildings in a
way that combines each box- type module produced. The
box module is then transferred to the site for installation
416
United Modular construction is a process that constructs a

States of building off site, under controlled plant conditions using
America the same materials and designed to the same codes and
[12] standards as conventionally built facilities but in about
half the time. Buildings produce in “modules” and when
put together on site, reflect the identical design intent and
specifications of the most sophisticated traditionally
built facility without compromise.
Australia Modular construction is an inspirational unconstrained
[8,13] building design combined with highly efficient
industrialised production in a control manufacturing
facility. Once modular units are complete, it will be
transported to the site and combine together to a
completed building.
United Modular construction is a fully fitted out in a
Kingdom manufacturing facility comprises of prefabricated room
and Europe size volumetric units. The standardization of the modular
[14] unit has been produced and then it takes only minor
construction on the foundation will be constructed on
site and installation of modular units will be made. This
room sized units as load bearing “building block” will be
install on site.
Japan [15] Modular construction can be defined as industrialised
volumetric units to form a building; where the units are
being put together on-site or off-site, reflecting the
identical design intent and specifications of the most
sophisticated design of a typical building.
C) Critical Construction Factors of Modular Construction
Table 2: Critical Considerations of Modular Construction

Consideration
Factors
Cost [16] stated that modular construction literally more
expensive due to paid up capitals and maintenance of
the machineries and supported by [17] who stated
that the components are expensive too.
Involvement of [16] in his research found that a successful
Expertise implementation of modular construction is through
technology transfer so that it can build up our own
capacity to use this technology; therefore the
involvement of expertise to transfer the knowledge
is one of the consideration factors that need to be
taken.
Availability of [9] in their research found that the problems with
components modular construction technology is supply delay and
supply shortage of materials. [16] found that the importance
of modular components supply to be mass produced
to avoid extra cost especially when it comes to
417
importing the components from other countries.

Selection of [18] in their studies believe that the procurement
Procurement method plays big roles in the success implementation
of modular construction. The procurement must
consists the involvement of manufacturers and
suppliers apart from the client and the contractor
only [19]. Besides, [10] in his research [19], quotes
that procurement strategy and contracting is
important in order to achieve long term success.
Firm The firm key decision as found by [1] requires
determination modularisation strategy incorporated at the project
at early stage inception. In addition, [6] insisted that systematic
analysis and early decision making is important.
Involvement of Where conventional method is labour intensive wet
skilled labours trades on sites where it requires such skills like
plasterers, brick workers and many more. The
modular construction method reduces wet trades and
requires skilled labour who been tremendously
trained and educated to manage the handling,
positioning and erecting the finished product [20]
Good [16] in their studies stated that the cooperation
communication between contractors, manufacturers and suppliers is
and weak in many cases. [4] in their study suggested that
relationship the good working collaboration, effective
among communication channel, smoothness of information
construction on coordination of design, close relationship with the
parties suppliers, and a good top-down commitment on
modular construction is important.
Transportation [18] in their studies found that one of the success
of components factor of modular construction delivery is the
arrangement of the transportation of modular
components.
ICT [4] in their research found that the involvement of
involvement ICT is vital to improve the documented process, the
management of the modular construction planning,
and delivering smooth information among the
construction parties. [10] suggested that extensive
use of modern ICT tools enabling more accurate
documents and eventually will provide effective
production where errors can be detected at early
stage [16].
Willingness to [4] in their paper for proceedings in BuHu clarifies
adopt Modular that the current awareness programs in Malaysia
Construction were ineffective and unable to attract a lukewarm
response from the construction parties. In addition
[16] highlighted the major issues on changing the
perception of using the modular construction which
may lead to unwillingness of using modular
construction.
Readiness to Newer and better technology were constantly being
418
adopt modular introduced in the construction industry market [16].

construction Somehow, the lacking in the awareness and
readiness among most of Malaysian construction
parties at a slower rate [17]. [5] in her studies
suggests that the push for further industrialisation
and construction automation and robotics application
on site must be increased.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
For this research, the methodology for the data collection in
this research is through the literature review. the extensive
literature review also contributing to the development of
variables which then be tested through a well designed
questionnaire to meet the objectives outlined. The
information is gathered from the secondary data comprising
relevant journals, reports, web page, and conference
proceedings; which aimed to well define the modular
construction and review the potential critical consideration
factors of implementing modular construction.
Besides that, the researcher has chosen the quantitative
research methods. In a quantitative study the variables must
be tested and measured by numbers. In quantitative studies,
the experimental methods must be appropriate and well
designed to form a valid data.
A) Critical Consideration Factors Methodology
Firstly, literature review was conducted to determine the
factors influencing the costs of building construction
projects. Then, the sets of structured questionnaires were
distributed to test the consideration factors that being
extracted from the literature review made.Secondly, a
questionnaire survey methodology is employed to determine
and rank these factors according to their levels of influence
on the usage of modular construction. The questionnaire
survey was conducted to determine the opinions of
consideration factors to be considered by the potential end
users.
B) Questionnaire Survey
A questionnaire is a pre-formulated written set of questions
to which the respondents recorded their answer that usually
within rather closely defined alternatives. Then the
information can be administrated personally or
electronically.. Targeting the potential users of modular
419
construction and current users of modular construction

personally and distribute the questionnaire helps to collect
the complete responses within time allocated. Besides, for a
faster response, a link that containing the questionnaire has
been spread among potential users and current users of
modular construction in Lembah Klang.
The sampling for the questionnaire distribution is made
based on the number of the modular construction project in
Lembah Klang area. The total number of modular
construction in Lembah Klang was determined by accessing
the Construction Industry Development Board’s (CIDB)
online database. The database provided is reliable as any
construction project must be recorded by the authorized
body which is CIDB. Of all 134 modular construction
projects in Lembah Klang, the respondent for this
questionnaire only hit 29.85% of returns. The data collected
is then being analysed using SPSS and therefore the result
can be formulated.
FINDINGS
Table 3: Result - The Critical Consideration Factors of
Modular Construction Implementation
Mean Media Mode Minimu Maximu
n m m
Firm
Determination 5.0 5.0
5.00 2.00 2.00
of planning 0 0
Cost 4.8 5.0
5.00 2.00 5.00
0 0
Willingness to 4.6 5.0
5.00 3.00 5.00
adopt 7 0
Readiness to 4.6 5.0
adopt 5.00 3.00 5.00
7 0
Procurement 4.6 4.0
4.00 2.00 3.00
Method 2 0
ICT 4.2 5.0
5.00 2.00 5.00
7 0
Supply 4.1 4.0
4.00 2.00 5.00
Availability 5 0
Good
3.9 5.0
communicatio 4.00 2.00 5.00
5 0
n
Skilled Labour 3.8 4.0
4.00 1.00 5.00
0 0
420
Professional 3.5 4.0

4.00 2.00 5.00
Involvement 7 0
Transport- 3.3 3.0
3.00 1.00 5.00
ability 0 0
Table above shows the potential consideration factors of

implementing modular construction. From this analysis, it
can be concluded that the cost, professional involvement,
availability of supply, transportation of modular
components, firm determination of key decision,
involvement of skilled labours, good communication among
construction parties, procurement method, usage of ICT,
willingness and readiness to implement modular
construction were agreed to be the critical consideration
factors of implementing modular construction. From this
research, the firm determination of key decisions, the
consideration on cost, the procurement strategies, the
willingness and readiness to adopt modular construction
technology in construction are strongly agreed to be the most
important to be considered before implementing modular
construction as these considerations has min between the
range of 4.50 - 5.00. Indeed, these factors are important to
be considered to ensure the deliver-ablity of modular
construction.
CONCLUSION
From the data analysis, the critical consideration factors
have been listed and it can be concluded that the critical
consideration factors to be taken is the firm determination of
key decisions like the strategy to be used, supply chain
management, logistic plan, design layout of building, and
the detailed unit to be used. Therefore, it can be concluded
that in order to use modular construction, a proper and
strategic planning of the building project must be made with
early involvement of all construction parties so that the firm
determination can be made especially the design. A firm key
decision can ensure the mix and match of the modular
components so that the deliver-ability of modular
construction project is a total success.
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421
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Telyas, A. (2013). "Lean Transformation in a
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[5] Mahbub, R. (2012). Readiness of a Developing
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Robotics Technologies in Construction: A Case
Study of Malaysia. Journal of Civil
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[6] Cheung, S.O., Kenneth, T. W.Y. and Henry, S.
(2004). Construction Negotiation
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[7] Tatum, C. B., Vanegas, J. A., and Williams, J. M.

(1987). “Constructability improvement using
prefabrication, preassembly, and
modularization.” Univ. of Texas, Construction
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A.H.,(2002). Industrialized Building
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(2006). “Benefit evaluation for off-site
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vol. 25 (2), pp. 183194, 2007.
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424
T01_052: COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT

MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF RELATIVE
QUANTIFICATION METHOD FOR REAL-
TIME PCR
Nurul Syahidah Mohd Yusof
Rosmadi Mohd Yusoff
Universiti Teknologi MARA Kampus Puncak Alam,
42300, Bandar Puncak Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Real-time PCR is a quantitative gene expression method that is highly
sensitive and allows quantification of rare transcripts and small changes in
gene expression. This study aimed to validate the most stable housekeeping
genes, followed by comparison of different mathematical models on relative
mRNA expression levels; 1) Pfaffl method and 2) Delta delta Ct method. Of
the 4 selected housekeeping genes, experimental data revealed, that RPLP0
and ß-actin are the most stable housekeeping genes, followed by GAPDH
based on GeNorm analysis. Meanwhile GAPDH is the least stable
housekeeping gene. Apart from that, the data also revealed there was
similar expression levels between both mathematical models as the
efficiency of the standard curve obtained was nearest to one for all genes.
The study also showed Pfaffl is the most accurate method as it is took into
account the efficiency of standard curve for each gene in its calculation.
Keywords: Real-time PCR, housekeeping gene, normalization, gene

expression, relative quantification
Introduction
Real-time PCR (qPCR) is a tool for measuring changes in gene expression
[1]. Generally there are two quantification types in real time PCR which are
absolute quantification and relative quantification. For relative
quantification, there are several data analysis procedures that have been
developed: i) standard curve method; ii) Pfaffl method; and iii) 2-∆∆Ct
method [2]. For standard curve and Pfaffl method, the data will be generated
based on determination of qPCR efficiency for the target gene and
housekeeping gene, whereas the data generation of 2 -∆∆Ct is based on the
425
assumption that efficiencies of target and reference genes are the same [2,
3].
The 2-∆∆Ct method was first introduced by Livak and Schmittgen
[4] as a suitable method to calculate relative changes in gene expression
determined from qPCR experiment. This method has been used extensively
in qPCR study as it is the most convenient way to calculate the relative gene
expression level between different samples in that it directly uses Ct values
[5]. In order to have a valid 2-∆∆CT calculation, the amplification efficiencies
of the target and reference must be approximately equal. However, in certain
studies, the method is generated based on the assumption that efficiencies
of target and reference genes are the same [2]. Therefore, to exclude
inaccuracy in relative gene expression level method, Pfaffl method was
considered to be more accurate as it was presented to calculate the relative
expression ratio on the basis of the qPCR efficiency and Ct value deviation
of investigated transcript versus control, and in comparison to a reference
gene[3].
Normalization of the expression of the target gene with
housekeeping gene is crucial as it will correct the data for differences in
quantities of cDNA used as template [6]. Eventhough GAPDH and ß-actin
are the housekeeping genes that are widely used in qPCR, numerous studies
revealed that both these genes are regulated and vary under experimental
control [3]. Another aspect raised by scientists is the number of
housekeeping genes that should be used for a reproducible and reliable
qPCR data. Therefore, the focus of this study was to compare the relative
mRNA expression level generated from 2-∆∆Ct method and Pfaffl method.
Additionally this study was also aimed to compare the relative expression
mRNA level generated using one or two housekeeping genes.
RNA extraction, reverse transcription and qPCR primer design
The concentration of RNA extracted from lung cancer adenocarcinoma cell

(A549) and small airway epithelial cell (SAEC) cell lines were measured
using 2100 Bioanalyzer, Agilent RNA 6000 Nano Kit (Agilent
Technologies, Santa Clara, CA). The first strand cDNA synthesis reaction
was carried out using SuperScriptTM III Reverse Transcriptase (Invitrogen,
Carlsbad, CA) according to the manufacturer’s protocol. A set of primer for
target genes and housekeeping genes were designed by using Premier
426
Primer6 software (Premier Biosoft International, CA, USA) and primer

design tool (NCBI) as shown in Table 1.
Validation of candidate housekeeping gene

Each reaction was carried out using 5X HOT FIREPol® EvaGreen®
qPCRSupermix according to the manufacturer’s protocol. GeNorm analysis
was conducted in order to determine the most stable gene and the least
number of housekeeping gene for the qPCR analysis.
Table 1: Primers designed for qPCR

Primer Types of gene Forward Reverse
5’- 5’-
C11 Target gene GAAGGAGATGCTATGGTAGATTACA- CCTCACACTGCTCTGATAATGT-
3’ 3’
Target gene
C12 5'-ACAGAGCGAGACACTCTACAT-3' 5'-GTCCTTCACCTGCGTTCATT-3
Target gene 5’-
C13 5’-AGACGCAGGCACAGACAGGTA-3’ GTGTGGTGTAGCTCGGTGGTTA-
3’
Target gene 5’-GGACAGTTCTCCCTTTCCAATTCT- 5’-CCAGCCCAGGCAACATAGGA-
C20
3’ 3’
5’-
GAPDH Housekeeping gene 5’-CTCCACGACGTACTCAGCG-3’
TGTTGCCATCAATGACCCCTT-3’
Housekeeping gene 5'-CTCCTTAATGTCACGCACGAT-
ß-actin 5’-CATGTACGTTGCTATCCAGGC-'3
'3
Housekeeping gene
RPLP0 5’-CCTCGTGGAAGTGACATCGT-'3 5'-ATCTGCTTGGAGCCCACATT-'3
Housekeeping gene 5’- CGAGCAAGACGTTCAGTCCT -
HPRT1 5’- CCTGGCGTCGTGATTAGTGA -‘3
‘3
Generation of standard curve and the assessment of relative mRNA

expression level of the selected genes
Upon validation of expression of target genes, standard curve of selected
reference genes and target genes were generated. Then, qPCR on both target
genes and housekeeping genes were carried out for each samples (n=3)
using 5X HOT FIREPol® EvaGreen® qPCRSupermix, according to the
manufacturer’s protocol.
Calculation of the efficiency of standard curve and the relative

expression of mRNA level of target genes
The efficiency of the standard curve reaction for both the reference genes
and the target genes was calculated using the following calculation:
Efficiency: 10[-1/slope] -1
427
The relative expression of the target genes was calculated by using

the following mathematical model; 1) Pfaffl with one housekeeping gene,
2) Pfaffl with more than one housekeeping gene, 3) Delta Delta Ct method
with one housekeeping gene, and 4) Delta Delta Ct method with more than
one housekeeping gene.
Pfaffl method:
Etarget ∆Ct (control−sample)
Expression ratio =
Ereference ∆Ct (control−sample)
Delta delta Ct method:
∆∆Ct = ∆Ct(target gene) − ∆Ct (reference gene)
Expression ratio = 2−∆∆Ct
All results were presented as mean±SD. All the data were calculated using
GraphPad Prism Software version 6.0 (GraphPad Software Inc, CA,
USA).Tukey-Kramer post hoc test was used when there was a difference in
order to identify pairs that differed significantly. A probability value of 0.05
was considered as significant.
A
B
B
Figure 1: (A) The mean Ct value of candidate housekeeping genes in A549 (white box)
and SAEC (black box). (B) The average expression stability (M) value of candidate
housekeeping genes
428
Results
Validation of housekeeping genes

In this study, high RNAs integrity was obtained as the RNA exhibited RIN
10. The data of mean Ct of houskeeping gene was represented in the form
of boxplot as shown in Figure 1 (A). The mean Ct of candidate
housekeeping genes was compared between A549 and SAEC. Ct values for
each housekeeping genes are shown as median (lines), 25th to 75th percentile
(boxes) and range (whiskers). Based on mean Ct value, RPLP0 has the
closest mean Ct value between A549 and SAEC, followed by ß-actin,
GAPDH and HPRT1. The closest mean Ct value between both samples
might indicate that these genes are the most potential stable candidate
housekeeping gene. However, there is large difference of HRPT’s Ct value
between A549 and SAEC suggesting this gene is highly expressed in cancer
cells.
GeNorm analysis resulted in average expression stability (M)
among candidate housekeeping genes as demonstrated in Figure 1 (B). The
lowest M value indicates the most stable expression gene. Based on
GeNorm analysis, RPLP0 and ß-actin were ranked as the most stable gene
and HPRT1 as the least stable gene. GeNorm analysis also suggested the
least number of housekeeping gene should be used is two.
Standard curve and qPCR amplification efficiencies

Based on standard curve results, the amplification of target gene can be
observed in all concentration where the Ct values were inversely related to
the amount of starting material. The efficiency (E) and correlation
coefficient value (R2) obtained from standard curve was obtained where the
data suggested all the genes met qPCR requirements (data not shown).
Comparison of relative mRNA expression levels between different

mathematical models.
As shown in Figure 2, the entire mathematical model resulted in similar
relative mRNA expression levels. Additionally, there is no significant
difference across the various calculation methods.
Discussion
Based on both methods, a standard curve for each gene is crucially needed
in order to assess the efficiency of the target gene. Present data on relative
expression ratio was calculated using Pffafl and ∆∆Ct method where both
429
methods resulted in a similar relative mRNA expression level. This finding

suggested the efficiency for the target genes which were nearest to one.
However, this study also suggested if efficiency was diverted away from
one, the calculated relative expression level values are affected. Apart from
that, this study also compared the mathematical model method using one
and two housekeeping genes that were selected using GeNorm analysis.
This study found that was a similar expression level between RPLP0 and ß-
actin as housekeeping gene. Interestingly, the result of gene expression
using single housekeeping gene and two housekeeping gene also showed
similar gene expression levels in all target genes. Such result highlights the
importance of validation housekeeping gene. Despite this finding, there are
still tremendous studies on qPCR using GAPDH and ß-actin as the reference
gene without validating these genes with their sample especially in lung
cancer related study area.
Figure 2: The relative mRNA expression levels of target genes. The

value is expressed as mean ± SD (n=3)
Conclusion
This study conclude that the Pffafl and ∆∆Ct method generate comparable
and reliable results when all necessary conditions are fulfilled. Additionally,
the Pfaffl method is the most suitable and accurate mathematical model in
expression of mRNA level as it takes into account the efficiency of the
standard curve. Furthermore, the analysis of the most suitable housekeeping
gene is required in order to obtain a reliable and reproducible result.
References
430
[1] Hildyard, J.C. and D.J. Wells, Identification and validation of

quantitative PCR reference genes suitable for normalizing expression in
normal and dystrophic cell culture models of myogenesis. PLoS Curr,
2014. 6.
[2] Bolha, L., et al., Comparison of Methods for Relativ Quantification of
Gene Expression using Real Time PCR. Acta argiculturae Slovenica,
2012. 100(2): p. 97-106.
[3] Pfaffl, M.W., A new mathematical model for relative quantification in
real-time RT-PCR. Nucleic acids research, 2001. 29(9): p. e45-45.
[4] Livak, K.J. and T.D. Schmittgen, Analysis of Relative Gene Expression
Data Using Real-Time Quantitative PCR and the 2−ΔΔCT Method.
Methods, 2001. 25(4): p. 402-408.
[5] Rao, X., et al., An improvement of the 2ˆ(–delta delta CT) method for
quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction data analysis.
Biostatistics, bioinformatics and biomathematics, 2013. 3(3): p. 71-85.
[6] Taylor, S., et al., A practical approach to RT-qPCR-Publishing data that
conform to the MIQE guidelines. Methods, 2010. 50(4): p. S1-5.
[7] Vandesompele, J., et al., Accurate normalization of real-time
quantitative RT-PCR data by geometric averaging of multiple internal
control genes. Genome Biology, 2002. 3(7): p. 1-12.
[8] D'haene, B., Four tips for RT-qPCR data normalization using reference
genes, in Biogazelle. 2013.
431
T01_053: PREVALENCE AND RISK FACTORS

OF NON-ALCOHOLIC FATTY LIVER
DISEASE AMONG MENOPAUSAL WOMEN
IN KLANG VALLEY, MALAYSIA
Ramlah MI 1,3, Abdul Sattar A1 , Nurul Nadiah MN 1,3and Rozi M 1,2*
1
Department of Imaging, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences,
Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
2
Cancer Resources and Education Center, Faculty of Medicine and
Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor,
Malaysia
3
Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health
Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
*Email address: rozi@upm.edu.my
Phone: +60389471011
Fax: +60389472706
ABSTRACT
Non- alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) was found to have high
prevalent among menopausal women. Thus, the aim of the present study
was to investigate the prevalence and risk factors of NAFLD among
menopausal women in Klang Valley Malaysia. Hundred fifteen menopausal
women (interval of ≥ 12 months since the last regular menstruation from
different ethnicity with age ranging from 50-65 were investigated for
NAFLD in Palace of Golden Horses Health Screening Centre, Serdang.
Non- alcoholic fatty liver disease was determined using 5 MHz frequency
ultrasonographic method which is appropriate for abdomen and pelvic
examination. Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease was defined as a
sonographically detected fatty liver in the absence of viral hepatitis in a
non-drinker. Other measurements such as weight, total cholesterol,
triglyceride, HDL and LDL were determined by routine laboratory
methods. The prevalence of NAFLD among 115 menopausal women in
Klang Valley was 43.3%. Data indicated that the prevalence of NAFLD was
increased with age among the women. Correlation analysis showed that
several risk factors including age, ethnicity and dyslipidaemia were
432
profoundly associated with the prevalence of NAFLD among the

menopausal women. This result demonstrates that the prevalence of NAFLD
among menopausal women in Klang Valley according to ultrasonographic
examination was shown to have mostly correlated with age and
dyslipidemia.
Keywords: Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, prevalence, menopausal

women, dyslipidemia, abdominal ultrasound
INTRODUCTION
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is defined as lipid
accumulation exceeding the normal range of 5% of liver wet weight with
the absence of excessive alcohol use. It is a chronic disorder which
associated with a potential risk for progression to cirrhosis, hepato-
carcinoma and liver failure in the general population [1].Recently, NAFLD
has become a common disorder and according to the Office for National
Statistics in the United Kingdom, liver disease mainly fatty liver diseases
ranks the fifth most common cause of death after heart disease, stroke,
pulmonary disease and cancer worldwide [2]. Non-alcoholic fatty liver
disease is the most common reason for abnormal liver function, and may
occur as much as 17% of the population in Malaysia which caused due to
alterations in life style and dietary habits in Malaysian population [3]. Non-
alcoholic fatty liver disease would be a common problem in Malaysia as
well since the prevalence of overweight and obesity as well as diabetes
mellitus (DM) have been shown to be on the increase [4].
Over the last decade, community-based studies have found male
predominance of NAFLD. However, women especially with increasing
age and during the period of menopause overtake their male counterparts
in prevalence of NAFLD [5]. Some hypotheses stated that changes in
hormones that occur in menopausal women may associate with NAFLD
[6]. However, the link between menopause, hormones and NAFLD is still
lacking especially in Malaysian population. Therefore, this study is aimed
to determine the prevalence of NAFLD among menopausal women and to
identify its risk factors. The data showed in the study was based on the
clinical settings and on health check-up groups which do not represent
population data.
MATERIALS AND METHODS

Respondent recruitment
433
The study was performed using data on 115 menopausal women

living in urban areas in the Klang Valley, Malaysia whose age was ranging
between 50-70 years old. These individuals were recruited from women
who undergo physical examinations check-up in the palace of Golden
Horses Health Screening Centre, Serdang between August 2014 and April
2015. This was a non-probabilistic, convenience sample and each subject
gave their written and informed consent regarding to the study.
Data collection and ultrasound examination

Upon being enrolled in the study, all subjects underwent physical
examination including assessments of body weight and measurements on
the lipid profile such as total cholesterol, triglycerides, high-density
lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C), low density lipoprotein-cholesterol
(LDL-C). All of the subjects were studied for the occurrence of NAFLD
using the 5mhertz frequency ultra-sonographic method which is
appropriate for abdomen and pelvic examination. Non- alcoholic fatty liver
disease was defined as a fatty liver found on ultrasound examination in the
absence of viral hepatitis in non-drinkers. Data were collected on defined
disorders and disease, alcohol ingestion and menstrual status. Histories of
alcohol consumption were obtained by physician interviews based on the
type of alcoholic beverage consumed, the frequency of drinking per week
and the amount of drinking per day. The term “non-drinker” was applied
to women who consumed less than 20 g alcohol/ day or never and all the
subjects in this study are found to be “non drinker”.
As for statistical analysis, the data were expressed as means ±
standard deviations (SD). The odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence
intervals (CI) for NAFLD risk factors were measured with a logistic
regression model using SPSS. Differences in continuous variables between
groups were investigated with multivariate regression analysis on the basis
of univariate analysis. In all cases, p < 0.05 was taken to indicate
significance.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The prevalence of NAFLD according to various metabolic
deteriorations among menopausal women living in urban areas of Klang
Valley, Malaysia is given in the table 1. The mean age of the subject was
57.07 + 3.26. The prevalence of NAFLD was found to be 43.3% out of
434
115 menopausal women diagnosed for abdominal ultrasound from three

major ethnic groups in Malaysia.
Table 1:Prevalence of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease according to

various metabolic deteriorations among the menopausal women in
Klang Valley, Malaysia
Variables Total (%) NAFLD Absence of

(%) NAFLD
(%)
Age
50-55 22 (36.7) 7 (31.8) 15 (68.2)
56-60 29 (48.3) 13 (44.8) 16 (55.2)
61-65 9 (15.0) 6 (66.7) 3 (33.3)
Ethnicity
Malay 24 (40.0) 10 (41.7) 14 (58.3
Chinese 13 (21.7) 6 (46.2) 7 (53.8)
Indian 23 (38.3) 10 (43.5) 13 (56.5)

Total
cholesterol
(mg/dL)
< 200 32 (53.3) 3 (9.4) 29 (90.6)
> 200 28 (46.7) 23 (82.1) 5 (17.9)
Triglycerides
(mg/dL)
< 150 29 2 (6.9) 27 (93.1)
(48.3)
27 (93.1)
> 150 31 (51.7) 24 (77.4) 7 (22.6)
LDL-C
(mg/dL)
< 130 29 (48.3) 1 (3.4) 28 (96.6)
> 130 31 (51.7) 25 (80.6) 6 (19.4)
435
HDL-C
(mg/dL)
< 50 32 (53.3) 24 (75.0) 8 (25.0)
> 50 26 (46.7) 2 (7.1) 26 (92.9)
 Data are given as the percentage (%)
 LDL-C , low density lipoprotein- cholesterol, HDL-C, high density
lipoprotein –cholesterol
It is clear that, with increasing in age, there was a sharp increase
in the prevalence of NAFLD (Figure 1). It can be seen that the prevalence
of NAFLD increased gradually among the menopausal women aged 50-60
with prevalence of 31.8 - 44.8% and spiked once the age exceeded 60 years
with prevalence of 66.7%. The prevalence of NAFLD also found to be
higher in Chinese menopause women with prevalence of 46.2% followed
with Indian and Malay menopause women with prevalence of 43.5% and
41.7% respectively. This prevalence of NAFLD among the menopausal
women exceeded 75.0% in subjects with dyslipidemia while the
prevalence of NAFLD is less than 8.0% in subjects with desirable range of
lipid profile. Based on table 1, it shows that the prevalence of NAFLD in
subjects with elevated total cholesterol > 200mg/dL is 82.1% followed
with triglycerides > 150mg/dL is 77.4%, LDL-C > 130mg/dL is 80.6% and
HDL-C < 50mg/dL is 75.0%.
80
70 66.7%
60
Prevalence of NAFLD (%)
50 44.8%
40
31.8%
30
20
10
0
50 - 55 56 - 60 61 - 65
Age (years)
436
Figure 1: Age-specific prevalence of NAFLD among the

menopausal women in Klang Valley, Malaysia
The percentage (%) of lipid profile among the menopausal

women based on their ethnicity is given in the table 2. It shows that Indian
menopausal women have higher percentage of dyslipidemia followed with
Chinese and Malay women. Most of the Indian women have elevated total
cholesterol more than > 200mg/dL with percentage of 56.5% followed
with Malay and Chinese women with percentage of 41.7% and 38.5%
respectively. Moreover, it was found that the Indian women also have
elevated triglycerides (> 150mg/dL) and LDL-C (> 130mg/dL) with
percentage of 60.9% for each. While for Chinese and Malay women, it was
found that their triglycerides (> 150mg/dL) and LDL-C (> 130mg/dL)
were both 46.2 % and 45.8%. Most of the Indian women having HDL-C
level to be lower than the desirable range with percentage of 65.2%
followed with Malay and Chinese women with percentage of 50.0% and
38.5% respectively.
Table 2: Percentage (%) of lipid profile among the menopausal
women based on ethnicity
Lipid TC TG LDL-C HDL-C
profile
(mg/dl)
Ethnicity < > < > < > < 50 > 50
200 200 150 150 130 130
Malay 58.3 41.7 54.2 45.8 54.2 45.8 50.0 50.0
Chinese 61.5 38.5 53.8 46.2 53.8 46.2 38.5 61.5
Indian 43.5 56.5 39.1 60.9 39.1 60.9 65.2 34.8
 Data are given as the percentage (%)

437
 TC, total cholesterol, TG, triglycerides, LDL-C , low density

lipoprotein- cholesterol, HDL-C, high density lipoprotein –
cholesterol
The logistic regression model for multivariate analysis on the

basis of univariate analysis was conducted in order to identify risk factors
of NAFLD. Among the menopausal women, prevalence of NAFLD was
significantly (p < 0.05) associated with elevated total cholesterol,
triglycerides, HDL-C, reduced LDL-C and increasing age (table 3).
Table 3: Multivariate analysis of the risk factors of NAFLD among

the menopausal womenin Klang Valley, Malaysia
Variables Odds ratio (95% confidence

interval
(n= 115)
Age 0.547 (0.020 – 0.029)*
Ethnic 0.016 (0.129 – 0.400)
Weight 0.266 (0.009 – 0.310)
Total cholesterol (> 200 mg/dL) 0.691 (0.001 – 0.006) **
Triglycerides (> 150 mg/dL) 0.615 (0.001 – 0.005) **
LDL-C (> 130 mg/dL) 0.759 (0.003 – 0.009) **
HDL-C (< 50mg/dL) 0.710 (0.009 – 0.010) **
 *P < 0.05, ** P < 0.001
 LDL-C , low density lipoprotein- cholesterol, HDL-C, high
density lipoprotein – cholesterol
The present study indicated that the prevalence of NAFLD was

43.3% out of 115 menopausal women diagnosed for abdominal ultrasound.
As comparison with another study, fatty liver was detected in 65 out of the
114 (57.0%) females > 35 years old in North western of Peninsular
Malaysia [7]. From sonographic surveys of the East, the prevalence of
NAFLD was found to be > 25% in a Korean study specifically referred to
menopausal women aged >50 years old [8]. The same trend was observed
in China based study conducted among 3175 Shanghai adults showed
prevalence of NAFLD among adults > 50 years old are ranging 25- 30%
[9]. The current study also reveals that the prevalence of NAFLD increased
with age among the women, which might be due to menopausal status
suggesting estrogen deficiency in menopausal women may also play a role
438
in the development of NAFLD [10]. Studies showed that NAFLD is twice

as common in postmenopausal than in pre-menopausal women; and
hormonal replacement therapy of menopause decreases the risk of NAFLD
[11, 12].The reduction in circulating estrogen hormone associated with a
shift in body fat from the gluteal to the abdominal region along with an
increase in pro-inflammatory cytokines are found to promotes the NAFLD
in menopausal women [13]. Moreover, menopause women had
significantly more other NAFLD risk factors such as hypertension, obesity,
diabetes and hyperlipidemia in comparison to premenopausal women [14].
The prevalence of NAFLD was found to be higher in Chinese
women in comparison to other ethnic groups even though their lipid profile
is more to desirable range. However, this result differ from another study
carried out in suburban Malaysian population which showed NAFLD is
more prevalent in Indians (33.5%), followed by Malays (32.5%) and
Chinese (19.9%) [3]. This result is likely to reflect different genetic and
lifestyle determinants among the ethnic groups. Moreover, it was found to
be Chinese women to have significantly higher prevalence of impaired
fasting glucose (pre-diabetic state) as reported in the Malaysian National
Health Morbidity Survey III, 2006 [15]. There was accumulating evidence
that impaired fasting glucose associated with insulin resistance plays a key
role in the physiopathology of NAFLD. Insulin resistance contribute to the
development of fatty liver by impairing the ability of insulin to suppress
lipolysis leading to increased delivery of free fatty acids to the liver which
can progress to hepatic steatohepatitis [16]. In a cross-sectional study of
876 Taiwanese subjects showed hyperglycemia (OR = 2.23; p = 0.001)
was independently associated with the presence of NAFLD [17].
Other risk factor that mostly contributed to prevalence of NAFLD
in this study was dyslipidemia. High cholesterol level and elevated
triglycerides are common in people who develop NAFLD. It’s estimated
that up to 80% of people with NAFLD have hyperlipidemia [18].The
finding was comparable to another observation done in an urban
population in Malaysia where dyslipidemia was presented almost three-
quarters in all the NAFLD cases [3]. The accumulation of lipid in the liver
could lead to the development of NAFLD which initiate lipid peroxidation
and generates free radicals. These free radicals damage proteins and
organelles in the liver cells which leads to cell death and inflammatory cell
cascade that promotes to hepatic steatohepatitis [19]. In Japan, the
prevalence of NAFLD showed a linear increase with triglycerides, and
low-density lipoprotein and cholesterol [20]. Reports from the Asia-
439
Pacific region have shown the prevalence of NAFLD among patients with
dyslipidemia ranges between 25 - 60% [21].
Several methodological limitations do exist in this study. First,

this study did not represent the population data since only small sample
size was used. Moreover, the dietary intake was limited only for alcohol
consumption and limited anthropometry measurements were not enough
to support the findings in terms of finding the correlation of NAFLD. All
the respondents were diagnosed on the basis of ultrasound that has lesser
sensitivity in detecting steatohepatitis. The results could have been
improved by confirming the diagnosis with liver biopsy. These limitations
can lead to spurious associations and to inflated estimations of the strength
of any real association. Moreover, further studies are required on a larger
scale to document the prevalence of various risk factors in NAFLD
population accurately.
CONCLUSION
NAFLD is an increasingly important chronic liver disease
associated with high prevalence of obesity, hypertrigylceridemia,
hypercholesterolemia, diabetes, gender and metabolic syndrome.
Recognition of these risk factors in patients of NAFLD especially in
menopausal women who were in the risk of other diseases can help in early
implementation of strategies that halt the progression of this disease.
Future work is required to better define its natural history, elucidate the
pathogenesis and develop effective treatment options for this disease.
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442
T01_054: HETEROLOGOUS EXPRESSION

AND SINGLE STEP PURIFICATION OF A
PUTATIVE FKBP35 PARTNER PROTEIN,
CALMODULIN
Jovi Silvester, Cahyo Budiman, Lau Tiek Ying
Biotechnology Research Institute, Universiti Malaysia
Sabah, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
Lee Ping Chin

Faculty of Science and Natural Resources, Universiti
Malaysia Sabah, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
Adam Leow Thean Chor

Faculty of Biotechnology and Molecular Sciences,
Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor DE,
Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Calcium-modulated protein or calmodulin (CaM) is a messenger protein
that is modulated by calcium ions and plays vital roles in the regulation of
cellular processes through binding to its target proteins upon
conformational changes induced by Ca2+ binding. The CaM target proteins
are characterized by the presence of conserved amino acid sequence motif,
so-called calmodulin-binding motif (CBM) that allows CaM to recognize
and bind. FK506-binding protein35 (FKBP35) from Plasmodium parasite
has been reported to harbour the CBM at its C-terminal. The presence of
this motif leads to assumption that calmodulin might play as partner protein
of FKBP35. Besides, the interaction between FKBP35 and CaM implies that
FKBP35 might involve in signal transduction of the parasite. Yet, no study
has ever confirmed this assumption. For this purpose, sufficient amount of
functional CaM is needed. Heterologous expression system is a promising
strategy to address the issue. In this study, CaM was cloned into pKLD
plasmid and successfully expressed in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3) in
soluble form. A single step purification of calmodulin using size exclusion
chromatography yielded 14.8 mg of protein from 1 L of culture.
Keywords: calmodulin, over-expression, purification, FKBP35
Introduction
443
Calcium-modulated protein or also known as calmodulin (CaM) is a small

protein, with approximately 17 kDa in size that binds to calcium ions. This
protein is known to regulate numerous cellular processes that involved
calcium ions-dependent signaling pathways [1]. In its action, CaM binds to
and regulates function of some target proteins that further affect the
downstream cellular pathways. CaM is widely distributed among
mammalian and other eukaryotes with high similarity in the amino acid
sequences [2]. Structurally, CaM has 4 calcium ions binding sites which
upon completion of Ca2+ binding, CaM undergoes structural changes. This
conformational change then activates and hence enables CaM to recognize
and bind to its target proteins [3]. Noteworthy, target proteins of CaM are
characterized by the presence of conserved motif, known as calmodulin-
binding motif (CBM), in their amino acid sequences. Some CaM target
proteins have been extensively studied include, to name a few, protein
kinase, protein phosphatase, nitric oxide synthase and nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide kinase [2].
Interestingly, FK506-binding protein35 (FKBP35) from Plasmodium
knowlesi (Pk-FKBP35), which is a simian malarial parasite that most
prevalent in Borneo region, contains consensus amino acids sequence that
corresponds to CBM at its C-terminal. This consensus was also found in
FKBP35 from Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax [4]. FKBP35
is a member of peptidyl prolyl cis-trans isomerase (PPIase) and was
speculated to involved in protein folding process in parasite cells. Inhibition
of this protein by an immunosupressent drug, FK506, leads the death of
parasite cell [5]. It was then believed that FKBP35 is a promising target for
development of antimalarial drug. The presence of CBM in FKBP35
sequence suggests that this protein might bind to and be regulated by CaM
as well as provides alternative hotspots of development of antimalarial drug
[6]. However, there is no experimental evidence for the interaction between
FKBP35 and CaM. For such study, availability of CaM in functional state
and sufficient amount is unavoidable.
In this study, heterologous expression system for CaM was
successfully constructed using pKLD vector system. The system is
expressible in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3) yielding CaM in soluble
fraction. This study also demonstrated that expressed CaM was successfully
purified by a step purification of size exclusion chromatography.

444
Expression System Construction

The calmodulin (CaM) gene sequence (Genbank ID: NM_001743.5) was
inserted in pKLD plasmid with Nde1 and Xho1 as the restriction sites. The
system is a gift of Prof. Chojira Kojima of Osaka University, Japan. The
plasmid containing the CaM gene was transformed into host cell which is
Escherichia coli, BL21 (DE3) via the heat shock method as previously
described by Sambrook & Russel [7].
Protein Over-expression and Purification of Recombinant Calmodulin

The transformed cells were then cultured in Luria-Bertani (LB) broth in the
presence of ampicillin (final concentration of 50 µg/ml) to prevent
contamination. The culture was then grown at 37°C until the OD600 reaches
0.6 to 0.7. The protein expression was induced by adding 1mM of
isopropyl-β-D-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG) to the culture medium and
cultivation was for 3 hours. The cells were harvested by centrifugation at
8,000 g for 10 minutes and resuspended in 20 mM Tris, pH 8 with 100 mM
NaCl followed by disruption using sonicator at 4oC. The soluble and
insoluble fractions of the cells were then collected by centrifugation at
35,000 g and 4 °C for 30 minutes. The presence of the CaM was confirmed
via visualization through sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel
electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) gel as described by Laemmli et al [8].
The purification of CaM was done through size exclusion
chromatograpghy using ÄKTA pure Fast Protein Liquid Chromatography
(FPLC) purification system (GE Healthcare, UK). For this purpose, the
HiPrep 16/60 Sephacryl S-200 HR (GE Healthcare, UK) was used. The
details parameters of the instrument and column were adjusted according to
the manufacturer instruction (GE Healthcare, UK). Before the sample was
applied to the gel filtration column, the column was equilibrated with 20
mM Tris, pH 8 with 100 mM NaCl and 2 mM CaCl2 for 1.5 column volume.
This buffer was also used for the elution of sample from the column with
0.8 ml/min of flow rate. The result was visualized using SDS-PAGE as
described by Laemmli et al. [8].
Gene sequences of three human CaM isoforms are available in genebank,

these are hCaM I, hCaM II and hCaM III [9]. The CaM gene sequence used
in this experiment was the hCaM II which can be retrieved from the gene
bank through accession number of NM_001743. In this study, the
445
expression system the CaM gene was constructed by inserting the gene into
the pKLD plasmid which basically was developed from the pET vector
backbone [10]. This plasmid regulates the expression of the protein under
T7 promoter system which will initiate the transcription upon induction by
specific inducer. The gene sequence was inserted between two restriction
sites which are Nde1 and Xho1 using restriction enzymes. The use of this
plasmid system was reported to have advantages in respect to expression
level and better cleavage sites in the affinity tag [10].
As shown in Figure 1A, the band corresponds to CaM size (about
17 kDa) appeared only in IPTG-induced fractions. The band intensity is
increasing up to 3 hours after the induction. However, the band intensity
remains constant when the incubation is prolonged for overnight (data is not
shown). This suggests that 3 hours incubation after induction is sufficient to
overexpress CaM in our system. In addition, Figure 1B showed that the
band also appeared only in soluble fractions of the sonicated sample. This
indicates that our expression system enables CaM to be fully expressed and
folded in E. coli system.
Some attempts in expression of CaM under heterologous
expression system were reported [2; 11-14], yet solubility and expression
level were varied. We believed the discrepancy is due to source of gene
(human, rat, and chicken) and plasmid used in the studies. With referring to
Hayashi et al. [2], our result confirmed that the use of T7 promoter is
feasible for production of soluble CaM from human and rat [2] in E. coli
system. In respect to yield, CaM obtained in this study is approximately 14.8
mg from 1 L of culture which is higher than that obtained by Rhyner et al.
[11], yet lower than Hayashi et al. [2]. However, the plasmids used in these
studies are different, in which pKLD66 was used in our study, while the
other one was pKK233. Both plasmids harbor different expression
regulators as displayed in the sequences. Another issue that might account
for the discrepancy is the differences of the gene source. Rhyner et al. [11]
expressed human CaM, while Hayashi et al. [2] used rat CaM in their study.
In overall, other studies that used recombinant technology to express CaM
demonstrated feasibility of the heterologous expression system to be
harnessed [2; 11-14].
446
Hours after
IPTG induction
A B Fractions
1 2 3
Soluble Insoluble
97 kDa
97 kDa
66 kDa
66 kDa
45 kDa
45 kDa
30 kDa
30 kDa
20.1 kDa
20.1 kDa
14.4 kDa
14.4 kDa
Figure 1: A. Expression profile of CaM upon the induction by IPTG; B.

Solubility of expressed CaM after cell disruption (sonication). The band
corresponds to CaM is indicated by broken box.
Purification of CaM from E. coli lysate was then performed using

size exclusion chromatography (SEC, or known as gel filtration). This
technique separates molecules based on their sizes, in which bigger
molecules are eluted earlier than smaller molecules [15]. Despite the
plasmid has poly-His tag and maltose-binding-protein tag, the use of affinity
chromatography is relatively costly due to the requirement of specific eluent
compounds. SEC technique requires only a single buffer with additional
salts, which is more affordable than eluents for affinity chromatography.
A B Fractions of Fractions of
160 Peak 1 Peak 2
Peak2
140
Abs 280 nm (mAU)
Peak1 97 kDa
120
66 kDa
100
80 45 kDa
60
30 kDa
40
20
0 20.1 kDa
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Elution volume (ml) 14.4 kDa
Figure 2. A. Chromatogram of CaM under size exclussion

chromatography. B. SDS Page of Representative Fractions from the peaks
obtained from size exclusion chromatography
447
Figure 2A shows that two unseparated peaks were observed from

SEC. These peaks were apparently due to splitting of a single peak that often
been observed during chromatography. SDS-Page revealed that these two
peaks contain band of CaM with undetected contamination bands (Figure
2B). This implies that the two unseparated peaks might originated from the
splitting of a single peak. Principally, the peak in SEC corresponds to the
molecule(s) with the same oligomerization state [15]. The splitting peaks
observed in our study indicated that CaM might not be in a single
oligomerization state. The dynamic of oligomerization state were possibly
due to the event so-called concentration-dependent reversible self-
oligomerization [16,17,18]. The event relies on the high chance of protein
molecules to interact with each other under highly crowded environment.
We believed that concentration of CaM used in SEC (> 5 mg/ml) was
considerably high thus created crowded environment for CaM. Whether the
CaM from both peaks exhibit similar function and structure remains are to
be experimentally proven.
Nevertheless, our study revealed that high purity of CaM is feasible

to be obtained using only a single step purification technique, which is size
exclusion chromatography. This is possibly because of the difference
between the sizes of contaminants proteins from the host cell (E. coli) and
CaM are in the range of resolution of the column. The contaminant with size
almost similar to CaM was not expressed or only expressed in low
concentration.
Conclusion
This study found that the recombinant CaM was expressible in E. coli BL21
(DE3) using heterologous expression system under pKLD plasmid and
successfully expressed in soluble form. CaM was also successfully purified
using one-step purification via size exclusion chromatography, thus,
reducing the time and contamination risk as well as high recovery rate. The
successful purification of CaM protein in soluble form paves the way for
various structural and functional studies of this protein primarily for the
involvement of this protein in the FKBP35 from Plasmodium parasites.
References
[1] J. T. Stull, “Ca2+-dependent cell signaling through calmodulin-

activated protein phosphatase and protein kinases minireview
448
series,” The Journal of Biological Chemistry 276 (1), 2311-2312

(2001).
[2] N. Hayashi, M. Matsubara, A. Takasaki, K. Titani and H. Taniguchi,
“An expression system of rat calmodulin using T7 phage promoter in
Escherichia coli,” Protein Expression and Purification 12 (1), 25-28
(1998).
[3] A. Crivici and M. Ikura, “Molecular and structural basis of target
nrecognition by calmodulin,” Annual Review of Biophysics and
Molecular Structure 24 (1), 85-116 (1995).
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R. Preiser, X. Liu and H. S. Yoon, “Adamantyl derivative as a potent
inhibitor of Plasmodium FK506 binding protein 35,” ACS Medicinal
Chemistry Letters 4 (11), 1097-1101 (2013).
[5] H. R. Yoon, C. B. Kang, J. Chia, K. Tang and H. S. Yoon,
“Expression, purification, and molecular characterization of
Plasmodium falciparum FK506-binding protein 35 (PfFKBP35),”
Protein Expression and Purification 53 (1), 179-185 (2007).
[6] N. Bharatham, M. W. Chang and H. S. Yoon, “Targeting FK506
binding proteins to fight malarial and bacterial infections: Current
advances and future perspectives,” Current Medicinal Chemistry 18
(1), 1874-1889 (2011).
[7] J. Sambrook and D. W. Russell, Molecular Cloning a Laboratory
Manual, 3rd ed. (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, New York,
USA, 2001), pp. 1-112.
[8] U. Laemmli, F. Beguin and G. Gujer-Kellenberger, “A factor
preventing the major head protein of bacteriophage T4 from random
aggregation,” Journal of Molecular Biology 47 (1), 69-85 (1970).
[9] J. L. Xiao, G. W. Jian, L. S. Jun, W. G. Da and P. X. Jian, “High-
level expression of human calmodulin in E. coli and its effects on cell
proliferation,” World Journal of Gastroenterology 6 (4), 588-592
(2000).
[10] C. R. Rocco, K. L. Dennison, V. A. Klenchin, I. Rayment and J. C.
Escalante-Semerena, “Construction and use of new cloning vector
for the rapids isolations of recombinant proteins from Escherichia
Coli,” Plasmid 59 (3), 231-237 (2008).
[11] J. A. Rhyner, M. Koller, I. Durussel-Gerber, J. A. Cox and E. E.
Strehler, “Characterization of the human calmodulin-like protein
expressed in Escherichia coli,” Biochemistry 31 (51), 12826-12832
(1992).
449
[12] J. A. Putkey, G. R. Slaughter and A. R. Means, “ Bacterial expression

and characterization of proteins derived from the chicken calmodulin
cDNA and a calmodulin processed gene,” The Journal of Biological
Chemistry 260 (8), 4704-4712 (1985).
[13] S. Matsuki, T. Ozawa, S. Nagao, H. Hirata, H. Kanoh and Y.
Nozawa, “High-level expression of complementary DNA encoding
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[14] D. M. Robert, R. Crea, M. Malecha, G. Alvarado-Urbina, R. H.
Chiarello and D. M. Watterson, “Chemical synthesis and expression
of a calmodulin gene designed for site-specific mutagenesis,”
Biochemistry 24 (19), 5090-5098 (1985).
[15] P. Hong, S. Koza and E. S. P. Bouvier, “Size-exclusion
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[16] A. Bhattacharya, R. Prajapati, S. Chatterjee and T. K. Mukherjee,
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albumins through intermolecular β-sheet formation,” Langmuir 30
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structure and reactivity,” Biopolymers 20 (10), 2093-2120 (1981).
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native state stability in crowded cellular environment due to protein-
protein interaction,” Journal of the American Chemical Society 135
(9), 3696-3701 (2013).
1 December 2016
T01_055: IMPORTANCE OF GOVERNMENT

POLICY ENFORCEMENT TOWARDS
IMPROVING BUILDING INFORMATION
MODELLING IMPLEMENTATION IN THE
MALAYSIAN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
Martini Alwi1 , Mohammad Fadhil Mohammad2 ,
Martini Alwi1 , Faridah Ismail2
1
MARA (UiTM), Shah Alam
ABSTRACT
Design Management comprises the management of the architectural design
process encompasses the management in the design practice, the
coordination between the design team, and extend to the management of the
whole cycle of building project. This research looks into the current
practices of design management especially during the design process
among the Architects. Based on the literature review, the current practices
is considered by having poor communication, lack of adequate
documentation, poor information management and lack of coordination
between disciplines. This is attributed to the complex and challenging
nature of the design process.
This research is descriptive and its aim is to analyze on the current practices
of design management and influences towards the project performances
among Architects. This research also categories the recent studies on
design management in architecture according on the aspects influences
towards the project performances. The aspects includes, functional,
environmental and technological, procedure and consistency and
documentation aspects that will be as the aspects to identify the current
practices as of the objectives. Research methodology of this research was
obtained from various sources, primary or secondary.
A questionnaire survey has been distributed to Professional Architect Part
III registered in LAM in Klang Valley. The data collected were analyzed
through descriptive analysis, cross tabulation and correlation using SPSS
software. The findings showed that, most of the Architects are implementing
these aspect of design management. The higher the implementation with the
aspect of design management through these current practices, the higher
influences to the project performances. Recommendation that the Architects
451
must implement the aspects of design management because it automatically

helps to improve the documentation and management of the design process
towards the quality project performances.
Keywords: Design Management, Quality Project Performances,

Architects.
Introduction
This paper discusses the aspects of design management and current

practices of design management especially during the design process among
Architects. Design Management is an emerging professional discipline
which separates the management function of a project’s design phase from
the design function. It is becoming increasingly important in modern
construction projects [1]. That there is a need to educate due to the
increasing number of people in design management techniques in order to
equip them to manage today’s fast moving and demanding project [2].
L.Bibby (2003) added that many current design management tools are
insufficiently developed for industrial application [2]. However, S. Emmit
(2010) added that it can be said as not necessary for every member of an
architectural practices to be a business executive, or into the depth of
management, but it is important for them to understand the commercial
environment in which they work and the value in managing the design
consistently and efficiently [3].
The design process has been one of the most neglected areas in
construction projects [4]. L. Bibby., et al (2006) reported that there were
clearer and management and construction techniques, much of the focus of
industry research over the last two/three decades has been dedicated to this
area [5]. In architecture, the emergence of design management is
encouraged by the escalating complexity of building and processes in terms
of functional and technical requirements, as well as organizational and
juridical settings–while at the same time the design process is a complex,
creative one [6]. According to [7], one of the most important reasons behind
the complexity is the dramatic increase of specialist knowledge and number
of contributors to the design from a wide variety of organizations. Having
conducted contemporary research with empirical backing, [4] indicates
without exception that the management of design and engineering is poorly
carried out in construction projects. One of the reasons is because
appropriate managerial approaches and sound practices for large and
452
complex building projects are fundamentally different from those for small
and simple projects [8].
Literature Review
Design Management is an increasingly important function in the

construction industry. Projects are becoming more complex and global and
new contractual arrangements, which require alliances and partnerships
between designers and constructors are increasingly used [9]. However, [7]
suggests that design management is being done by construction companies
because of the failure of other existing systems to achieve proper integration
of the design and construction processes.
Figure 1: Construction Project Life Cycle with indication for Design

Management and Design Team
Figure 1 shows the construction project lifecycle which indicated Design

Management role is at the stage of conceptual design. It is one of the reason
why Design Management is an increasingly important function in the
construction industry. According to [6] all current design and project
management methods have failed to penetrate the creative and subjective
nature of architectural designing, especially during the conceptual design
phase. R. Sebastian., et al (2009) therefore developed a framework based on
a social psychological approach that should promote human creativity to
reach the ultimate goal: the realization of the design whereby both the object
453
and the collaborative process are able to meet the classical management
parameters (e.g. time, cost, quality) as well as the contemporary
management parameters [6].
ASPECTS OF DESIGN MANAGEMENT
1. Functional Aspects
2. Environmental and Technological Aspects
3. Procedure and Consistency Aspects
4. Documentation Aspects
DESIGN PROCESS PROJECT PERFORMANCES
1. Effectiveness
2. Efficiency
3. Productivity
4. Quality
Figure 2: Summarize for Aspect of Design Management and Design

Process Project Performances
Based on data collected by [11], four levels were distinguished from the
role: technical level, substance level, communicational/interaction level and
personal level. Design management is a subset of general project
management dealing with design schedules, cost/risk controlling, etc., [10];
[11]. Only a few researchers (e.g. [6]; [9]) have been looking at design
management from the point of view of design work ‘guidance’ or leadership
and design collaboration management. Design management requires taking
into account the nature of the design work and the interaction of the design
team, that is, understanding of how the design solution is created. R. Estate
(2004) describes quality as the achievement of a totality that is more than
the sum of the parts which then argues that design quality can only be
achieved when the three quality fields of functionality (use, access and
space), built quality (performance, engineering systems and construction)
and impact (form and materials, internal environment, urban & social
integration and character & innovation) all work together in circles [12].
Table 1: Relationship between Aspects of Design Management and

Influences Indicator for Projects Performances
Influences Correlation
Aspects of DM Indicator Level Rank
Functional Aspect Quality 0.830 1
Procedure and Consistency Aspect Productivity 0.736 2
454
Documentation Aspects Effectiveness 0.686 3

Functional Aspect Efficiency 0.679 4
Procedure and Consistency Aspect Effectiveness 0.651 5
Functional Aspect Effectiveness 0.650 6
Functional Aspect Productivity 0.638 7
Documentation Aspects Productivity 0.606 8
Procedure and Consistency Aspect Quality 0.602 9
Procedure and Consistency Aspect Efficiency 0.594 10
Documentation Aspects Efficiency 0.577 11
Environmental and Technological Aspect Productivity 0.556 12
Environmental and Technological Aspect Effectiveness 0.491 13
Environmental and Technological Aspect Quality 0.458 14
Documentation Aspects Quality 0.411 15
Environmental and Technological Aspect Efficiency 0.392 16
Theoretical analysis and quantitative method were adopted in this research.
A quantitative method was used where a set of questionnaire were
developed based on observations from the literature review gathered. The
questionnaire are the primary data collection and secondary data collection
were obtained from books, articles from academic research, journals,
conference papers, previous dissertation and internet. Data from the
questionnaire were analyzed using SPSS software version 22 to get the
relationship between current practices of Design Management towards the
project performances. The four (4) aspects of Design Management listed by
the researcher, encompasses the key areas of practice. The aspect of Design
Management and the design process project performances are concluded in
Figure 2 that had been used for data collection and questionnaire survey.

Based on the findings and analysis, most of the relationship are very strong
where the highest R-value is 0.830 which are relationship between
functional aspects and the quality of performances as shown in Table 1.
455
There are no negative relationship between these two variables thus

indicated that there are strong and positive relationship for the respondents
implementation towards their performances. The higher the implementation
on the aspects of Design Management, the higher level of project
performances they can achieved. It can be summarized that all the variables
are statistically significant and highly associated to each other.
Conclusions
The findings can be summarized that most of the respondents which are
Professional Architect part III, are implementing these aspects of Design
Management. However, from the result and data collected, it have been
identified some of the aspects and relationship with the project
performances are quite low which is aligned with the problem statement as
discussed earlier. Although, most of the respondents has a lot of experience
that ranges from ten (10) years above because usually the experience
Architect have more understanding on the aspects of Design Management
and can deliver the process effectively. It can be summarized that this
analysis of findings gives the lesson learnt to the Architects for
recommendation and future research involvement and implementation on
Design Management.
References
[1] E. H. W. Chan, A. P. C. Chan, and A. T. W. Yu, “Design

management in design and build projects: The new role of the
contractor,” Constr. Res. Congr. 2005 Broadening Perspect. - Proc.
Congr., pp. 827–837, 2005.
[2] L. Bibby, “Improving design management techniques in
construction,” EngD Thesis, Dep. Civ. Build. Eng. Loughbrgh.
Univ. UK. Sept., 2003.
[3] S. Emmitt, “Design Management in Architecture, Engineering and
Construction: Origins and Trends,” Gestão Tecnol. Proj., vol. 5, no.
3, pp. 28–37, 2010.
[4] L. Koskela, P. Huovila, and J. Leinonen, “Design management in
building construction: from theory to practice,” J. Constr. Res., vol.
3, no. 1, p. 1, 2002.
[5] L. Bibby, S. Austin, and D. Bouchlaghem, “The impact of a design
management training initiative on project performance,” Eng.
456
Constr. Archit. Manag., vol. 13, pp. 7–26, 2006.

[6] R. Sebastian and M. Prins, “Collaborative Architectural Design
Management,” Archit. Manag. Int. Res. Pract., pp. 103–118, 2009.
[7] A. T. Kong and J. Gray, “Problems with Traditional PRocurement
in the Malaysian Construction Industry - A survey,” Proc.
Australas. Univ. Build. Educ. Assoc. Annu. Conf. Univ. Technol.
Sydney., vol. 2006, pp. 1–21, 2006.
[8] R. Sebastian, “Redefining the Framework of Architectural Design
Management,” no. October, pp. 1–13, 1994.
[9] L. Volker, “Exploring the possibilities of correlating management
with value in architectural design,” Proc. CIB W, pp. 47–60, 2004.
[10] I. Repository, “Managing in value and quality design,” no. 5, 2003.
[11] M. Rekola, T. Ma, and T. Ha¨kkinen, “The role of design
management in the sustainable building process,” Archit. Eng. Des.
Manag., vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 78–90, 2012.
[12] R. Estate, “Linking Design Management To Value Perception in,”
pp. 455–465, 2004.
457
T01_056: KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

FOR CONSTRUCTION PRESSURE
VESSEL PROJECT IN IOT
ENVIRONMENT
M. Yusof Abdullah1 , M. Fadhil Mohamad1, Ani
Saifuza1
1
Faculty of Architecture, Planning & Surveying,
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam,
Malaysia
ABSTRACT
New technology such as Internet of Things (IoT) is an emerging
concept that vastly requires creation and development. Conversely,
this technology already impact in many research domains and
generating idea particularly in pressure vessel project. This paper
will attempt to focus on Construction Pressure Vessel Project that
will propose Integrated Project Management System framework. The
3 layers of the IoT model has been extended to 4 layers by splitting
the application layer into Knowledge management and visualization
layer respectively especially in Engineering, Procurement and
Construction (EPC) that provides fully logistics records for
Purchasing Equipment and Material and also provide sharing data
to other department and staff.
Keywords: Internet of Things, Pressure Vessel, RFID, Knowledge
Management System, Mobile Integrated Project Management System
(MIPMS)
Introduction
Traditional pattern in construction project management is no longer
adaptable for modern environment that concern with efficiency in
terms of cost, time and quality that must be competitive to capture
market demand. The new technology such as Internet of Things (IOT)
have emerged in the global that is using Internet based Information
system as a platform of architecture as proposed [1].
This paper discusses on the Internet of Things environment
which involves knowledge management in construction Pressure
458
Vessel project. Complexity process of Engineering, Procurement and

Construction (EPC) in Pressure Vessel make its uncertainty in-term
of selection of technology or material and diversity of stakeholders
involved.
Internet of Things have many different definitions that had
been proposed by organisation such as in Japan, USA, Korean, China
and Europe United (EU). For example in Japan it is named as
Ubiquitous Computing while in Korean the IOT name is U-Korean.
That means each country has its own definition of IOT and
architecture that funded by their government for each country [2].
Integrated Project Management System especially in the
supply chain is an application area that could adopt the IoT to improve
the receive rate in warehouse in real-data streaming that can play a
role in data acquisition and validation to other departments such as
finance as visualization in 4 layers structure is proposed.
Normally in Internet of Things, it has three layer model and in this
paper the 4 – layer structure have been proposed. This structure
consist of ‘Data Acquiring’ layer, ‘Data Integration’ layer,
‘Knowledge Management’ layer and ‘Visualization’ layer. Two main
technologies adopted in this framework are RFID Technology and
Knowledge Management Technology [3].
Figure 1. Data Layer [11]

459
RFID is an ideal solution because it can provide a low cost tracking

and tracing system such as passive RFID tags that can provide
adequate read range using low price [4] for monitoring movement of
material received from supplier to warehouse for security purposes
before transferring to nearby construction site. The data capture in the
Data Acquiring is not only from this technology but also from human
input data.
In the second layer, data integration is important to integrate
all which are provide from Data Acquiring in RFID or human. All
data in this layer will be stored in central database but split into
different project. Each material received has unique ID that is
recorded with type, time receive and comments from operational
staff.
In the third layer, Knowledge Management will play
important role for generating logistic and tracking support including
collection arrangement, incident solutions and providing guidance to
operational staff and generate an acceptable result such as report as
Visualization layer. These two layers are the main feature to achieve
the system functionality.
Methodology
Prototype of this Integrated Project Management System must be
tested in three different companies to get level of achievement by the
user. Zhang & Adipat [5] suggest the best practice is testing in the
real environment compared to controlled lab because it will not
experience the potential adverse effects. So, this testing must work in
real environment compared to controlled laboratory. Before this
prototype being tested, Quantitative Research Method will be applied
to three cases study at different firms which will show the needs of
respondents. Then, Qualitative Research Method will be conducted
to validate this prototype.

From Figure 2, we can determine process of construction pressure
vessel starting from arriving all the components at warehouse.
Process of tagging or nameplate [7] with Passive RFID done at
warehouse. Passive RFID have been chosen because cheap compared
to active RFID or other sensor as describe in Table 1
460
Figure 2: Process of Construction Pressure Vessel [10]
. Table 1. RFID components and costs [6]

Component Actual Cost Cost depends on
Passive tags 20 – 40 cents  Frequency (e.g, HF is more
(up to several expensive than UHF)
USD for more  Memory size
sophisticated  Antenna design
solutions  Packaging around the
transponder
Active tags 10-50 USD  Battery Size

 Chip memory
 Packaging
UHF Readers 500 – 3000  Dumb vs intelligent readers

USD
Middleware Depends on Depend on applications
Application
All data of the components will synchronise into database server and
we can simulate progress of component arriving, assembly of
components and compare to planning.
Observation and Suggestion for Consideration

In this paper we have, hopefully accomplish our aims to describe
Knowledge Management System that is used in Integrated Project
461
Management System in Internet of Things (IoT) Environment. Radio

Frequency Identification Detection (RFID) and Knowledge
Management system are the key elements for this research to achieve
productivity and efficiency.
Figure 3: 3D Assembly Simulation compare to Planning [8]
Acknowledgements
The author would like to submit his heartiest thanks to Associate
Professor Sr. Dr. Hj Mohammad Fadhil Mohammad for being a
dedicated mentor and supervisor during the completion of his Master
Degree’s dissertation in July 2016. His guidance was most precious
and immeasurable in any forms.
References
[1] Weber Rolf H., "Internet of Things - Need for a new legal
environment?," Computer Law & Security Review, vol. 25,
pp. 522-527, 2009
[2] Lizong Zhang, Anthony S. Atkins and Hongnian Yu.,
"Knowledge Management Application of Internet of Things
in Construction Waste Logistics with RFID Technologies" 5th
IEEE International Conference on Advanced Computing &
Communication Technologies, pp 220 - 225, 2011
462

"Application of RFID Technology and Knowledge Hub for
Logistics Support in Scrapped Type Recycling" 9 th
Informatics Workshop for Research Students June, Bradford
UK, pp 190-195, ISBN 978 1 85143251 6, 2008
"Application of RFID Technology and Knowledge Hub for
Logistics Support in Auditing and Tracking of Plasterboard
for Environment Recycling and Waste Disposal" 10th
International Conference on Enterprise Information System -
ICEIS Vol. IV, pp 190-196, ISBN: 978-989-8111-48-7, 2007
[5] Zhang, D. And B. Adipat, "Challenges, methodologies, and
issues in the usability testing of mobile applications”,
International Conference on Human – Computer Interaction,
Vol. 18(3), pp 293-308, 2005
[6] Peter Harrop and Glyn Holland, "Item Level RFID 2008 –
2018: Analysis of Case Studies, Paybacks, Lessons,
Technologies and Ten Year Forecast”, IDTechEx [view as 11
October 2016 at
http://www.idtechex.com/reports/topics/rfid-000009.asp]
[7] Petronas, "Petronas Technical Standard – Design and
Engineering Practice (Pressure Vessel) PTS 31.22.20.31”, pp
1-65, 2001
[8] Mitternight, "Scheduling”, [view as 11 October 2016 at
http://www.mitternight.com/scheduling.html]
[9] Afrisam SA, "Project”, [view as 11 October 2016 at
http://www.mdservices.co.za/index.php?page=projects#prett
yPhoto]
[10] Canadoil Group, "Fabricated Products”, [view as 11 October
2016 at http://www.canadoil.com/Products-Services5]
[11] M Yusof Abdullah, M Fadhil Mohammad and Ani Saifuza,
"Knowledge Management on Construction Pressure Vessel
Project in IOT Environment" 7th International Conference on
Postgraduate Education, pp 1 - 6, 2016
463
T01_057: STUDY ON PHASE

TRANSFORMATION OF
HYDROTHERMALLY SYNTHESIZED 1-D
TITANATE INTO TITANIA (TIO2) AS A
POTENTIAL NANOBIOMATERIALS
a
Nur Arifah Ismail1, bMohd Hasmizam Razali1,
c
Khairul Anuar Mat Amin1
School of Fundamental Sciences, Universiti

Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Terengganu,
Terengganu, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
In this research, 1-D titanate was successfully synthesized using
hydrothermal method at 150 and 200°C. They were calcined at
different temperature (300, 400, 500 and 700 °C) to study the phase
transition and thermal stability. Various characterization techniques
was used such as field emission scanning electron microscopy
(FESEM), thermogravimetry analysis (TGA) and x-ray diffraction
(XRD). FESEM revealed that nanofibers and rod-like particles was
obtained at 150 °C and 200 °C, respectively. They are belong to
titanate crystal phase structure which are present as hydrogen
titanate at 150 °C and sodium titanate at 200 °C as shown by XRD.
The hydrogen titanate nanofibers transformed into titania (TiO2) at
400 - 700 °C. Meanwhile the rod-like particles of sodium titanate only
fully converted to TiO2 at 700 °C. This can be concluded that, sodium
titanate is higher thermally stable that hydrogen titanate as it’s only
decomposed into TiO2 at highest temperature studied of 700 °C.
Keywords: Nanostructured, titanate, titania, biomaterials,

calcination
Introduction
464
One-dimensional (1-D) nanomaterials have received high intention

due to the promising in generating antibacterial capability and
excellent in biocompatibility [1]. Verma et al. (2016), have proved
TiO2 nanoparticles inhibits the bacterial biofilm and has been
proposed to be used in wound infection treatment [2]. Sivaranjani and
Philominathan (2016) shows that TiO2 nanoparticles are effective for
wound healing and skin infection treatments [3]. Thus, many studies
has been conducted to synthesis TiO2 nanomaterials using
hydrothermal method. Hydrothermal method getting highest ranking
for nanomaterial synthesis due to their simple and inexpensive
technique with high percent of yields [4]. However, different crystal
structure of yields has been reported. Instead of titania (TiO2), many
researchers claimed that the products are titanate. Therefore, in this
study the hydrothermal method was used for TiO2 synthesis and the
hydrothermal treatment temperature was studied at 150 and 200 °C.
The products obtained was calcined at different temperature (300,
400, 500, 700 °C) and was characterized in order to study the crystal
phase structure and phase transition.
Experiments
Preparation
2.0 gram of TiO2 powder precursor (Merck) was dispersed in 10M
NaOH (100 ml) with constant stirring for 30 minutes, then the mixture
was sonicated in sonicator bath for 30 minutes after that continue with
constant stirring for 30 minutes. Then, the mixture was transferred
into Teflon vessel and subjected to hydrothermal treatment at
different temperature (150 and 200 °C) for 24 hours in autoclave.
When the reaction was completed, the white solid precipitate was
collected and dispersed into 0.1 M HCL (200 ml) with continuous
stirring for 30 minute for washing. Then, the washing was followed
by distilled water until the pH of washing solution was 7 and
subsequently dried at 80 °C for 24 hours in an oven. As-synthesized
samples at 150 and 200 °C was calcined further at 300, 400, 500, and
700 °C.
Characterization
465
FESEM micrograph was captured using ZEISS SUPRATM 35VP

FESEM coupled with EDX for morphological and elemental analysis,
respectively. Thermogravimetric analysis was done using Pyris 6,
Perkin-Elmer-TGA6 with heating rate at 10°C/min from room
temperature to 1000 °C in an atmosphere of N2 flow at 50 ml/min.
XRD diffractogram were performed by Rigaku Miniflex (II) X-ray
diffractometer operating at a scanning rate of 2.00° min-1. The
diffraction spectra were recorded at the diffraction angle, 2θ from 10°
to 80° at room temperature.
Figure 1 shows the FESEM micrographs of the as-synthesized

samples at different hydrothermal treatment temperature. At 150 °C,
nanofibers was observed with the diameter of 8-10 nm and several
hundred nanometers in length (Figure 1a). The fibers was found to
attach closely each other to form layer-like nanostructured materials.
At 200 °C hydrothermal treatment, larger diameter of elongated
nanostructures (rod-like particles) was produced. The diameter of
rod-like particles was found to be 250 - 300 nm (Figure 1(b)). At
higher hydrothermal treatment initial nucleation to be accelerated
thus resulted in rapid growth of particles. Due to the rapid growth of
particles, the particles tend to form the layered structures. The layered
become thicker and finally rolling up into rods.
(a) (b) (C)
Figure 1: FESEM micrographs of as-synthesized samples at (a) 150 °C

and (b) 200 °C (c) EDX of as-synthesized sample at 200 °C
Figure 2 show the thermogram of hydrothermally synthesis samples

at 150 and 200°C. Similar TG curves was observed for both samples,
466
which is showing decreased in mass starting at room temperature until

700 °C. Total mass loss is about 15% and 22%, respectively.
Generally, the weight loss between room temperature till 100°C is
due to the removal of adsorbed water from the surface.
(a) (b)
Figure 2: TGA themograms of as-synthesized samples at (a) 150 °C and

(b) 200 °C.
When the temperature is further increased up to 300°C, the removal

of the intercalated water molecules included dissociated molecular
H2O, physisorbed molecular H2O and chemisorbed molecular H2O
are occurred. Subsequently, a small of weight loss in the region of
300-700°C, is probably due to the transformation of crystal structure
of titanate into titania (TiO2). In order to study the transition of
titanate into titania, samples was calcined at 300, 400, 500, 700
°C and was analyzed using XRD. The XRD patterns obtained is
depicted in Figure 3 and Figure 4.
As can be seen in Figure 3(a), as-synthesized sample at 150 oC is
belong to hydrogen titanate (H2Ti3O7) nanofibers attributed to the
existence of the peaks at 2θ = 25.43° and 48.40° (Figure 1(c)) as
reported previously by Razali et al. (2012). The hydrogen titanate was
remained after calcination at 300 °C, somehow their peaks became
broader due to the dimensionality changes [5]. The hydrogen titanate
transformed into anatase TiO2 after calcination at 400, 500 and 700
°C via simple chemical reaction as in equation 1.1;
H2Ti3O7 → 3TiO2 + H2O (1.1)
This findings suggested that the hydrogen titanate has low thermal
stability as it’s decomposed to produce TiO2 with anatase phase at
low temperature, starting at 400 °C, 500 °C and 700 °C. Anatase TiO2
can be recognized by the present of peaks at 25.4°, 37.9°, 48.2°, 54.1°,
467
55.15°, 62.74°, 70.37° and 75.07° with the highest peaks at ~25°
(Figure 3(b)–(e)) [6].
Figure 3: XRD patterns of (a) as- Figure 4: XRD patterns of (a) as-
synthesized sample at 150 °C and synthesized sample at 200 °C and
calcined at (b) 300 °C (c) 400 °C (d) calcined at (b) 300 °C (c) 400 °C (d)
500 °C and (e) 700 °C 500 °C and (e) 700 °C
As a calcination temperature increases, the XRD peaks became

sharper and narrower indicated the crystallinity of sample enhanced.
For as-synthesized sample at 200°C hydrothermal treatment, their
XRD pattern shows the presence of peaks at 10.86°, 24.83°, and
48.59° which is identical to an orthorhombic phase of sodium titanate,
NaxH2-xTi3O7 (Figure 2(a)) [7]. The peaks at ~10° is corresponding to
the interlayer spacing between the layered titanate [8]. This space was
occupied by Na2+, as the existence of Na was detected in EDX
analysis (Figure 1(c). After calcination at 300, 400 and 500 °C, the
peaks belonged to sodium titanate is remained, except at 10.86° was
disappeared. The loss of the peak indicated there no space between
the layered titanate thus confirmed the formation of rod-like structure
[9]. At 500 °C, another three new peaks was emerged besides sodium
titanate peaks. These peaks appeared at 14.1°, 29.0°, 44.07° with low
intensity were assigned to metastable TiO2(B). Like the other
polymorphs of TiO2, the crystal structure of TiO2(B) consists of edge
and corner sharing TiO6 octahedra, but its framework is the same as
that of NaxTiO2 [10]. The appearance of TiO2(B) in sample occurred
at some point between 300 to 500 ◦C. For example, Kuo et al. (2007),
reported trititanate to TiO2(B) transformation occurred at 300 °C [11].
In this study the formation of TiO2(B) was found at 500 °C. After
calcination at highest temperature studied (700 °C), only highly
crystalline anatase TiO2 was obtained showed that the sodium titanate
468
and TiO2(B) were transformed into anatase TiO2. The appearance of

the TiO2(B) phase before the anatase formation is expected for the
thermal decomposition of sodium titanates as reported by previous
study [12].
Conclusion
Hydrogen titanate nanofibers and sodium titanate rod-like particles
were successfully synthesized using simple hydrothermal method at
150 and 200 °c, respectively. They are fully transformed into anatase
tio2 at 400 and 700 °c proposed that sodium titanate possessed better
thermal stability than hydrogen titanate. Thermally stable sodium
titanate ascribed to the present of na2+ in interlayer titanate.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to Universiti Malaysia Terengganu (UMT)
for providing the facilities to carry out this project and Malaysia
Ministry Of Higher Education for the financial support vote frgs
59358.
Corresponding Author
Mohd hasmizam razali, mdhasmizam@umt.edu.my
References
[1] S. Mei, H. Wang, W. Wang, L. Tong, H. Pan, C. Ruan, Q. Ma, M.
Liu, H.
Yang, L. Zhang, Y. Cheng, Y. Zhang, L. Zhao, and P. K. Chu, "
Antibacterial effects and biocompatibility of titanium surfaces with
graded silver incorporation in titania nanotubes,"J. Biomaterials 35
(14), 4255-4265 (2014).
[2] R. Verma, V. B. Chaudhary, L. Nain, and A. K. Srivastava,
"Antibacterial characteristics of TiO2 nano-objects and their
interaction with biofilm," J. Materials Technology 1-6 (2016).
[3] V. Sivaranjani and P. Philominathan, "Synthesize of Titanium
dioxide nanoparticles using Moringa oleifera leaves and evaluation of
wound healing activity," J. Wound Medicine 12, 1-5 (2016).
[4] N. Xiao., Z. Li., J. Liu., and Y. Gao., "Effects of Calcination
Temperature on the Morphology, Structure and Photocatalytic
Activity of Titanate Nanotube Thin Films," J. Thin Solid Films 519,
541-548 (2010).
469
[5] L.-Q. Weng, S.-H. Song, S. Hodson, A. Baker, and J. Yu,

"Synthesis and Characterisation of Nanotubular Titanates and
Titania.," J. of European Ceramic Society 26, 1405-1409 (2006).
[6] M. H. Razali, M. Ahmad-Fauzi, A. R. Mohamed, and S.
Sreekantan, "Physical Properties Study of TiO2 Nanoparticle
Synthesis Via Hydrothermal Method using TiO2 Microparticles as
Precursor," J. Advanced Material Research 772, 365-370 (2013).
[7] M. Meksi, A. Turki, H. Kochkar, L. Bousselmi, C. Guillard, and
G. Berhault, " The role of lanthanum in the enhancement of
photocatalytic properties of TiO2 nanomaterials obtained by
calcination of hydrogenotitanate nanotubes," J. Applied Catalysis B:
Environmental 181, 651-660 (2016).
[8] L. M. Nikolić, M. Milanović, S. Nedić, K. Giannakopoulos, and
A. G. Kontos, "Hydrothermal conversion of Nb-anatase
nanoparticles into layered titanates," J. Ceramics International 37 (1),
111-117 (2011).
[9] V. c. Sˇtengl, S. Bakardjieva, J. Sˇubrt, E. Vecˇernı´kova´, L.
Szatmary, M. Klementova´, and V. Balek, " Sodium titanate
nanorods: Preparation, microstructure characterization and
photocatalytic activity," J. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental 63,
20-30 (2005).
[10] M. Edisson, Jr., P. M. Jardim, A. M. Bojan, C. R. Fernando, A.
S. d. A. Marco, L. Z. José, and S. A. Antonio, "Multistep structural
transition of hydrogen trititanate nanotubes into TiO2-B nanotubes: a
comparison study between nanostructured and bulk materials,"J.
Nanotechnology 18 (49), 495-710 (2007).
[11] H.-L. Kuo, C.-Y. Kuo, C.-H. Liu, J.-H. Chao, and C.-H. Lin, "A
highly active bi-crystalline photocatalyst consisting of TiO2(B)
nanotube and anatase particle for producing H2 gas from neat
ethanol,"J. Catalysis Letters 113 (1), 7-12 (2007).
[12] E. Morgado Jr, M. A. S. de Abreu, O. R. C. Pravia, B. A.
Marinkovic, P. M. Jardim, F. C. Rizzo, and A. S. Araújo, "A study on
the structure and thermal stability of titanate nanotubes as a function
of sodium content," J. Solid State Sciences 8 (8), 888-900 (2006).
470
T01_058: DETERMINATION OF TOTAL

ORGANIC CARBON CONCENTRATION
IN THE SURFICIAL SEDIMENTS OF
RIVERS IN SEBERANG PERAI, PENANG,
MALAYSIA
Ong Meng Chuan -1
Fok Fei Mei-2
Universiti Malaysia Terengganu,
21030 Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
According to Malaysia Environmental Quality Report 2014, the
marine water quality status for estuaries - Sg. Perai, Sg. Juru, Sg.
Jawi, Sg. Tengah and Sg. Kerian are categorized as moderate
pollution rivers. In this study, surficial sediments from the 5 major
rivers in Seberang Perai were collected for the determination of Total
Organic Carbon (TOC) concentration by using TOC Analyzer. The
decreasing trend of average of TOC were observed in the surficial
sediments as Sg. Juru (2.06%) > Sg. Kerian (1.93%) > Sg. Jawi
(1.90%) > Sg. Perai (1.67%) > Sg. Tengah (1.62%). Spearman’s
correlation was used to evaluate the correlation relationship of TOC
concentration and mean size sediments of Sg. Perai, Sg. Juru, Sg.
Jawi, Sg. Tengah, and Sg. Kerian, which were accounted for r=0.41,
r=0.13, r=0.23, r=0.39, and r=0.34, respectively. The results show
that the rivers have different controlling factors which influence the
percentage of TOC in the surficial sediments. Waste discharged from
anthropogenic activities has the potential to play a critical role in the
TOC enrichment at the Sg. Juru and Sg. Jawi. As compared to Sg.
Perai, Sg. Tengah, and Sg. Kerian, a significant correlation between
TOC concentration and mean size sediments were shown. This
indicating that the mean grain size was the possibly an important
controlling factor which influences the TOC concentration in the
surficial sediments
Keywords: Total Organic Carbon (TOC), Mean Size Sediments,
Surficial Sediments, Seberang Perai.
Introduction
471
A total of five major rivers (Sg. Perai, Sg. Juru, Sg. Jawi, Sg. Tengah
and Sg. Kerian) in Seberang Perai are the important sources of
livelihood and protein to the local people. This can be seen from the
fishing activities such as tiger prawn and octopus catching are the
leisure activities and tourism attraction in Sg. Kerian. Besides, the
sediment characteristics and textures at the river mouth of Sg. Juru
and Sg. Jawi are suitable for the blood cockles (Anadara granosa)
farming [1]. Apart from that, the modernization and industrialization
in Penang including the development of electronics and electrical
(E&E), research and development (R&D) have boost up the regional
economy and upgrade the standard of living of the locals [2].
Consequently, these developments have attracted a lot of people to
work in Penang and an ideal place to stay for long term.
The introduction of anthropogenic activities such as
urbanization, population increment and land development along the
river basins have jeopardized the environmental quality of rivers [1,
3]. DOE reports that the water quality status of Sg. Perai, Sg. Jawi
and Sg. Juru are classified as most polluted river basin in 2014 [4]. It
is a necessity to evaluate the sediment quality in the rivers. In this
study, total organic carbon (TOC) parameter was analyzed to reflect
the summation of organic matter that was preserved in the sediments
[5]. The significant impacts of having a high threshold concentration
of organic matter in sediments is it will depletes dissolved oxygen
(DO) in the aquatic system [5]. In extent to that, it will causes marine
life to suffer from impaired water quality and deleterious to human
health in near future [5].
The aim of the present study is to determine the
concentration of TOC (%) in the surface sediments of the five major
rivers of Seberang Perai. Those results can be established as a
baseline assessment of sediment quality. The second objective is to
reveal the relationship between TOC (%) and mean size sediments
(Ø).
Study Area
Figure 1 shows the study location that is located at the Northeast of

Peninsular Malaysia (5°23'N., 100°25'E.). The weather in Malaysia
during the month of July is relatively dry owing to the Southwest
472
Monsoon based on the monthly report from Malaysian

Meteorological Department (MMD) [6]
Figure 1: Sampling activity was conducted at Seberang Perai which is

located at the Northeast of Peninsular Malaysia.
Methodology
A total of 148 sediment samples were collected in July, 2015 from
the five major river basins (Sg. Perai, Sg. Juru, Sg. Jawi, Sg. Tengah
and Sg. Kerian) in Seberang Perai, Penang, Malaysia. The studied
rivers are connected to Prai Strait. In order not to miss any hotspot
that might contain extreme level of TOC in each river, each sampling
stations were separated by a distance of about 200 - 600m apart. The
surficial sediments were collected by using Ponar grab. In order to
minimize the chemical and biological reaction, sediments samples
were kept at low temperature in an ice-box and sediment samples
were then dried using an oven at 60oC of temperature [7]. The dried
sediment samples were proceeded into two separate analyses which
is TOC and particle size analysis.
TOC Analysis
Combustion catalytic oxidation was used to determine total organic
carbon in the sediments [8]. Dried sediments samples were weighed
and transferred into two samples boats for Total Carbon (TC) and
Inorganic Carbon (IC) analysis by using TOC Analyzer [8].
Particle Size Analysis

Coarse Sediments
473
Dry sieve method was used to determine the mean size of coarse
sediment [9]. Dried sediment was sieved by using Sieves and Shaker.
The sediment samples were kept in each layer of sieve were weighted.
Mean values was calculated by using Moment method [10].
Fine Sediments
Laser diffraction method was used for the determination of the mean
size of fine sediments. A total of 10% of Calgon solution was added
in the mixture to disperse bonded particle sediments [11]. The
mixture was were analyzed by using Particle Size Analyzer (PSA).

The surficial sediment samples of the five major rivers in Seberang
Perai were analysed to determine the concentration of TOC and
characterize the concentration of TOC in relation to grain size of the
sediments. The decreasing trend of average of TOC were observed in
the surficial sediments as Sg. Juru (2.06% ± 0.99) > Sg. Kerian
(1.93% ± 0.81) > Sg. Jawi (1.90% ± 0.60) > Sg. Perai (1.67% ± 0.46)
> Sg. Tengah (1.62% ± 0.41).
Vegetation including mangrove plants are grown along those
rivers. Species of Berembang trees (Sonneratia caseolaris) as well as
palm and rubber tree plantation are also available along Sg. Kerian
[3]. The enrichment of organic matters in the sediments might come
from the decomposition of plants and animals as well as bacterial
actions on living and dead microorganisms [13]. Sakari et al. [12]
deduced that the result of natural hydrocarbon analysis in the coastal
sediments of Sg. Kerian and Sg. Jawi were a major derivation from
vegetation. Thus, the possible sources of elevated TOC concentration
were contributed from the vegetation.
The highest concentrations of TOC was detected in the
sediments of Sg. Perai (2.35%), Sg. Juru (4.64%), Sg. Jawi (2.95%),
Sg. Tengah (2.37%) and Sg. Kerian (5.12%) were found that their
location were nearby resident area, boat and industrial activities.
Besides that, marine debris were observed during the sampling
activities in Sg. Juru, Sg. Jawi and Sg. Tengah. It is suggested that a
combination of chemical wastes and fuel oil from boat activities may
be used to explain the significantly high content of TOC in the
sediments in the rivers of Seberang Perai [2]. The combination of
474
rural livelihood and tourism activities such as blood cockle

cultivation, fishing activities as well as leisure fishing activities (for
instances, prawn and octopus fishing trips), fireflies and sunset
watching. All of the mentioned activities are using boat as the main
transportation to be carried out. Besides, the research report of
Keshavarzifard [2] have found that the source of petroleum in the
sediments of Sg. Perai were derived from the combustion of fossil
fuel (vehicle and crude oil).
Furthermore, the industrial and housing effluent at urban
development activities may result to the increase of TOC
concentrations in the sediments [14]. The sediment quality in the
estuary of Sg. Juru had been assessed and reported that the potential
sources of heavy metals pollution are possibly discharged from Prai
Industrial Area [1]. Moreover, the wastes discharged from the heavy
industrial activities has the high possibility causing the elevated
concentration of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) and thus
it might be the are possibly the major contribution of TOC in the
sediments and this is supported by Keshavarzifard [2].
It had been reported that there was a plenty of dead fishes
were found nearby the upper catchment of Sg. Kerian on March, 2015
[15]. The elevated of TOC concentration in the sediments at the upper
catchment was in line with the incidents. The high of TOC
concentration may cause the dissolved oxygen depletion, which
implies a large number of fishes were die of suffocation [5]. Besides,
the hypotheses for having abundance of TOC content in the sediments
is suggested that it may be due to the decomposition of dead fish and
thus, it enriches the surficial sediments with TOC[5].
The Spearman’s correlation analysis was used to evaluate
the correlation relationship of TOC concentration and mean size
sediment of Sg. Perai, Sg. Juru, Sg. Jawi, Sg. Tengah, and Sg. Kerian,
which were accounted for r=0.41, r=0.13, r=0.23, r=0.39, and r=0.34,
respectively. The results revealed that Sg. Perai, Sg. Tengah and Sg.
Kerian correlate significantly with the p-value of below 0.05. The
differences of correlation values were probably demonstrating that
those rivers have different controlling factors which influence the
percentage of TOC in the surficial sediments [16].
A significant correlation was demonstrated in Sg. Perai, Sg.
Tengah and Sg. Kerian. It indicating that the mean grain size is
possibly a crucial driving factor that is affecting the carrying capacity
475
for the sorption of TOC on the surface sediments [7]. Owing to the
fine particle sediments having larger surface area per volume, it
provides a larger binding area for the organic carbon to be sorped. On
the other hand, Sg. Juru and Sg. Jawi had shown weak correlation
between TOC percentage and mean size sediments. It might be
indicating that the sediments of those rivers expose to the wastes
discharged from anthropogenic activities. This similar phenomenon
is reported in Perlis River, Malaysia [14].
In summary, the finding in this study found that Sg. Juru is
the highest in TOC concentration in the surficial sediments among the
five major rivers in Seberang Perai while the lowest is obtained in Sg.
Tengah. Based on Spearman correlation, the grain size sediments of
Sg. Perai, Sg. Tengah and Sg. Kerian show significant correlation
coefficient with concentration of TOC in the surficial sediments.
References
[1] A. F. M Alkarkhi, N. Ismail, and A. M. Easa, “Assessment of arsenic
and heavy metal contents in cockles (Anadara granosa) using
multivariate statistical techniques,” Journal of Hazardous Materials 150
(3), 783–789 (2008).
[2] M. Keshavarzifard, M. P. Zakaria, T. S. Hwai, F. M. Yusuff, S.
Mustafa, S., Vaezzadeh, S. Magam, N. Massod, V., Masood, S. A. A
Alkhadher, and F. Abootalebi-Jahromi, “Baseline distributions and
sources of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the surface
sediments from the Prai and Malacca Rivers, Peninsular Malaysia,”
Marine Pollution Bulletin, 88 (1-2), 366-372 (2014).
[3] M. A. Abdullah and S. Saad, “Impak Pembangunan Terhadap Kualiti
Air Di Hilir Sungai Kerian, Perak (In Malaysia language version),”
National University of Malaysia Conference pp. 1-11 (2002).
[4] Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Malaysia
Environment Quality Report, Department of Environment Malaysia,
47-118 (2015).
[5] M. C. Pelletier, D. E. Campbell, K. T. Ho, R. M. Burgess, C. T. Audette
and N. E. Detenbeck, “Can sediment total organic carbon and grain size
be used to diagnose organic enrichment in estuaries?,” Environmental
Toxicology and Chemistry, 30 (3), 538–547 (2010).
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July 2015. Retrieved from Official Portal Malaysian Meteorological
Department Web Site (2015).
[7] S. B. Sany, A. Salleh, M. Rezayi, N. Saadati, L. Narimany and G. M.
Tehrani, “Distribution and Contamination of Heavy Metal in the
476
Coastal Sediments of Port Klang, Selangor, Malaysia,” Water, Air, Soil

Pollution 224, pp. 1476 (2013)
[8] H. Hayzoun, C. Garnier, G. Durrieu, V. Lenoble, C. Bancon-Montigny,
A. Ouammou, S. Mounier, “Impact of rapid urbanisation and
industrialisation on river sediment metal contamination. Environmental
Monitoring and Assessment,” 186 (5), 2851–2865 (2014).
[9] A. Jillavenkatesa, S. J. Dapkunas and L.-S. H. Lum, Particle size
characterization, (National Institute of Standards and Technology,
Washington, 2001), pp 165.
[10] S. J. Blott, and K. Pye, “Gradistat: A Grain Size Distribution And
Statistics Package For The Analysis Of Unconsolidated Sediments,”
Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 26, 1237–1248 (2001).
[11] D. W. Lewis and D. McConchie, Analytical Sedimentology, (Chapman
and Hall, London, 1994), pp. 205.
[12] M. Sakari, M. P. Zakaria, N. H. Lajis, C. A. R. Mohamed, P. S. Bahry,
S. Anita and K. Chandru, “Characterization, Distribution, Sources and
Origins of Aliphatic Hydrocarbons from Surface Sediment of Prai
Strait, Penang, Malaysia: A Widespread Anthropogenic Input,”
EnvironmentAsia, 2, 1-14 (2008).
[13] L. Lazăr, M. T. Gomoiu, L. Boicenco and D. Vasili, “Total Organic
Carbon (TOC) of the Surface Layer Sediments Covering The Seafloor
of the Romanian Black Sea Coast,” Geo-Eco-Marina 18, 121-132
(2012).
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Sources to Solution, (Springer Science+Business Media Singapore,
Singapore, 2014), pp. 507-511.
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Almagro, and J. de Vente, “Influence of sediment characteristics on the
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Gulf of Mexico,” Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 19, 1209-
1223 (2015).
477
T01_059: GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSION

ESTIMATION FROM LIVESTOCK IN
URBAN AND NON-URBAN AREAS OF
SARAWAK
N.Azimah.Bahrum1,*, M. A. Malek 1, 2, and C.S.Tan3.
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Universiti Tenaga Nasional,
Jalan IKRAM-UNITEN, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia
2
Centre for Renewable Energy (CRE), Universiti Tenaga Nasional,
Jalan IKRAM-UNITEN, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia
3
Institute of Energy Policy and Research (IEPRe), Universiti
Tenaga Nasional, Jalan IKRAM-UNITEN, 43000 Kajang, Selangor,
Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Greenhouse gas (GHG) is a gas in the atmosphere that absorbs and
emits radiation within thermal infrared range. In this study,
implementation of Tier 1 methodology of 2006 IPCC
(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) Guidelines for
livestock has been conducted to estimate methane (CH4) and nitrous
oxide (N2O) emissions in Sarawak. This study aims to establish the
amount and trending of GHG emissions from livestock at urban
(Kuching, Miri and Sibu) and non-urban (Limbang, Sri Aman and
Betong) areas in Sarawak where uncertainty analyses are
incorporated. In this study, it is found that in year 2012, total CH4
emissions from enteric fermentations in Kuching (urban) is at 0.41
Gg CH4 yr-1 and for Limbang (non- urban) is at 0.34 Gg CH4 yr-1
exhibiting a trivial resemblance of results at both urban and non-
urban areas of Sarawak. CH4 emission from manure management in
year 2012 at urban areas is noticeably different as compared to non-
urban areas where in Kuching (urban), CH4 emission is 0.95 Gg CH4
yr-1 and for Betong (non-urban) emission is at 0.18 Gg CH4 yr-1. In
2012, total direct N2O emission in Kuching (urban) is 5×103 kg N2O
yr-1 and at Limbang (non-urban) is 3.51×103 kg N2O yr-1. It is also
found that total indirect N2O emission for year 2012 in Kuching is the
478
highest at 1.27×103 kg N2O yr-1 and for Limbang is found to be the

lowest at 0.45×103 kg N2O yr-1. Since the limits of GHG emissions
from developing countries such as Malaysia are yet to be regulated
as per Kyoto Protocol (2005), therefore the estimated GHG emission
values obtain from this study are established for reference purposes,
where estimated emission values from CH4 and N2O can be used for
planning and mitigation purposes at various level of confidence
depending on the uncertainty analyses conducted.
Keywords: GHG, livestock, enteric fermentation, manure

management.
Introduction
Today, greenhouse gas (GHG) concentration in the atmosphere and
climate change has become one of the major concerns of humanity.
Since the pre-industrial period, about 28% of global radioactive
forcing of GHG were established by United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) [1]. The main GHG of
concerned are methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and carbon
dioxide (CO2). Agriculture activities contributed to the emission of
these GHG.
Sarawak is one of the major agriculture producers in
Malaysia. Based on review from Sarawak Gross Domestic Product
(GDP) in 2012, agriculture sector is the second production of
Sarawak by 15.1% [2]. Since agriculture sector is the second largest
land use in the state of Sarawak that contributes 32.1% from the
12,330,296 hectares of total land area in Sarawak, estimated amount
of GHG emission from agriculture is very important for this state.
GHG emissions may contribute to global warming phenomena due to
its increment in atmospheric concentrations [3].
Study Objective
This study aims to estimate the amount and trending of GHG
emissions from urban areas of Sarawak namely Kuching, Miri and
Sibu as well as GHG emissions from non-urban areas namely
Limbang, Sri Aman and Betong for livestock sector at the period of
2008 - 2012 years using 2006 IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change) guidelines.
479
Methodology
There are three (3) tiered methodologies established in GHG
estimation, namely Tier 1, Tier 2 and Tier 3. This study uses the 2006
IPCC guidelines that provide Tier 1 methodology to calculate
methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) emission values. Tier 1
method is the simplest to use, as it employs default factors provided
by 2006 IPCC Guidelines and is used due to the absence of country
specific values for Sarawak. Tier 2 and Tier 3 methodology could not
be used in this study since the location-specific parameters in
Sarawak were not measured and collected in the activity data. Instead
of using default values as in Tier 1 methodology, Tier 2 and 3 utilise
a more sophisticated technique including empirical and process
models that require the use of location-specific parameters and can be
used to estimate or predict carbon stock changes or CO 2 emissions
[4].
Estimation of GHG Emission
Methane (CH4) Emissions from Enteric Fermentation

In this study, Equation (1) in 2006 IPCC Guidelines is used to
calculate CH4 emission from enteric fermentation. Methane is
generated in herbivore as a by-product of enteric fermentation. The
amount of CH4 release depends on the type of animal such as cattle,
buffalo, goat, sheep, swine and deer.
N(T)
Emission = EF (T) × (  (1)
106
Where;
Emission = Methane emissions from enteric fermentation, Gg CH4
yr-1.
EF (T) = Emission factor for the defined livestock population, kg
CH4 head-1 yr-1 by Table 10.10 and Table 10.11[4]-[6].
N (T) = The number of head of livestock species T in the country.
These data are obtained from [3].
T = Species/ category of livestock.
Methane (CH4) Emissions from Manure Management

480
This section describes the calculation of CH4 produced during the

storage and treatment of manure, as well as from manure deposited
on pasture. CH4 emission from manure management for cattle,
buffalo, goat, sheep, swine, chicken, quail, duck, deer and rabbit is
calculated using Equation (2):
(𝐸𝐹(𝑇) × 𝑁(𝑇) )
CH4 Manure = ∑ (2)
106
Where;
CH4 Manure = CH4 emissions from manure management, for a
defined population, Gg CH4 yr-1.
EF (T) = Emission factor for the defined livestock population, kg
CH4 head-1 yr-1 by Table 10.14, Table 10.15 and Table
10.16 [4].
Nitrous Oxide (N2O) Emissions from Manure Management
Direct N2O Emissions from Manure Management

Direct N2O emissions occur during combination of nitrification and
de-nitrification of nitrogen contained in the manure. Equation (3) in
2006 IPCC Guidelines is used to calculate direct N2O emissions from
manure management for cattle, buffalo, goat, sheep and swine in
Sarawak.
44
N2OD (mm) = [∑S [∑T (N (T) × Nex (T) × MS (T, S))] × EF3(S)] ×
28
(3)
Where;
N2OD(mm) = Direct N2O emissions from manure management, kg
N2O yr-1.
Nex (T) = Annual average N excretion, kg N animal-1 yr-1.
MS (T, S) = Fraction of total annual nitrogen excretion are obtained
from Table 10A-4 to Table 10A-9 in Annex 10A.2
[4]-[6].
EF3(S) = Emission factor for direct N2O emissions, kg N2O-N/kg
N obtained from Table 10.21 [4]-[6].
44/28 = Conversion of (N2O-N) (mm) emissions to N2O (mm)
emissions.
Indirect N2O Emissions from Manure Management

481
Indirect emissions occur from volatile nitrogen losses that take place
primarily in the forms of ammonia and NOx. Calculations on indirect
N2O emissions from manure management are conducted using
Equation (4) of 2006 IPCC Guidelines;
FracGasMS
N volatilization – MMS = ∑S [∑T [(N (T) × Nex (T) × MS (T, S))] × ]
100
(4)
Where;
N volatilization – MMS = Amount of manure nitrogen that is lost, kg N
yr-1.
Frac GasM = Percent of managed manure nitrogen for livestock are
obtained from Table 10.22 [4]-[6].
Results on GHG Emission
Methane (CH4) Emissions from Enteric Fermentation
The livestock production systems, particularly for ruminant animals

can be major source of GHG emissions. The animals reared in the
urban and non-urban areas of Sarawak, considered in this study are
cattle, buffalo, goat, sheep, swine and deer. Figure 1 shows, the
annual time series of methane emission from enteric fermentations
between year 2008 and 2012. Based on the Figure 1, it is observed
that methane emission increases in an upward trend throughout the
overall study duration except in Limbang. It is found that, the highest
CH4 emission in year 2012 at Kuching (urban area) is 0.41 Gg CH4
yr-1 and for Limbang (non-urban area) is 0.34 Gg CH4 yr-1.
There are possibilities that the number of population for
cattle have increased via breeding due to increase in demand. The
trend is predicted to increase after year 2011 if and only if the
demands continue to rise. Based on Malaysia National
Communication 2 Report (NC2), GHG emissions will increase
proportionally to the number of livestock reared. Technologies on
reducing emissions from enteric fermentation are presently not
economically feasible especially when Malaysia is currently
importing most of its concentrated feeding materials [8].
482
In this study, it is assumed that the uncertainty in calculating

GHG emission follows the normal distribution, with 95% confidence
interval (CI) of 30% from Mean of Tier 1 values. The total percentage
of uncertainties calculated on CH4 emission from enteric fermentation
is approximately 19.80% for Kuching, 10.67% for Miri, 34.32% for
Sibu, 3.36% for Limbang, 9.22% for Sri Aman and 21.17% for
Betong. Therefore, the values of CH4 emission from enteric
fermentation in Limbang are perceived to be of the highest confidence
at the uncertainties of 3.36%. On the other hand, since the percentage
of uncertainties calculated for Sibu is at 34.32%, therefore emission
values estimated for Sibu are to be used with caution.
0.50
Kuching
Emission (Gg CH4 yr-1)
0.40
0.30
Miri
0.20
0.10
Sibu
0.00
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Year
0.50
0.40
0.30
Limbang
0.20
Betong
0.10 Sri
Aman
0.00
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Year
(a) (b)
Figure 1: Total CH4 emission from enteric fermentation (Gg CH4 yr-1)
at (a) urban and (b) non-urban areas of Sarawak from year 2008 –
2012.
Methane (CH4) Emissions from Manure Management
Methane emission from manure management of livestock in Sarawak

showed overall decreasing trend except in Betong, as shown in Figure
2. In this study, it is found that the highest CH4 emission from manure
483
management is in year 2012 at urban areas, which is vastly different

as compared to non-urban areas. In Kuching (urban area), CH4
emission is found at 0.95 Gg CH4 yr-1 and for Betong (non-urban area)
emission is at 0.18 Gg CH4 yr-1.
1.5
Emission (Gg CH4 yr-1) Kuching
1.0
Sibu
0.5
Miri
0.0
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Year
0.20
Betong
0.15
Limbang
0.10
Sri Aman
0.05
0.00
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Year
(a) (b)
Figure 2: Total CH4 emission from manure management in urban and
non-urban areas of Sarawak for year 2008 – 2012.
The vast differences of CH4 emission from manure

management between urban and non-urban areas in Sarawak are
believed to be influenced by the rate of waste production; number of
livestock reared and manure management technique practiced. These
include the quantity and quality of feedings, genetics of livestock
reared, type, size, conditions and duration of the manure storage as
well as the chemicals and handling methods used in the treatment of
manure. These factors may differ at both urban and non-urban areas
of Sarawak.
The total uncertainties values calculated on CH4 emission
from manure management is approximately 5.46% for Kuching,
5.29% for Miri, 40.35% for Sibu, 9.73% for Limbang, 6.63% for Sri
Aman and 20.94% for Betong. Since the uncertainty analyses
conducted in this study showed 5.29% uncertainty for Miri, therefore
484
it is believed that the GHG estimation calculated using data in Miri is

reliable. Whereas, at 40.35% uncertainty for Sibu indicated that the
values of GHG estimation using data obtained from Sibu are to be
used with caution.
Nitrous Oxide (N2O) Emissions from Manure Management
Estimated emission of N2O is determined from manure management.

In this study, both direct and indirect estimations of N2O released is
calculated during the storage and treatment of manure, before the
animal waste are being used for soil or otherwise used for feeding [5].
6000
Emission (kg N2O yr-1)
Kuching
5000
4000
Miri
3000
2000
Sibu
1000
0
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Year
5000
4000
3000
Limbang
2000
Betong
1000 Sri Aman
0
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Year
(a) (b)
Figure 3: Total annual direct N2O emission (kg N2O yr-1) from manure
management for urban and non-urban areas at 2008 – 2012.
Direct N2O Emissions from Manure Management
Direct N2O emission from manure management produced from

livestock reared at both urban and non-urban areas in Sarawak for
year 2008 till 2012 are calculated in this study. It is found that in 2012,
485
total direct N2O emission in Kuching (urban) is 5×103 kg N2O yr-1 and
at Limbang (non-urban) is 3.51×103 kg N2O yr-1 as presented in
Figure 3. It is found that the highest N2O emission from manure
management is produced from buffalo reared in Limbang at
19.32×103 kg N2O yr-1 from year 2008 till 2012. This is due to the
lessened population of buffaloes in Sarawak that brings to reduced
amount of manure produced, thus lesser the nitrous oxide released.
1600
Kuching
1200
800
Miri
400
Sibu
0
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Year
700
600
500
Limbang
400
300
Betong
200
100
Sri Aman
0
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Year
(a) (b)
Figure 4: Total indirect N20 emission due to volatilization from manure
management for urban and non-urban areas in Sarawak from 2008 –
2012.
In this study, the total uncertainties values calculated on

direct N2O emission from manure management is approximately
14.05% for Kuching, 9.55% for Miri, 178.41% for Sibu, 3.28% for
Limbang, 41.62% for Sri Aman and 23.22% for Betong. This shows
that GHG estimation using data obtained at Limbang is of most
reliable and estimation of GHG values conducted for Sibu is to be
used with caution.
Indirect N2O Emissions from Manure Management

486
In this study, it is found that total indirect N2O emission for year 2012
in Kuching (urban) is the highest at 1.27×103 kg N2O yr-1 and for
Limbang (non-urban) is found to be the lowest at 0.45×103 kg N2O
yr-1 as presented in Figure 4.
In this study, the total uncertainties on indirect N20 emission
from manure is approximately 5.19% for Kuching, 4.32% for Miri,
43.16% for Sibu, 4.60% for Limbang, 5.73% for Sri Aman and
17.07% for Betong. This indicates that the GHG estimation using data
obtained from Miri is the most reliable since the uncertainty for Miri
is found to be the lowest at 4.32%. Since, in Kyoto Protocol (2005) it
is still not mandatory for developing countries such as Malaysia, to
limit its amount of GHG emission, therefore, the values of GHG
emission estimated in this study for the urban and non-urban areas of
Sarawak can be used as reference values by the relevant authorities.
This study estimates the values and trend of CH4 and N2O
emissions from enteric fermentation and manure management of
livestock reared in Sarawak during year 2008-2012. Despite the
uncertainties analyses conducted on the activity data collected at the
study areas, the calculations of GHG emission inventory are
transparent to the local communities. It is found that the total
uncertainties values for GHG emissions from livestock at both urban
and non-urban areas in Sarawak are less than 50%, which is
statistically acceptable. In the theory of GHG emission, the amount
of CH4 and N2O emitted does effect the thinning of ozone layer in the
atmosphere which permits accumulation of direct radiation
penetration.
This study has proven that the amount of CH4 and N2O
emitted are the highest in Kuching. Therefore, there is a need to
further prioritise the adaptation and mitigation measures in Kuching
as compared to other locations in Sarawak.
Subsequently, potential mitigation measures will be from
biogas production of livestock such as beef feedlots and dairy farms.
With the right facilities, biogas or methane can be captured thereby
reducing the emissions. The captured methane can likewise be
487
utilized as an energy source, thereby reducing GHG emissions from

fossil fuel generated energy. A proper manure management can
reduce CH4 emissions, produce bio-fertilisers and facilitate the
capture of biogas to serve as energy source [7].
Finally, the estimated values of emission from CH4 and N2O
obtained from this study can be used as reference values in order to
monitor the amount of GHG emitted in Sarawak. This is one of the
initiatives to support the voluntary pledge made by Malaysia’s Prime
Minister at 2008 Rio Summit in reducing its emission by 40% of its
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) by year 2020.
References
[1] H. S. Eggleston, L. Buendia, K. Miwa, T. Ngara, K. Tanabe,

2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas
Inventories (Institute for Global Environmental Strategies,
Japan), (2006).
[2] Sarawak Agriculture Statistics, Sarawak Fact and Figures (State
Planning Unit, Chief Minister's Department), (2012).
[3] Department of Agriculture, Sarawak, “Sarawak Agriculture
Statistics”, (2010).
[4] IPCC, IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas
Inventories, vols. 1–3. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change, London, (1996).
[5] Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Malaysia,
"Biennial Update Report (BUR) to the UNFCCC", (2015).
[6] IPCC, "IPCC 1996 Revised Guidelines for Greenhouse Gas
Inventories," Intergovernmental Panel On Climate Change
(IPCC), (1997).
[7] Planning Metric Measurement Land Use Map, Sarawak 1991.
Edition III. Land and Survey Department Sarawak, (1991).
[8] Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Malaysia,
“Malaysia’s Second National Communication (NC2) to the
UNFCCC”, (2011).
488
T01_060: PERFORMANCE OF IEC 61850

DIFFERENT COMMUNICATION CHANNELS
PROTECTION NETWORKS FOR SMART
GRIDS
N. H. Ali (1), Borhanuddin. M. Ali (1), O. Basir (1), M. L. Othman (1), And F.
Hashim (1)
(1) Department of Computer and Communication System, Faculty of
Engineering, Universiti of Putra, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
IEC 61850 is starting to be used in substation automation systems and
now it has become a communication standard for the smart grid. This
paper provides an evaluation on the real-time capability of the
communication network in inter- substation communication in three
scenarios using Ethernet and WLAN analyzing for over-current
protection. Communication is modelled according to the standard
IEC 61850 stack using both simulation for WLAN and the analytical
approach of Network Calculus for Ethernet. Thus, we determine the
delay of SV and GOOSE messages, evaluating the impact of varying
packet length and sampling frequency on network and traffic
conditions. For performance evaluation we developed a simulation
model along with an analytical approach on basis of Network
Calculus, enabling to identify worst case boundaries for inter-
substation communication.
Keywords: Smart Grid; IEC 61850; WLAN; Network Calculus
Introduction
In IEC 61850, problems of protocol diversity and integration were
considered as outdated. Maintenance and commissioning could be
decreased by the configuration costs and time. With this protocol, cost
decrease might be possible, and communication turns out to be more
dependable, as for all data, one communication channel could be used
in real time, synchronized over the Ethernet. Unlike other applied
489
standards of communication, like IEC 60870-5-101 /-103 /-104,

understanding the methodologies, concepts, and principles for IEC
61850 is quite simple. Today IEC 61850 protocols not just used in
substation automation but it is become a candidate protocol for
upcoming smart grid applications.
There are many substation automation protocols worldwide,
but IEC61850 is the only one that supports systems based on multi-
vendor Intelligent Electronic Devices (IEDs) networked together to
provide protection, monitoring, automation, metering, and control
functions. The interoperability of equipment and systems is ensured
by providing compatibility between interfaces, protocols, and data
models [1].
Today all protection relays are developed continuously and
based on microprocessor, these protection relays are designed to
isolate faulty components, then it is provide fast stability to the power
grid and ensure safety of power apparatus and human. Protection may
be done based on local measurement and in this case called substation
area protection or wide area protection; in all cases the reliable
protection need fast communication networks. Since protection based
on IEC 61850 is time critical so next, the digital protection
communication delay is analyzed in different scenario.
For decades, wireless systems have been operated in power
utilities for data communications; using Very High Frequency (VHF),
High Frequency (HF), multiple address radio, spread spectrum radio
and microwave systems as examples [2]. This unit examines many
global practical reports and ongoing actions of wireless technologies
installation for various applications of the power utility.
WLAN have been widely used in smart networks [3]. The
WLAN was studied extensively for home automations and industrial
applications due to its simplicity [4]-[8]. Few examples of this kind of
research of using the WLAN for control, monitoring and protection
were described [9]-[13]. Numerous automation systems which uses
WLAN are defined in [13[,[14], and the application of the same
Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) in substations was done as
well [15],[16],[1]. In the above-mentioned articles, performances of
wireless LAN have been evaluated for the applications of IEC 61850
490
based smart network supply substation. It classifies possible

applications of smart distribution and highlights the WLAN
technology to achieve technical and economic advantages in these
applications.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows: section II
presents the IEC 61850 standard features. Section III describes briefly
the communication characteristics focusing on communication
services evaluated in this paper. Next, section IV studies the
simulation and analytical modelling approach result based on OPNET
simulator. Next, Section V studies the opportunity of using WLAN for
over current protection. The conclusion and future work are drawn in
section VI.
IEC 61850 Standard
The main goal of the IEC 61850 standard is the interoperability that
enables information exchanges between IEDs (Intelligent Electronic
Devices) from several manufactures, free allocation of function to
devices, integration of status monitoring, protection, automation, and
control in to IEDs. IEC 61850 standards the representation of function
equipment, their data attributes, and location within the system. This
protocol is different from other protocols used in substation, since
there is a connection between data, application, object, and location
within substation. IEC 61850 is much more than a protocol, there has
information models (logical node and data) IEC 61850-7-4/-7-3, IEC
61850-7-2 for information exchange, IEC 61850-8-1 station bus, and
IEC 61850-9-2 process bus while the last two protocols map those
information model to data communication protocol. Recently IEC
61850 advances to an overall standard for Smart Grid communication,
being also applied for inter-substation IEC 61850-90-1[17] and
substation- to-control Centre communication IEC 61850-90-2 [18] as
well as for connecting electric vehicles and DERs (Distributed Energy
Resources). In general, the standard covers a wide range of aspects,
including communication topologies and services as well as a
complete data model, describing everything from physical devices to
single data attributes. IEC 61850 defines a common language where
all compliant manufactures can exchange information regarding
“function” (Logical Node) and related data available inside their
491
equipment. Yet, it also provides mappings to specific communication

protocols, being based on standard protocols e.g. Ethernet and TCP/IP.
Communication profiles
The IEC 61850 defines three major communication services. First is
the Sampled Values (SV) and raw data that are encapsulated in SV
packet in Ethernet process bus to be ready by other interested IEDs.
Second the Generic Object Oriented Substation Event (GOOSE) used
mainly at bay level and serves for transmitting status and event
messages. These two services are time critical and they map directly
to the MAC layer, using IEEE 802.1Q for prioritization. In contrast,
finally, the Manufacturing Message Specification (MMS) protocol is
considered as a protocol at the application layer, specific to the client-
server messages, and use TCP / IP protocol stack. MMS messages are
mainly used for configuration, but are also applicable for requesting
and reporting measurement or status values on substation and wide
area level. Moreover, they might also be considered for issuing
switching commands from the substation controller or the control
center. In addition, IEC 61850 is used protocol to ensure
synchronization between IEDs. The standard protocol for the standard
for synchronization is the Simple Network Time Protocol, SNTP, but
there is controversy regarding the adoption of this protocol, as some
manufacturers, such as Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, SEL,
says the SNTP is not suitable for applications with accuracies of up
1µS provided in IEC 61850. SEL adopts instead the IRIG-B, Inter-
range instrumentation group [18]. Officially SNTP is the standard
adopted by IEC 61850, but soon a new standard for synchronization
will be released, IEEE 1588, which should resolve the controversy. As
has been said, all messages from the client-server are sent through all
network layers defined in IEC 61850 as there is a processing time
associated with each of these layers, messages of this type has a higher
transmission time than GOOSE and SV messages.
Today IEC 61850 shows improvement for communication in
smart grid domain, then this protocol is used for inter-substation IEC
61850-90-1 and communication between control center and substation
IEC 61850-90-2, and further connecting DERs and electric vehicles.
492
The most important thing for IEC 61850 is the time requirements
especially for time critical application like protection. In this case
tripping success within substation if it is done within time ≤ 4ms, and
for line differential protection using IEC 61850-90-1 the delay should
be in range between 10 and 40ms.
Simulation and analytical modelling approach

This paper presents the simulation part using opnet modeler and
analytic results obtained from network calculus. For evaluation, two
scenarios have been studied. First, study SV message only with
analytical analysis. Second, study the effect of SV and GOOSE
message on each other.
Scenario 1: protection based on Ethernet.

This scenario deals with the delay of data transmission between
process level and bay level in substation, for which we selected feeder
protection. Here we focus on the information exchange between MUs
and P&C IED. Figure 1 shows the equipment necessary to implement
overcurrent protection with IEC 61850.
The MU send, MSV (Measured Sample Value) packet to the P&C IED
through the switch. The SV communication mechanism is
publisher/subscriber, periodic data with sampling frequency between
4000/12800 Hz, flexible packet length, high priority data, and the
transmission time should be between 3 and 10ms.
The breaker IED sends the status of the breaker as a GOOSE message
to the P&C IED and receive trip GOOSE message from P&C IED.
The GOOSE message model regarding to IEC 61850 it is also
publisher/subscriber communication message, burst data with random
inter arrival time and are on average retransmitted every 1ms per
protection then GOOSE message sometimes is deterministic and
others time stochastic, flexible packet length, highest priority
message, and the latency should be in range 3-10ms.
The P&C IED receives SV message from MU and GOOSE
message from breaker IED, sends GOOSE message to the breaker
IED. In this scenario we take the worst case data attribute parameter.
493
SM GM GM SM
L , L , F , and F are let at 256 bytes, 128 bytes, 1000 Hz, and
12800 Hz respectively, where LSM, and LGM are the maximum length
of SV and GOOSE messages respectively, FGM, FSM are the GOOSE
and SV message rate generation respectively. The switch port rate
C=100Mbps, switch processing rate =500000 packets/s, result in
2µsec mean processing delay. First we demonstrate the flow of SV
traffic only, the MU sending data to the P&C IED as shown in figure
1.
Figure 2 presents simulation results, comparing the
accumulated amount of data received at P&C IED. In this
configuration, SV packets from the MU experience a delay of 45μs.
Analytic System Models:

Recently, the network calculus theory has been applied to
calculate the delay bound of intra substation communications[19],[20]
. In this paper, Network Calculus is employed for delay bound
analysis of the above scenario. The basic idea of Network Calculus is
to determine upper and lower traffic output bounds at both node and
network level. After applying distinct mathematical operations on
arrival curve α(t) and service curve β(t) the results are obtained.
The Min-Plus special algebra is used in calculating the
convolution ⨂and deconvolution ⊘ operations. For example the
maximum traffic departing from network node is given by equation 1
and the minimum departure curve is given in equation 2.
𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑡) ≤ (𝛼 ⊘ 𝛽)(𝑡) (1)
𝛿𝑚𝑖𝑛 (𝑡) ≥ inf {𝛼(𝑠) + 𝛽(𝑡 − 𝑠)} = (𝛼 ⊗ 𝛽)(𝑡) (2)
0≤𝑠≤𝑡
Other important calculations obtained from Network Calculus are
worst-case network delay and backlog, as shown in equ.3 and 4
respectively.
𝑑 = inf{𝑥 ≥ 0: sup{ 𝛼(𝑢 − 𝑥) − 𝛽(𝑢)}} (3)
𝑢≥0
𝑏 = sup{ 𝛼(𝜏) − 𝛽(𝜏)} = 𝛼 ⊘ 𝛽(0) (4)
𝜏≥0
Furthermore the network calculus has the ability to obtain overall
network performance generated from concatenation of service curves
𝛽𝑖 of all network nodes as in equ.5.
494
𝛽𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 (𝑡) = 𝛽1 (𝑡) ⊗ 𝛽2 (𝑡) ⊗ … … … ⊗ 𝛽𝑛 (𝑡) (5)

After this introduction on network calculus we can apply it on scenario
1.
The arrival curve of SV message can be written as follows:
𝑆𝑀
𝛼𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ = 𝑟 𝑆𝑀 ∙ 𝑡 + 𝐿𝑆𝑀 = (𝐿𝑆𝑀 ∙ 𝑓 𝑆𝑀 ) ∙ 𝑡 + 𝐿𝑆𝑀
= (2.048 ∙ 10−3 [𝑀𝑏𝑖𝑡] ∙ 0.012800 ∙ 10−6 [𝑀𝐻𝑧])
∙ 𝑡 + 2.048
∙ 10−3 [𝑀𝑏𝑖𝑡] (6)
𝑆𝑀
Or 𝛼𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ = 2.048 ∙ 10−3 [𝑀𝑏𝑖𝑡] + 2.048 ∙ 10−3 [𝑀𝑏𝑖𝑡] ∙
𝑡
[ ] (7)
78.125∙10−6 [𝑠]
The service curve of SV message can be written as follows:
𝑆𝑀 𝐿+2𝐿𝐺𝑀
𝛽𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ = (𝐶 − 2𝑟 𝐺𝑀 )(𝑡 − )+ (8) , where
𝐶−2𝑟 𝐺𝑀
𝐺𝑀 𝑆𝑀
𝐿 = max(𝐿 , 𝐿 )
In scenario 1, there is no effect of GOOSE message, then:
𝑆𝑀 𝑀𝑏𝑖𝑡 2.048∙10−3 [𝑀𝑏𝑖𝑡] + 𝑀𝑏𝑖𝑡
𝛽𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ = (100 [ ])(𝑡 − 𝑀𝑏𝑖𝑡 ) = (100[ )(𝑡 −
𝑠 100[ ] 𝑠
𝑠
20.48𝜇sec) (9)
Take in consideration the propagation delay of link 0.1 µsec, and
2µsec switching delay, equation 9 become:
𝑆𝑀
𝑀𝑏𝑖𝑡
𝛽𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ = (100[ )(𝑡 − 22.58𝜇sec) (10)
𝑠
𝑀𝑏𝑖𝑡
𝛽𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘 (𝑡) = (100[ )(𝑡 − 0.1𝜇sec) (11)
𝑠
Then the first the end-to-end service curve is determined by
convolution according to equation 5:
𝑀𝑏𝑖𝑡
𝛽𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 (𝑡) = (100[ )(𝑡 − 22.68𝜇sec) (12)
𝑠
Backlog bound and delay can be obtained as vertical
deviation between end-to-end service curve and arrival curve,
maximum horizontal deviation between arrival curve and end-to-end
curve respectively. In this scenario figure 3, delay equal 45µs and
backlog amount equal 2048 bits, this result is complying with
simulation result.
495
Scenario 2: SV and GOOSE traffic flow together.

In this scenario there is overlapping GOOSE and SV traffic, GOOSE
message are exchange between P&C IED and breaker IED at
frequency = 1000Hz, and packet length = 128 bytes, while other
assumption for SV and switch still the same. Figure 4, shows the
volume of data received at P&C IED which received data from MU
and breaker IED, also we see the GOOSE message received from
breaker IED. Figure 5 shows that GOOSE message delay between
P&C IED and breaker IED is 28µsec, while the GOOSE message
between breaker and P&C IED between 25-38µsec and the SV
message delay approximately 48µsec, which is slightly more than
scenario 1. We observe that the SV delay change slightly since we are
still not working on heavy load data. The difference will appear
obviously when traffic reach 75% from the channel bandwidth.
Feeder protection based on WLAN IEEE 802.11a

Figure 6 shows the IEEE 802.11a WLAN configuration for single unit
overcurrent protection. The MU read data from Current Transformer
(CT) and sends these data to the P&C IED; the P&C IED also received
the status data from breaker IED and send GOOSE trip message to the
breaker IED. Table 1 shows the simulation parameter using opnet
modeler.
In this scenario, the MU send periodic broadcast SV message
at time interval 0.000625s, the breaker IED send GOOSE status
message at inter arrival time 0.005s to the P&C IED, the P&C IED
takes these value of SV message and do some calculation during fault,
in this scenario we assume that fault occurs after 0.00625s, then the
P&C IED send GOOSE message 6 times during 0.02s time simulation
at 400Hz rate. Figure 7 shows the data load at each IED.
From this simulation we see in figure 8 that the ETE (End-to-
End) delay of GOOSE trip message is 0.04ms, while the ETE delay of
SV message between 0.08ms and 0.5ms, the most important things
that the delay of SV and GOOSE trip message ≤4ms as it is
recommended in IEC 61850-5. More details regarding using IWLAN
(Industrial Wireless Local Area Network) for real time substation
automation and design packet message compliance with IEC 61850
496
can be seen in reference [1]. Different application using second

generation IEEE 802.11n with MIMO that deal with many challenges
of using WLAN in industrial application can be seen in reference
[21],[22],[9].the effect of interference and electromagnetic
interference on WLAN performance can also be seen in reference [1].
Conclusion and future work
In this paper we presented the communication stack for IEC 61850
between process bus and bay level. First, we introduced simulation
scenario for IEC 61850 communication traffic of SV message and
evaluated the ETE delay, followed by evaluating the ETE delay using
network calculus, and we see that there is little difference between two
methods. Then we conclude that network calculus is able to determine
upper delay bound and can be used for analytical calculation of real
time communication in substation and can be extended to inter-
substation. Finally, we study the opportunity of using WLAN for over
current protection with compliance with IEC 61850 and we see from
result that last scenario was success the implementation of protection
within less than 4ms. Future works may include analysis of the
substation network protection of wide area network with redundant
configurations (e.g., using parallel redundancy protocols).
CT
MU P&C IED
Switch
Breaker
Feeder
Breaker IED
Fig.1. Over current feeder Protection using IEC 61850

497
Fig. 2. SV traffic simulation result at P&C IED
Fig. 3. SV at P&C IED based on Network Calculus
Fig.4. Data volume at P&C IED and Breaker IED

498
Fig. 5. Delay of GOOSE and SV message
CT
MU
AP P&C IED
Breaker
Feeder
Breaker IED
Fig.6. over current protection based on WLAN
Fig. 7. Data load from MU, Breaker, and P&C IEDs

499
Fig.8 ETE Delay of GOOSE and SV message
Table-I: WLAN Simulation parameters.

WLAN Speed Communication Communication mode
802.11a 2.4GHz Protocol
54Mbps WLAN frame Broadcast, half-
duplex
Data Data Start On state Inter Packet
flow flow time(sec) time(sec) arrival length(bits)
model node Constant time(sec)
Constant
GOOSE Breaker 0.000001 0.05 0.005 1024
status IED
message
GOOSE P&C 0.00625 0.0125 0.0025 1024
trip IED
message
SV MU 0.000001 0.00625 0.000625 2048
message IED
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1 December 2016
T01_061: SYNTHESIS OF THIOSEMI-

CARBAZIDE DERIVATIVE FOR DYES
SENSITIZED SOLAR CELLS
Azieda Syafika N. Farizal
Uwaisulqarni M. Osman
School of Fundamental Sciences, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030
Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu.
Hasiah Salleh
School of Ocean Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030
Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu
ABSTRACT
Thiosemicarbazide derivatives, N-(3-(trifluoromethyl)benzylidine) thiosemi
carbazide (3-TFT) has been successfully synthesized and measured for dyes
sensitized solar cell applications. The reaction involved with
thiosemicarbazide and 3-(trifluoromethyl)benzaldehyde. The compound was
characterized by spectroscopic technique namely, CHNS elemental analysis,
Fourier Transform Infra-Red analysis (FT-IR), 1H and 13C Nuclear Magnetic
Resonance (NMR). In FT-IR spectrum, the formation of 3-TFT compound can
be proved by the disappearance of wavenumber for carbonyl, ʋ(C=O) group
at ~1700 cm-1 and the presence of azomethine, ʋ(C=N) group which
absorbed at 1605 cm-1. The 1H and 13C NMR spectra exhibited a signal at
δH=8.24 ppm and δC=178.27 ppm due to the azomethine (HC=N) proton and
azomethine (C=N) carbon, respectively. The data showed that the electrical
conductivity was gradually increased until reached the maximum
conductivity values of 0.1489 Scm-1 at light intensity of 100 Wm-2 in the
most diluted concentration, 1x10-5M.
Keywords: thiosemicarbazide, synthesis, dyes sensitized solar cell
Introduction
Dyes sensitized solar cells (DSSC) have attracted attraction many researcher
lately due to lower fabrication cost and relatively high conversion efficiency.
Many metal free organic sensitizer have been used in DSSC because have
many advantages such as broad absorption spectra and inexpensiveness with
no transition metal contained [1]. Generally, electron donor-pi-acceptor (D-
503
-A) arrangement is the most common design of metal free organic sensitizer
[2].
In this study, we reported the synthesis and explore the potential of
new conjugated D-pi-A single molecular system derived from
thiosemicarbazide which have four donor atoms as sensitizer for dyes
sensitized solar cell. Thiosemicarbazide is chosen as the patent in creating
new dye or sensitizer because of their flexibility which easily to alter and
modify by the simple Schiff base reaction method. Thus, to study the effect
of both trifluoromethyl (CF3) and thiosemicabazide moieties as an acceptor
(A) and donor (D) electron units, respectively and connected by -benzene
ring for their electrical conductivity.
Experimental
Synthesis of N-(3-(trifluoromethylbenzaldehyde)benzylidine thiosemicarba-
zide (3-TFT)
The 3-TFT compound was prepared according to the reported literature [3].
Thiosemicarbazide (0.91g, 10mmol) was dissolved in a hot ethanolic solution
and added to a stirred solution of 3-(trifluoromethyl)benzaldehyde (1.74g,
10mmol) in ethanol. The reaction mixture was stirred for 1h. The mixture was
cooled to 0oC in ice bath for complete recrystallization to occur. A white solid
was obtained and it was filtered off, washed with cold ethanol, and dried over
silica gel.
Scheme 1: Preparation and D--A molecular arrangement of 3-TFT compound.
Electrical Conductivity Measurement of Thin Film

Four Point Probe system is used to determine the conductivity of 3-TFT
compound in the form of thin film. In this study, the sheet resistivity in
produced films was measured using four point probing system consists of the
Jandel Universal Probe combined with a Jandel RM3 Test Unit. The electrical
conductivity of thin film with different thickness was measured in the dark
and light condition with intensity of 25 Wm-2 until 200 Wm-2 respectively
504
using Four Point Probe and LI-200 Pyranometer Sensor with LI-1400 Data
Logger.

N-(3-(trifluoromethyl)benzylidine) thiosemicarbazide (3-TFT) was
synthesized with yield of 61.62% and it melting points, 235.8°C. The result
obtained (C, 44.82; H, 3.34; N, 17.42; S, 13.29%) is in a good agreement with
those calculated (C, 42.40; H, 3.22; N, 17.14; S, 13.17%) for the suggested
formula (C9H8N3S1F3).
Infrared Spectroscopy Analysis

The formation of 3-TFT compound is proved by the disappearance of
wavenumber for carbonyl, ν(C=O) group at ~1700 cm-1 and the presence of
azomethine, ν(C=N) group which absorbed at 1605 cm-1. The ν(N-N) band of
the 3-TFT is found at 1068 cm-1 and not much different with previous
reported which appeared at 1071 cm-1 for acetyl cyclohexane
thiosemicarbazone [4]. In addition, the ν(C-N) band has been assigned at
1278 cm-1 with medium intensity and was supported by the previous literature
[5]. A peak at 1328 cm-1 for ν(C-F) moiety in 3-TFT was in a normal range
of CF3 stretch at 1350-1120 cm-1.
1
H and 13C Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Analysis
The 1H NMR data of the 3-TFT compound is recorded in d6-
dimethylsulfoxide (d6-DMSO) solution using Me4Si (TMS) as internal
standard. A singlet peak at δH = 11.54 ppm can be assigned as NH proton.
The peak appeared as expected at the most downfield region due to the
deshielding effect of sulphur atom and intermolecular hydrogen bonding
which decreases the electron density of the moiety. The singlet peak assigned
to primary amine proton (NH2) is observed at δH = 8.27 ppm. The present of
electron withdrawing thione will decreased the electron density around the
protons and thus, deshield the proton resonances to higher chemical shift.
Whereas, a sharp singlet peak at δH = 8.18 ppm has been attributed to
azomethine proton (N=CH) of 3-TFT [6]. A multiple peaks at the range of δH
= 8.12 - 7.61 ppm are commonly due to phenyl proton.
In the 13C NMR spectrum of 3-TFT, the carbon resonance signals of the
azomethine carbon (C=N) group appeared at δc=178.27 ppm. The signal
observed at δc =140.52 ppm are characteristic for thiocarbonyl (C=S) group
present in this compound. Signal for carbon of trifluoromethyl can be found
at δc = 128.37 ppm. Whereas, the aromatic carbons usually appear as a
505
multiple peak at a range between δC = 124.31-131.15 ppm and these chemical

shifts are in agreement with those for other thiosemicarbazide ligands [7].
Electrical Conductivity of Thin Film of 3-TFT

The electrical conductivity of 3-TFT thin film was measured using Four Point
Probe. Table 4 and Figure 3 shows the electrical conductivity of with and
without 3-TFT compound at 1x10-3 M in the dark and under various light
intensities (Wm-2).
Table 4: The electrical conductivity values of with and without 3-TFT

compound on ITO substrate at 1x10-3 M
Light Intensity Electrical Conductivity, σ (Scm-
(Wm-2) 1
)
ITO ITO + 3TFM
0 0.1417 0.1405
25 0.1418 0.1409
50 0.1420 0.1411
75 0.1422 0.1412
100 0.1425 0.1413
125 0.1424 0.1414
150 0.1422 0.1412
175 0.1418 0.1407
200 0.1417 0.1405
The graph showed that the presence and absence of 3-TFT compound on ITO
glass substrate gave the maximum conductivity values of 0.1414 and 0.1425
Scm-1, respectively. It is obviously can be clarified that the electrical
conductivity of ITO mixed with 3-TFT (1x10-3 M) showed lower values
compared without 3-TFT compound. Hence, it can be concluded that the 3-
TFT is not suitable to be a conducting material in organic solar cell in the
concentration of 1x10-3 M. It is expected due to the light cannot be well
penetrated at higher concentration [8].
Electrical Conductivity of Thin Film at Different Concentration of 3-

TFT
Table 5 shows the values of electrical conductivity of 3-TFT in different
concentrations while Figures 4 shows the graph that was obtained from the
values.
506
Table 5: The electrical conductivity values of of 3-TFT on ITO substrate at

different concentration, 1x10-3 M, 1x10-4 M and 1x10-5 M
Light Intensity (Wm-2) Electrical Conductivity σ (Scm-1)

3-TFT 3-TFT 3-TFT
[1x10-3 M] [1x10-4 M] [1x10-5 M]
0 0.1405 0.1469 0.1483
25 0.1409 0.147 0.1485
50 0.1411 0.1472 0.1487
75 0.1412 0.1474 0.1488
100 0.1413 0.1477 0.1489
125 0.1414 0.1476 0.1488
150 0.1412 0.1475 0.1488
175 0.1407 0.1473 0.1489
200 0.1405 0.1471 0.1487
Generally, the electrical conductivity of 3-TFT compound in all

concentrations increased with the increasing of light intensity. It is interesting
to highlight that the maximum electrical conductivity of 3-TFT can be
increased in both diluted concentrations, 1x10-4 and 1x10-5 M with 0.1477 and
0.1489 Scm-1, respectively. Remarkably, the 3-TFT compound still exhibited
electrical conductivity even in no light with 0.1469 and 0.1483 Scm-1 in 1x10-
4
and 1x10-5 M, respectively. This indicates that the 3-TFT compound showed
a potential to be a dyes sensitized solar cells even in diluted concentrations.
It is expected that the light penetration and scattering on ITO surface
are easily occurred, well dispersion and disaggregation of 3-TFT compound
on ITO surface would effects the electron transfer occurred more efficient in
diluted concentrations [8].
Conclusion
In the present work, thiosemicarbazide derivative, 3-TFT with electron
donor-pi-acceptor (D-π-A) arrangement has been successfully synthesized,
characterized and investigated as conducting material for application as dyes
sensitized solar cell. The synthesized compound was characterized by CHNS
micro-elemental analyses, Infrared Analysis, UV-Visible Analysis, 1H and
13
C NMR and Four Point Probe for its electrical conductivity behavior. From
the electrical conductivity study, the maximum electrical conductivity of the
thin film ITO/3-TFT formed was 0.1489 Scm-1 at 100 Wm-2 in a diluted
concentration of 1x10-5M. With this promising result, it showed that 3-TFT
507
in dilute concentration has potentially to be a sensitizer in dyes-sensitized

solar cell.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the Ministry of Higher Education,
Malaysia (MOHE) for research grant FRGS (59387), School of Fundamental
Sciences, School of Marine Engineering Universiti Malaysia Terengganu
(UMT) and Institute of Marine Biotechnology (IMB) for the technical,
support and research facilities.
Reference
[1] Chermahini, Z.J., Chermahini, A.N., Dabbagh,“New tetrazole-
based organic dyes for dyes-sensitized solar cells” Journal of Energy
Chemistry, 24, 770-774 (2015).
[2] Ooyama, Y., Sato, T., Enoki, T., Ohshita, J.”Development of D--
A dye with (pyridiniumyl) alkanesulfonate as electron-withdrawing
anchoring group for dye-sensitized solar cell” Dyes and pigments,
123, 349-354 (2015).
[3] Du, X., Guo, C., Hansell, E., Doyle, P.S.,“Synthesis and Structure-
Activity Relationship Study of Potent Trypanocidal Thio
Semicarbazone Inhibitors of the Trypanosomal Cysteine Protease
Cruzain” Journal Medicine Chemistry, 45, 2695-2707 (2002).
[4] Mukkanti, K., Venkatesh, K.“Synthesis, characterization &
biological activity of some new thiosemicarbazide derivatives and
their transition metal complexes” Journal of Chemical and
Pharmaceutical Research, 7(8), 437-445 (2015)..
[5] Moorthy, N., Prabakar, P.C.,“Vibrational, NMR and UV-visible
spectroscopic investigation and NLO studies on benzaldehyde
thiosemicarbazone using computational calculations” Journal of
physics and chemistry of solids, 91, 55-68 (2016)..
[6] Xie, J., Dong, H., Yu, Y., Cao, S. “Inhibitory effect of synthetic
aromatic heterocycle thiosemicarbazone derivatives on mushroom
tyrosinase: Insights from fluorescence, 1H NMR titration and
molecular docking studies” Food chemistry, 190, 709-716 (2016).
[7] Azhari, S.J., Mlahi, M.R., Mostafa, M.M, “Comparative studies
between 4-allyl-, 4-phenyl- and 4-ethyl-1-(2-hydroxybenzoyl)
thiosemi carbazides and the synthesis,characterization and DFT
calculations of binary and ternary complexes derived from 4-ethyl
(L1) and 2,2’-dipyridyl” Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and
Biomolecular Spectroscopy. 150, 949-958 (2015).
508
[8] Hwang, K.-J., Park, D.W., “Influences of dyes-concentration on the

light effect in dyes-sensitized solar cell” Material Chemistry and
Physics, 149-150, 594-600 (2015).
509
T01_062: SELECTION CRITERIA OF

BIDDERS DURING PRE-CONTRACT
PROCESS BETWEEN OIL & GAS AND
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
Normaniza Abd Ghani, UiTM Shah Alam
Mohammad Fadhil Mohammad, UiTM Shah Alam
Noor Asyikin Mahat, UiTM Shah Alam
ABSTRACT
Selection of bidders at pre-contract process is important in order to
get a competitive bid evaluation to award an appropriate contractor.
Previous researches indicate that inadequate selection criteria and
poor evaluation process are the main causes for selecting unreliable
and incompetent contractors. Thus, the objective of this research is to
identify the critical selection criteria during pre-contract process
between oil & gas and building construction project. The primary
data were collected from the questionnaires while the secondary data
collection were retrieved from the findings in the literature review.
Questionnaires were conducted to identify the critical criteria in
selection of bidders. The primary data from questionnaires were
obtained from project managers, engineers, and quantity surveyors
that have experiences in implementing the selection criteria during the
pre-contract process. Descriptive and inferential statistical tools were
used for the analysis. The results suggest that the critical of selection
criteria i.e. registration; project team organisation’s experience;
financial standing; performance/experiences of company; Health,
Safety & Environment (HSE); Quality Assurance Quality Control
(QAQC); current work load; bank guarantee/performance bond;
compliance with government regulations; reasonable price; project
specific criteria; and completeness/responsive during pre-contract
process are important to avoid any failure in a project and to achieve
the optimization in terms of cost, time, and quality. The study
recommended a more detailed study of the selection criteria based on
different types of procurement and relationship of each criterion
towards the success of project.
510
Keywords: Construction Industry; Critical Criteria; Oil & Gas

Industry; Pre-Contract
Introduction
Competitive bidding system, bearing the advantages of simplicity and
fairness, is expected to encourage economic benefits through the free
market competition mechanism. However, as the characteristics of
construction industry are different from those of others industries,
many issues such as abnormal low-bids and poor project quality have
been derived from the competitive bidding system, and hinder the
development of construction market (Chien, Wei, & Min, 2006).
Therefore, selecting a proper bidder at the early project stages is very
important in order to have competitive bid evaluation process, for
awarding to an appropriate contractor that has capability to execute
the project efficiently and effectively. It is particularly challenging,
however, for oil and gas projects which due to the extreme
circumstances faced in the oil & gas environments that lead to the
disruptions and difficulties in the project (Handfield, Primo, &
Oliveira, 2015). Moreover, it is difficult to meet the project objectives
and challenges in terms of timely completion, costs, quality, and
revenue as oil & gas projects which is currently characterised by the
increase of project complexity, different sizes and intensification by
international involvement.
According to Ray (1999), contractor’s ethics in tendering is a sensitive

and complex problem, as it relates to the right or wrong moral
contractor during the tendering process. Because of that, the selection
of a proper construction contractor increases the chances of successful
completion of a construction project (Alhazmi & McCaffer, 2000).
But during the selection criteria made, inadequacies and difficulty in
the critical selection criteria of bidders during pre-contract process
commonly happen in oil & gas and construction projects. This is
agreed by Arazi Idrus, Mahmoud Sodangi, and Mohamad Afeq
Amran (2011) during the bidding process, making the selection of the
most appropriate contractors to execute the project to be quite
difficult. Failure to manage during the pre-contract process will lead
problems for the entire projects and project team. Meanwhile the
objective of this research is to identify critical selection criteria during
pre-contract process in oil & gas and construction project to reduce
511
the client’s risks, avoid the delay in project completion, and give the
best result to award a project to a proper contractor.
Literature Review
Pre-Qualification Criteria for Oil & Gas Project
The oil & gas project is exposed to more risks and uncertainty than
other industries such as construction. Most people agree that risk plays
a crucial role in business decision-making and the higher the risk the
greater the rewards. Therefore, sourcing from the right bidder ensures
business successful and achieves the goal. Also, the bidder selection
of decision-making directly influences the operational and financial
positions. According to M. Trivedi (2011), the bidder selection is the
main decision made by the client or contractor due to the process of
selection, which becomes the main issue through pre-contract stage.
Additionally, Rani (2011) highlighted that the oil & gas projects are
complex and multi-discipline, requiring relatively a long time and a
huge capital investment. She also concluded because as the oil & gas
companies become more commercially demanding, they force the
engineering contractors into tough, competitive bidding. The
following Table 1 shows the summary of prequalification criteria
during selection of bidders for oil & gas projects from the various
literature sources.
Table 1: Summary of Pre-Qualification Criteria for Oil & Gas

from the Various Literature Review
Literature Sources
Identified Prequalification Rani, Horst, Nakhle, Silvana Abdul

During Selection of Bidders (2011) (2013) (2013) Tordo, Aziz
(2013) Abdullah,
(2011)
Lower Reasonable Prices ⁄

Meet Project Schedule ⁄
Safety, Health & ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
Environmental
Comply scope of work/ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
Technical
Contractor Performance/ good ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
512
track record
Current work load ⁄
Quality Control ⁄ ⁄
Legal ⁄ ⁄
Financial Standing ⁄ ⁄
Resources of Manpower / ⁄ ⁄
Project Organisation
experience
Operability & Maintainability ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
Table 1 shows the summary of pre-qualification criteria for oil & gas
projects from various literatures. The critical criterion are safety,
health & environment as stated by Rani (2011), Horst (2013), and also
supported by Nakhle (2013). These criteria is vital in oil & gas projects
due to reducing overall risk, complying with the Federal state and
local regulations, and creating a safe yet efficient operating
environment for a company. According to Rani (2011) and Nakhle
(2013), complying the scope of work is the most important criterion
in the selection of criteria as agreed by Abdul Aziz Abdullah (2011),
which is also vital in oil & gas projects.
According to Abdul Aziz Abdullah (2011), complying the scope of

work, contractor performance, and strong financial and resources of
manpower/project organization are important criteria in oil & gas
projects. Meanwhile, Silvana Tordo (2013) supported strong financial,
resources of manpower/project organisation, maintenance, and
resources of materials. Based on findings in the above table, we can
conclude that safety, health & environment; complying scope of work;
contractor performance; strong financial; resources of
manpower/project organisation and quality are the critical selection
criteria for oil & gas projects.
Pre-Qualification Criteria for Construction Project

Table 2 shows the summary of pre-qualification criteria for
construction projects from various literatures. The critical criterion is
financial stability as stated by Skitmore (1997) also supported by
Topcu (2004), Dwarika & Tiwari (2014), Huang (2011),
Palaneeswaean (2001) and David Brudenall & MattWringley (2013).
These criterion is vital in construction due to the need to measure how
consistently those earning factors are into the evaluation of a bidder’s
status. According to Skitmore (1997), the other critical selection
513
criterion is contractor performance as agreed by Dwarika & Tiwari

(2014) and Huang (2011). Based on the findings shown in the Table
2, the critical selection criteria are financial stability; contractor’s
experience; contractor performance; current workload; human
resources; technical expertise and safety system supported partially by
Skitmore (1997), Topcu (2004), Dwarika & Tiwari (2014), Huang
(2011), Palaneeswaean (2001) and David Brudenall & MattWringley
(2013). The remaining criteria can be allocated as general criteria
subsequently critical criteria during the pre-contract process.
Table 2: Summary of Pre-Qualification Criteria for Building

Construction from the Various Literature Review
Literature Sources
Identified Skitmor Dwar Hua Palan David
Prequalification During e, (1997) ika & ng, ees Brudenal
Selection of Bidders & Tiwar (201 waran l&
Topcu, i, 1) , MattWri
(2004) (2014 (2001 gley,
) ) 2013)
Financial ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
Standing/Financial
Status/Financial
Stability
Management & ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
Technical
Ability/Technical
Expertise/Compliance of
Scope of work
Contractor ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
Performance/Contracto
r’s
Experiences/Reputatio
n/Good Track Record
Human ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
Resource/Organization
/Capacity/
Competence
Quality ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
Management/Quality
514
Literature Sources
Identified Skitmor Dwar Hua Palan David
Prequalification During e, (1997) ika & ng, ees Brudenal
Selection of Bidders & Tiwar (201 waran l&
Topcu, i, 1) , MattWri
(2004) (2014 (2001 gley,
) ) 2013)
System/Quality
Assurance
Healthy, Safety & ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
Environment/Safety
System
Current Work ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
Load/Status of Current
Work Programme
Project Specific ⁄
Criteria
Responsive/Completen ⁄
ess
Correctness & Valid ⁄ ⁄
Information
/References /
Registration
Obey the Law/Comply ⁄
with Government
Regulations/Standards
and by Laws
Plant, Equipment & ⁄ ⁄
Machinery Resources
Guarantee (Bank ⁄
Guarantee
/Performance Bond)
Meeting Deadline / ⁄
Promptness / Meet
Project Schedule
Reasonable Price / ⁄ ⁄
Lower Price
515
The research was conducted through questionnaire survey, relevant to

literature review on the identification of criteria in selection of bidders
in Klang Valley. The survey was targeted to the contractors (G7 -
CIDB) for construction industry and main contractors (PETRONAS
License) for oil & gas industry, who were involved with the pre-
contract process in the selection of bidders. The data collection
instrument was used to identify the criteria for selection of bidders. It
is required to know the respondent's demography information such as
name of industry, nature of work, working experiences, type of
business, and how far the pre-contract process is involved for
construction and oil & gas industry. The instrument address key
element to identify the criteria in selecting of bidders which is
important for respondent to respond in an ordinal manner. thus; 5
implies ‘very strong’; 4 implies ‘strong’; 3 implies ‘unsure’; 2 implies
‘low’, and 1 is ‘very low’. The instrument was constructed
deliberately in this way to make respondents think on and reflect on
the criteria of bidders that can necessarily exist among the bidders.
In order to have a better return rate, the questionnaires were distributed

to fifty (50) respondents among the project team in oil & gas projects
and fifty (50) respondents among the project team in buildings
construction projects. The position of the project team that
participated in the questionnaires are Project Manager, Engineer, and
Quantity Surveyor (QS) / Subcontract Executive who are involved in
the selection criteria of bidders to achieve the various variables in each
organisation. A summary of the feedback is shown in Table 3 based
on the respondent's position for each industry. Some of descriptive
data generated from the nature of industry questionnaire are reported
in this research. This questionnaire was designed with a Likert-type
scale, consisting of multiple numerical scales to enable respondent to
select the preference and strength of their opinion based on questions.
In oil & gas projects, 100% of all the respondents with different
positions returned the questionnaire. However, only 87% of the
respondents from construction projects returned the questionnaire.
The returned ratio from both projects is more comprehensive
compared with the one cited by Moser and Kalton (1971), on the
516
average of response rate to the questionnaires, was thus about 35%,

which is acceptable in view of researches in same field.
Table 3: Summary of Feedback by Position for Each Industry
Survey Channel
Field Subcontract
Oil & Gas Project Project Manager Total
Engineer Executive
Sent 15 15 20 50
Returned 15 15 20 50
Returned Ratio % 100 100 100 100
C&S Quantity
Building Construction Projects Project Manager Total
Engineer Surveyor
Sent 15 15 20 50
Returned 12 9 16 37
Returned Ratio % 80 60 80 74
Total Returned for Oil & Gas
27 24 36 87
and Construction Projects
Total Returned Ratio% for
Oil & Gas and Construction 90 80 90 87
Projects
Analysis And Discussion

Table 4 indicates the from the table, we can conclude that the both
criteria are not vital, same goes to bank guarantee / performance bond
which has 3.84 as most of the bidders acknowledge these criterion,
hence is essential during the pre-contract process. However, during
the selection of critical criteria (valid licensed, project team
organisation chart, financial capability, company experiences, HSE,
QAQC, current work load, compliance scope of work, meet project
schedule, resources of manpower, tools & equipment, compliance
government regulation and reasonable price are important during the
selection of bidders.
517
Table 4: Mean Item Score and Ranking of Selection Criteria in

Building Construction Projects
Criteria Mean Std. Deviation

Registration (Valid of Licensing;
4.11 1.430
PETRONAS, CIDB)
Project Organization Chart Experiences/
4.3 0.618
Competence
Financial Standing 4.35 0.753
Company Performance/ Company Experience 4.32 0.626
Health, Safety & Environment (HSE) 4.51 0.731
Quality Assurance Quality Control (QAQC) 4.38 0.721
Current Work Load 4.19 0.569
Compliance Scope of Work / Technical
4.57 0.647
Expertise
Resources Manpower, Tools, Equipment &
4.46 0.650
Consumables
Meet Project Schedule 4.65 0.538
Bank Guarantee / Performance Bond 3.84 0.800
Compliance Government Regulation 4.19 0.811
Reasonable Price / Lower Price 4.32 0.669
Project Specific Criteria 2.95 1.373
Completeness / Responsive 2.68 1.313
Table 5 indicates the minimum mean of selection criteria as the current

workload (3.94) due to being in oil & gas projects. This means that the
contractor can delegate to other sub-contractor by using a main
contractor’s license to liaise with client. From the finding above, the
remaining criteria is the most critical criteria during selection of
bidders at pre-contract process. The result also shows that there are
two criterion with the highest rate, which are company performance/
company experience (4.43) and registration (4.3). It means that these
two (2) criteria are very important and have potential to impact to the
overall oil & gas project execution. Without specific experiences and
valid registration such as Petronas’s license, there is a probability that
contractor will make a misstep in the overall project execution and
will lead the delay of the projects.
518
Table 5: Mean Item Score and Ranking of Selection Criteria in

Oil & Gas Projects
Criteria Mean Std. Deviation

Registration (Valid of Licensing; PETRONAS, CIDB) 4.43 0.665
Project Organization Chart Experiences/ Competence 4.32 0.581
Company Performance / Company Experience 4.43 0.572
Quality Assurance Quality Control (QAQC) 4.11 0.870
Compliance Scope of Work / Technical Expertise 4.23 0.724
Resources Manpower, Tools, Equipment & Consumables 4.13 0.761
Comparison For Oil & Gas And Construction Projects

One way between groups of variance was conducted to explore the
impact of selection criteria of bidders. The selection criteria in
buildings construction and oil & gas industry were divided into fifteen
criteria i.e. Registration; project team organisation chart experience/
competence; financial standing; company performance/ company
experiences; HSE; QAQC; current work load; compliance scope of
work/ technical; resources manpower tools equipment &
consumables; meet project schedule; bank guarantee / performance
bond; compliance government regulations; reasonable price; project
specific criteria; and completeness/ responsive. There was a
statistically significant difference at p < 0.05 level, which is the
criterion for meeting project schedule (oil & gas = 4.23, construction
= 4.65), Resource of Manpower, tools, equipment, and consumables
(oil & gas = 4.46, construction = 4.13) and compliance scope of work/
technical (oil & gas = 4.23, construction = 4.57). These three (3)
criteria which have a significant difference show that both industries
have different criteria in the selection of bidders. However, reaching
519
statistical significance shows that for criteria such as registration;

project team organization’s experience; financial standing;
performance/ experiences of company; HSE; QAQC; current work
load; bank guarantee / performance bond; compliance with
government regulations; reasonable price; project specific criteria;
and completeness/ responsive are the actual differences in mean score
between the criteria, which was quite small. This shows that the
criteria for both industries are very important to avoid any failure in a
project and to obtain good time, cost, and quality.
Table 6: ANOVA Result on Selection Criteria of Bidders for Oil

& Gas and Building Construction Projects
Oil & Building

Criteria
Gas Construction
Registration (Valid of Licensing;
4.43 4.11
PETRONAS, CIDB)
Project Organization Chart Experiences /
4.32 4.3
Competence
Company Performance / Company
4.43 4.32
Experience
Quality Assurance Quality Control
4.11 4.38
(QAQC)
Compliance Scope of Work / Technical
4.23 4.57
Expertise
Resources Manpower, Tools, Equipment
4.13 4.46
& Consumables
520
Conclusion And Recommendation
The research findings aim to raise fundamental questions and

suggestions pointing to the fact that there are standard operation
procedure differences in the oil & gas and construction industry. The
selection criteria during pre-contract stage in oil and gas projects were
expected to have a differentiation in the construction industry, as the
oil & gas industry has a special specification on the drawing, difficulty
to find the resources such as material, tools & equipment and
manpower, short duration for fabrication and installation, and also
dependency on specification of vessel requirement. Compared with
the construction industry, this industry is easier to find resources such
as material, manpower, tools and equipment due to having the
approximately same design and material. Besides that, the duration for
the buildings construction project was also long as it usually takes
more than 2 years. Thus, this study recommends a more detailed study
of the selection criteria based on different types of procurement and
relationship of each criterion towards the success of project.
References
Dwarika, P., & Tiwari, S. (2014). Evaluating The Criteria for Contractors’
Selection and Bid Evaluation. International Journal of Engineering
Science Invention, 3(7), PP.44-48. Retrieved from www.ijesi.org.
Chien, L. L., Wei, L., & Min, R. Y. (2006). Exploring Contractor’s
Opportunistic Bidding Behaviour and its Impacts on Construction Market.
The 24th International Conference of the System Dynamics Society.
Nijmegen, the Netherlands: System Dynamics Society.
Alhazmi, T, & McCaffer, R. (2000). Project Procurement System
Selection Model. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management,
126, 176–184.
Handfield, R. B., Primo, M., & Oliveira, M. P. (2015). The role of
effective relationship management in successful large oil and gas projects:
Insights from procurement executives. Journal of Strategic Contracting
and Negotiation, 1 (1), 12-41.
Arazi Idrus, Mahmoud Sodangi and Mohamad Afeq Amran. (2011).
Decision Criteria for Selecting Main Contractors in Malaysia. Research
521
Journal of Applied Sciences, Engineering and Technology, 3 (12), 1358-

1365.
Horst, T. V. (2013). Project Procurement in the Oil and Gas Industry. In
Towards Improving the Project Supply Process for a Market Entrant in
Oil and Gas Contracting. Netherlands.
Skitmore, Z. H. (1997). Criteria for Contractor Selection. Construction
Management & Economic, 15, 19-38.
Topcu, Y. (2004). A Decision Model Proposal for Construction
Contractor Selection in Turkey. Building and Environment, 39, 469-481.
Huang, X. (2011). An Analysis of the Selection of Project Contractor in
the Construction Management Process. International Journal of Business
and Management, 6 (3).
Palaneeswaran, E. &. (2001). Recent Advances and Proposed
Improvement in Contractor Prequalification Methodologies. Building and
Environment, 36, 73-87.
David Brudenall & MattWrigley. (2013). Indigenous Contractor
Prequalification Support. IBA in Digenous Business Australia. Australia:
Keogh bay Consulting.
M. Trivedi, M. P. (2011). Prequalification of Construction Contractor
using a FAHP. International Journal of Computer Applications, 28, 39-
45.
Rani, D. C. (2011). Theoretical Framework: Factors for Project Success
in Oil & Gas Companies & Contractors in Miri, Sarawak, Malaysia.
International Conference on Business and Economic Research, 1.
Nakhle, C. (2013, February 15). Keeping Lebanon's Oil and Gas Bids
Transparent. Alakhbar.
Silvana Tordo, M. W. (2013). Local Content Policies in the Oil and Gas
Sector. Washington, America: World Bank Publications.
Abdul Aziz Abdullah, H. A. (2011). Identification of the Major Project
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of Business and Social Science, 2 (11).
Ray, R. S. (1999). Ethics in Tendering: A Survey of Australian Opinion
and Practice. Construction Management and Economics, 17 (2), 139-153.
522
T01_063: THE STUDY ON THE SETTING

TIME OF TREATED SLUDGE
CONTAINING BLENDED BINDER FOR
WATER TREATMENT SLUDGE
Nurshamimie, M. F.
Yuhanis, M.N.S.S.
Faculty of Civil Engineering
Fadzil, M. A.
Norliyati,M. A.
Institute of Infrastructure Engineering &
Sustainable Management (IIESM)
ABSTRACT
Sludge disposal from water treatment plant create a major problem to
natural surrounding and to disposal landfills. Landfill disposal
produces leachate that contributes to soil and groundwater pollution.
Therefore, an experimental investigation has been carried out to study
the consistency index and setting time of treated sludge containing
blended binder. The purposes of this study are to determine the effect
of different type of binder to the consistency index of treated sludge
and to evaluate the effect of different type of binder to the setting time
of treated sludge. OPC was replaced by mixes proportion of OPC:
FA, OPC: WPSA, OPC: POFA is 50:50, 60:40 and 60:40
respectively. The selected industrial waste used in this study was Fly
Ash (FA), Waste Paper Sludge Ash (WPSA) and Palm Oil Fuel Ash
(POFA). Water binder ratio is kept constant at 1:1. The consistency
test and setting time were determined to obtain the result of time taken
of sample to harden. The results obtained are shown the setting time
of OPC+WPSA with sludge is better than OPC alone or OPC mix with
other industrial wastes in reducing leachability.
Keywords: Solidification, Water Treatment Sludge, Setting Time,
Blended Binder, Ashes
523
Introduction
Water treatment sludge (WTS) is semi-solid slurry produced through
the water treatment process in water treatment plant. The sludge from
water treatment plant presented in solid and liquid form and regarded
as a waste. Landfilling is the most common WTS disposal method [1].
Syed Ismail & Abd. Manaf (2013) believed that landfilling is the
easiest and the cheapest technology available [2]. Unfortunately, the
disposal of WTS creates a tremendous effect to the environment due
to the limitation of disposal area and environmental reduction
measures, such as leachate collection systems and lining materials.
WTS disposal produced leachate which is a hazardous liquid through
surface runoff that contributes to soil and groundwater pollution.
Solidification is one of the methods used to treat sludge
before being disposed of into landfill. The solidification technique
typically involves the mixing of a sludge material with a chosen binder
to reduce the leaching contaminants from the sludge either physical or
chemical means [3]. Subsequently, the sludge can be disposed of
safely and in an environmentally acceptable form. Awab et al. (2012)
later concluded that solidification or stabilization has been widely
used in the disposal of many types of hazardous waste, as well as in
the recovery of contaminated disposal sites [4].
The most extensively used material in the solidification
technique is Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). However, OPC is
known for its high energy consumption, cost expenses and
environmental deterioration. Previous researchers agreed that the
cement industry is one of the main contributors to greenhouse gases
(GHG) emissions, specifically CO2 emissions [5][6]. Thus, industrial
waste materials have been discovered that capable to be used as a
cement replacement to reduce the consumption of OPC in solidifying
WTS.
Industrial waste materials are the waste generated by
industrial activities during manufacturing of factories, mills and
mining operations. The industrial waste that has been selected for this
research are Fly Ash (FA), Palm Oil Fuel Ash (POFA) and Waste
Paper Sludge Ash (WPSA). These industrial wastes are chosen
because it is relatively low cost and shown long term stability. The
WTS have been solidified using selected industrial waste that is
proven capable to minimize adverse effect to the environment.
524
Subsequently, this research focused on the evaluation of potential of

industrial waste materials as a blended binder in treating the sludge.

Materials used in this research were divided into three types which are
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), Industrial Waste Material which
are Fly Ash (FA), Waste Paper Sludge Ash (WPSA), Palm Oil Fuel
Ash (POFA), and Water Treatment Sludge (WTS). OPC was supplied
by local suppliers and satisfied to MS522: Part 1:1989. The FA were
supplied by Stesen Janakuasa Elektrik, Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz
Shah, Kapar, while WPSA was supplied by Malaysian Newsprint
Industries (MNI), Mentakab, Pahang. Furthermore, POFA are directly
obtained from Kilang Sawit Jengka 21, Bandar Jengka, Pahang. WTS
were collected from Water Treatment Plant at Gunung Semanggol,
Perak.
Chemical Properties
X-Ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis was conducted to determine the
chemical compositions of each material. Table 1 below shows the
chemical composition of materials used for this research.
Table 1: The chemical composition of materials

Chemical OPC WTS FA WPSA POFA
composition (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
CaO 61.43 0.17 6.90 30.52 4.92
SiO2 18.62 26.74 59.00 28.15 59.62
Al2O3 4.75 20.72 21.00 15.77 2.54
MgO 3.21 - 1.40 1.94 4.52
Fe2O3 3.02 - 3.70 1.05 5.02
SO3 2.29 - 1.00 0.57 1.28
Na2O 1.51 - - 0.67 0.76
K2O 1.42 0.74 0.90 0.45 7.52
LOI 3.55 - 4.62 17.23 8.25
Others - 9.00 - - -
525
Mix Proportion
The blended binder was produced by blending OPC with FA, WPSA
and POFA. A 200g of WTS and 200g of blended binder were used for
each of the mixes. These mix proportions are stated in Table 2 below.
A total of four mix proportions for samples with and without sludge
was prepared for setting time test and standard consistency test.
Table 2: Mix proportion of blended binder

MIX OPC (%) FA (%) WPSA (%) POFA (%) WTS (g)
M1 100 - - - -
M2 50 50 - - -
M3 60 - 40 - -
M4 60 - - 40 -
M5 100 - - - 200
M6 50 50 - - 200
M7 60 - 40 - 200
M8 60 - - 40 200
Standard Consistency
Figure 1: Standard Consistency index for sample without sludge
Result of standard consistency test is presented in Figure 1. Standard

consistency of OPC has been achieved due to the expectation of 5 mm
height of penetration with 32% amount of water used. Subsequently,
526
for OPC+FA, the amount of water used is 37% to get the standard
height of 5 mm. Meanwhile, OPC+WPSA and OPC+POFA indicate
the amount of water about 57% and 31% respectively. The sample of
OPC+WPSA needs the highest percentage of water which is 10% of
water more than others. The consistency result for Mix 2 (OPC+FA)
was higher percentages than coarser pastes when the material had a
higher fineness and high porosity. In addition, Mix 3 (OPC+POFA)
needs more water because it is lighter than others. In conclusion, the
finer the cementitious material, the larger surface area of the material.
Thus, more water was absorbed by the material.
Setting Time
Figure 2: Setting time test for sample without sludge
Initial and final setting time for samples without sludge was
portrayed in Figure 2. Results showed that Mix 1 (OPC) took 180
minutes for setting time. These are followed by Mix 2 (OPC + FA)
which is 270 minutes. Meanwhile, Mix 3 (OPC+WPSA) took 150
minutes and Mix 4 (OPC+POFA) took 300 minutes in the hardening
process. From the result above, the longest time taken for cement
hardening is Mix 4 (OPC + POFA). Next, Mix 3 (OPC+WPSA) has
the shortest setting time among other sample. For Mix 2 (OPC+FA),
the setting time for concrete is higher than OPC alone and OPC +
WPSA. Referred to the chemical composition of POFA in Table 1,
POFA has less content of CaO that delayed the setting time of concrete
[7]. Therefore, the setting times for mixes to harden are increased
which 300 minutes in the final is setting time. It is usually slower than
the hydration of cement. The long setting times of POFA concrete are
probably due to the pozzolanic reaction between POFA and calcium
527
hydroxide [8].
Previously, FA have less calcium content based on chemical
composition as shown in Table 2 which is 6.90% . Meanwhile, the
total amount of SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 are more than 70% which is
classified FA in Class type F. The FA is fall into the class type F
because the element of calcium oxide is less than 8% which can slow
the setting time of mixes [9]. Thus, utilization of the FA replacement
cement Class F possibly increases the setting time of mixes.
Furthermore, OPC mix with WPSA showed low setting time.
The higher content of CaO in WPSA could increase the concrete
hardening. The similarities on characteristics of OPC and WPSA
contributed to the double effect in the setting time. High content of
CaO and alumino-silicate in OPC and WPSA make setting time of
concrete to harden faster than others. Although the percentage of water
of Mix 3 is highest resulted from the consistency test previously,
however, took a short time to harden in concrete. The WPSA contains
an amount of alumino-siliceous material that is consolidated with
calcium, prompting an upgrade in its quality and fastest setting time
of the mixes [10].
Figure 3: Setting time for sample with sludge
The result of setting time for sample with sludge is shown in

Figure 3. The results showed that Mix 5 (OPC+WTS) took 1920
minutes. Meanwhile, setting time of Mix 6 (OPC+FA+WTS) was
4725 minutes. Then, followed by Mix 7 (OPC +WPSA+WTS) which
was 660 minutes. Referred to Table 2, the specification of fly ash
which is low in calcium oxide could slow down the hardening of
concrete and increase the setting time [9]. Meanwhile, POFA which
528
has low calcium oxide content of less than 5% make it fall into class
F. Obviously, this finding also confirms that low calcium oxide
content in POFA is less than 5% [7]. The sample took longest time to
harden due to chemical composition of WTS itself. The higher amount
of SiO2 in the sludge as shown in Table 1 is higher that makes the
setting time slightly slower for sample to harden. Besides, the result is
slightly different in sample with sludge because binder depends on its
characteristics to harden. The less content of CaO slower the
hardening process. Thus, samples with highest time of setting time,
which are Mix 6 and Mix 8 is because there is less content of CaO and
high content of SiO2 that contributed to slow setting time.
The setting time for Mix 7 has the fastest time among the
others. Mix 7 (OPC +WPSA+WTS) took just 660 minutes to harden.
This happen because there are similarities in chemical composition in
OPC and WPSA which is high content of CaO, SiO2 and Al2O3 that
makes the concrete harden fast. Thus, increase amount of WPSA
makes setting time faster. Characteristics of OPC and WPSA are
similar and capable in bonding the material for solidification of
sludge. Mix 7 (OPC+WPSA) was the best mix among the others.
Conclusion
In conclusion, WPSA gives the lowest initial and final setting time in
hardening process. It is the most significant cementitious materials
that can be a cement replacement and used in solidification and
stabilization treatment of sludge.
Acknowlegdement
The authors would like to express greatest appreciation and gratitude
to the Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia for giving an
opportunity to conduct this research.
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Disposal. Malaysian Journal of Fundamental and Applied
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[7] UK Essays . (2003). UK Essays. Retrieved from Utilization
Of Palm Oil Fuel Ash In Concrete Construction Essay
[8] Thomas, M. (2007). Optimizing the Use of Fly Ash in
Concrete. Portland Cement Association, 1-24.
[9] Sharipudin, S., Ridzuan, A., & Mohd Saman, H. (2012).
Performance of Foamed Concrete with Waste Paper Sludge
Ash (WPSA) and Fine Recycled Concrete Aggregate
(FRCA) Contents. International Sustainability and Civil
Engineering Journal, 19-27.
[10] Mohd Sani, M. H., Muftah, F., & Ab Rahman, M. (2011).
Properties of Waste Paper Sludge Ash (WPSA) as Cement
Replacement in Mortar to Support Green Technology
Material. 3rd International Symposium & Exhibition in
Sustainable Energy & Environment , 94-99.
530
T01_064: A FACILE GROWTH

IMMERSION METHOD OF ALUMINUM-
DOPED TITANIUM DIOXIDE NANOROD
ARRAYS FOR UV PHOTOSENSOR
APPLICATION
M. M. Yusoff
M. H. Mamat*
S.A. Saidi
A.S. Ismail
M.F. Malek
Faculty of Electrical Engineering (NANO-
ElecTronic Centre (NET)) , Universiti Teknologi
MARA
(UiTM), 40450, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
M. Rusop
NANO-SciTech Centre (NST), Institute of Science
(IOS), Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM),
40450,
Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
*Corresponding author:hafiz_030@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Aluminium-doped (Al-doped) titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanorod arrays
(TNAs) was deposited on FTO glass substrate via a novel facile and
rapid growth immersion method in a Schott bottle with cap clamps at
150 °C for 3 hours. The effect of Al-doped on the structural, optical
and electrical properties of Al-doped TNAs sample was examined and
characterized by X-ray diffraction, micro-Raman spectroscopy, field-
emission scanning electron microscopy, and ultraviolet–visible (UV-
Vis) spectrophotometer. The prepared Al-doped TNAs sample was
then utilized to design a photoelectrochemical cell (PEC) device for
the application of ultra-violet (UV) photosensor at room temperature
under UV irradiation. A maximum photocurrent of 0.12 mA was
observed at 0 V bias under UV irradiation. Al-doped TNAs based PEC
531
UV photosensor was more selective and responsive to UV irradiation

(365 nm) at an operating room temperature than the pure undoped
TNAs.
Keywords: Semiconductors; TiO2 Nanorods; Immersion Method; UV
Photosensor, Electronics device.
Introduction
Titanium dioxide (TiO2) has been extensively reported for various
applications such as electronic devices [1-3], as well as photocatalyst
[4, 5] due to its outstanding electrical, chemical, physical and optical
properties. Numerous studies have been conducted on TiO2-based
ultraviolet (UV) photosensor for its property to absorb UV light due
to its wide band gap around 3.0 [eV] [6].
One-dimensional (1D) metal oxide nanorod arrays structure
has been widely investigated recently in electronic sensor applications
owing to its large surface-to-volume ratio, high electron mobility,
slow recombination rate and efficient light scattering ability within the
nanorod structure [6-10]. Several methods have been reported to
produce the TiO2 nanorod arrays (TNAs) using physical vapor
deposition (PVD) [11, 12], and chemical vapor deposition (CVD)
[13]. However, these methods involve complex process and
equipment for the growth due to its requirement such as high vacuum
chamber, inert gas pumping, temperature controlling and others. The
solution based technique is another preferred method reported to
prepare the TNAs and extensively studied to prolong the growth of the
synthesized TNAs layer [14-16]. This method is conducted by using
high temperature autoclave, even though the growth temperature
required is merely at 150°C. Thus the usage of the autoclave itself is
difficult due to the size and weight of the stainless steel material and
the teflon line inside to hold the pressure and heat of the container.
The time expended to prepare TNAs will also increase due to the
heating and cooling, which somehow will affect the prepared sample.
Therefore, a simpler and rapid process for the synthetization of TNAs
using this method is required.
In this paper, we have investigated the effect Al-doped on the
properties the prepared TNAs through our developed solution-based
method via a modified Schott bottle with cap clamps as stated in our
prior study [17]. The effect of Al-doped on structural, optical and
electrical properties of the prepared TNAs sample need to be
532
examined for the application of UV photosensor, which is designed

based on the photoelectrochemical cell (PEC) [16].
Experimental
A facile one-step immersion-based method was utilized to deposit Al-
doped TNAs on a substrate as described in our prior work [17]. The
groundwork of substrate included a cleaning process of fluorine tin
oxide (FTO) coated glass substrate with acetone, ethanol, and
deionized (DI) water in an ultrasonic bath for 10 minutes
consequently. The solution consisted of mixture of hydrochloric acid
(37 wt %) and DI water in 1:1 volume ratio was prepared and stirred
for 10 minutes in a Schott bottle. 0.05 M of titanium (iv) butoxide was
added subsequently and stirred for another 10 minutes. The dopant
was mixed into the solution using 0.012 M aluminium nitrate
nanohydrate (Al(NO3)3·9H2O, 98%, Analar), and the prepared
mixture was then stirred vigorously for 30 minutes. A cleaned FTO
coated glass substrate was placed in the prepared solution at the
bottom of the Schott bottle, with the conductive side facing upward.
The bottle was tightly closed with a bottle cap and clamped using the
customized cap lock as reported in our previous work [17] to hold the
pressure inside the bottle during the heating process. The tightly
clamped bottle was then retained inside an electric oven at
temperature of 150 °C for 3 hours. The prepared FTO coated glass
substrate was taken out from the clamped bottle immediately after the
cooling process and cleansed thoroughly with DI water, before dried
at room temperature. The deposited TNAs on the substrate was finally
annealed in a furnace at 450 °C for 30 minutes to improve crystallinity.
The fabrication of self-powered UV photosensor was
constructed based on photo-electrochemical cell (PEC) principal. The
deposited Al-doped TNAs on FTO-coated glass substrate and indium
tin oxide (ITO) coated glass substrate were used as electrode and
counter electrode, respectively as the device terminals. The assigned
electrodes were sandwiched together on its active film coating with a
sealing material and the electrolyte in between the electrodes. The
mixed solution consisted of 0.05 M of iodine, 0.5 M of lithium iodide,
and acetonitrile was used as the electrolyte. The active area for the
detection of UV light was aimed roughly at 1.0 cm-2 on the fabricated
PEC device.
533
The deposited Al-doped TNAs on the FTO-coated glass

substrate was characterized via field emission scanning electron
microscopy (FESEM; JEOL JSM-7600F) to observe the surface
morphology of the film. Micro-Raman spectroscopy (Renishaw InVia
microRaman System, 514 nm laser) , and ultraviolet-visible-near
infrared (UV-Vis-NIR; Varian Cary 5000) spectrophotometer were
employed to measure the optical characteristics of the deposited Al-
doped TNAs. The performance of the fabricated Al-doped TNAs
based UV photosensor in PEC structure was measured via I-V
measurement unit (Keithley 240) based on photo-generated current
under UV irradiation (365 nm, 4 W) and response time during an
on/off state of the UV light.

The FESEM characterization on surface morphology of the deposited
Al-doped TNAs at 150 °C for 3 hours is shown in Figure 22 (a-b) for
30,000 × and 50,000 × magnification, respectively. The cross-section
image of Al-doped TNAs is shown in Figure 22 (c). The morphology
images on the surface showed that the deposited Al-doped TNAs was
corresponded to one-dimensional (1-D) growth structure with
tetragonal shape. The surface morphology similarly revealed that the
deposited Al-doped TNAs was dense, and evenly covered the surface
of the substrate, with average diameter at approximately 166 nm. The
average thickness of the deposited layer, or the average length of
deposited Al-doped TNAs was roughly 2.37 µm. There are relatively
few parameters have been described to affect the size and length of
the TNAs via the hydrothermal synthesis such as reaction time,
temperature, acidity of the solution, concentration of the precursor,
and dopant additives [18]. In this study, we demonstrated the addition
of 1 at.% Al-doped TNAs at 150 °C for 3 hours using our novel facile
solution-based method. The FESEM results also has demonstrated the
transformation of the diameter size and length, which was increased
with addition of aluminium dopant, based on comparison to our
previous studies [17].
534
Figure 22: The morphology at (a) 30,000 ×, (b) 50,000 × magnification,

and (c) cross-section images of the deposited Al-doped TNAs
Figure 23 (a) shows Raman spectroscopy of the deposited Al-

doped TNAs at 150°C temperature for 3 hours. The Raman peaks
exhibit typical rutile phase of TiO2 at 143, 235, 447, and 612 cm-1,
representing B1g, two-phonon bands (*), Eg, and A1g, respectively [19,
20]. Three distinct peaks can be observed at Eg, A1g and the two-
phonon bands. B1g peak was comparatively small to the others. Peaks
which represent anatase and brookite phase of TiO2 were missing in
the analysis, which specified the only single rutile phase was grown
on the substrate. No peaks correlated to Al or Al2O3 were identified,
suggesting that most Al atoms befitted the substitutional Ti atoms in
the lattice of TiO2 nanocrystallites of the TNAs. Another peaks to
signify the SnO2 of the FTO-coated glass substrate were also
undetected in the spectrum, signifying the surface area of the substrate
was entirely concealed with Al-doped TNAs films as agreed to the
FESEM results.
UV-vis characterization for optical property representing the
transmittance spectra of the Al-doped TNAs at 150°C temperature for
3 hours is represented in Figure 23 (b). The measurement of
transmittance was performed in the wavelength range from 300 to 800
nm. The result showed that the transmission of the incident light was
declined ominously, and completely absorbed at the wavelength less
than 400 nm in UV region, which corresponded to the characteristic
band gap energy of TiO2. The figure also showed excellent
transmittance behavior above the UV region. Figure 23 (c) disclosed
the absorption coefficient spectrum of deposited Al-doped TNAs,
which calculated based on Lambert’s Law [21]
535
1 1
  ln( ) (1)
t T
where t is the thickness of the thin film layer and T is the transmittance
of the deposited Al-doped TNAs. The result displayed high UV
absorption, which abruptly increased under the UV region at 400 nm
wavelength, corresponding to the transmittance spectrum.
4000
(a) (b)
3500 A1g
Eg
Transmittance (a.u.)
3000
Intensity (a.u.)
2500
2000
1500 *
1000 B1g
500 360 380 400 420 440

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 Wavelength (nm)
-1
Raman Shift (cm )
(b)
(a)
20
14 (c) 18 (d)
Absorption Coefficient, (x 10 m )
-1
12 16
6
14
(hv) (x 10 eV m )
10
-2
12
2
8 10
14
8
6
6
2
4
4
2 2
0
0
320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8
Wavelength (nm) Photon Energy (eV)
(c) (d)
Figure 23: (a) Raman spectrum, (b) UV-Vis Transmittance spectrum,

(c) absorption coefficient plot from the transmission spectra, and (d)
Tauc’s plot of deposited Al-doped TNAs.
536
Figure 23 (d) displays the Tauc’s plot of the deposited Al-doped TNAs
at in the UV and visible region based on the following relation [22]:
(h ) 2  A(h  E g ) (2)
where α is the absorption coefficient, hν is the photon energy, Eg is the

energy band gap and A is a constant. Eg of the optical band gap energy
was estimated by plotting the (αhν)2 versus hv graph. The
extrapolation from the linear portion of the graph denotes the band gap
energy, Eg of the deposited Al-doped TNAs at the intersection of x-
axis, which intersects at approximately 3.14 eV.
0.16
undoped TNAs
0.14 al-doped TNAs
0.12
0.10
Current (mA)
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Time (s)
Figure 24: Photocurrent response under UV irradiation (365 nm) of

deposited undoped and Al-doped TNAs based PEC UV photosensor at
0 V bias.
Figure 24 shows the performance of the fabricated Al-doped

TNAs based PEC of UV photosensor through time-dependent
photocurrent plotted graph. The measurement of photocurrent was
conducted at ON and OFF states of the UV light repeatedly at 0 V bias
for four cycles in the prepared electrolyte as mentioned previously in
experimental procedures. The response and recovery times throughout
the switching states of the UV irradiation are found insignificant in the
measurement due to sudden and massive changes of the generated
photocurrent.
537
The photo response result primarily shows the sudden

increase of maximum photocurrent at an average of 0.12 mA under
UV irradiation, and sudden reduction to 0 V when the UV irradiation
is switched off with comparatively low dark current. In this study, the
stability of the generated photocurrent showed in our deposited Al-
doped TNAs at 150 °C for 3 hours suggested that the fabricated device
was significantly correspond to the sudden change of the optical signal
and capable for its application in UV photosensor.
Conclusion
This work studied the properties of Al-doped TNAs at 150°C for 3

hours deposition time. The Al-doped TNAs were deposited via a novel
immersion-based method using a Schott bottle. This study has
identified the dense and uniform growth of Al-doped TNAs on the
substrate. The deposited Al-doped TNAs have an average diameter of
126 nm, and average thickness layer of 2.37 µm approximately. The
Raman spectroscopy proved that the deposited Al-doped TNAs are
single phase of rutile TiO2 crystal structure. The estimated band gap
energy of the synthesized AL-doped TNAs was at 3.14 eV
approximately and UV visible under UV irradiation (365 nm). The
fabricated UV photosensor using the deposited Al-doped TNAs
showed good respond under UV light in an electrolyte solution. In
conclusion, the deposited Al-doped TNAs based PEC UV photosensor
was more selective and responsive to UV irradiation (365 nm) at an
operating room temperature than the pure undoped TNAs, and a
promising material for the application of UV photosensor.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme
(600-RMI/FRGS 5/3 (57/2015)) from the Ministry of Education
Malaysia. The authors also would like to thank Faculty of Electrical
Engineering and Research Management Institute (RMI) of UiTM,
International Islamic University of Malaysia (IIUM), and the Ministry
of Higher Education of Malaysia for their financial support of this
research.
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6870, 9/1/ 2010.
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T01_065: A CONTINUATION POWER

FLOW-BASED VOLTAGE STABILITY
INDEX IN PREDICTING VOLTAGE
STABILITY USING ARTIFICIAL NEURAL
NETWORK
Zi Jie Lim-1
Mohd Wazir Mustafa-1
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), 81310 Skudai, Johor,
Malaysia.
ABSTRACT
With the constant improving lifestyle and newer electrical and
electronic inventions day by day, the demand and reliant on the steady
flow of electrical supply is increasing as well. Coupled by the
deregulation in electrical market, the transmission system had already
been pushed to operate near its limits and is prone to voltage
instability. Furthermore, to improve the service itself, different
technologies is being implemented into the network to ensure the
reliability and quality of the electricity. All these preventive
equipments require an accurate readings of the voltage stability at all
time to function optimally. Besides controlling the equipments
effectively, having a good indicator also helps the operators to work
efficiently with little errors. This paper introduced an indicator to
predict the voltage stability of the system network using continuation
power flow-based voltage stability index (CoVSI). CoVSI can
measures the distance of the current operating point to the collapse
point and identifies the buses that is weak to the load increment,
especially the reactive load across the network. The indicator is being
applied to the widely known IEEE 14-bus test system for testing and
analyzing purposes. By varying the loadings of the load buses in the
test system, 45 sets of data is being generated and then the collected
data will be implemented into the prediction system employing
artificial neural network (ANN). The results show that CoVSI is an
accurate indicator and is more reliable due to the nature of the
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continuation parameter while easy to recognize and differentiate

between weaker bus and weakest bus. The prediction system
developed using ANN provides a fast response to the system network
when being implemented to control the automated protective
mechanism as well as clear indication of the voltage stability
condition of the all the buses to the operators.
Keywords: Voltage stability, continuation power flow, artificial

neural network, prediction, voltage stability index.
Introduction
Ever since the discovery and later started the golden era of electrical
development, electricity had become one of the basic requirement for
everyone in the world. In the 21st century, today, almost everything
are mechanized and digitalized. From small useful gadgets like
handphones, toaster, table lamp, electric heater, laptop to a huge
industrial machines and robots, all these equipment require power
supply in order to operate. Currently, the electrical system is consists
of three major component, which are the generation, transmission and
distribution, with each of the components working together as a single
unit to form a huge network throughout the country. Power system
study [1] is one of the most important fields in the vast electrical world
as it makes sure that the electricity service satisfies the customers by
analyzing, monitoring, collecting data and also improving the system.
Voltage stability is one of the most important aspects in producing a
reliable electrical supply and can be defined as the ability of the power
system network to maintain in operable voltages at all buses after or
when disruption occurs to the network [2]. Modern power system
networks are often lying on the verge of its operating threshold due to
increased population and deregulation of electricity market.
Therefore, with the improved technology and complexity of the power
system network such as the introduction of various distributed
generation [3] and electric vehicle, accurate and instant acquisition of
voltage stability condition at any moment is extremely important. This
is because coordination of different electrical equipment especially
protective gadgets requires precise indication to when or in what
condition should they be activated so that there are no confusions
among them. Besides that, with fast and pinpoint accuracy of voltage
stability prediction, disturbance on the power system network can be
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detected and any potential that could cause harm to the network can
be dissolved easily, therefore preventing serious blackout [4, 5] that
might happened if the condition worsen.
As such, to ensure that the power system network is well
protected, various methods had been employed by researchers around
the globe. By doing static voltage stability analysis, the Jacobian
method [6], minimum singular value index [7] and modal method [8]
had been proposed to find the exact voltage collapse value.
Continuation power flow (CPF) is a more advanced method compared
with the infamous power flow equation due to its ability to overcome
the singularity of the Jacobian matrix in conventional power flow at
voltage stability limit was also being used to identify the weakest bus
in the network [9, 10]. Besides that, there are also researchers that
utilized the maximum allowable load [11, 12] to determine the
distance of the current operating point toward voltage instability and
ranking the transmission lines stability as well. Even though the above
methods can be sometimes accurate, but the precision of these
methods are arguable. With the increasingly large network, time
consumed had become exponentially high and requires a lot of
resources to be able to keep up with the dynamic nature of power
system as it would only takes seconds to a few minutes for the system
to reach unstable state.
Therefore, as the need for instant and clear indication of
voltage stability condition arises, many line-based voltage stability
indices (VSI) had been proposed. These include the Line Stability
Index (NLSI) [13], Fast Voltage Stability index (FVSI) [14] and Line
Stability Index (Lp) [15] which can be used to identify the weakest
bus in the network without many complex steps of calculations and
analysis. The introduction of computational intelligence [16] methods
such as artificial neural network (ANN), fuzzy logic and evolutionary
computation had brought new insights to the field to achieve high
prediction speed of the voltage stability condition. ANN has the ability
to memorize, learn and subsequently predict the situation that is given
to it based on the given data after been trained [17]. As such, to acquire
fast prediction to the voltage stability, an effective and accurate
indicator is proposed in this paper to cater with the weakness of
available VSI, which had different accuracy, inconsistent and suffered
from singularity of the conventional load flow equations.
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Formulation of proposed VSI

The proposed VSI utilized the CPF as the base to predict the voltage
stability condition of the power system network. CPF is a technique
which reformulates the conventional power flow equations by adding
a parameter called load parameter, λ into the equations. Then, in order
to solve the new sets of equations, a predictor-corrector scheme is
being used. Starting from a known solution, the next solution is being
estimated using tangent predictor based on the chosen value of next
load. The corrector step will then gives the actual solution employing
the conventional Newton-Raphson load flow. The two steps will
continue until it reaches the critical point where the voltage collapsed
occurs. The mathematical formulation of CPF [9, 10] is shown below.
From the load flow equation, a load parameter, λ is inserted
to form the CPF equations below where 0    critical :
PGi ( )  PLi ( )  PIn  0 where

n
PIn  VV
i j yij cos( i   j   ij ) [1]
j 1
QGi ( )  QLi ()  QIn  0 where

n
QIn  VV
i j yij sin( i   j   ij ) [2]
j 1
From the equations, the subscripts G, L and In represents the
generation, bus load and injected load respectively.
To simulate different loading conditions, the PLi and QLi can
be formulated as:
PLi ()  PLi 0  (PLi 0 KLi ), QLi ()  QLi 0  (QLi 0 KLi )
[3]
where PLi0 and QLi0 are the original load on the bus i and KLi is the rate
of load change at bus i when λ changes.
If F is used to represent the entire set of equation, the problem
can be expressed as:
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F ( , V ,  )  0 [4]
Predictor step
In the predictor phase, the tangent vector of Equation [4] is first
calculated.
 d 
[ F , FV , F ]  dV   0 [5]
 d  
When the load parameter is added into the equation, another
equation is required to solve Equation [5]. By setting one of the
tangent vector components to +1 or -1, it imposes a non-zero value on
the tangent vector and guarantees that the Jacobian will be nonsingular
at the critical load limit. Hence Equation [5] will become:
 d 
 F FV F     0 
   dV    1 [6]
 ek  d   
 
The tangent vector can then be found after solving Equation
[6] and the prediction is made through:
 new   old   d 
 new   old   
V   V     dV  [7]
  new    old   d  
   
where superscript new represents the predicted solution and α
represents the chosen step size of the for the prediction.
Corrector step
After obtaining the predicted solution, a correction is required to
obtain the actual value by using local parameterization. An equation
describing the value of one of the state variables is added to the
original set of equation shown below:
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 F  V   
 0 [8]
 X k  
where Xk is the selected state variable for the correct continuation
parameter and η is the predicted value of the selected state variable.
Proposed methodology
From the CPF, the critical point can be obtained when the tangent
component of λ is zero and become negative beyond this point. From
Equation [3], it can also be represented as:
Qnew  Qprev   (Qin _ new  Qprev ) [9]

where QLiKLi= value of load change as λ changes, Qnew=Qλ, and
Qprev=QLi0.
Qnew  Qprev
 pt  [10]
Qin _ new  Qprev
Let
Qi _ max
= the ratio of load sensitivity [11]
Qtotal
where Qmax=maximum allowable load at bus i and Qtotal=sum of
reactive load. Therefore Continuation Voltage Stability Index
(CoVSI) at bus i can be defined as:
Qi _ max
CoVSIi   pt [12]
Qtotal
where λpt=value of loading parameter at current operating point. For
the system to be stable, CoVSIi must not be less than its value when
λpt is equal to 1. The bus with the lower CoVSI value is considered
weaker when compared with another bus with higher CoVSI value.
CoVSI is a bus stability index that utilizes the maximum
loadability of each and every bus on the network rather than the
overall maximum loadability of the network. Given the nature of the
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loading parameter which produced similar shaped curves, the

proposed VSI is more predictable compared with other VSI. CoVSI
also gives accurate indication on which of the bus is weak or weakest
based on current and future possible operating condition.
Experimental Study
In this paper, the proposed VSI will be applied on the IEEE 14-bus
test system and the result is compared with FVSI to showcase the
effectiveness of the proposed method as FVSI is one of the best VSI
when considering only the reactive load. After that, in order to predict
the voltage stability of the network, ANN will be employed as the
prediction model to demonstrate its workability. The ANN used is
feed-forward backpropagation neural network with a single input,
hidden and output layer. The number of hidden nodes used in this
paper is 15 and 500 total iteration is being applied for the training of
the dataset. A total of 39 sets of data obtained by varying the reactive
load of all the load buses by a factor of 5 percent increment from its
base load until the system reached instability. These dataset will then
apply into the ANN for training until it reaches low errors. Another 6
sets of data is also collected by changing the loading factor randomly
as the test dataset to show that the prediction system is working
effectively with small errors. All the case studies are being carried out
using Matlab programming.
Case 1
In the first case study, the weakest bus is identified by using CoVSI
on the IEEE 14-bus test system. Three of the load buses are chosen to
illustrate the ability of the proposed VSI, which were bus 12, bus 13
and bus 14. By using the Matlab programming the CPF and CoVSI
programs are being written and then data is being collected by varying
the reactive load at the buses mentioned above. From the base load,
the load is altered by slowly increasing the load by the step size of 5
MVar until it reaches the stability limit and then continue to do a few
more steps beyond the limit. Later, the actual critical point is being
located as well. The FVSI of the buses at is being collected as well.
The stability limit is reached when the load flow program diverged
and while for CPF, it is when the λ becomes 1. The total reactive load,
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λ value, maximum allowable load and CoVSI at selected bus at each

and every step is being collected and recorded in tables. Table 1 shows
the more important data collected in this case.
Table 1: The Collected Data from Case 1
Bus No 12 13 14
Total load initial 81.9 77.7 78.5
(MVAr)
λ initial 20.89099 67.41751 23.43412
Max load initial(MVAr) 177.0844 288.9535 122.1706
CoVSI initial 45.17055 250.7146 36.47082
Total load 248.984 356.6537 190.6755
critical(MVAr)
λ critical 1 1 1
Max load 177.084 288.9541 122.1755
critical(MVAr)
CoVSI critical 0.71123 0.81018 0.64075
FVSI critical 1.5263(line 1.4505(line 1.0941(line
12-13) 12-13) 13-14)
From Case 1, the results show that by comparing the CoVSI
at their critical loading condition at each buses, the weakest bus can
be identified easily depending on which bus has the lowest CoVSI,
which is bus 14 in this case. As for FVSI, even though for the network
to be stable, the FVSI must be lower than 1. It can be seen that there
is inconsistency in the VSI values and has gone pass 1.0 where the
network already became unstable but from the result from load flow
program it is not and the load could still be added into the system.
Besides that, CoVSI also gives clear indication of which of the
weakest bus in this case by simple value comparison. FVSI does not
give any indication for which bus is the weaker one without actually
testing them either using maximum load comparison on each bus or
with an overall bus increment to see which line has the highest FVSI
value when the load flow diverged.
Case 2
For the second case, all the load buses of the IEEE 14-bus test system
are being considered. Starting from the 1.5 times the base load, all the
reactive load buses are subjected to increase by a factor of 25 percent
until the network reaches instability. Similar to Case 1, only bus 12,
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13 and 14 is being showed in this paper. Table 2 shows the collected

data with the same parameter as in Case 1.
Table 2: The Collected Data from Case 2
Bus No 12 13 14
Total load at 1.5Q 90.65 90.65 90.65
(MVAr)
λ at 1.5Q 18.533 18.533 18.533
Max load at 1.5Q 16.426 59.545 51.332
(MVAr)
CoVSI at 1.5Q 3.3582 12.174 10.495
Total load critical 391.34 391.34 391.34
(MVAr)
λ critical 1 1 1
Max load critical 16.426 59.545 51.332
(MVAr)
CoVSI critical 0.042 0.1522 0.1312
FVSI critical 0.3679(line 0.6151(line 0.9821(line
12-13) 6-13) 13-14)
Based on the observation and analysis of collected data, it can

be seen that when all the load buses is considered in the system, the
stability of the buses had decreased in overall. However, in this case,
bus 12 had become the weakest bus compared with the other two buses
due to lowest CoVSI value. This happened because the maximum
allowable reactive load at bus 12 is reduced to 16.426MVAr while bus
14 still has higher maximum load at 51.332MVAr reduced from
122.1755 MVAr. Due to the load in all the buses increase slowly until
it reaches the critical point, the total load at the current operating point
is being considered. When having higher base load, the increment is
higher at bus 14 at 5 MVAr compaerd with 1.6 MVAr at bus 12.
Therefore, if a load spike is suddenly applied on bus 12 at high loading
point, bus 12 is considered most unstable due to its maximum capacity
is reduced and hence is the weakest bus in this case. This is different
when employing FVSI where the weakest bus is still at bus 14 where
line 13-14 is involved. Although the value is close to 1.0, the index
immediately becomes unstable in the next 25% increment in base load
and the stability is tougher to predict due to inconsistency and sudden
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change of state without clear and smooth indication. Figure 1 show

the graph plotted from the collected CoVSI value at the chosen buses.
14
12
10 Bus 14
Bus 13
8
Bus 12
CoVSI
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39
Step
Figure 1: The graph of CoVSI against each step size of Q load

increment
After obtaining the data, in order to function as a prediction

system, the collected data is then being inserted into the back
propagation ANN program and trained. After successfully trained the
ANN, the test set is then used to predict the CoVSI that is unavailable
during the training phase to validate the created prediction system. As
shown in Table 3 below, the sum square error (SSE) of the training is
0.0048 and during the testing phase, the SSE obtained is 4.315x10 -5.
Table 4 displays the predicted CoVSI values from the testing phase
compared with the targeted CoVSI values. This shows that the
prediction system works as intended and gave high accuracy when
predicting unknown operating conditions.
Table 3: SSE of the prediction system

Training Phase Testing Phase
SSE 0.0048 4.315x10-5
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Table 4: Predicted and targeted CoVSI values in testing phase

Target Predicted Target Predicted Target Predicted
(bus 14) (bus 14) (bus 13) (bus 13) (bus 12) (bus 12)
1.2719 1.2216 1.4754 1.4530 0.4070 0.4189
0.5884 0.6003 0.6826 0.6904 0.1883 0.1957
0.3516 0.3496 0.4078 0.4144 0.1125 0.1181
0.1873 0.1736 0.2173 0.2058 0.0599 0.0571
0.1671 0.1604 0.1939 0.1874 0.0535 0.0525
0.1411 0.1473 0.1637 0.1683 0.0452 0.0479
Conclusion
In conclusion, the voltage stability plays an important role in
maintaining the quality of transmitted power supply throughout the
entire power system network. With the introduction sophisticated
electrical machines and growing populations, the reliant of a steady
and uninterrupted power supply is increased as well. CoVSI provides
a new insight for voltage stability prediction where the maximum
available loading at each bus is considered. The proposed bus stability
index can gives clear indication on whichever bus is becoming weak
or weakest if the load steadily increases from one point to another. As
long as CoVSI does not become lower than the critical CoVSI value,
the network is considered stable. When compared with FVSI, CoVSI
has the advantage in terms of consistency in predicted VSI and
accuracy as well because CPF-based VSI solved the problem in load
flow-based VSI where singularity in Jacobian matrix will happen
when close to the collapse point. The lower CoVSI also provides the
information to the operators and automated equipment on the current
state of the network that the system had become more prone to voltage
instability or reduced maximum loading at certain bus so that
appropriate actions can be taken to effectively resolve the possibility
of voltage collapse if the condition worsen. The trained ANN gives
good accuracy in predicting the voltage stability condition employing
CoVSI and has small errors in it proves the workability of the
prediction system.
Acknowledgement
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This work is supported by Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
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1 December 2016
T01_066: EFFECT OF DIFFERENT RATIOS OF

NR/NBR ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
OF NR/NBR BLEND LATEX FILM.
Norzahida M Salih, Siti Aisyah Jarkasi, (Universiti Teknologi MARA)
Azemi Samsuri, Che Mohamad Som Said and Dzaraini Kamarun
(Universiti Teknologi MARA)
ABSTRACT
It is a common practice to blend two elastomers of different properties with a
view to combining the best features in terms of technical and economic values.
Nitrile rubber (NBR) is blended with NR to meet the requirements for very good
oil resistance as well as conferring high mechanical strengths. The former is
polar rubber and provides very good oil resistance, while the latter is non-polar
and provides excellent mechanical strengths. Numerous work on rubber blends
that have been reported are based on dry rubber. On the contrary, the work on
rubber blends base on latex is receives less attention than the dry rubber. This
paper describes the work on NR latex and NBR latex blends. NR and NBR were
blended at ratios of [NR: NBR] 90:10, 85:15, 80:20, 75:25 and 50:50 to study
their effect on the mechanical properties of the blends, in particular tensile and
tear strengths the two important properties in rubber gloves. The glass
transition temperatures, Tg of NR/NBR blends were determined and their
morphologies studied to identify the blending conditions and the compatibility
of the blends. The results indicate that tensile strength (TS) showed a good linear
relationship with the blends composition. The decreased in TS with decreased
in NR content of the blends could be associated with the low crosslink
concentrations in the two rubber phases. It has been found the presence of the
ACN segments in the rubber diluted the overall crosslink concentrations of NBR
blank and NR/NBR blends which led to the observed lower crosslink
concentrations of NBR blank and NR/NBR blends. Both elongation at break
(EB) and tear energy are affected by the presence of NBR. They showed a non-
linear relationship with blends composition.
Keywords: NR: NBR blends; tensile strength; crosslink concentration; tear

energy; Tg
Introduction
Natural rubber (NR) latex has been an outstanding material and having proven
long track record in the latex dipped goods products. This is because NR latex
has excellent mechanical properties such as very high tensile strength (TS), high
elongation at break (EB), high tear resistance strength, elasticity, flexibility,
biodegradability and excellent barrier properties. These excellent mechanical
strengths make NR latex film suitable as protective barrier when the latex good
products are used to handle liquids or chemicals. However, NR is non-polar and
shows relatively poor swelling resistance towards hydrocarbon oil [3]. When the
rubber is swollen it will lose its tensile strength and tear strength. The decrease
in these strengths is associated with the loosening of cohesive bonds and low
intermolecular forces between rubber molecular chains.
In contrast, nitrile rubber (NBR) is polar. However, unfilled NBR vulcanizate
suffers from its low mechanical properties since NBR is a non-strain
crystallizing rubber. In comparison, NR is a non-polar rubber but having very
good mechanical properties as a result of formation of strain induced
crystallization at high deformation strains [3].
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However, the compatible and miscibility in a blend is not easy to achieve due to
the different characteristic of each component that constitute a separate phase
with low attraction force across the phase boundaries. To produce polymer
blends, there are two approaches to be considered which are the physical blend
and the chemical bonding of two or more different polymers. Since these two
lattices have dissimilar components (NR latex is non polar and NBR latex is
polar), so the properties of physical blends are different from those of the parent
polymers and simply an average of the two components. They can be
characterized by phase morphology and compatibility. The compatible polymer
blend means that the materials are homogeneous on a molecular level. The
degree of compatibility of two rubbers is important in determining morphology
and mechanical properties of blends made from them [6]. The polymer blends
generally exhibit poor mechanical properties due to incompatibility and phase
separation.
In order to get well balance in term of strength, swelling resistance and cost
reduction, blending of NR with NBR latex is possible. Blending these two
elastomers can reduce cost and also exploit the synergistic properties. This paper
describes the work on the effect of maturation time of NR/NBR latex blends on
the tensile and tear strengths since these two properties are very important in
rubber gloves applications. Along the way, the compatibility of the blends was
assessed by determining the phase morphology and the glass-transition
temperature of the resulting NR/NBR blends. Last, but not least, the crosslink
concentration of the rubber blends was estimated from the Mooney-Rivlin plot
base on the simple extension measurement. This study will lead to improvement
of mechanical properties of blending two lattices which can be practically used
for latex products in industry.
Methodology
Chemicals & Materials
In this study, commercially available high ammoniated (HA) latex with a total
solid content of 60% and acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber or NBR latex (X6311
from Synthomer, Malaysia) with medium acrylonitrile content (32% - 35%) and
total solid content of 45% were selected.
All the compounding ingredients that were used are of commercial
grade. Sulphur dispersion was used as a cross linking agent, zinc oxide (ZnO)
as an activator, zinc diethyldithiocarbamate (ZDEC) acts as the accelerator,
complex phenol-alkanes (Wingstay-L) acts as an antioxidant; and potassium
hydroxide (KOH) and potassium laurate act as stabilizers. KOH and potassium
laurate were supplied by Excelkos Chemicals Sdn. Bhd. Sulphur, ZnO, ZDEC
and antioxidant came as 50% dispersion from Excelkos Chemicals Sdn. Bhd.
Preparation of NR/NBR latex blends

Blends of NR/NBR compounds were prepared according to the formulations
given in Table 1. Briefly, NBR latex was compounded with 0.5 pphr ZnO and
adjusted to pH 10 with 10% KOH before blending with NR latex compound. It
was then added slowly into the NR latex compound which was prepared
separately with the vulcanizing ingredients prior to addition of NBR latex.
The NR/NBR latex blends was stirred at 100 rpm and allowed to
mature. The compounded latex blends were then filtered by using filter cloth to
minimize air bubble which could lead to air entrapment and contamination
during casting. Latex films of the blends casted on glass plates were allowed to
dry until it can be peeled off from the glass plate or until the latex films became
translucent. They were further dried at ambient temperature until a constant
weight of the films were obtained. Finally, the latex films were dried in an oven
at 80°C for 30 minutes followed by post-vulcanization at 120°C for a further 30
556
minutes [2].The latex blends were prepared at 90:10 (S2), 85:15(S3), 80:20(S4),
75:25(S5) and 50:50(S6) ratios of NR:NBR.
Table 1: Formulation of NR/NBR latex blends.
Ingredients, phr S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7
60% HA Latex 100 90 85 80 75 50 0
45% NBR Latex 0 10 15 20 25 50 100

10% Potassium hydroxide 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
20% Potassium laurate 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
50% Sulphur 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
50% ZDEC 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
50% Zinc Oxide 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
50% Antioxidant 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Characterization of NR/NBR latex blends.
Determination of glass transition temperatures, Tg

Tg was determined using Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) Netzsch
DSC 200 F3. Samples were heated under N2 environment at a heating rate of
50ml/min from 10⁰C per minute to 100oC.
Morphology of blended films

Morphology of rubber blends plays an important role in determining the
dynamic and mechanical properties of the blends [6]. Characterization of
morphology of rubber blends can be achieved by various microscopic
techniques. In this study, the blends were examined initially by metallurgical
microscopy that was connected to an image analyzer. Transmitter Reflected
Metallurgical Microscope Olympus BX51 was used. The thin-sectioned samples
cut at 1cm for length and 1cm for width of dimension was observed and all
images were recorded at 1000× magnifications.
Determination of Mechanical Properties
Tensile Test
Tensile strength was done according to ISO 37 test method where a dumbbell
shaped test piece (75mm long with central neck 25 mm long and 3.6 mm wide)
was pulled at constant rate (500 mm per minute) by an Instron 5569 Tensile
Machine [2]. M100, M300, elongation at break and tensile strength were
recorded. Test temperature was 23ºC.
Tear measurement
Tear measurements were conducted by separating the legs of the trouser test-
piece at a uniform rate by using an Instron 5569 tensile machine [2]. The
temperature of the test was at 23ºC. The tearing energy, T, for the trouser test-
piece was determined by using equation given below [2].
T = F (λ+ 1) / h
where F is the force to propagate tearing, λ is the extension ratio in the legs
of the test- piece and h is the average nominal thickness of the test-piece.
557
Determination of crosslink concentrations of NR, NBR and NR/NBR latex

blends.
There are two common methods to determine the crosslink concentration of

vulcanized rubber network, namely the equilibrium swelling measurement and
the simple extension measurement [3]. In this study, the crosslink concentrations
of the blended films were determined by simple extension measurement method
due to its simplicity and reliability. The simplicity arises from the fact that it
avoids the requirement of the rubber-solvent interaction parameter. In contrast,
the equilibrium swelling measurement requires the rubber-solvent interaction
parameter in the calculation. The rubber-solvent interaction parameter for
rubber blends is still not known. It is considered as an environmentally accepted
method since it depends only on calculation and no hazardous solvents were
used. Figure 1 shows the C1 Stress Relaxation Machine built in-house for
carrying out the simple extension measurement technique.
Figure 1: C1/Stress relaxation machine built in-house
The test piece is a long parallel strip of vulcanized rubber of uniform thickness
of about 120 mm × 3.2 mm × 1mm. The thickness of the test piece was measured
by the thickness gauge and the average thickness was recorded. The two ends of
the test piece were clamped tight enough to avoid slippage by the clamps
attached to the C1 machine. Precaution step has to be taken to avoid tension in
the test piece during clamping. After zeroing the force by pressing the tare
button, the test piece was pulled at various pre-determined extensions. The force
was recorded after 3 minutes at each extension. Then the test piece was pulled
to the next pre-determined extension and the force was recorded 3 minutes later.
This same sequence was repeated until at least twelve readings were obtained.
From the Mooney-Rivlin Equation (1) of the form [7]:
f = 2Ao (λ - λ-2) [C1 + C2λ-1] (1)
where f is the force to elongate a vulcanized rubber strip to an extension ratio λ,
C1 is the elastic constant obtained at the intercept of the f/2Ao (λ - λ-2) versus λ-
1
plot, and C2 is a measure of the degree of chain entanglements obtained from
the slope of the straight line portion of the plot. Ao is the cross-sectional area of
the test-piece measured in the unstrained state.
Calculation of crosslink concentration, [X]

Below is the Equation (2) to calculate crosslink concentration, {X}:
C1 = [X]ρRT (2)
Where ρ is density of rubber, R is the molar gas constant and T is the temperature
in Kelvin. Density of NR rubber, (ρ) = 0.92kg/m3. Density of NBR rubber, (ρ)
= 1.17kg/m3. Molar gas constant (R) = 8.314 J/mol.K. Temperature (K) = 298K.
558
The unit of crosslink concentration is in mol kg-1 RH. RH refer to rubber

hydrocarbon.
Effect of Blend Ratios on the Mechanical Properties of NR/NBR Blended

Films
Table 2 shows the various properties measured for the blended NR/NBR films.
The Tg of a polymer is influenced by several factors such as the main back bone
structure, chain flexibility, side group, polarity and steric hindrance [5]. NBR is
a copolymer of acrylonitrile and butadiene rubber; the structure of which is as
shown in figure 2. In the case of NBR, the main factor affecting its T g is its
polarity and concentration of the side group acrylonitrile (ACN). The higher the
ACN content, the higher is the polar attraction and the greater is the hindrance
to molecular mobility imposed by the ACN side group. The NBR latex used in
this project is of medium ACN content (32%-35%) showing a Tg value of -23oC.
When NBR is blended with NR rubber the total ACN content is reduced further
to (16%-18%). The thermal curves of the various rubber blends S2, S3, S4, S5
and S6 showed single Tg values close to the Tg value of NR latex film due to the
fact that the ACN concentrations were low and do not contribute significantly
to the overall Tg values of the blends. A single Tg values observed in the blends
could be attributed to the dilution of the ACN component by NR molecules
depressing the significance of ACN contribution. One may be misled as to
associate the single Tg values to homogeneity of the blends. It is well known that
NR and NBR are incompatible and blends of NR/NBR should show separately
two Tg values of the individual components [9].
Figure 2. Chemical structure of NBR rubber
Table 2: Properties Determined for the various NR/NBR Blended Films

Samples NR/NBR Crosslink Glass Tensile Elongation Tear M100 M300
Blended Concentration Transition Strength at break Energy
Ratio [X] (mol kg-1 Temperature (TS) (EB) (%) (kJm-2)
RH) (Tg) (˚C) (MPa)
S1 100:00 0.050 -65 36.69 523.73 101.63 1.11 2.82

S2 90:10 0.030 -60 30.92 497.23 125.54 5.64 8.27
S3 85:15 0.035 -61 27.45 615.95 140.37 9.04 10.42

S4 80:20 0.036 -61 24.56 489.25 137.00 7.38 9.59
S5 75:25 0.030 -58 19.35 478.20 114.57 2.06 10.25

S6 50:50 0.022 -55 11.24 297.62 76.94 5.39 6.74
S7 0:100 0.044 -23 6.35 195.12 11.89 6.13 7.94

559
There is a general trend in the decreased of tensile strength (TS) and elongation
at break (EB) (also as shown graphically in Figure 3) with increasing NBR
concentrations in the blends. Several factors that affect the TS of NR/NBR blend
are the extent of strain-crystallization, energy dissipation (hysteresis) which is
influenced by the Tg of the material, dilution factor, crosslink distribution in the
two rubber phases and crosslink at the interface of the two rubber components
[11]
. In the case of 100% NR, the TS is very high because of strain-crystallization
effect. The crystals act as reinforcing fillers and increased the hysteresis of the
rubber and enhanced TS [3].In the case of NBR, it is an amorphous rubber, the
low TS is associated with its high Tg (-23C). Blank NR showed a slightly higher
crosslink concentration (0.05) compared to blank NBR (0.044). Crosslinking
occurred at the double bonds of diene in NBR rubber which contributes to the
overall crosslink concentration of NBR and the blends (see figure 2). The
presence of the ACN segments in the rubber diluted the overall crosslink
concentrations of NBR blank and NR/NBR blends which led to the observed
lower crosslink concentrations of NBR blank and NR/NBR blends (see Table
2). The decreased in TS with decreased in NR content of the blends could be
associated with the low crosslink concentrations in the two rubber phases.
Moreover, uneven distribution of crosslinks in the two rubber phases could also
contribute to the decreased in TS and EB of the blends. Sulphur prefers to go
into the ACN segments rather than the desired diene segments of the NBR phase
because of the electrostatic interaction between sulphur and ACN groups in
NBR [10][11] hence reducing the possibility of forming crosslinks in NBR.
Figure 3: Tensile strength and elongation at break of the various NR/NBR

latex blends
Tensile Strength (MPa) Elongation at break (%)
40 800
Tensile strength (MPa))
Elongation At Break (%)
30 600
20 400
10 200
R² = 0.9806
0 0
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7
Samples
It was also observed that TS showed a good linear relationship with the blends
composition (see Figure 3). The low total concentration of ACN in the blends
and the brittleness of NBR rubber does not contribute significantly to the
decreased in the TS values of the blends hence showing the linear relationship.
The overall TS of the blends are affected only by the presence of NR rubber.
Low crosslink concentrations are unable to support high tensile force. It is easier
for the rubber to react to deformation stress by viscous flow than by
crystallization. Thus the stress is dissipated before it is sufficiently high to effect
orientation and crystallization. As more cross-links are introduced and crosslink
concentration increases, the network can support large stresses and viscous flow
no longer feasible [3].Consequently, the chain molecules are reoriented to effect
crystallization which enhances TS. It is for this reason that blank NR with the
highest crosslink concentration showed the highest TS. However, when
lowering NR content in the latex blends, NR phase is unable to strain-crystallize
to its fullest because the crosslink concentration is too low to support high
stresses to case reorientation and molecular alignment necessary for
560
crystallization.
Both EB (Figure 3) and tear energy (Figure 4) are affected by the
presence of NBR. They showed a non-linear relationship with blends
composition. The non-linear relationship can be attributed to the incompatibility
of NR and NBR [8] causing poor interfacial adhesion between NR and NBR
phases.
Figure 4: Tear Energy of the various NR/NBR latex blends
160.00
140.00
Tear energy (kJm--2)
120.00
100.00
80.00
60.00
40.00
20.00
0.00
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7
Samples
Analysis of modulus at 100% elongation (M100) and 300% elongation (M300)

of table 3 revealed the following information: (i) All blended samples showed
higher M100 and M300 compared to blank NR latex films. (ii) S2, S3, S4 and
S5 showed M300 values higher than both blank NR and NBR. (iii) S3 and S4
showed higher M100 values than both blank NR and NBR. The increase in
M100 and M300 indicate that the rubber is hard. There are 2 factors that
influence the hardness which are crosslink concentration and T g of the rubber.
For a given Tg, normally, the hardness increases with increasing crosslink
concentration. For given crosslink concentration, the hardness increases with
increasing Tg. For the case of NR (S1), it has the highest crosslink concentration,
but lowest Tg, yet it gave the lowest M100 and M300. For the case of NBR (S7),
its crosslink concentration is lower than that of NR, but the T g of NBR is much
higher than Tg of NR. But the M100 and M300 of NBR is higher than M100 and
M300 of NR. It appears that the T g is more dominant factor than crosslink
concentration to affect M100 and M300. However, there is no systematic trend
on M100 and M300 the effect of increasing NBR concentration in the NR/NBR
blend.
It is clear that the best tensile strength together with good elongation at
break, good crosslink concentrations and tearing energy is shown by S3 an S4
samples with NR/NBR ratios of (85:15) and (80:20) respectively. This is due to
elongation at break able to reach above 600% whereas the tensile strength is still
higher at 27.45 MPa at 0.035 mol kg-1 RH and tear energy achieved 140 kJm-2
compare to control NR/NBR (100:0) and NR/NBR (90:10) ratio. A recent study
by M.N. Ismail reported, all result of tensile strength of NR/NBR blending were
not able to achieve 25 MPa whereas elongation at break also low than 600%. It
might be associated with the combination of the right crosslink concentration
and Tg of the blend that contributed to high mechanical strengths observed here.
Morphological Study
Figure 5 shows the phase contrast micrographs of the different NR/NBR latex
blends. Large phase sizes were observed in all micrographs, as expected given
the large differences in polarities and hence solubility parameters between the
two rubbers. Similarly, the phase texture is co-continuous, although NBR
(darker phase) appears to have more discrete character. As the NR content
increased from micrographs (a) through (e) the size of phase separation
561
decreased. This could be the reason for the observed high mechanical strengths
of the blends with higher amount of NR compared to NBR. The cross-linking
between the two phases can only occur within the mixed inter-phase [8]. Thus,
there is some possibility that there was insufficient linking between the phases,
especially given the limited mixing to be expected from two polymers of such
differing polarities and solubility parameters [11]. This weakness could lead to
premature failure.
Figure 5: Phase contrast micrograph of S2, S3, S4, S5 and S6 NR/NBR

latex films. All micrographs are based on l000×magnification.
(a) NR/NBR (50:50) (b) NR/NBR (c) NR/NBR

(S6) (75:25) (S5) (80:20) (S4)
(d) NR/NBR (e) NR/NBR

(85:15) (S3) (90:10) (S2)
Conclusion
NR/NBR blends are incompatible as seen from the deviation from linearity of
EB and tear energy with blend ratios. T g shifts of blends towards Tg of NR
suggested minimum contribution of NBR due to the low content of ACN in the
NBR samples. Tensile properties of the blends are generally improved with the
increasing NR component because of good mechanical properties of NR.
Samples S3 and S4 with blend ratios of NR/NBR (85:15) and NR/NBR (80:20)
showed good properties in terms of high tensile strength with high elongation at
break, good in crosslink concentration and high tear energy.
References
[1] A.R.Kemp, F.S. Malm, G.G. Winspear and B.Stiratelli, Diffusion of Sulfur
In Rubber, Relation To vulcanization, Bell Telephone Laboratories, New
York,N.Y
562
[2] Azemi Bin Samsuri, Suhana Sudin and Natrah Yang Salleh, “Tensile And
Tear Strengths Of Vulcanized Filled-Natural Rubber Latex Film”, Faculty
Of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam
[3] Azemi Samsuri. (2009). An Introduction to Polymer Science and Rubber
Technology. University Publication Centre (UPENA) ISBN: 978-967-305-
288-2.
[4] Chinarath Chaowanich, Nattapong Nitthi-Uthai, “Effect of Maturation on
Properties of Latex Compounds”, PP12, Rubber Technology and Polymer
Department, Faculty Science and Technology, Prince of Songkhla
University, Pattani.
[5] D.C.BLACKLEY, “Polymer Latices, Science and Technology”, 2 nd Edition,
Chapman Hall, Volume 1, (1997)
[6] J.T. Andrew and K.P. Jones, “Improving the morphology and properties of
NR/NBR blends with polychloroprene as the compatibilizing agent”,
Chapter 7, Blends of Natural Rubber-Novel Techniques for Blending with
Speciality Polymers, Springer-Verlag, 1998, pp. 8-19
[7] L.R.G. Treloar, The Physics of Rubber Elasticity, Oxford University Press,
3rd Edition, 1975)
[8] Michael V. Lewan, “NR/NBR Blends- Basic Problems and Solutions”, Tun
Abdul Razak Research Centre, MRPRA, UK, Blends of Natural Rubber,
Edited by Andrew J. Tinker and Kevin P. Jones, Published in 1998 by
Chapman & Hall, London, ISBN 412 819406
[9] M.N Ismail, S.H El-Sabbagh and A.A.Yehia, “Fatigue and Mechanical
Properties Of NR/SBR And NR/NBR Blend Vulcanizates”, Polymers And
Pigments Department, National Research Centre, Dokko, Cairo, Egypt,
[10] S. H. Botros*, A. F. Moustafa, and S. A. Ibrahim, “Improvement of
Homogeneity of NR/NBR Rubber Blends”, National Research Center,
Polymers Department, Dokki,12622, Cairo, Egypt
[11] V.L. Michael, “NR/NBR Blends-Basic Problems and Solutions”, in
Chapter 5, Blends of Natural Rubber – Novel Techniques for Blending with
Specialty Polymers, Springer – Verlag, 1998, p:pp.57
1 December 2016
T01_067: MEASURING THE ELEMENTS OF

PEDAGOGY IN A FRAMEWORK OF MOBILE
APPS FOR KINDERGARTEN EARLY
READING
Abdul Jalil Mohamad
Modi Lakulu
Khairulanuar Samsudin
Computing Department,
Faculty of Art, Computing & Creative Industry
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris
35900 Tanjong Malim,
Malaysia
ABSTRACT
The advancement of mobile application technology has affected our daily life
activities., Mobile application technology promises a great potential to
enhance early reading skills among young children if it is appropriately
designed and utilize. To ensure best practice of mobile application for early
reading, the educator should take account of the aspect of pedagogy in
learning. In this study, the elements of pedagogy are measured by using Fuzzy
Delphi Method. Experts consensus are obtained from dissemination of
questionnaire. 14 experts in mobile learning and early childhood care and
education were involved. The findings of the research emphasizes the highly
experts consensus on playful, exploration, individualization and scaffolding.
Keywords: pedagogy, mobile application, early reading, framework,

childhood
Introduction
It is said that knowledge is as vast as the ocean and reading, among others is
one of the ways to gain and enhance one’s knowledge. Hence, to master the
skill of reading is essential for children to be able to stay par with the ever-
growing world. Nevertheless, there are numerous children not only in
Malaysia but also across the globe who faces reading difficulties. [1]. For
564
example a report published by the National Assessment of Educational

Progress explains that a significant number of 4th grade children in America
are struggling to read [2].
The advent of mobile application has changed teaching and learning
processes. According to National Association for the Education of Young
Children (NAEYC), technology if used appropriately has the potential to
enhance a child’s performance [3]. There are numerous mobile applications
that are available solely for the purpose of early childhood education[4]. An
analysis conducted by Shuler, Levine and Ree [5] showed that over 80% of
the top selling paid mobile application in the education category of the Apple
Apps Store are targeted for young children.
Literature Review
Mobile application for kindergarten early reading

The affordance of mobile applications seems to have a great potential to foster
early reading skills among kindergarten children. A research conducted by
Cordero et. al [6] found that mobile applications are capable in assisting
young children to develop their language in terms of reading, writing,
listening and speaking. Similarly this was also reported by Yahaya and Salam
in their previous research [7] stating that mobile applications are useful to
encourage and motivate children to identify letters and to spell; and are also
capable to develop their reading, writing, listening and speaking skills [8].
A proposed framework of mobile application for kindergarten early

reading
Currently, there is limited understanding on the practices and the impact of
mobile applications for early reading skills acquisition [9]. Being aware of
the important role of mobile applications for early reading instructions, there
is a need to draw a clear framework on how mobile applications can help and
promote early reading skills [10].
Previous studies have proposed a framework of mobile applications for early

reading [11]. The framework constructed was based on an established
framework of integrating technology in classroom, TPACK [12]. The
proposed framework consists of three main pillars that include content,
pedagogy and technology. The current study has focused on measuring the
elements of pedagogy pillar.
565
The elements of pedagogy

The proposed elements of pedagogy are extracted by seven existing
frameworks and guidelines of integrating technology in early childhood
education [13].
From the analysis of the existing frameworks and guidelines, researchers

have determined four elements of pedagogy, which are playfulness,
exploration, individualization and scaffolding.
Purpose Of The Study

This paper aims to determine the essential elements of pedagogy in a
framework of mobile applications for kindergarten early reading. Specific
objectives of the study are:
i) To evaluate the experts consensus on the proposed elements of pedagogy
in a framework of mobile application for kindergarten early reading.
ii) To obtain the ranking of each element based on the experts evaluation.
Methodology
The research was conducted using the Fuzzy Delphi Method. The Fuzzy
Delphi Method was initially introduced by Murray, Pipino and Gigch [14]. It
was then improved by Kaufmann and Gupta [15]. The advantages of Fuzzy
Delphi Method in comparison to the d traditional Fuzzy Method is that it has
a decrease in the cost and time utilized in conducting the research.
Research Process
Several steps that are taken in conducting a research by using the Fuzzy
Delphi Method is summarized below:
i. Selection of experts
ii. Obtaining feedback from experts
iii. Converting linguistic variables to fuzzy scale
iv. Constructing triangular fuzzy numbers
v. Calculating defuzzication value
In order to measure the level of acceptance by the experts, each elements need
to satisfy these three conditions:
Average threshold value

566
Each element with threshold value (d) less than or equal to 0.2 is considered
as accepted consensus of the experts.
Percentages of experts’ consensus

The total threshold value of each item which is less than or equal 0.2 were
converted into percentages. If the percentage of experts consensus is more
than or equal to 75%, the elements measured are accepted.
Average fuzzy score (A)

Average fuzzy score is derived from defuzzication process. If the average
fuzzy score (A) is more than or equal to 0.5, the elements are rendered as
accepted by the experts.
The experts’ consensus of the elements

From the data analysis that was done by using Fuzzy Delphi Method, the
consensuses of the experts are summarized in the table below.
Table 2: The Summary of Experts Consensus of The Elements Of Pedagogy
Defuzzi
Tringular Fuzzy
-cation
Numbers
Value
Average
No. Elements Average Averag Result
Percentage
Threshol e Fuzzy
of Expert
d Value Score
Concensus
(d) (A)
(%)
1 Playful 0.125 100.0 0.743 Accepted
2 Exploration 0.150 100.0 0.714 Accepted
3 Individualization 0.196 85.7 0.671 Accepted
4 Scaffolding 0.140 100.0 0.729 Accepted

567
Table 2 summarizes the main findings of this study. The experts accepted all
the four proposed elements as the elements satisfy the three conditions of
Fuzzy Delphi Method. Maximum percentage of expert consensus was seen
in this study particularly for playful (100%), exploration (100%) scaffolding
(100%) while consensus was slightly lower for individualization (85%). The
findings points out the three of four essential elements of pedagogy in a
framework of mobile application for kindergarten early reading.
The ranking of elements

Average fuzzy score analysis scored playful (0.743) as the highest scoring
element followed by scaffolding (0.729), exploration (0.714) and
individualization (0.671). Figure 1 shows the elements of pedagogy in a
framework of a mobile application for kindergarten early reading as ranked
based on consensus of the experts.
Playful
Scaffolding
Exploration
Individualization
Figure 1: The elements of pedagogy
Conclusion and Future Works
The present study measured the elements of pedagogy that can be

incorporated in a framework of a mobile application for kindergarten early
reading. The elements of pedagogy significantly play an important role in the
development of mobile application for this purpose. Through Fuzzy Delphi
568
Method, the experts expressed their opinions and showed high consensus for
these four elements.
Although the traditional method of reading instructions remains relevant for
early literacy skills, the use of mobile applications promises a fascinating
experience for the children. Future research should be more focused on the
looking at the impact that a mobile application can have on the abilities of
reading among young children.
References
[1] I. Haron, “Awal Membaca Bahasa Melayu : Keberkesanan Kaedah

Gabungan Bunyi-Kata untuk Prasekolah dan untuk Pemulihan,” Tanjong
Malim, Perak, 2004.
[2] L. Guernsey and M. H. Levine, “Nurturing Young Readers,” American
Educator, vol. 40, no. 3, pp. 23–44, 2016.
[3] C. Donohue, Technology and Digital Media in the Early Years: Tools for
Teaching and Learning. New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group,
2014.
[4] S. Vaala and M. H. Levine, “Getting a read on the app stores,” New York,
2015.
[5] C. Shuler, Z. Levine, and J. Ree, “iLearn II: An analysis of the education
category of Apple’s App Store,” New York, 2012.
[6] K. Cordero, M. Nussbaum, V. Ibaseta, M. J. Otaiza, S. Gleisner, S. Gonzalez,
W. Rodríguez-Montero, K. Strasser, R. Verdugo, and C. Carland,
“Computers & Education Read Create Share (RCS): A new digital tool for
interactive reading and writing,” Comput. Educ., vol. 82, pp. 486–496, 2015.
[7] N. S. Yahaya and S. N. A. Salam, “Mobile Learning Application for
Children: Belajar Bersama Dino,” Procedia - Soc. Behav. Sci., vol. 155, no.
October, pp. 398–404, 2014.
[8] B. Beschorner and A. Hutchison, “iPads as a literacy teaching tool in early
childhood,” Int. J. Educ. Math. Sci. Technol., vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 16–24, 2013.
[9] J. Yokota and W. H. Teale, “Picture books and the digital world: educators
make choices,” Read. Teach., vol. 67, no. 8, pp. 577–585, 2014.
[10] G. Merchant, “Apps , adults and young children :researching digital literacy
practices in context,” in Discourse and digital practices: doing discourse
analysis in the digital age, R. H. Jones, A. Chik, and C. A. Hafner, Eds.
Abingdon: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group, 2015, pp. 144–157.
[11] A. J. Mohamad, M. Lakulu, and K. Samsudin, “Determining the Pillars in a
Framework of Mobile Application for Kindergarten Early Reading,” in 3rd
International Postgraduate Conference on Engineering and Technology
Research, 2016.
[12] P. Mishra and M. J. Koehler, “Technological pedagogical content
knowledge: A framework for teacher knowledge,” Teach. Coll. Rec., vol.
569
108, no. 6, pp. 1017–1054, 2006.

[13] A. J. Mohamad, M. Lakulu, and K. Samsudin, “Towards a framework of
mobile application for kindergarten early reading,” in 1st International
Conference on ICT in Education (ICICT@EDU), 2016.
[14] T. J. Murray, L. L. Pipino, and J. P. van Gigch, “A pilot study of fuzzy set
modification of Delphi,” Hum. Syst. Manag., vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 76–80, 1985.
[15] A. Kaufmann and M. M. Gupta, “Fuzzy mathematical models in engineering
& management science,” European Journal of Operational Research, vol.
38, no. 3. Elsevier Science Publishers, North-Holland, p. 379, 1988.
1 December 2016
T01_068: ELECTRICAL CHARACTERIZATION

AND RECTIFICATION PERFORMANCE OF 5
nm TRENCH SELF-SWITCHING DIODES
N.F. Zakaria
S.R. Kasjoo
M. M. Isa
School of Microelectronic Engineering,Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Kampus
Pauh Putra,02600 Arau, Perlis, MALAYSIA
ABSTRACT
Electrical characterization on InGaAs based 5 nm trench L shaped self-
switching diode (SSD) using two-dimensional device simulator is reported
for high frequency application. Fabrication of 5 nm trench SSD is
challenging, however it increases the field effect of the applied voltage on the
surface charges inside the channel. Rectification performance of the device
is mainly contributed by curvature co-efficient from the derivation of the
current-voltage (I-V) function of the device. Therefore, the I-V behavior of
SSD is analyzed in various geometrical structures, and also in SSD with
different dielectric materials (permittivity ranging from 1.0 to 7.5) to analyze
the curvature co-efficient. The results show relatively high current output in
5 nm trench SSD with highest at ~35 μA at 1.0 V bias voltage. The highest
curvature coefficient is also improved to ~33 Volts-1 in 5 nm trench SSD with
300 nm channel, and air as dielectric.
Keywords: SSD; self-switching device; TCAD; ATLAS; rectification.
Introduction
The self-switching diode (SSD) is a planar rectifying diode capable to

function in high frequency region and has been experimentally detected up to
1.5 THz in room temperature [1]. It utilizes the asymmetrical structure of the
channel in the device to control the current. The simplicity of the devices is
in the fabrication process where only etching of L-shaped insulating trenches
is involved, without the use of any doping junction. The I-V behavior of SSD
571
can be manipulated through many factors including the geometrical

structures, and permittivity of the dielectric materials [2,3]. In this work, we
downsized the SSD to nearly limit up-to-date technology by using 5 nm
insulating trenches to observe the I-V behavior and rectification
performances.
Simulation Method
SSD model parameters and validation

Electrical characterizations of the SSD are conducted using two-dimensional
(2D) Silvaco ATLAS Simulator. To ensure the accuracy of our simulator, we
first validated the model parameters used in our simulator to the I-V
characteristics of the published work of J. Mateos et. al. in [4]. The reference
structure is shown in Figure 1(a) with etching of L-shaped channel in between
the electrodes. We assigned an approximate negative background doping of
Ndb = 1 × 1017cm-3 and the interface charge density of σ = -3.75 × 1011 cm-2
to accurately model the electron transport behavior in the device. Our
simulation results are in good agreement compared to Monte Carlo (MC) and
experimental results from [4] as shown in Figure 1(b). This validated setting
will then be used in the characterizations of 5 nm trench SSD.
(a) (b)
Figure 1: (a)Top view of 2D topology of the SSD. The grey area A
represents the insulating trenches of SSD; (b) Comparison of simulated
I-V curve using ATLAS simulator with Monte Carlo and experimental
results from [4]
572
I-V characteristic analysis

The structure of 5 nm trench SSD is shown in Figure 2. 5 nm width L-shaped
channel is etched in between two electrodes with different channel width, W
and channel length, L to analyze the electron behavior in various geometrical
structures. The dielectric materials of the devices has also been varied with
various insulating materials as shown in Table 1 to observed the I-V behavior
and the rectification performance.
Figure 2: The SSD structural geometry parameters: channel width

(W), channel length (L) and trench width (Wt).
Table 1: Insulating materials with their respective relative permittivity
Relative
Material Permittivity, εr
Air 1.0
Silicon Dioxide (SiO2) 3.9
Silicon Nitride (Si3Ni4) 7.5
Rectification performance analysis

The rectification performance analyses of SSD are done using the square law
operation of rectified dc voltage, Δv. In high frequency non-linear device, this
Δv can be defined as
i A2 f ( 2 )
v  RD i   (1)
f (1) 4 f (1)
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where RD=1/f (1) is the differential resistance of diode, A is the amplified input
signal and f (2) is the bowing coefficient in the I-V function [R]. f (1) and f (2)
can be obtained from the first and second derivative order of the device’s I-V
function. Equation (1) shows that Δv α (f (2)/ f (1)) where (f (2)/ f (1)) is also
known as curvature co-efficient, defined as γ=(f (2)/ f (1)). Therefore, the
rectification performance of SSD will be based on the evaluation of γ from
the I-V functions of the device.
Figure 3(a) shows the I-V characteristics of SSD for L=100 nm, 200 nm, and
300 nm, respectively. High leakage current, Ileak can be observed at L=100
nm. This may occurred due to insufficient width in the depletion region
formed in between the channel because of the channel shortage. More
electrons are allowed to go through the channel which results in high forward
current, Ifwd. As L increases, Ileak and threshold voltage, VTH decreases. L=200
nm and L=300 nm are having full depletion (pinch-off state) at lower
voltages, thus about similar VTH and Ifwd are observed. The rectification
performance in various L configurations is shown in Figure 3(b). The
rectification performance of L=100 nm is lowest due to high Ileak. Slight lower
difference in Ifwd values at L=200 nm results in lower rectification
performance compared to L=300 nm.
I-V characteristics of different W are shown in Figure 4(a) and its
rectification performances are shown in Figure 4(b). Smaller W is seen to
have less leakage and larger VTH since the depletion width ratio to the W
increases in smaller W which allows fewer electrons to go through the
conducting channel. This also explains the decrease in non-linearity
characteristics in larger W where depletion region in the channel are
insufficient to close the channel at lower voltages. The rectification
performances are reduced in smaller W because of high Ileak in the device.
However, smaller W produced better performance in term of zero bias
rectification because of its lower VTH values.
As can be seen in Figure 5(a), increasing the dielectric permittivity,
εr of the insulating materials used in the channel trench reduced leakage
currents in SSD. This occurred due to increasing susceptibility, χ e of the
materials that also reduces the electric field acting on the channel.
574
(a) (b)
Figure 3: (a) I-V Characteristics of SSD and (b) rectification
performance of SSD with various channel length, L.
(a) (b)
Figure 4: (a) I-V Characteristics of SSD with various channel width, W;
(b) rectification performance of SSD with various channel width, W.
However, further increasing the εr results in same Ifwd and leakage since the
dielectric materials covered only a small area of the devices which is in the 5
nm trench. Due to this reason, we can see a low difference in the rectification
performance of SSD using different dielectric materials.
575
(a) (b)
Figure 5: (a) I-V Characteristics of SSD and (b) rectification
performance of SSD with various insulating materials.
Conclusion
From characterization of 5 nm trench SSD using 2D simulation, we showed
that the rectification performances are highly affected by the geometrical
structures of the SSD which produces different I-V curves which results in
different curvature co-efficient. However, due to small area of dielectric
materials in the insulating trench, changing the dielectric materials with
higher permittivity does not have high impact to the rectification
performance. From the downscaling of SSD, we also observed a high current
output in SSD (20 - 35 μA at 1.0 V), with highest curvature co-efficient of
~33 Volts-1 observed in SSD with 300 nm channel, and air as dielectric.
However, downscaling of SSD to 5 nm trenches might be challenging in term
of the fabrication process. The results from this work may assist future
improvement in rectification performance of SSD as a nano-scale microwave
rectifier.
References
[1] C. Balocco, S.R. Kasjoo, X.F. Lu, L.Q. Zhang, Y. Alimi, S. Winner,
and A.M. Song, “Room-temperature operation of a unipolar nanodiode
at terahertz frequencies,” Applied Physics Letters, vol. 98, 223501,
May 2011.
[2] N.F. Zakaria, Z. Zailan, M. M. Isa, S. Taking, M. K. M. Arshad and S.
R. Kasjoo, "Permittivity and temperature effects to rectification
performance of self-switching device using two-dimensional
simulation," 2016 5th ISNE, Hsinchu, May 2016, pp. 1-2.
576
[3] Z. Zailan, M. M. Isa, S. Taking, M. K. M. Arshad and S. R. Kasjoo,

"Permittivity and temperature effects to rectification performance of
self-switching device using two-dimensional simulation," 2016 5th
ISNE, Hsinchu, May 2016, pp. 1-2.
[4] J. Mateos, A.M. Song, B.G. Vasallo et. al, “THz Operation of self-
switching nano-diodes and nano-transistors”, Proceedings of SPIE Vol
5838, 2005
1 December 2016
T01_069: CHARACTERISATION OF THE

DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF A
COMPLEX JOINTED STRUCTURE
M.S.A. Sulaiman
M.A. Yunus*
M.N. Abdul Rani
1
Center of Excellence of Dynamics and Control, Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), 40450 Shah Alam,
Malaysia.
ABSTRACT
Every structure that assembled with the joint has a significant effect on the
dynamic behaviour of the structure. Therefore, the overall dynamic
behaviour of the jointed structure highly relies on these joints. However, in
finite element method (FEM), to model an element connector for the jointed
structure is very complex because every jointed structure has joint properties.
The aims of this research are to identify the potential element connectors that
are available in commercialised finite element codes to represent the joints
for spot welds and adhesive joints. The reliability of potential element is
quantified by comparing the predicted result calculated from Altair
HyperWorks with the experimental result obtain from an LMS Scadas. The
model of element connectors has been constructed based on three types of the
case study. The comparison reveals that the case study 2, the combination of
Type 2 (ACM2) and Type 3 (CWELD) have a better capability to represent
the joints at the complex jointed structure. The continuous study in modelling
the jointed structure was recommended.
Keywords: complex jointed structure, finite elements, experiment modal
analysis, spot welds, adhesive joints.
Introduction
In engineering, the complex jointed structure, such as car hood are assembled
by an arrangement of various sizes of metal sheets and jointed by a thousand
number spot welds and adhesives. Spot welds are recognised as resistance
spot welding (RSW) is a preferable choice for joining the car hood due to it is
a simple fabrication process. Nowadays, the modern adhesive has permitted
automotive engineers to reduce spot weld and combine these two joints for
578
assembling the car hood. The car hood that assembled on the car has a
significant effect on the dynamic characteristic of the car structure.
Understandably, imperfections in assembled and jointed the structure can
cause variations in dynamic characteristics, for examples, mode shapes and
natural frequencies of the car hood. Besides, the reliability and the dynamic
characteristics of the jointed structure greatly relies on these joints [1], [2].
For some significant time, research has demonstrated that the huge
discrepancies between finite element analysis and experimental results
because of the invalid assumption on modelling the joints in the finite element
[3].
The main challenges to predict the dynamic behaviours is a due to
the absence of jointed structure. To model a connector element for the jointed
structure is very complex because every jointed structure has joint properties.
For model represent the spot welds, Donders et al. have declared that he
utilised the model the connector element using CWELD for jointed the
structure [4]. Besides, Heiserer et al. have proposed to use Area Contact
Model 2 (ACM2) as their model of connector element to represent the spot
welds [5]. Many researchers use this type of model to represent their model
of spot welds. For model represent the adhesive joints, Tahmasebi was
proposed their model to NASA Goddard Space Flight Centre [6]. Their model
is in 1D element and a combination between rigid element and a spring
element. However, the result of the dynamic behaviour of the model still has
occurred an error.
Therefore, a continuous study about potential element connectors to
represents the joints (spot weld and adhesive joints) for connector element in
finite element need to be done. It is because the overall dynamic behaviour
of the assembled structure depends on the model of the connector element
[7], [8].
Finite Element
The complex jointed structure was constructed using finite element analysis
based on a model of the hood of the car. It was developed using Altair
HyperMesh software and OptiStruct was used to analyse the normal, natural
frequencies and mode shapes. The complex jointed structure was discretized
into a shell element type which represents 1mm for their thickness. The
frequencies of interest are set between 1Hz to 200Hz and only first six modes
were identified. The frequency below 1Hz in the finite element for these
research is called a rigid body mode, and upper 1Hz is an elastic mode. A
rigid body mode is defined as the free translation or rotation of a body; there
will be six rigid body modes (three translational and three rotational).
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In this study, three types of the element connectors in FEM will be

used to model the spot welds and two types for adhesive joint were used
named as Type 1, Type 2, Type 3 and Type 4 connector. The finite element
model of the jointed structure was constructed using Hypermesh software.
Table 2 and Table 3 showing the detail of the properties and FE model for the
joints.
Type 1 connector
Type 2 element connector as shown in Table 4(a) is the rigid body element
type of joint. In this approach, since only rigid body element (RBE2) was
used, there are no mechanical properties and mass apply to the joint.
Basically, it consists of one independent node and one or more dependent
nodes.This element connector was used as the initial model to compare with
the measurement.
Table 2: Details of the FE model of the complex jointed structure without the
joints (Car Hood)
Type of Elements No of Properties Value

Elements
QUAD4 28287 Young's 210 GPa
Modulus
TRIA3 1700 Poisson's Ratio 0.33
Density 7900kg/m3
Type 2 connector
Type 2 element connector as shown in Table 4(b). The model of element
connector is for adhesive joint, and only one model has been designed. It was
designed as an Area Contact Model 2(ACM2). This type of element
connector is the combination of HEXA solid combined with RBE2. The patch
will be jointed with the rigid element to the component. The idea of using this
type of connector is the patch of solid element is represented the adhesive so
that it can input and update their properties.
Type 3 connector
Type 3 connector represented for spot welds is used CWELD as type 3
connector as shown in Table 4(c); the model has already existed at
HyperWorks. It is a 1D element and to construct the model is based on node
to node. This element connects between two components at each node that
580
represents the joint. The size of spot welds diameter and their properties can
be updated. The detail or the properties as shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Details of the properties for the Table 3: Details of the FE
joints model for the joints
Properties Adhesive Spot Welds Type of No of
Elements Elements
Young's 5.96 MPa 210 GPa HEXA solid 93
Modulus element
Poisson's 0.49 0.3 WELD (1D) 24
Ratio
Density 1000 kg/m3 7900 kg/m3
Type 4 connector
Table 4(d) shows the 1D element that represents for spot welds. Same as Type
3, this type of connector has used the CWELD element, but it is modelled
based on the node to the surface. The name of this model is GA-GB ELPAT.
This type of connector can also input their properties and size of spot welds
diameter.
Table 4: (a) Type 1 connector; (b) Type 2 connector; (c) Type 3 connector; (d)
Type 4 connector.
(a) (b) (c) (d)

It has three case studies to represent the joints for adhesive joints and spot
welds. The model of element connectors has been constructed based on three
types of the case study, firstly is case study 1, secondary is case study 2 and
third is case study 3;
 Case study 1 – Type 1

In this complex jointed structure, the results are shown based on three types
of the case study. Table 5 and Table 6 had shown the comparison of the results
581
between test data, case study 1, case study 2 and case study 3. The comparison
between test data and case study 1, it is clearly shown the percentage error is
very high other than case study. It is because the joint is defines a rigid body.
Therefore, the complex jointed structure are very sensitive with the design of
joint depend on their stiffness.
Based on Table 6, it is clearly shown that the natural frequencies of
case study 2 have lower natural frequencies than the case study 3 which is
35.550 percent and 36.559 percent respectively with the MAC value above
0.8. Besides, it is shown that the highest error was in mode six, meanwhile
the mode two shown the least of 1.108 percent with a total of MAC value
0.73. Meanwhile, for case study 3, the highest and least error is same with
case study one which is 11.853 percent and 1.230 percent. It happen because
the overall dynamic behaviour of the assembled structure depends on the
model of the connector element. The reliability a composition of the structure
is greatly dependent on the joints [1]. By observing the Table 5 and Table 6,
it is agreed that the predicted natural frequencies can be vary by manipulating
the element connectors. Therefore, the data for a finite element in case study
2 is looking more reliable than the case study 1 and 3. The changes in the
natural frequencies obtained from the predicted result and test data are an
indication of the selection the potential element connectors. The result will
be validated and confirm the accuracy of the finite element analysis with the
experimental result by comparing the mode shapes [9].
Table 5: The comparison of the natural frequencies between test data and case
study 1
I II III IV V
Test Case
Error MAC
Mode No. Data Study 1
(%) Value
(Hz) (Hz)
1 27.163 41.406 52.435 0.98
2 50.642 71.414 41.017 0.61
3 60.164 83.902 39.455 0.68
4 80.445 120.666 49.998 0.94
5 106.536 - - -
6 113.383 - - -
Total Error (%) 182.905
Table 6: The comparison of the natural frequencies between test data, case
study 2 and case study 3
I II III IV V VI VII VIII
582
Test Case Case

Mode Error MAC Error MAC
Data Study 2 Study 3
No. (%) Value (%) Value
(Hz) (Hz) (Hz)
1 27.163 29.480 8.530 0.97 29.629 9.079 0.97
2 50.642 51.230 1.108 0.73 51.265 1.230 0.73
3 60.164 64.277 6.836 0.79 64.350 6.958 0.79
4 80.445 82.930 3.089 0.84 83.231 3.463 0.85
5 106.536 101.972 4.284 0.81 102.299 3.977 0.82
6 113.383 126.652 11.703 0.81 126.821 11.853 0.81
Total Error (%) 35.550 36.559
Conclusion
The first six frequencies of a complex jointed structure of car hood were
investigated experimentally and numerically. Besides, the potential element
connectors that are available in commercialised finite element codes to
represent the joints for spot welds and adhesive joints were identified. The
reliability of potential element is quantified by comparing the predicted result
with experimentally based on three case studies. The comparison reveals that
the case study 2, the combination of Type 2 (ACM2) and Type 3 (CWELD)
have a better capability to represent the joints at the complex jointed structure.
However, the correlation between the numerical and the experimental data
can be improved by applying the finite element reconciliation method to the
finite element model of the complex jointed structure which will be applied
to the next stage. Moreover, the continuous study in modelling the jointed
structure was recommended.
Reference
[1] M. A. Yunus, M. N. A. Rani, H. Ouyang, H. Deng, and S. James,
“Identification of Damaged Spot Welds in a Complicated Joined
Structure,” J. Phys. Conf. Ser., vol. 305, p. 12057, 2011.
[2] R. A. Ibrahim and C. L. Pettit, “Uncertainties and Dynamic
Problems of Bolted Joints and Other Fasteners,” J. Sound Vib., vol.
279, no. 3–5, pp. 857–936, 2005.
[3] M. A. Yunus, “Finite Element Modelling and Updating of Structure
of Sheet Metal with Bolted and Welded Joints,” 2011.
[4] Y. Xia and H. Hao, “Statistical Damage Identification of Structures
with Frequency Changes,” J. Sound Vib., vol. 263, no. 4, pp. 853–
870, 2003.
[5] D. D. Heiserer, M. Chargin, and D. J. Siela, “High Performance ,
Process Oriented , Weld Spot Approach,” 1st MSC Worldw.
583
Automot. User Conf., pp. 1–14, 1999.

[6] F. Tahmasebi, “Finite Element Modeling of an Adhesive in a
Bonded Joint,” 1999.
[7] G. Lasker, J. G. Maloney, M. T. Shelton, and D. A. Underhill,
“Structural Dynamic Properties of Tactical Missile Joints-Phase 3,”
Ntis, no. May, p. 186, 1974.
[8] D. J. Ewins, J. M. Silva, and G. Maleci, “Vibration analysis of a
helicopter with an externally-attached structure,” Shock Vib. Inf.
Cent., vol. 50, pp. 155–170, 1980.
[9] K. A. Ramsey, S. M. Systems, and S. Jose, “Experimental Modal
Analysis , Structural Modifications and FEM Analysis on a Desktop
Computer mathematical dynamic models of structures so that they
could,” Sound Vib., no. February, pp. 1–10, 1983.
1 December 2016
T01_070: VARIOUS POSITION OF WATER

TANK AS A PASSIVE TUNED LIQUID DAMPER
– A REVIEW
Izzul Syazwan Ishak1
Norliyati Mohd Amin2
Afidah Abu Bakar3
PhD Student, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti

Teknologi Mara, Selangor1
Dr, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi
Mara, Selangor2
Associate Professor. Dr, Faculty of Civil Engineering,
Universiti Teknologi Mara, Selangor3
ABSTRACT
In this paper, a review on the position of water tank as a passive tuned liquid
damper subjected to earthquake will be discuss base on the research works done
by other researchers. For a decade, many strong earthquakes have occurred
that caused a devastating damage to the surrounding. Nowadays, with an
advance development in structural industry added with the problem of land
scarcity, the trend of higher, lighter and low damping inherit structures has
grown rapidly. This situation is vulnerable to vibration during earthquake strike
due to the its lightweight and low damping value. Passive damper is one of the
favourable choice due to its simplicity, low maintenance cost and operate
without require outsource power supply. Water tank is a common used for
passive damper because most of the high-rise building is already have it as a
water storage. This passive damper also known as tuned liquid damper.
Researches has shown that a single tuned liquid damper is effectively when
position at the centre of the structure where their mass is coincided. However,
for multiple tuned liquid damper, there is no guidelines for proper positioning
the dampers. This review paper intends to discuss the previous researches
regarding the position of tuned liquid damper.
Keywords: position, tuned liquid damper, passive damper, water tank,

earthquake,
Introduction
Tuned liquid damper (TLD) is a passive supplemental damping system that is
widely used as a seismic protection system. TLD generally can be classify as
square, rectangular or circular type of shapes base on geometry and usually it is
water tank to be installed at the top of building. The main function is to reduce
and control the building’s vibration and at the same time it also can be used as
water storage. TLD can be categorize into shallow water type or deep water type
base on water height in the tank. It is shallow water type when the water height
against the water tank length in the direction of excitation is less than 0.15 and
otherwise. The classification of these water category is based on shallow wave
water theory [1]. During small scale of external excitation, the implementation
of shallow water type will result a higher damping effect. However, it is
challenging to analyze the system during the large scale of externally excitation
due the sloshing water in the tank exhibits nonlinear different with deep water
type where its exhibits linear behavior.
585
The sloshing and wave breaking during the seismic excitation is very
important criteria to control and reduce the building vibration. The top of the
water tank must have an air gap in order for sloshing to take place. Water
sloshing can be divide into two parts which is the lower and upper motion. The
slosh motion is the upper water motion where it is moves anti-symmetrically in
the tank due to horizontal forces. Meanwhile the lower motion of water can
excite from both horizontal and vertical force and it is acted as a rigid mass. The
dynamic behavior of the TLD is affected by various parameters such as water
depth ratio (water depth to tank length), tuning ratio (the ratio of sloshing
frequency to structural natural frequency), excitation frequency ratio (ratio of
excitation frequency to natural frequency of the structure) and mass ratio (ratio
of water mass to structure mass)[2][3]. When the closed elevated tank is empty
or full of water, it will behave like a lumped mass locate at the top of the
cantilever beam.
Sometimes, single TLD is unable to cater the structural vibration due

huge mass of structure so a combination of several TLD is required.
Furthermore, slightly detuned of single TLD can reduce the system efficiency
and it is impossible to detuned the TLD frequency during the excitation event
since it is passive damper system [4]. The combination of several water tanks
known as Multiple Tuned Liquid Damper (MTLD). MTLD position can be
arrange in various positions but usually there will be one damper placed at the
center of the building so both mass will coincided [3]. This center damper will
be tuned almost near to structural frequency and other dampers are in the range
[5].
Previous Research
Experimental and numerical studied for seven structures had been conducted on
one storey single degree of freedom system attached with TLD [6]. The sine and
earthquake excitation load were considered in this study. The final findings
showed that the results between experimental and numerical were in good
agreement. It was concluded that the mass ratio and frequency tuning ratio
parameters were effective in controlling and reducing the structural response
due to vibration. In this study, the TLD was actually a single water tank that
been divided into three section. The position of this rectangular water tank was
maintain at the same location, only the water filled inside these three divided
compartment was varying. The highest reduction of structural response reported
when all three compartment filled with water.
Scaled downed experiment on existing structure had been conducted
towards four story RC framed with infilled masonry [7]. This modelled had been
retrofitted with three acrylic boxes represent MTLD. The performance of this
MTLD and single TLD that had same mass ratio equivalence been compared
against resonant frequency harmonic excitation and earthquake excitation. The
position of these rectangular MTLD was unique because one of the damper was
positioned higher compare another two dampers. This higher damper was
located overhead at the center of the structure meanwhile other two was placed
at each symmetry side of the structure. For single TLD experiment, only center
overhead TLD was considered. The final results showed that the single TLD is
suitable for resonant harmonic excitations meanwhile the MTLD is suitable for
broad band earthquake excitations.
A research to find the performance of structure when installed with one
(traditional TLD), two and three water tanks as MTLD that having distributed
properties had been studied for single degree of freedom structure [8]. The study
also focuses on the robustness of the system by varied the natural frequency of
the structure and excitation amplitude without retuning the MTLD. It showed
that the MTLD had better result compare to single TLD when the tanks have
586
different damping ratio and natural sloshing frequency. These MTLD were
attached parallel to the structure and the most important is the center of the
building must coincide with one of the damper.
Most of the researches of this passive damper were design the position
of damper to be at the center of the building so that both mass will coincide.
However, a seismic studied of building response reduction had been conducted
when using water tank as a passive tuned mass damper at the center and extreme
corners of the building [9]. The analysis was focused on 5 stories and 10 stories
building with and without water tanks placed at the middle as well as at the
extreme corners of the building by using different mass ratio. As a conclusion,
the placed of water tank at the center gave the best result in reducing the seismic
response.
Discussion
These previous four researches were focus on reducing the dynamics response
on the structure by installing the water tanks as a passive tuned liquid damper.
The structural frequency is a guideline to tuned the water tank frequency so that
the damper will resonate out of phase to dissipate energy through damper inertia
force when the structure excited. Researches [6]-[8] has a similarity in water
tanks used where rectangular TLD type had been implement meanwhile
research [9] studied on square TLD type.
This rectangular type of TLD is proved has better structure response
reduction compare to square TLD type [10]. The fact is the water sloshing can
occur in any direction in rectangular TLD type that make it is a good choice to
be used in reducing the bi-directional earthquake excitation towards building
[11]. The other similarity from these four experiments is the analysis structure
was symmetrical even though there were differences in dimension and story
high.
The position of the water tanks was not really the main focus of these
experiments because there were other parameters that play the significant impact
in reducing the vibration of the structure such as mass ratio, water depth ratio
and excitation tuning ratio because the effectiveness of TLD is assessed on
response reduction of the structure [12]. However, there were an agreement that
one of the TLD placed at the center of the building will give a better performance
in structure response reduction. Once the MTLD installed at the top of building,
it is possible to reposition it but the sloshing frequency of the TLD can easily
retune by changing the water level [13].
Shallow water type was implemented in these four MTLD researches
and the reason why shallow water type was used is because it maximize the
water mass usage in the tank for energy absorption action compare to deep water
type where a large water portion does not contribute in damping action because
it travels monolithically with the water tank [14].
Conclusion
Water tanks are a part of the high-rise structure as a water storage and they
impart large dead load to the structure. However, with a proper tuning the water
mass can be utilize to absorb the energy from the earthquake towards the
structure. It is proved that this passive damper regardless single or multiple TLD
can be successfully and effectively to control structure vibration towards lateral
loads such as earthquake excitation. Although it is found the MTLD is better
compare to TLD, there is no specific guidelines or rules in placing these MTLD
at the top of the structure. One of the dampers must position at the center of the
building and tuned according to the structure frequency while the other dampers
are tuned within the range in order for the system functioning well. However,
for the remaining damper the is no specific researches to study the effect of the
damper position towards structural response reduction.
587
References
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1 December 2016
T01_071: TREATMENT OF LEACHATE AT

PADANG SIDING LANDFILL, PERLIS USING
FENTON AND BIO-ELECTROCHEMICAL
METHODS
Issa Alabiad1*, Umi Fazara Md. Ali1, Irnis Azura Zakarya1, Naimah
Ibrahim1, Nurul Zufarhana Zulkurnai1, Nur Hidayah Azmi1, Tijjani Adam2
1
School of Environmental Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Kompleks
Pusat Pengajian Jejawi 3, 02600 Arau, Perlis, Malaysia.
2
Faculty of Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia
Perlis, Aras 1, Blok S2, Kampus UniCITI Alam, Sungai
Chuchuh, Padang Besar, 02100 Perlis.
ABSTRACT
This paper presents the results of the analyses on the treatment of leachate from
the solid waste landfill located in Padang Siding Landfill, Perlis. Leachate
components removals were enhanced using different types of electrodes. In
dynamic and static MFC operation modes, activated carbon provided better
performance than did black carbon and zinc. The percentages of activated
carbon of dynamic over static mode, for zinc, and for black carbon were 96.6%,
66.6%, and 92.8%, respectively. The results provide further information on the
possibility of using MFCs in landfill leachate treatment systems. Furthermore,
Fenton procedures were designed and conducted to remove the remaining
leachate component. This process reduced the remaining leachate component
after the MFC, and the treated landfill leachate still possessed BOD removal
efficiencies similar to those produced by an MFC under similar controlled
conditions. In the case of the Fenton specifications, pH (3) and pH (4) were
varied with equal variations of FeSO4 at 10 and 20 mol. The total percentage
removal of COD, BOD, and TSS were 98%, 56%, and 68%, respectively. Based
on the aforementioned results, the proposed method is an effective strategy for
the removal of leachate components.
Keywords: Landfill, MFC, Fenton. Bio-electrochemical, Leachate
Introduction
Leachate is one of the major issues that threatens environmental quality
in Malaysia. Leachate resulted from the escalation of solid waste, which
comprises unwanted matter produced by human activities [1]. In Malaysia, the
increase in urban population reflects the escalation of solid waste generation.
Given its stable political conditions, Malaysia is one of the most economically
successful developing countries in the world [2-4]. Rapid economic transition
and increased urban population, cause the escalation of solid waste generation.
The Solid Waste Management and Public Management Cleansing Corporation
are a Malaysian policy for solid waste management that was implemented in
2011.
The urban population Malaysia has increased by over 50% over the last
few decades [3]. Urbanization and industrialization in Malaysia have changed
the characteristics of solid waste. Thus, effective solid waste management
practices must be updated to suit the current waste quantity [5]. Moreover,
landfilling has been the primary method of waste disposal in Malaysia for many
decades. According to Solid Waste Management and Public Management
Cleansing Corporation (2011) [2], the privatization of landfills will contribute
to improved management strategies. Various sources of leachate resulting
589
different amount of organic content and its compositions [6,7]. Leachate tends
to percolate downward through solid waste, continuing to extract dissolved or
suspended materials [8-12]. Various factors influence the production and
composition of leachate. One of the major factors is the climate of the landfill,
for example; climates with a high amount of precipitation allow a large volume
of water to enter the landfill, thus producing a high amount of leachate. Landfill
leachate is a significant problem for landfill operators and the environment
because it is a highly polluting [9-12].
Microbiol Fuel Cell (MFC) can be easily constructed to suit particular
requirements. Several studies have designed and constructed MFC devices. In
previous studies, all experiments described single unstacked units of MFCs [13-
17] Other researchers used multiple stacked MFCs electrically connected by a
wire in series or in parallel to enhance the current output. Landfill leachate
contains various types of pollutants, including a complex mixture of organic
substances, inorganic substances, and ammonia nitrogen [18-20]. Hence,
leachate must be treated effectively. To achieve this, waste must first be
characterized to determine the applicability of waste treatment.
Method and materials

The proposed method comprises the preparation of samples and
equipment, the microbial fuel process, and the Fenton process. The data were
collected from Padang Siding Landfill and were prepared in the laboratory. Data
collection played an important role in the study as well. This procedure was done
to prevent invalid results that might have stemmed from the inaccurate data
collection.
The experimental and analytical process starts with the design of the
MFC and Fenton reaction system. The first step was checking whether the MFC
reactor could produce voltage for 30 days. Then samples were tested for
chemical oxygen demand (COD), ammonia–nitrogen, and pH. Finally, the
microorganism was identified at the anode chamber present in the MFC reactor.
The results taken were ready for analysis. A glass beaker (1000 mL), three glass
dishes, tweezers, a vacuum flask (1000 mL), vacuum tubing, a graduated
cylinder (250 mL), a glass filter holder (funnel) with rubber adapter, a drying
oven, glass desiccators, an analytical balance capable of weighing 0.01 g, raw
leachate samples, and distilled water. MFC is a device that converts biochemical
energy into electricity through the catalytic activities of microorganisms [21].
MFCs have received increased attention as a novel process for alternative energy
generation and energy-efficient treatment of wastewater. The leachate sample
was collected from various collection points in leachate pond at the back of
landfill with proper precaution to avoid the sample composition from being
affected. This was to ensure the sample was not disturbed, especially by rainfall
as rainwater might affect its composition. The 20 L of leachate was manually
collected and pour in plastic containers, and then it was placed in a controlled
place. The sample was immediately transported to the laboratory, to be
characterized, and cooled at 4°C to minimize the biological and chemical
reactions. The sample was taken in 3 different drainage points to ensure that the
sample taken to cover all area of Padang Siding Landfill, Perlis.
Fenton treatment was conducted directly right after MFC process in
order to avoid human errors while handling which would eventually affect the
data results. Firstly, 1.0 liter beaker was filled up with 0.5 liter sample under
uniform magnetic stirring at the room temperature. Then, the acidic initial pH
was adjusted into the sample with the desired value pH 3 and pH4. Therefore,
the pH was adjusted using sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and sodium hydroxide
(NaOH).
The speed of the stirrer used was 90-120 rpm until the sample was
homogeneously mixed. Next, the specific experimental parameters for all
590
Fenton experiments were listed with variability of the factors affecting Fenton.
The variables included initial pH, dosage of H2O2 and dosage of ferrous
sulphate. All the variables were designed using Design of Experiment (DOE)
software. After 10 min of premixing, granular ferrous sulfate was added into the
sample and then the H2O2 was added to initiate the reaction. The sample was
stirred again until it became homogeneous. Then, the sample was stirred with
jar test under 150-160 rpm to speed the chemical reaction. After 1 hour 30
minutes, the sample’s pH was adjusted to 8.5 in order to stop the Fenton
reaction. After that, the sample was heated in a water bath at 50 °C for 30
minutes. Then, the sample was allowed to settle under room temperature for
about 2-3 hours. Finally, the supernatant was tested for COD, TSS and turbidity.
Results And Discussion

Figure 1 shows the graph of COD versus the duration of treatment
(Day). Results show varying trends for the different types of electrodes. The
COD concentration for the zinc electrode gradually decreased from 1275 mg/L
on day 18 to 1090 mg/L and remained unchanged until the end of the process
because the bacteria had died. Several studies have shown that leachate in the
stabilized stage is difficult to degrade further biologically when COD
concentration is low. A similar result was reported by Aziz et al. [22].
The COD concentration of the black carbon electrode dropped
dramatically from 1725 mg/L on day 16 to 825 mg/L on day 21. The
concentration then increased once more to 850 mg/L on day 22. Afterward, the
concentration decreased on day 27 and remained steady. The COD
concentration of AC started to decrease from 1375 mg/L on day 18. The result
remained stable on days 19 and 20. Next, a static state occurred on days 29 and
30, where the COD concentration was 125 mg/L. Lastly, the COD concentration
for the zinc electrode started to decrease gradually from 1275 mg/L on day 18
to 1090 mg/L and remained unchanged until the end of the process because the
bacteria had died. Several studies have shown that leachate in the stabilized
stage is difficult to degrade further biologically when COD is low [22].
COD (mg/L)
Day
Figure 1: COD removal by zinc electrode via dynamic system.
Figure 2 shows the efficiency of the carbon black electrode in

decreasing COD. The COD concentration started to decrease dramatically from
1725 mg/L on day 16 to 825 mg/L on day 21. It then increased again to 850
mg/L on day 22. However, a static state occurred on days 29 and 30, where the
COD concentration was 125 mg/L. The COD concentration for the zinc
electrode started to decrease gradually from 1275 mg/L on day 18 to 1090 mg/L.
The concentration remained stable until the end of the process because the
bacteria had died. Several studies have shown that leachate in the stabilized
591
stage is difficult to degrade further biologically when COD concentration is low;

this claim was supported by Adhikari et al. [3]. Figure 3 shows the graph of
COD versus the duration of treatment (Day) in static mode operation of the MFC
for the removal of COD. The concentration started to drop dramatically from
3375mg/L on day 4 to 2125 mg/L on day 9. Finally, the graph of the zinc
electrode shows that COD concentration decreased from 3575 mg/L on day 1 to
1725 mg/L on day 18. The result remained steady at 1625 mg/L on days 19 and
20 and decreased gradually until the end of the process. Leachate parameters
vary with the age of the landfill. For instance, young leachate that is one to two
years in age is characterized by high organic fraction of substances with
relatively low molecular weight, such as volatile organic acids, and high COD
[4].
COD Level
COD (mg/L)
Day
Figure 2: COD removal by carbon black electrode via dynamic system
Figure 3 shows the efficiency of the zinc electrode in the MFC reactor
in removing COD in static mode. The COD concentration gradually decreased
in a linear fashion from 3570 mg/L on day 1 to 500 mg/L on day 30.
COD (mg/L)
Day
Figure 3: COD removal by zinc electrode via static system
Carbon is a popular substance in the treatment of leachate. Figure 4

shows that the efficiency of activated carbon in removing leachate is impressive
because almost all COD was removed. The removal rate from days 1 to 3 was
outstandingly high, and the removal rate later on remained very efficient. The
removal rate was exceptionally high at the beginning because the amount of
bacteria supporting the reaction was also high. Thereafter, the amount of
bacteria gradually decreased with the passage of time, but still allowed for a
592
constant rate of removal. The COD concentration started to drop dramatically

from 3375 mg/L on day 4 to 2125 mg/L on day 9. The COD concentration when
using the black carbon electrode decreased smoothly from 1550 mg/L on day 15
to 625 mg/L on day 30. The COD concentration when using the AC electrode
decreased slowly from 3575 mg/L on day 1 to 300 mg/L on day 30. Finally, the
graph of the zinc electrode shows that COD concentration decreased smoothly
from 3575 mg/L on day 1 to 1725 mg/L on day 18. The COD concentration then
stabilized to 1625 mg/L on days 19 and 20 and decreased slowly until the end
of the process. On the other hand, leachate that is older than 10 years is
characterized by a relatively low COD.
4000
3000
COD (mg/L)
cod
2000
1000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Day
DAT
Figure 4: COD removal by activated carbon electrode via static system
Figure 5 shows the graph of BOD versus duration of treatment (Day).

The different types of electrodes produced varied results. The BOD
concentration for the zinc electrode started to decrease gradually from 1275
mg/L on day 18 to 1090 mg/L. It then remained unchanged until the end of the
process because the bacteria had died. Several studies have shown that leachate
in the stabilized stage is difficult to degrade further biologically when BOD
concentration is low. A similar result was reported by Adhikari et al. [3].
BOD (mg/L)
Day
Figure 5: Profile of BOD versus day of MFC treatment of leachate by

using different electrodes in a dynamic state.
Figure 6 shows the performance of the AC electrode in removing BOD.

The BOD concentration started to decrease from 13175 mg/L on day 18. The
BOD concentration remained stable on days 19 and 20. Next, the BOD
concentration remained stable at 400 mg/L on days 29 and 30. Figure 6 shows
the rate of BOD removal of the carbon black electrode. The BOD concentration
started to drop dramatically from 1125 mg/L on day 16 to 825 mg/L on day 21,
and then increased again to 800 mg/L on day 22. The following shows the graph
of BOD versus duration of treatment (Day) of the MFC in static mode. BOD
concentration started to drop dramatically from 1225 mg/L on day 5 to 1125
mg/L on day 9. The graph of the zinc electrode shows a smooth decrease of
BOD concentration from 575 mg/L on day 1 to 1025 mg/L on day 18. The BOD
593
concentration remained steady at 1625 mg/L on days 19 and 20 and decreased

slowly until the end of the process.
B
O
D
BOD (mg/L)
(
m
g
/
L
)
Day
Figure 6: BOD removal by activated carbon electrode via dynamic system
Figure 7 shows that the efficiency of the zinc electrode in removing

BOD in static mode is impressive. The BOD concentration decreased from 1120
mg/L on day 1 to 905 mg/L on day 7. However, the decrease in BOD stabilized
at 6625 mg/L on days 23 and 24 and decreased slowly until the end of the
process to approximately 630 mg/L. The removal of the leachate parameters
such as BOD was impressive, though the rate of removal depended on several
factors. Given that the MFC rate was low and in static mode, the rate of BOD
removal was also expected to be low due to the restriction of ion exchange rate.
BOD (mg/L)
Day
Figure 7: BOD removal by zinc electrode via MFC in static mode
Figure 8 shows the graph of BOD versus duration of treatment (Day)

of the carbon black electrode in the MFC in static mode. The BOD concentration
gradually decreased and started to drop dramatically from 1105 mg/L on day 19
to ~325 mg/L on day 24. It then maintained a slightly decreasing trend until day
30, from 325 mg/L to ~225 mg/L. Figure 8 shows the graph of BOD versus
duration of treatment (Day) of the carbon black electrode in the MFC in static
mode. The process maintained a constant reduction in BOD. The BOD
concentration gradually decreased from 1150 mg/L to ~205 mg/L on day 30.
Figure 9 shows the ability of the different electrodes to remove TSS. The TSS
reductions were greater in static mode (785) than in dynamic mode (~52%).
594
BOD (mg/L)
Day
Figure 8: BOD removal by carbon black electrode via MFC static system
Raw Leachate After Treatment

TSS (mg/L)
Dynamic Static Dynamic Static Dynamic Static
Zinc Activated Carbon Carbon Black
Figure 9: TSS removal by zinc, activated carbon, and carbon black

electrode via dynamic and static systems
The section shows the results of the Fenton process. This process uses
strong oxidation and exploits the potential of hydroxyl radicals (•OH) to reduce
various components of leachate, namely, BOD, COD, and so on. The process
removed almost all COD. However, the removal of BOD was not as efficient as
expected. This process comprised varying pH adjustments, and the leachate
components were degraded by reactive free radicals (•OH) produced in the
H2O2/Fe2+ mixture. The removal of BOD, COD, and TSS occurred through the
settlement reaction with the formation of hydroxyl complexes after
neutralization. The reaction of oxidation also played an important role in the
removal of components. Evaluating the mutual relationships between reaction
parameters in terms of the production of hydroxyl radicals and the subsequent
removal of each component is essential to understanding the leachate treatment
process in deep. The influence of pH and acid were observed. pH was varied
from 3 to 4, and H3SO4 concentration was varied from 10 mol to 20 mol. The
effect the parameters were evaluated with respect to one another. Given the
effective oxidative degradation based on the production of highly reactive
hydroxyl radicals (•OH), F3SO4 had a stronger influence than pH. Figure10
shows that the variations of pH 3 and pH 4 were overshadowed by the F 3SO4
concentration. Processes that are driven by highly reactive hydroxyl radicals
(•OH) are very effective at degrading refractory organics, such as BOD and TSS.
•OH is one of the most reactive oxidants that can be applied in leachate
treatment. It will degrade most organic solutes at very high rates that can
approach diffusion in controlled limits.
595
COD- 125 BOD- 249 TSS- 106 Ammonia-

mg/L mg/L mg/L 13mg/L
(pH=3,(FeSO4)=10mg/L) (pH=3,(FeSO4)=20mg/L) (pH=4,(FeSO4)=10mg/L) (pH=3,(FeSO4)=20mg/L)
Figure 10: Fenton process results
The Fenton system employed in this project was able to reduce the
remaining components of leachate after MFC treatment. The treatment of
landfill leachate in this study had a BOD removal efficiency similar to that of
MFCs used in similar controlled conditions.
Conclusion
This work demonstrated the ability of MFCs to treat leachate as well as
to generate electricity. Two MFC operation modes were used in this study:
dynamic and static. These modes were run to complement each other. Both
modes were tested with different electrodes: zinc, AC, and black carbon. Given
that the MFC alone could not remove all components, the Fenton process was
introduced to complement this shortcoming. The leachate of Padang Siding
Landfill, Perlis had a pH of ~8.03, an average COD of ~47047 mg/L, an average
BOD of ~1200 mg/. This landfill contains domestic waste from areas nearby
and has no available treatment plant. The characterization of leachate samples
in this study is similar to that of other sanitary landfills in Malaysia. In this study,
the characteristic values differed slightly between the landfills. Many factors can
affect the characteristics of a landfill. The factors that influence leachate
characteristics are age of waste, composition of waste, landfill design, climatic
condition, and selection of the treatment method if required in the landfill site.
In conclusion, leachate from Padang Siding Landfill, Perlis was successfully
reduced after being treated by the MFC and Fenton processes. The final values
of the COD, TSS, and BOD were 6.25, 23.32, and 57.227 mg/L, respectively.
Moreover, the voltage could still be used for the self-operation of the MFC. The
MFC operation was possible because of the bacteria present. When observed
under a microscope, the result was Gram-positive (purple and purplish black
bacteria). The arrangement of cocci bacteria that remain in chains after dividing
is called streptococci. The Fenton process results were very impressive and
could reduce all the remaining components in MFC except BOD, which was still
high at approximately 57.5 mg/L
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1 December 2016
T01_072: ELECTRICAL CHARACTERIZATION

OF HIERARCHICAL-BRANCHED ZINC OXIDE
NANOROD ARRAYS PREPARED USING
SOLUTION BASED METHOD
S.A. Saidi1,a,b
M.H. Mamat2,a,b,c,*
A.S. Ismail3,a,b
M.M. Yusoff4,a,b
M.F. Malek5,a,b,c
N.A.Q. Mohd Yusoff6,a,b
A.S. Zoolfakar7,a,b
Z.Khusaimi8,c
M.Rusop9,a,b,c
a
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi
MARA (UiTM), 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
b
NANO-ElecTronic Centre (NET), Faculty of Electrical
Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), 40450
Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
c
NANO-SciTech Centre (NST), Institute of Science (IOS),
Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), 40450 Shah Alam,
Selangor, Malaysia
*
Corresponding author: mhmamat@salam.uitm.edu.my
ABSTRACT
Hierarchical-branched zinc oxide (ZnO) nanorod arrays were prepared using
solution based method. The morphological images revealed that hierarchical-
branched ZnO nanorod arrays exhibit hexagonal shape structure. The average
diameter of hierarchical-branched ZnO nanorod arrays were decreased with
immersion time. The hierarchical-branched ZnO nanorod arrays displayed
good transmittance properties at visible region.
Keywords: Zinc oxide; structural properties; electrical characterization;
Branched zinc oxide nanorod array, optical measurement,
Introduction
Zinc oxide (ZnO) nanomaterials have emerged as promising materials
for sensing element applications because of the wide bandgap (3.3 eV) and high
exciton binding energy (60 meV) of ZnO [1]. ZnO also possess interesting and
unique characteristics such as strong oxidation ability, good photocatalytic
property, non-toxic, and a large free-exciton binding energy. In addition, ZnO is
very stable chemically, thermally and likewise below high energy radiation [2].
The nanostructured ZnO can be fabricated in numerous morphologies
such as nanorods, nanowires, nanosheets, nanodumbbells, nanobelts,
nanotetrapods, nanoflowers and nanospiral disks, where their properties are
different from the bulk ZnO. Nanostructured ZnO have a size in nanoscale with
high surface area. The coatings with nanostructured ZnO are extremely efficient
and important for sensing, humidity and photovoltaic applications [3]. Many
researchers used sol-gel technique to coat nanostructured layer on the substrate
due to the advantages of this technique such as simple, low-cost, reliable, and
repeatable [4]. The sol-gel process have many benefits with outstanding
mechanism over stoichiometry, compositional alteration, microstructure control
exhausting covering molecules, and precise doping with reasonable equipment
[5].
599
In the previous study, researchers reported preparation of ZnO nanorod

arrays, comprising vapor–liquid–solid process using Au or Sn as catalyst [6].
However, most of researchers grow ZnO nanorod arrays using hydrothermal
synthesis [7],[8]. The doping process with proper metals such as Al [8] can rise
the n-type conductivity of ZnO, which widen its applications in electronic,
optoelectronics, field emission devices, and humidity sensor [9]. Furthermore,
Al doping in ZnO films was found to enhance the intensity of the UV emission
while suppressing the green emission in the photoluminescence spectra [10].
ZnO nanorods could also be doped with Pt [11], Mn, Co, and Ga to improve
their properties [6].
A three-dimensional (3D) nanostructures receive much interest because
of their high surface area and have efficient charge collection and separation.
The main challenge faced by researchers is the self-assembly of ZnO nano-
building blocks into 3D hierarchical architectures in the absence of any
surfactants or templates as previously reported by Peng et al [12].
Few studies have explored 3D nanostructured hierarchical-branched
zinc oxide nanorod arrays especially for barrier protection applications and
formation of twin nanorod arrays. In this study, we investigated the effect of
seed layer immersion time on the growth of hierarchical-branched ZnO nanorod
arrays and their properties.
Experimental
A. Seed Layer Preparation
The seed layer was prepared using zinc acetate dihydrate as a precursor,
monoethanolamine (MEA) as a stabilizer, aluminum nitrate nonahydrate and 2-
methoxyethanol as a solvent. The solution was stirred and heat for 3 hours before
aged for 24 hours at room ambient at speed 300 rpm.
Then, the solution was spin-coated on glass substrates at a speed of 3000 rpm
for 1 minute. The as deposited films were dried at 150 °C for 10 minutes to
evaporate the solvent. The coating procedure was repeated for a few times to
increase the film thicknesses. After the process, the thin films were annealed for
1 hour at 500 °C in a furnace.
B. Al doped ZnO Nanorad Array Deposition

Hierarchical ZnO Nanorod arrays were deposited on Al doped ZnO thin film-
coated glass substrates using zinc nitrate solution. The zinc nitrate solution
consisted of the mixture of zinc nitrate hexahydrate, aluminum nitrate
nonahydarate and hexamethylenetetramine (HMT) and deionized (DI) water.
Firstly, the solution was sonicated for 30 minutes. After that, the solution was
stirred for 2 hours. The Al doped ZnO nanorod arrays were grown using water
bath at 95 °C. For this purpose, the solution was poured into Schott bottles,
where the seed layer-coated glass substrates were placed at the bottom. The
bottles were put into water bath instrument for 2 hours for nanorods deposition
process. After the immersion process, the samples were taken out from the
bottles. The sample was cleaned first using DI water before dried in the furnace
at 150 °C for 10 minutes. Then, the Al doped ZnO nanorod arrays were annealed
in ambient for 1 hour at 500 ̊C.
C. Seed Layer Preparation for Branched Nanorod

The solution for this seed layer was prepared using zinc nitrate hexahydrate,
aluminum nitrate nonahydarate, hexamethylenetetramine (HMT) and DI water,
which were sonicated for 30 minutes before was stirred at room temperature for
2 hours. The Al doped ZnO nanorad array samples were placed in the Schott
bottles with the solution and were immersed in the water bath instrument at 50 ̊C
with different time. In this experiment, the immersion times were varied at 0
600
(uncoated), 5, 10, 20 and 30 minutes. After immersion process, the sample were
dried on 150 ̊C for 10 minutes and annealed for 1 hour at 500 ̊.
D. Al doped branch ZnO Nanorod Array Deposition

For the branch growth, the solution was prepared using zinc nitrate hexahydrate,
aluminum nitrate nonahydarate, hexamethylenetetramine (HMT) and DI water.
The mixture was sonicated for 30 minutes at 50 ̊C. Then, the solution was stirred
for 2 hours at room temperature. The samples were immersed in the water bath
with the solution for 1 hour at 95 ̊C. After immersion process, the samples were
taken out and cleaned with DI water before they were dried in the furnace at
150 ̊C for 10 minutes. Finally, the samples were annealed in ambient for 1 hour
at temperature 500 ̊C.
E. Characterizations
The morphology of the samples was characterized using Field Emission
Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM). The optical properties of the samples
were characterized using UV-Vis spectrophotometer. The electrical properties
of the samples were characterized using current-voltage (I-V) measurement
system.
Result And Discussion

The surface morphologies of hierarchical-branched ZnO nanorod
arrays at various seed layer immersion time are shown in Figure 1(a-e). The
images showed that the hierarchical-branched ZnO nanorod arrays possess
hexagonal-shaped structures. The images reveal that the all films are uniform
and consist of dense nanorod arrays. At seed layer immersion time of 5 min and
10 min, the porous surface of the film are lower than that of 0 minute (uncoated).
The image of samples with 20 and 30 min seed layer immersion times showed
that the single nanorod began to undergo oriented-attachment process with
neighboring nanorods, resulting in the formation of twin nanorod.
The optical transmittance spectra, in the wavelength ranges from 350
to 800 nm, for hierarchical-branched ZnO Nanorod arrays prepared at different
seed layer immersion times are shown in Figure 2(a). The results show that the
nanorod arrays have a good optical transmittance in the visible region (400–500
nm). We observed that interference fringes appeared in the spectra, indicating
that the nanorod arrays are uniformly deposited on the substrate [7]. Based on
the graph, we found that, the longer time of immerse process can affect the
transmittance of the sample. For the 30 minutes of immersion time, it shows that
the transmittance is higher than others. It is because the improvement of
transmittance by Al-doping may indicates the reduction of intrinsic defects, such
as oxygen vacancies and zinc interstitials, which reduce the visible light
absorption during the measurement [8]. However, the transmittance markedly
decreased in the UV region (<400 nm) with a sharp fundamental absorption edge
at a wavelength approximately 380 nm. This absorption edge corresponded to
the band gap absorption of ZnO [9]. Figure 2(b) shows the absorbance spectra
of hierarchical-branched arrays ZnO nanorod arrays prepared using also
different immersion time at wavelengths below 400 nm. The absorbance spectra
reveal that all of the samples exhibit good UV absorption properties below
400nm with an absorption edge of 380 nm corresponds to the direct transition
of electrons between the edges of the valence band and the conduction band.
601
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e)
Figure 1. The morphology images of Al doped ZnO nanorods arrays at seed

layer immersion time of (a) 0 minute, (b) 5 minute, (c) 10 minute, (d) 20
minute, and (e) 30 minute.
Figure 3 shows the I-V measurement of hierarchical-branched ZnO

Nanorod arrays at different immersion times in the range of -10V to 10V. Gold
(Au) contacts were deposited onto nanorods as electrode using a sputter coater.
The result indicates that all samples formed ohmic behavior with linear I-V
curves. The current value at a fixed voltage seems to decrease with the lower
immersion time. From these result, the resistance was calculated to be 11.6Ω,
12.5 Ω, 10 Ω, and 13.2 Ω at seed layer immersion times of 5, 10, 20, and 30
minutes, respectively. The resistances decrease due to immersion increase but
at the 20 min seed layer immersion time, the resistance increase rapidly. The
summary of sample resistance at different seed layer immersion time is shown
in Table 1.
100 1
(a) 5min
(b) 10min
(c) 20min
80
(d) 30min
Transmittance (%)
Absorbance (a.u)
(a)
60
(d)
(c)
40 (b)
(b) (c)
(d)
(a) 5min
20 (a)
(b) 10min
(c) 20min
(d) 30min
0 0
400 500 600 700 800 400 500 600 700 800
Wavelenght (nm) Wavelength (nm)
(a) (b)
Figure 2. UV–vis–NIR (a) transmittance and (b) absorbance spectra of
hierarchical-branched ZnO Nanorod arrays at different immersion times.
602
(a) 5min 2.0 (a)
Current (A)
(b) 10 min (b)
1.5
(c) 20 min (d)
(c)
(d) 30 min 1.0
0.5
0.0
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
-0.5 Voltage (V)
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
Figure 3. (a)I-V curve (b) resistance of hierarchical-branched ZnO

nanorod arrays at different immersion time.
Table 1. Resistance with the different seed layer immersion time

Time (minutes) Resistance (Ω)
5 12.6
10 11.25
20 10
30 13.5
Conclusion
This study investigated the impact of immersion time seed layer on
properties of hierarchical-branched ZnO nanorod arrays. The hierarchical-
branched ZnO nanorod arrays were prepared through solution based method.
The results showed that the average diameter of hierarchical-branched ZnO
nanorod arrays have been significantly decreased by increasing the immersion
time seed layer from 5 minute to 30 minute.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme
(600-RMI/FRGS 5/3 (57/2015)) from the Ministry of Education Malaysia. The
authors also would like to thank Faculty of Electrical Engineering, the Research
Management Centre (RMC) of UiTM and the Ministry of Higher Education of
Malaysia for their financial support of this research.
References
[1] M. H. Mamat, N. N. Hafizah, and M. Rusop, "Fabrication of thin, dense
and small-diameter zinc oxide nanorod array-based ultraviolet
photoconductive sensors with high sensitivity by catalyst-free radio
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ZnO nanorod arrays through sonicated sol−gel immersion for room
temperature, resistive-type humidity sensor applications," Ceramics
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[6] M. Eskandari, V. Ahmadi, and S. H. Ahmadi, "Growth of Al-doped
ZnO nanorod arrays on the substrate at low temperature," Physica E:
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[8] S. Yun, J. Lee, J. Yang, and S. Lim, "Hydrothermal synthesis of Al-
doped ZnO nanorod arrays on Si substrate," Physica B: Condensed
Matter, vol. 405, pp. 413-419, 1/1/ 2010.
[9] Z. Zhang, J. Huang, H. He, S. Lin, H. Tang, H. Lu, et al., "The
influence of morphologies and doping of nanostructured ZnO on the
field emission behaviors," Solid-State Electronics, vol. 53, pp. 578-
583, 6// 2009.
[10] N.-J. Kim, S.-l. Choi, H. J. Lee, and K. J. Kim, "Nanostructures and
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Anselmi-Tamburini, et al., "ZnO nanorods grown on ZnO sol–gel seed
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of three-dimensional flower-like hierarchical ZnO nanostructure and
its enhanced acetone gas sensing properties," Journal of Alloys and
Compounds, vol. 654, pp. 371-378, 1/5/ 2016.
1 December 2016
T01_073: DESIGNING AN AUTOMATED SOCIAL

SUPPORT ASSIGNMENT OVER SOCIAL
NETWORKS
Roqia Rateb
Azizi Ab Aziz
Rahayu Ahmad
Human- Centered Computing Lab,

School of Computing, Universiti Utara Malaysia 06010
Sintok Kedah
roqiashorman@yahoo.com, {aziziaziz,
rahayu}@uum.edu.my
ABSTRACT
Helping someone who is stressed can be very important to avoid future onset.
For example, a number of supportive family members or friends can often make
a big difference. In this paper, the potential use of social media is explored by
addressing how a social support network can be generated by taking the needs
of the support recipient and the availabilities of the potential support providers.
To do so, the temporal dynamics of support providers and recipients interplay
are needed. This paper provides basic insights how this process could be
designed and developed.
Keywords: Configuration Method, Social Support Networks, Stress, Social
Media.
Introduction
Stress is an ever present aspect of life. It constitutes a serious challenge in
personal and public health. This condition is significant towards on the rise with
reports of anxiety, depression, suicide, and violence [1]. From the healthcare
perspective, a large survey has found stress made a large contribution to the
worldwide burden of disease and associated with the loss of about 850,000 lives
every year [2]. Furthermore, stress produces substantial economic costs, both
through costs of health and social care, and from other costs such as work days
lost [3]. To overcome this issue, traditional methods of dealing with stress
ranging from medication to psychological therapies like Cognitive Behavioural
Therapy (CBT) were developed. However, these therapies are somehow
expensive, time consuming, and these methods do not scale to a large population
of varying demographics. As a compliment to the aforementioned techniques,
the widespread use of the crowdsourcing and adoption of social media are
opening doors for a new and effective approach to cope with stress through
social support using low-cost, and pervasive sensors already ubiquitous in
people’s daily lives [4] [10]. In this paper, we addressed how a social support
network can be utilized in support provision task assignment, taking the needs
of the support recipient, and the possibilities of the potential support providers
into account. This approach can provide a basis for a dynamic application that
suggests support networks based on information available in social media
platforms. The contribution of this paper is twofold. First, the concept of a
dynamic configuration approach and its correlation to social support networks
will be covered. Second, the components of the proposed main user interface are
included.
605
Social Support and Social Network

Social support can be studied as an interpersonal interaction that includes the
recipients, providers, their thoughts and how these can be unfolded over time
[5]. This group of people around a person that can provide help are called “social
support networks”. This assigned networks provide a social safety net and
towards the provision of psychological and material resources from the social
network deliberated to promote an individual’s ability to cope with stressors [7].
The term “social support” has been interpreted in somewhat different ways, but
Cobb [3] described social support as “knowledge that leads to a person feeling
that they are cared for, that they are loved and thought highly of, and that they
are a part of a social network that will reciprocate their feelings and actions”.
Lists of the kinds of social support that can be provided include informational,
emotional, instrumental, and companionship support [9]. With the increasing
uptake of social media, it is expected that continuing streams of evidence from
Social Networking Sites (SNS) on posting activities may often reflects people’s
psyches and social environments. Seeking to use this data about people’s social
and psychological behaviour is crucial in predicting their vulnerabilities to stress
using an unobtrusive and fine-grained manner [6] [10]. For example, Facebook
and Twitter users may share their emotions and thoughts in daily life, where
feelings like guilt, worthlessness, self-liking or hatred and helplessness or
hopelessness can be very clear with the language and emotions used in the
postings [11]. Furthermore, as social networks provide an unbiased collection
of a person’s language and behaviour of both support recipient and providers,
this will allow an automated mechanism to analyse this piece of information and
relate it to the social network profiles and attributes of individuals according to
their to personality traits.
Proposed Solution
In this section, the basic concepts of configuration algorithm and how it is
related to social support networks around stressed persons will be discussed.
This configuration algorithm can be considered as a support model to assign
dynamically social support provision task among selected members based on
their available resources and specific preferences within social networks. Figure
1 depicts the basic mechanism of assigned support in this paper.
Figure 1: The Proposed Framework for Assignment Support.

In Figure 1, it is shown the main theories and concepts in the proposed
framework, as it has been extracted from social support network tie and stress
buffering theories. This framework suggests three main points to be considered.
First, social recipient requests his/her needs by determining mood on social
media. Second, social providers (from different network ties) response with
different types of support. Finally, the level of stress will be measured after
matching (assignment) between request needed and support given.
606
Dynamic Configuration Social Support Networks

In order to achieve an automated assignment of people to a social support
network, an extended approach from static one [2] has been followed in which
the dynamic domain model for support receipt-provision process is used as basis
for a configuration process. Technically, a configuration process is defined as
an “arrangement of parts and a configuration task is defined as a problem
solving activity that selects and arranges combinations of parts to satisfy given
specifications”. To solve a configuration problem is to instantiate a potentially
large subset of the predefined classes. The search space of possible solutions to
a configuration problem will involve a set of all possible subsets of components.
The outcome of such a process has to fulfil a set of given constraints and
requirements. Requirements differ from constraints in that constraints must not
be violated (logical consistency), while requirements must be fulfilled (logical
consequence) [2] [8].
An Extended Configuration Algorithm to Assign Support Members

In this paper, the configuration process utilizes support recipient information
(from dynamic model) to select support members that available for support
provision. The crucial information (requirements) needed for a configure
process are; 1) tie’s preferences, 2) stress, 3) support receipt preferences, and 4)
support provision preferences. Using this information with a set of
configuration rules, an algorithm to generate a set of social support members to
provide support is developed. At the start of this extended configuration
algorithm , a set of constraints, like preference number of providers, percentage
of assigned supports, and a level of acceptance burden must be initialized first.
Basic Concept of an Extended Configuration Process and Its Application in Social

Support Assignments
1) Detect support recipient and need of help due to the stress.
2) Analyse the support recipient
a) analysed types of support needed (requested support)
3) Analyse the availability of support providers
a) Analyse the type of support providers ( provided support)
b) Determine network tie(strong/weak)
4) Assign support providers according to their support provision preferences
5) Evaluate the support recipient
a) If not enough support, then return to Step 3
6) Evaluate availability of resources (requested support, provided support,
assigned support)
a) If not enough resource available, then return Step 2
7) Evaluate support providers and recipient stress level
User Interface (Low Fidelity)

This section will explain the basic process to design a prototype that will be
developed as a proof of concept. A random sampling technique will be applied
to choose individuals on social networks because study respondents will base on
voluntarily only. Moreover, for the potential experiment study, a pre-post-test
design will be applied. This experiment will be conducted based on more than
sixty users. The results will be analysed to assign the right set of support
members and then measures stress level of the recipient before and after
assignment. Figure 2 describes the major components of the proposed system.
Figure 2 shows that users will interact with the system through the main
interface. The patient and system will carry out a routine interaction where the
system serves as a “mirror” to the person’s behaviour. The major steps in the
system in order to accept support, where; a) measures stress level of social
support recipient needs before assignment process, b) evaluated social support
members preferences (recipient and provision) by building a formal model, c)
607
assign support provider through configuration algorithm, and finally d)

measures stress level of support recipient needs after assignment process.
Figure 2: The Proposed Main User Interface
Conclusion and Future Work

This paper provides basic insights how the potential use of social media to help
stressed individuals by taking the needs of the support recipient and the
availabilities of the potential support providers. In addition, it explains the basic
concepts of configuration approach by addressing how it is related to social
support networks that allow automated selection of a subset of the patient’s
social network members that together will provide optimal support. Relevant
background research and design considerations will be scrutinized and basic
cognitive models to lay foundation as reasoning engines will be developed. An
initial dynamic domain model of social support recipients and providers and
dynamic support model will be developed as the next step of this project.
References
[1] K. Albrecht and M. Martin, “Effect of increased social support on the
well-being of cognitively impaired elderly people,” in Z - Gerontol
Geriatr, (2009), pp. 250–262.
[2] A. A. Aziz, M. C. Klein, and J. Treur, “Intelligent Configuration of
Social Support Networks around Depressed Persons,” in Proceedings of
the 13th Conference on Artificial Intelligence in Medicine, (AIME
2011), (2011), pp. 24–34.
[3] S. Cobb, “Psychosocial Processes and Stress: Theoretical
Formulations,” Int. J. Heal. Serv., vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 179–187, 1988.
[4] S. Cohen and T. Wills, “Stress, social support, and the buffering
hypothesis,” IEEE J. Psychol. Bull., vol. 98, no. 6, pp. 310–357, 1995.
[5] P. Corrigan and S. Phelan, “Social support and recovery in people with
serious mental illnesses,” Community Ment. Health J., vol. 40, no. 6, pp.
513–523, (2004).
[6] M. De De Choudhury, S. Counts, and E. Horvitz, “Social Media as a
Measurement Tool of Depression in Populations,” J. Am. Med. Assoc.,
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[7] H. Mohammed, A. A. Aziz, N. ChePa, Mohd-Shabli, N. A.H., Abu-
Bakar, J.A., and A. Alwi, A., “Computational Agent Model for Stress
Reaction in Natural Disaster Victims,” in The 7th International
Conference on Information Science and Applications (ICISA 2016),
(2016), pp. 817–827.
608
[8] S. M. Fohn, J. S. Liau, A. R. Greef, R. E. Young, and P. O’Grady,

“Configuring Computer Systems through Constraint-Based Modelling
and Interactive Constraint Satisfaction,” IEEE J. Comput. Ind., vol. 27,
no. 11, pp. 3–36, (2013).
[9] R. House and S. James, Work Stress and Social Support. Reading, M A:
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[10] M. Vorvoreanu, “Perceptions of corporations on Facebook: An analysis
of Facebook social norms,” J. New Commun. Res., vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 67–
86,(2012).
[11] X. Wang, L. Cai, J. Qian, and J. Peng, “Social support moderates stress
effects on depression,” Int. J. Ment. Health Syst., vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 1–5,
(2014).
1 December 2016
T01_074: SAFETY OF THE ELDERLY IN MULTI-

STOREY RESIDENTIAL BUILDING DURING
EMERGENCY
Nurul Liyana Hanapi
Sabarinah Sh Ahmad
Norhati Ibrahim
Centre of Studies in Architecture, Faculty of Architecture,
Planning and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah
Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
Azli Abd Razak

MARA, Shah Alam,Selangor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Study on fire safety and human behaviour during an emergency have been
conducted since the early 1900s. Many approaches have been applied in order
to understand the behaviour of humans and the level of fire spreading during an
emergency situation of a fire breakout. However, few studies have been
conducted on the safety of the elderly in multi-storey residential buildings. As
the number of elderly population increases, there are increased concerns on the
provision of escape route design in multi-storey buildings. This paper discusses
the explanatory mixed methods approach of testing the safety of the elderly in
the multi-storey residential building. This study is able to minimize the limitation
of both approaches and allows the author to have a complete understanding of
changes needed for the marginalized group i.e. the elderly. For quantitative
component, a questionnaire survey was conducted where two sets of a
questionnaire were distributed to the expert and elderly groups. As for the
qualitative component, an observation, and computer simulation was used in
this study. Three low-cost multi-storey residential building with a different
building layout were chosen as a case study for a site observation. Computer
simulation was carried out using the Pathfinder evacuation software associated
with a Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) model called PyroSim to simulate
the occupant, fire, and smoke movement. The data can be used to provide a
simple guideline of fire safety strategies of escape route design such as
corridors, staircases and other safety feature suite for the elderly in multi-storey
residential building.
Keywords: fire safety, human behaviour, elderly, multi-storey residential,
research method
Introduction
The current increase of urban population will create longer evacuation time
especially in the high-density building [1], [2]. Furthermore, the distribution of
the urban population that has been shifted to the elderly group has prompted the
need to review the provision of safety for this age group. The declining of birth
rate, demographic changes and the increase of life expectancy have raised some
concerns on their safety and wellbeing [3], [4]. The elderlies are prone to get
injured during emergency situation such as fire and building evacuation. This
is due to the natural factors (condition and behavior) such as aging, gender,
physical condition and speed limitation that could be classified under the high
risk group of people during an emergency [5], [6]. Many elderlies are facing
changes and decreased performance in sensory, physiology and cognitive
610
aspects that cause them to face a difficulty in communicating and responding

towards emergency situation [7]. Although some of elderlies can be considered
as a physically challenged in term of mobility, a very limited approach has been
applied to help them with the evacuation process especially the elderlies who
live in multi-storey residential buildings.
With today’s rapid increment of urban population, the fire safety design
procedure implemented in the building might not be able to cater the number of
egress during an emergency and in turn, it can cause bottleneck and stagnation
issues [8], [9]. With the increase population of the elderlies, their slower
movement during an emergency will affect the overall evacuation efficiency and
create greater bottleneck issue. As for the multi-storey building, staircases have
become the main route for the evacuation process, as the movements of the
evacuee are vertical. This might create issues for the elderly as their physical
abilities could cause some setbacks for emergency evacuation.
A variety of ways can be conducted to investigate the issue on the
safety of the elderly people in multi-storey residential buildings. Since the early
1900s, studies on the fire safety and human behaviour have evolved from the
observation method; which expanded to the interview method and structured
questionnaire method. In the late 1970s, computer simulation were introduced
as a research method. Since then, the simulation study has expanded, creating
many simulation tools, generally from the multi-agent base, homogenous mass,
game theory and virtual reality that were suitable for different needs and
approaches of solution finding.
Research Method
In recent years, the adaptation of more than one method in the study of fire safety
and human behavior is becoming more common as several methods of data
collection and analysis technique would result in more accurate and significant
findings. In this paper, the explanatory sequential mixed method design was
applied as shown in Figure 1. The intention is to have a qualitative data
explaining the initial quantitative results. This paper discusses the data
collection method involving literature review, questionnaire survey, observation
and simulation study on the selected subjects.
Figure 25: Explanatory sequential mixed method.
The first step was to analyse on the design performance of multi-storey

residential building, demographic and anthropometric of the elderlies, and
human behaviour during emergency through literature review. This method
would aid in the prediction of the movement of elderly based on demographic
and anthropometric background. Additionally, issues that surfaced in multi-
storey residential building design and human behaviour are analysed through
secondary data. The literature review is mainly from the research conducted by
other researchers from different backgrounds and interests.
The second step was to assess the quantitative component where it
became one of the methods of risk assessment on occupants’ response and
professional judgment on this matter. Building Occupant Questionnaire (BOQ)
and Building Audit Questionnaire (BAQ) were distributed to the elderly
occupants and experts involved in building safety. The BOQ was useful for the
computer simulation phase where the realistic behaviour of the elderly
occupants can be achieved. There are approximate 3000 people lives in one
multi storey building, with three case study and estimation on 15% of the
occupant consist of elderly, making the number of elderly live in all the case
study 1350 people. Based on Krejcie & Morgan (1970), sample size table, if the
611
confidence level is 95% and the margin error is 5% the sample size needed in
299. The process of collecting samples was through convenient sampling.
Although convenient sampling was a less desirable and a non-probability
sample, this was the best approach due to certain limitations involving the
elderly respondents. There is no assurance in the satisfactory result on the data
collected as it depends on the basic understanding and the respondent is not
influenced by the emergency situation [10]. Thus the data were used to answer
the uncertainty of the data collected in the literature review. The BAQ was done
to have an expert view on the fire safety building for the elderly occupant. This
survey helped to highlight the certain issues arising in the multi-storey
residential building that will help to minimise the risk of injury for the elderly
resident. SPSS was used as a tool to analyse the survey using the frequent
analysis of variable and comparison of means analysis.
The third step was the qualitative approach where it started with building
observation of case study that was used as a base case for building design in the
simulation study. Three multi-storey residential buildings with different
building layouts were chosen for the base case study. The number of the
occupants would determine the efficiency of the evacuation process. Since this
research focuses on high-density residential buildings, only building with more
than 10 stories were chosen. Low-cost multi-storey residential building was
chosen since very minimal requirements were needed for safety.
The first tool used during the observation phase was the checklist form,
which was derived from the UBBL 1984. This tool was used to observe the
building compliance of escape route design in the selected multi-storey
residential buildings. The second tools is an assessment form to check on detail
specifications of escape route design. The observations were mainly on the
physical appearance and conditions of the fire facilities without actual testing of
the equiptment and facilities. During the simulation study, all the equipment
were presumed to be in good working order.
Figure 26 : Performance base building of fire safety method based on SFPE

handbook.
The final step is the computer simulation phase where the basic Available Safe
Egress Time (ASET) and Required Safe Egress Time (RSET) were used as a
based parameter of the simulation survey. The software tools used for this study
are Pathfinder and PyroSim. The advantages of using both simulations are that
both can be tested at the same time and allowed us to observe the pattern and
the movement of the elderly based on the building layout and the extent of fire
and smoke spreading during fire breakout. This observation method creates a
reliable result of people behaviour during evacuation process using the real-time
observation technique [11]. By doing it so, more insights on the movement of
the evacuee could be observed where the behaviours were mainly influenced by
the fire and smoke. An analysis of the result would indentify the building layout
612
and design that provided a longer time gap or lapse between the ASET and
RSET. The gap between ASET and RSET would determine the best design
approach that minimise the number of bodily harm that could befall the elderly
occupants. Figure 2 explains how the principles of this analysis are adopted and
applied based on the SFPE handbook.
Conclusion
As a conclusion, the explanatory sequential mixed method approach is used in
this study where both quantitative and qualitative methods are applied. This
method would increase the safety of the elderly occupants during an emergency
situation such as fire. The method started from quantitative data collection,
followed by qualitative data collection before the interpretation and analysis
could be made. The main method used for this study were literature review,
questionnaire survey (BAQ & BOQ) and computer simulation (Pathfinder &
PyroSim). The data collected were analysed to provide a simple guideline for
fire safety strategies suited with the elderly occupant of multi-storey residential
buildings. Other types of research method can be explored in order to seek for
an alternative approach to increase the safety of the elderly occupant of the
multi-storey residential building.
Acknowledgements
This research is funded by the Malaysian Ministry of Education under the
scholarship award of Mybrain 15.
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1 December 2016
T01_075: HEAVY METAL CONCENTRATIONS

IN FISHES FROM GALAS AND PUTAT RIVER,
PENINSULAR MALAYSIA : HEALTH
RISK ESTIMATION
Zarith Sufiani Baharom
Mohd Yusoff Ishak
Faculty of Environmental Studies,UPM
Author-3Safaa A.Khadum
Faculty of Environmental Studies,UPM
ABSTRACT
A study on water and fish tissue based on toxic heavy metals concentrations was
carried out between June, 2014 and November 2014 at Galas River and Putat
River Peninsular Malaysia. Concentrations of heavy metals namely Cu, Zn, Pb,
Mn, and Ni were determined in the muscle of Hampala macrolepidota,
Barbonymus schwanenfeldii, Mystacoleucus marginatus, Hemibagrus nemurus
,Cyclocheilicthys apogon and Oreochromis niloticus species. The study found
the highest concentration of Cu is 0.922 mg/kg and Zn is10.98 mg/kg, found in
O. niloticus species at Putat Rivers.The study found the concentration level is
within the permissible limits for human consumption when compared to
Malaysian Food Regulations 1983 and the result can be used for decision make.
Keywords: heavy metals, freshwater fish species, Galas River, Putat River
Introduction
A river ecosystem is an important water resources and play pertinent roles in the
water supply, climate regulation, flood control, and biodiversity preservation
[1]. Heavy metal pollution has become a matter of great concern to public water
supplies and consumption of fishery resources because of their potential toxic
effect, persistence and bioaccumulation problems [2]. Rapid development
causes significant environmental hazard for invertebrates, fish and humans [3].
Heavy metals in aquatic environment can remain as solution, precipitate on the
bottom or taken by other organism [4]. Cu and Zn are essential elements for fish
metabolism but may be toxic at high level; as it effects development and growth
of fish during early stages [5]. Heavy metals can be biomagnified through the
food chain and enter organisms via direct inhalation, ingestion and dermal
contact absorption, depending on uptake and elimination rates, water
concentrations and ecological of organism [6,7,8]. Fish is one of the most
significant indicators for the estimation of metal pollution level and popular
because of its simpler, rapid and less expensive method in sampling and
analysis. Despite being close to human habitation, there are limited data about
heavy metals pollution in the water and fish from Peninsular Malaysia especially
from Galas and Putat Rivers. Villagers of the area reported that the population
of B. Schwanenfeldii and H. macrolepidota has being declined since 1997 due
to industrial development in Putat river and sand mining activities in Galas river
respectively. Gold mining activities along the upper Galas river has been
reported by [9] and [10] could possibly relate to the increase in heavy metal
concentration. The objectives of this paper are: (i) to determine the concentration
614
and distribution of heavy metals (Cu, Pb, Ni, Zn, Mn and Cd) in muscles of
freshwater fishes from Galas and Putat Rivers and (ii) to gain understanding on
the relationship between heavy metal in fish species and water of Galas and
Putat Rivers. Sampling stations were selected along Galas river (Fig.1) and Putat
River (Fig.2) and detailed site description is shown in Table 1.
Legend
Sampling
site
River
Fig. 1. Galas River and sampling Fig.2. Map showing the locality of
sites Putat River, Melaka (JUPEM,
2006)
Table1. Names and coordinates of the sampling stations for the baseline study on the
surface water from Galas river, Kelantan and Putat river
No Name Coordinates Description
1 Ulu Pulai, Kelantan 4 °47.342N, 101° 56.429E Agriculture, Mining
Gua Musang, Kelantan 4 °52.376N,101 °57.337E Agriculture,Urbanization,
Mining
Limau Kasturi, Kelantan 5 °4.328N, 102° 4. 322E Agriculture, Cleared land
Dabong,Kelantan 4 °22.801N, 102 °0.819E Agriculture, Urbanization
Kuala Geris,Kelantan 5° 23.599N,102° 3.836E Agriculture, Urbanization
2 Putat River 2° 15.36N, 102° 16.26E Urbanization,Residential,
Industrial

Fish samples from both study sites were caught using gill nets from June to
November 2014 and analyses were carried out according to [11].The fishes were
kept frozen at -20°C until ready for analyses. For water sampling, polyethylene
bottles were acid-washed with 10% concentrated nitric acid HNO3 (v/v) and
rinsed thoroughly with distilled deionized water. Three 500 ml water samples
were taken at each sampling point and kept in ice box while being transported
back to laboratory. At the laboratory, the samples were kept at below 4°C before
treatment. All glasswares and equipment used were soaked overnight in 10%
(v/v) nitric acid, rinsed with deionized water and dried before use. Laboratory
quality control consisted of analyses of standard certified reference materials for
biota samples (2976 mussel, USA) and the results of recoveries ranged from
92% to 117%, as shown in the Table 2. Five gram of boneless muscle tissue
were removed using stainless steel knife and were digested to a strong acid
digestion (H2O2+HNO3) mixture at 1: 3 ratios [12] at 150°C for 20 minutes and
later allowed to cool at room temperature. Samples were processed in duplicate
615
and then diluted to a total of 50ml with ultra-pure water and filtered through
0.45 µm micropore membrane filter paper for analyses. After filtration, the
prepared samples were determined for Zn, Cu, Pb, Mn, and Cd by using Atomic
Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS) and Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP-
MS). SPSS (Version 16.0) statistical package program and MS Word Excel were
used for statistically analysing data of this study. Pearson’s correlation was
applied to determine relationships among various data sets.

The comparison of the fish species according to their metal accumulation levels
in tissues is given in Table 3. Muscle is commonly analyzed because it is the
main part consumed by humans and is associated with human health risk [4,13].
Metal accumulation in descending orders in muscles are Zn>Ni>Cu>Mn>Pb.
The result shows different species from the same area contained different levels
of heavy metals in their tissues. Fish were caught by fishermen for their own
consumption, sold fresh or preserved for local consumers.
Table2. Comparison of the analytical result of the CRM2976 with the certified
concentrations using ICPMS (n=3)
Metal CRM Certified Measured Recovery
value(mg/kg) value(mg/kg) (%)
Pb 2976 1.19±0.18 1.23±0.09 103.4
Mn 2976 33±2 30.4±3.5 92.12
Cu 2976 4.02±0.33 4.2±2.7 104.48
Zn 2976 137±13 159.8±3.5 116.6
Ni 2976 0.93±0.12 0.89±074 95.6
Table 3. Heavy metal contents (mg/kg wet weight) of fish species from Galas river,
Kelantan
Hea B.schwanenf H.macrolepi M.margin C.apogo H.nemu Sources
vy eldii dota atus n rus
meta
l
Zn 6.27±2.1 5.11±1.47 5.66±2.36 1.31±2. 4.73±1. This
17 85 study
Cu 0.37±0.18 0.56±0.66 0.37±0.12 3.16±2. 0.38±0.
13 16
Pb 0.21±0.22 0.14±0.08 0.15±0.16 0.2±0.1 0.24±0.
7 04
Ni 1.47±0.2 0.64±0.67 0.85±0.67 0.4±0.7 0.45±0.
2 62
Mn 0.294±0.27 0.4±0.11 0.52±0.15 0.4±0.0 0.42±0.
7 15
Pb 0.10±0.125 0.04±0.055 0.14±0. 0.10±0. Rohasli
069 07 ney et
al. 2014
Ni 0.10±0.156 0.02±0.037 0.08±0. 0.06±0.
084 07
The fishes from Putat River has the highest mean concentrations of Cu, Zn, Cd,
and Pb, compared with Galas river, thus indicating a greater effect of
anthropogenic metals input in fishes from Putat river. Findings from this study
are comparable with other studies from different river in Malaysia (Table 3 and
Table 4). The results show that fish species namely B. schwanenfeldii, H.
macrolepidota and H. nemurus from Galas river possess higher metal
concentrations than value found in Kelantan river by [14].
616
Maximum Pb values were recorded in O. niloticus with concentration of

0.76mg/kg, while the lowest concentration was detected in H. macrolepidota
(0.14 mg/kg). The concentrations of lead in all fish samples were below the 0.5
mg Pb/kg wet weight limit as stipulated by the [15], except for the O. niloticus.
However, the average Pb concentration of 0.76 mg/kg observed in the studied
species was higher than values reported by [13, 14, 4, and 15], while Cd values
exceed the [16] and [17] limit. Cd in O. niloticus from Putat river in this study
was also higher than the values reported by other authors such as [4], [18], [19],
and [20]. O. niloticus generally feeds in shallow water and direct contact with
polluted sediment caused by industrial discharge and high uptake of zoobenthic
prey could be a factor this species had already reached the level of allowable
limits [21]. All fish species sampled for Ni concentrations showed levels lower
than the permissible levels recommended by the [15],[22]. Ni was found to be
higher in herbivores species as this species consume aquatic macrophytes,
submerged plants and filamentous algae [23].
Table 4. Heavy metal contents (mg/kg wet weight) of the O. niloticus species in
Putat River, Melaka
vy metal This study Zarith& Kah Hin Mazlin et al. Abdulali Kamaruzzaman
Yusoff,2015 Low et al. 2009 et al. et al. 2008
2015 2013
Cu 0.922±0.53 0.03±0.01 0.27±0.03 0.32±0.02 1.46±0.26 0.2
Pb 0.76±0.66 0.05±0.05 0.01±0.002 0.40±0.02 0.26±0.04 0.2
Ni nd - - - 3.59±0.36 -
Mn nd - 0.26±0.03 0.20±0.04 - -
Cd 0.26±0.13 0.02±0.003 0.05±0.02 0.006±0.002 0.03±0.01 -
Note: Nd-Not detected
Table 5. Metal concentrations (mean with SD) in the water (µ/L) at Galas River
and Putat River, Melaka
Heavy Galas river Putat River NWQSa WHOb (1985)
metal (Class
II)
Zn 0.371±0.506 0.06±0.03 5000 3000
Cu 0.006±0.003 0.824±0.59 20 2000
Pb 0.160±0.344 0.08±0.03 50 10
Ni 0.029±0.014 Nd 50 20
Mn 0.182±0.164 Nd 100 500
Cd Nd 0.02±0.001 10 10
1
National Water Quality Standards of Malaysia 2 World Health Organization,1985
Table 6. Correlation matrix for fish weight (g) and heavy metal concentration
(mg/kg) in Galas river and Putat river.
Weight Length Cu Zn Pb Ni Mn Cd
Weight 1
Length .779** 1
Cu .317** .166 1
Zn .465** .291* .571** 1
Pb .217 .175 .565** .025 1
Ni .379* .269 .072 .633** -.481** 1
Mn -.103 -.117 .087 .426** -.260 .167 1
Cd .277 .336 .501** .446* .083 . . 1
*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
The maximum level of Zn allowed in fish and fish product is 100 mg/kg [19].
In this study, the highest concentration of Zn was detected in O. niloticus (10.98
mg/kg) from Putat river followed by B. schwanenfeldii (6.27 mg/kg) and M.
marginatus (5.66 mg/kg) from Galas river respectively. The lowest values of Zn
617
concentration were observed in C. apogon (1.31 mg/kg) from Galas river. The
high Zn concentration detected in O. niloticus and B. schwanenfeldii could be
due to their habit of feeding on benthic organisms. B. schwanenfeldii is
herbivores species while O. niloticus is an omnivore fish species. [24] stated that
herbivore and omnivore have a tendency to accumulate more Zn, Cd and Pb,
while carnivorous fish tend to accumulate higher Cu and Pb. O. niloticus has
been reported to have the highest concentration in Zn, Cd and Pb from disused
mining pool [25]. C. apogon is also a predator fish that sits at higher trophic
level and tend to accumulate more heavy metals compared to non-predatory
species [26]. Higher level fish species were reported to accumulate more Cu
which is also supported by present study. This study found levels of heavy metal
in water of Galas river showed a descending order of Zn>Mn>Pb>Ni>Cu in
terms of concentration. Meanwhile, Putat river was observed to have a
descending order of mean concentration as Cu>Pb>Zn>Cd. The mean
concentration of Zn in Putat river (0.824±0.59 mg/kg) was the highest among
other heavy metals in study area probably due to high effluent concentration
from industrial area or run off from the agricultural areas along the river [27],
[28] and [29]. Heavy metal concentrations in water from both rivers were
compared with [30] and [31] (Table 5), where results show that Zn, Cu, Ni, Pb,
Mn and Cd concentrations were lower than limit set by the guidelines. Metal
accumulation varied among species depending on species-specific factors like
feeding behavior that caused variation in metals accumulations between fish.
Correlation analysis was conducted to determine the relationship between metal
concentration in fish and influence of weight-length on metal concentration in
fish. The weight of fish was correlated with length of fish (p<0.01), Cu (p<0.01),
Zn (p<0.01) and Ni (p<0.05) (Table 6). In addition, length of fish has showed a
positive correlation with Zn (p<0.05). Meanwhile, Cu showed a positive
correlation with Zn (p<0.01), Pb (p<0.01) and Cd (p<0.01), Zn has a positive
correlation with Ni (p<0.01), Mn (p<0.01) and Cd (p<0.05) and Pb has showed
a positive correlation with Ni (p <0.01). Accumulations of heavy metals are
influenced by maturity of fish which are commonly measured by fish length.
Mature fish which has a constant growth rates stabilize more heavy metals in
continuous polluted habitats [32], [33]. However, smaller fish are more active
than big fish and for this reason need more oxygen to supply [34].
Conclusion
The mean concentration of heavy metals for all fish species in both rivers did
not exceed the MFA (1983) USFDA (1993), EC (2001) and [30], except for Pb
concentration in O. niloticus. Mean heavy metal concentrations of all fish
species reflected an order of Zn>Cu>Ni>Mn>Pb and Zn>Cu>Cd>Pb for Galas
and Putat river respectively. Health risk of consuming heavy metals in muscles,
the main edible portion of fish are generally lower than the acceptable limit by
the international legislation limits indicating safe levels for human consumption.
However, the levels of heavy metals in O. niloticus should be continuously
monitored especially in potential polluted rivers since this species showed a
tendency to accumulate Pb in muscles. Even though the metal concentrations in
both rivers were generally low, a constant monitoring of this riverine system is
needed before it become toxic to the aquatic animals and humans.
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to thank the Universiti Putra Malaysia and Ministry of Higher
Education Malaysia for supporting this study via grant number 9422600.
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[33] Ahmad A.K. and Shuhaimi-Othman M. (2010). Heavy metal concentrations
in sediments and fishes from Lake Chini, Pahang, Malaysia. Journal of
Biological Sciences 10(2):93-100.
620
[34] Canpolat Özgür, Çalta Metin, “Heavy Metals in Some Tissues and Organs
Of Capoeta Capoeta Umbla (Heckel, 1843) Fish Species In Relation To
Body Size, Age, Sex And Seasons. Fresenius Environmental Bulletin 12(9):
961-966(2003).
1 December 2016
T01_076: RAYLEIGH DAMPING COEFFICIENTS

MEASUREMENT OF ELASTOMERIC BEARING
USING FINITE ELEMENT AND
EXPERIMENTAL MODAL ANALYSIS
A. Norliyati-2
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA,
M.A. Yunus-3
M.N. Abdul Rani-4
MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Elastomeric bearing is a significant device found in structure such as in bridges
and buildings. It is used to isolate the foundation and the superstructure from
seismic loads. Since it is made up from a combination of rubbers and steel shim
plates in alternate layers which make the elastomeric bearing a complex
material, the measurements of damping of the elastomeric bearing is difficult in
practice. Damping is a dissipation of energy or energy losses in the vibration of
the structure when the structures are excited with external dynamic loading. The
accurate value of damping is very important as damping plays a crucial role in
fixing the borderline between stability and instability in many structural
systems. Therefore, it is essential to determine the accurate value of damping in
structural analysis. Modal analysis is one of the methods that can be used to
determine dynamic properties including damping in any structure. Hence, the
main objective of this research is to determine the Rayleigh’s damping
coefficients, α and β and to evaluate the performance of the elastomeric bearing
using finite element and experimental modal analysis. Based on the finding, the
finite element modal analysis with the added Rayleigh’s damping coefficients α
and β, shows a good agreement with the experimental modal analysis in term of
natural frequencies and mode shapes. The value of natural frequencies are
reduce after the Rayleigh’s damping coefficients were added into the finite
element modal analysis. It can be concluded that both theoretical and
experimental modal analysis method can be used to estimate the accurate values
of damping ratio and to determine the Rayleigh’s damping coefficients α and β
as well.
Keywords: Damping; Rayleigh Damping; Elastomeric Bearing; Finite Element

Modal Analysis; Experimental Modal Analysis
Introduction
Elastomeric bearing is a device to isolate a structure from seismic load. It is a
combination of rubber layer and steel shim plate that are laminated together
alternately. Rubber layer is an almost incompressible material that gives high
horizontal flexibility while steel shim plate is a solid material that gives high
vertical stiffness which is required to lengthen the time period of a structure
during the seismic event [1]. Since elastomeric bearing is a key device in
controlling the damping force and isolating the structure from external dynamic
loading, it is important to measure the accurate value of damping for elastomeric
bearing.
Damping is a dissipation of energy or energy losses in a vibration system
[2]. Based on Stevenson [3], damping can be defined as a reduction of response
622
motion of a structure in term of energy loss. Since damping is important to a

structure, many researchers have tried to understand its mechanism [4,5,6].
There are several types of damping mechanism assumptions that can be used in
both single degree of freedom system (SDoF) and multi degrees of freedom
system (MDoF) which are viscous damping, Rayleigh damping, Coulomb
damping and hysteretic damping [7].
Rayleigh damping is a damping that is proportional to mass and stiffness.
It is also known as proportional damping [8]. The formulation of Rayleigh
damping is given by [9]:
C=αM+βK (1.1)
Where M and K is a mass and stiffness while α is a mass coefficient and β is a

stiffness coefficient. With this formulation, the damping ratio is the same for
axial, bending and torsional response. Alpha, α and beta, β are calculated from
the following equation [9]:
α βω
ζ= + (1.2)
2ω 2
Where ζ is a damping ratio and ω is a natural frequency. This damping ratio, ζ

and natural frequency, ω value can be determined from the experimental modal
analysis method. Equation (1.1) and in relation with Equation (1.2), it is
important to note that if β = 0, as the natural frequencies increase, the damping
ratio will decrease and if α = 0, as the natural frequencies increase, the damping
ratio will also increase. This means that the mass proportional term gives the
damping ratio inversely proportional to the response frequency while the
stiffness proportional term gives the damping ratio linearly proportional to the
response frequency [10]. Thus, it is important to select the appropriate values of
α and β in order to determine the Rayleigh damping value in a structure for
dynamic analysis. Therefore, the main objective of this present study is to
determine the accurate value of Rayleigh’s damping coefficients α and β of the
elastomeric bearing using theoretical modal analysis and experimental modal
analysis.
Material
In this present study, one elastomeric bearing was used. The dimensions are
200mmx230mm and the thickness is 57mm. The elastomeric bearing is
laminated with five steel shim plates with thickness of 5mm each plate. Figure
1 shows the elastomeric bearing used in this present study.
FIGURE 1: ELASTOMERIC BEARING
Methodology
In the finite element modal analysis, elastomeric bearing was modelled and
analysed using ANSYS 14.1. For the steel shim plate, it was assigned to be linear
623
elastic material properties (Young’s modulus 210 GPa; Poisson’s ratio of 0.3;
Density of 7850 kg/m3) [11]. Rubber is a hyperplastic material with low shear
modulus and very high bulk modulus. The Young’s modulus of 50 MPa, the
Poisson’s ratio of 0.49 and a density of 1100 kg/m3 were assigned as the
material properties of the rubber plate [11]. The meshing size used to mesh the
elastomeric bearing was 5mm. Figure 2 shows the finite element modal analysis
of the elastomeric bearing.
Figure 2: Meshed Elastomeric Bearing Model
On the other hand, in experimental modal analysis, one PCB Piezotronics

Impact Hammer Model 086C03 with a medium plastic tip was used for
excitation while six accelerometers were used to record the responses. One
accelerometer was fixed at one point as a reference point and the other five
accelerometers were roving from every point. The force was excited by the
impact hammer at one fixed point at the opposite direction of the reference point.
A total of 62 points was measured and the responses were recorded by the
accelerometer. All of the responses were then analysed by the PULSE B&K
analyser to get the Frequency Response Function (FRF). From the FRF, the
dynamic properties which are the natural frequencies, mode shapes, and
damping of elastomeric bearing were determined. Figure 3 shows the full
diagram of the experimental modal analysis.
Figure 3: Full Diagram of Elastomeric Bearing Modal Testing
After the results from both theoretical and experimental modal analysis were
determine, the natural frequencies and damping ratio from the experimental
modal analysis were used in determining the Rayleigh damping coefficients α
and β using equation (1.1) and (1.2). The value of α and β were determined for
all modes and the graph of damping factor versus frequency were plotted to
select the best value of α and β from all modes.

624
Table 1 shows the comparison of natural frequencies and mode shapes from both
methods whereas Table 2 demonstrates the relative error of natural frequencies
between both methods.
Table 1: Comparison of Modal Analysis for Elastomeric Bearing
Finite Element Modal Analysis Experimental Modal Analysis
Mode Natural Mode Shape Mode Natural Damping Mode Shape

No. Frequency No. Frequency Ratio
(Hz) (Hz) (%)
F1 445.3 E1 370.33 0.55
F2 613.54 E2 516.44 0.66
Table 2: Relative Error between Finite Element and Experiment
Mode Finite Mode Experimental Relative

No. Element No. [Hz] Error
[Hz] [%]
F1 445.3 E1 370.33 20.24
F2 613.54 E2 516.44 18.80
Figure 4: Graph from First Mode of Damping Ratio
From table 1, all the two modes produced by the experimental modal
analysis have shown a good agreement of mode shapes between the finite modal
analyses. Table 2 demonstrates the relative error of natural frequencies between
both methods. It can be seen in Table 2 that the relative error of natural
frequencies from the finite element analysis and the experimental modal
analysis of the elastomeric bearing has shown quite large discrepancies for all
modes. It is possibly due to the hyperplastic material of the rubber in the
elastomeric bearing that has high nonlinearity and high damping capacity. The
values of natural frequencies and damping ratio from the first mode of
experimental modal analysis which is 0.55% is then used in determining the
625
Rayleigh’s damping coefficients α and β. Figure 4 show the graph of damping

factor versus frequency to select the suitable value of α and β.
Based on the graph, the Rayleigh damping coefficients α and β is
1683.766065 and 0.000161753. The Rayleigh damping coefficients values was
inserted back into the finite element modal analysis. The comparison between
all results are summarized in Table 3 whereas Table 4 shows the comparison of
the relative error of the natural frequencies between experimental modal analysis
and finite element modal analysis with and without Rayleigh damping
coefficients.
Table 3:
Comparison of Results
Experimental Modal Finite Element Modal Finite Element Modal

Analysis Analysis Without Damping Analysis with Damping
Coefficients Coefficients
Mode Mode Shapes & Mode Mode Shapes & Mode Mode Shapes &
No. Natural No. Natural Frequencies No. Natural
Frequencies (Hz) (Hz) Frequencies (Hz)
E1 F1 FD1
370.33 Hz 445.3 Hz 378.3 Hz

E2 F2 FD2
516.44 Hz 613.54 Hz 520.04 Hz
Table 4:
Relative Error between Finite Element with and without Rayleigh Damping
Coefficients
Relative Error of Natural Frequency (%)

Mode No. Without Damping Mode No. With Damping
Coefficients Coefficients
F1 20.24 FD1 2.15
F2 18.80 FD2 0.7
Based on the Table 3, the entire mode shapes produced in the finite element
modal analysis with the added of Rayleigh damping coefficients for all materials
has shown a good agreement with the experimental and finite element modal
analysis without the addition of Rayleigh damping coefficients. It can be seen
from Table 4 that the relative error of natural frequencies of the finite element
modal analysis reduced after the Rayleigh damping coefficients were added into
the analysis as compared to the relative error of natural frequencies of the finite
element modal analysis without adding the Rayleigh damping.
Conclusion
Modal analysis had been successfully performed to determine the Rayleigh’s
damping coefficients α and β using modal analysis. Both theoretical simulations
and experimental tests were applied and compared to one another, thus making
the results more convincing. The two sets of results were carefully compared
626
and proved that they were fit with each other quite well. Also, it can be
concluded that the first mode of damping ratio from the experimental modal
analysis can be used in determining the Rayleigh damping coefficients for the
elastomeric bearing. The mode shapes of the elastomeric bearing with the
addition of Rayleigh damping has shown a good agreement with the
experimental modal analysis and the value of natural frequencies also was
reduced closer to the value of natural frequencies from the experimental modal
analysis.
References
[1] Derham, C., Kelly, J., & Thomas, A. (1985). Nonlinear natural rubber
bearings for seismic isolation. Nuclear engineering and design, 84(3),
417-428
[2] Sarlin, E., Liu, Y., Vippola, M., Zogg, M., Ermanni, P., Vuorinen, J., &
Lepistö, T. (2012). Vibration damping properties of
steel/rubber/composite hybrid structures. Composite Structures, 94(11),
3327-3335
[3] Stevenson, J. (1980). Structural damping values as a function of dynamic
response stress and deformation levels. Nuclear engineering and design,
60(2), 211-237
[4] Bratosin, D., & Sireteanu, T. (2002). A nonlinear Kelvin-Voigt model
for soils. Proceedings of the Romanian Academy, 3(3), 99-104
[5] Liang, J.-W. (2007). Damping estimation via energy-dissipation method.
Journal of Sound and Vibration, 307(1), 349-364
[6] Sarlin, E., Liu, Y., Vippola, M., Zogg, M., Ermanni, P., Vuorinen, J., &
Lepistö, T. (2012). Vibration damping properties of
steel/rubber/composite hybrid structures. Composite Structures, 94(11),
3327-3335
[7] Liu, M., & Gorman, D. (1995). Formulation of Rayleigh damping and its
extensions. Computers & structures, 57(2), 277-285
[8] Lin, R., & Zhu, J. (2009). On the relationship between viscous and
hysteretic damping models and the importance of correct interpretation
for system identification. Journal of Sound and Vibration, 325(1), 14-33
[9] Ryan, K. L., & Polanco, J. (2008). Problems with Rayleigh damping in
base-isolated buildings. Journal of structural engineering, 134(11), 1780-
1784
[10] Kyriazoglou, C., & Guild, F. (2006). Finite element prediction of
damping of composite GFRP and CFRP laminates–a hybrid
formulation–vibration damping experiments and Rayleigh damping.
Composites science and technology, 66(3), 487-498
[11] Doshin Rubber Product (M) Sdn.Bhd (2014). E-Catalog. Retrieved
March 3, 2015, from http://www.doshinrubber.com/catalog/index.php
1 December 2016
T01_077: AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER GAIT

CLASSIFICATION USING ARTIFICIAL
NEURAL NETWORKS
Che Zawiyah Che Hasan
Rozita Jailani*
Nooritawati Md Tahir
Rohilah Sahak
Suryani Ilias
MARA Shah Alam, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
E-mail: zawiyah.hasan@gmail.com
*Corresponding author: rozitaj@salam.uitm.edu.my
ABSTRACT
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a permanent neurological disorder that can
be recognized at the early stage of developmental period and is recently
associated with gait disturbances. This study aimed to classify gait patterns of
children with ASD using artificial neural network (ANN). Gait analysis of 30
ASD children and 30 normal healthy children was assessed using a state-of-the-
art three-dimensional (3D) motion analysis system during self-selected speed
barefoot walking. Kinematic gait features were extracted from the sagittal,
frontal and transverse kinematic waveforms of pelvis, hip, knee and ankle. Two
statistical feature selection techniques namely the between-group tests
(independent samples t-test and Mann-Whitney U test) and stepwise
discriminant analysis (SWDA) were employed to select the dominant gait
features. The findings of this study demonstrate that the kinematic gait features
selected using SWDA method are more reliable to be used in ASD gait
classification using ANN classifier with 91.7% accuracy, 90.0% sensitivity and
93.3% specificity. These promising results suggest that the kinematic gait
features with the combination of SWDA feature selector and ANN classifier
could be applied successfully in the diagnosis of ASD gait patterns. Early
identification of ASD gait disturbances could ensure rapid quantitative clinical
judgement and further provide appropriate treatments to the ASD patients.
Keywords: Gait classification, autism spectrum disorder, artificial neural
network, kinematic parameter.
Introduction
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a lifelong neurodevelopmental disorder that
can be identified in the early years of childhood. Recently, researchers from
various disciplines have recognised movement and gait impairments as the focus
symptoms of this disorder (ASD) [1]. Gait impairments has become one of the
additional characteristics to support the diagnosis of ASD [2]. Early
identification of gait impairments in children with ASD is crucial to provide
appropriate treatments to the ASD patients requiring therapies.
The state-of-the-art used in gait analysis laboratories allows new
insights into understanding of human gait patterns and promote possibilities to
develop an automated identification of gait impairments [3]. It is well-known
that an automatic system which is able to identify accurately impairments in gait
patterns could give support to the clinicians in the diagnosis and ensure rapid
quantitative clinical decision.
A number of studies have addressed gait pattern classification in various types
of pathological gait using several machine classifiers [4, 5]. Artificial neural
networks (ANN) have been proven to effectively classify orthopaedic problems
628
affecting gait [6, 7]. The study that is believed to be the first to identify the gait
patterns of ASD children has utilised ANN and support vector machine (SVM)
as pattern classifiers [8]. This study employed t-test for the selection of
significant gait features.
It is well-known globally that far too little attention has been paid on
the classification of ASD gait pattern. Thus, the aim of this study is to classify
gait patterns of children with ASD by utilising ANN and kinematic gait features
as the input features. This study proposes two types of statistical feature
selection techniques to select the dominant kinematic gait features.
Methodology
Gait Data Acquisition
This study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the Universiti
Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Shah Alam, Selangor. The parent or guardian of
every child signed an informed consent form prior to participation. Sixty
children in the age of 4 to 12 years old participated in the study: thirty children
with ASD (mean ± standard deviation: age 8.63 ± 2.16 years, height 1.29 ± 0.14
m, body mass 31.21 ± 14.20 kg, and body mass index (BMI) 18.12 ± 5.09
kg/m2), and thirty normal healthy children (age 9.52 ± 1.96 years, height 1.27 ±
0.13 m, body mass 28.03 ± 10.57 kg, and body mass index (BMI) 16.81 ± 3.31
kg/m2). Fourteen ASD participants were recruited from the National Autism
Society of Malaysia (NASOM) centre and sixteen were chosen from the local
community by approaching their parents via social media. All ASD participants
had been previously diagnosed with mild category of ASD. The healthy children
were enrolled from the neighbourhoods nearby and the family members of the
faculty employees.
Gait data acquisition was conducted in the Human Motion Gait
Analysis (HMGA) laboratory at UiTM Shah Alam using a state-of-the-art three-
dimensional (3D) motion analysis system by Vicon Motion Systems Ltd.,
Oxford, United Kingdom. All participants performed self-selected speed
barefoot walking along a 6.5 m walkway with thirty-five retroreflective markers
attached on the specific anatomical bony landmarks based on the full-body Plug-
in Gait biomechanical model [9]. The movement of markers were captured by
an-eight camera Vicon T-series motion capture at 100 Hz sampling rate. An
average of five to ten walking trials were collected from each participant.
Data Pre-processing and Features Extraction

The 3D kinematic (trajectories) data were filtered using a built-in Woltring filter
to remove noise [10]. All data pre-processing was computed using the Vicon
Nexus software version 1.8.5 (Vicon, Oxford, UK). A valid trial with a clean
foot-contact on each force plate was randomly selected for further data analysis
[11]. Then, the kinematic data from a single left limb gait cycle of the selected
trial were chosen to represent each participant walking pattern. In this study, 12-
kinematic waveforms were assessed in the sagittal, frontal and transverse plane
for pelvis, hip, knee and ankle. To group the data for both groups, each
waveform was normalised to 51-time points, one for every 2% of the gait cycle
[12]. Subsequently, the maximum and minimum values from all waveforms, and
sagittal joint angle at hip, knee, and ankle during foot-contact and foot-off were
extracted as gait features. Both data normalisation and gait features extraction
were computed in Microsoft Excel version 2013 (Microsoft Corp., USA).
Features Selection
Two statistical techniques, namely between-group tests and stepwise
discriminant analysis were employed as feature selectors since both techniques
have been successfully utilised in selection of dominant gait features [13, 14].
For between-group tests (TMWU), independent samples t-test was used to
differentiate the ASD from the control groups when features were normally
629
distributed, while Mann-Whitney U test was employed to non-normal features.

The significant difference between both groups was defined as p < 0.05.
Stepwise discriminant analysis (SWDA) was used to determine
features that made a significant contribution to the discrimination of ASD gait
patterns from the controls. In this study, the feature selection method for SWDA
was performed using the Wilks’ lambda method with the default setting criteria
of F value to enter is at least 0.05 and F value to remove is less than 0.10. All
statistical features selections were performed using the SPSS statistical software
version 21.0 (IBM, New York, USA).
Classification of ASD Gait Using ANN

ANN with three-layer feedforward network was employed to classify input
features according to the target groups. This network consists of the input,
hidden and output layers [6]. The number of nodes in the input layer is based on
the number of input features while the number of nodes in the output layer is
determined by the number of target groups. The network is trained using a scaled
conjugate gradient backpropagation (trainscg) training function [8].
10-fold cross validation method is employed to test the generalisation
ability of the ANN classifier due to the small sample size used in this study.
Each dataset is randomly separated into ten equal sized folds. Nine folds are
used for training and the remaining one fold is used for testing. Then, the
classification accuracy is estimated by calculating the accuracy for the ten folds
[15]. The performance of ANN with two input kinematic data sets (TMWU and
SWDA) were measured using the accuracy, sensitivity and specificity based on
the confusion matrix with two classes. The classification stage was developed
using MATLAB version R2015a (The MathWorks Inc., USA).

In this section, the results and discussions of the proposed method are presented.
Altogether forty-four kinematic gait features were extracted. After features
selection stage, nine significant features were identified using the TMWU
whereas four dominant features were selected using the SWDA. Table 1
summarizes the classification performance of ANN classifier using TMWU and
SWDA data sets kinematic input features.
Table 1: Classification performance of ANN classifier using kinematic-TMWU

and kinematic-SWDA data sets input features
Performance Measure Kinematic-TMWU Kinematic-SWDA

Accuracy 90.0 % 91.7 %
Sensitivity 100.0 % 90.0 %
Specificity 80.0 % 93.3 %
In terms of accuracy and specificity, the kinematic-SWDA dataset with

four input features outperforms the kinematic-TMWU dataset. These results
indicate that SWDA feature selector provides the most prominent kinematic gait
features that could be utilised to classify the ASD gait patterns with 91.7%
accuracy, 90.0% sensitivity, and 93.3 % specificity.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the classification of ASD gait patterns using ANN is presented.
The findings of this study demonstrate that the kinematic gait features selected
using SWDA method are promising to be used for the identification of ASD gait
deviation with 91.7% accuracy, 90.0% sensitivity and 93.3% specificity. Apart
from that, this study also introduces the importance of feature selection
630
techniques for selecting dominant gait features prior to classification and it is

evident that the SWDA is a superior gait feature selector. These encouraging
results would be beneficial for automatic diagnosis of ASD and also for the
detection of gait abnormalities in individuals with ASD or other pathological
gait disorders.
Acknowledgement
This research was funded by the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE),
Malaysia through the Niche Research Grant Scheme (NRGS), project file: 600-
RMI/NRGS 5/3 (8/2013).
References
[1] E. B. Torres and A. M. Donnellan, Autism: the movement perspective.
Frontiers Media SA, 2015.
[2] American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and statistical manual of
mental disorders, 5th ed. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric
Association, 2013.
[3] N. Mezghani, S. Husse, K. Boivin, K. Turcot, R. Aissaoui, N.
Hagemeister, and J. a. De Guise, “Automatic classification of
asymptomatic and osteoarthritis knee gait patterns using kinematic data
features and the nearest neighbor classifier,” IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng.,
vol. 55, no. 3, pp. 1230–1232, 2008.
[4] J. Kamruzzaman and R. K. Begg, “Support vector machines and other
pattern recognition approaches to the diagnosis of cerebral palsy gait,”
IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., vol. 53, no. 12, pp. 2479–2490, 2006.
[5] H. H. Manap, N. M. Tahir, and A. I. M. Yassin, “Statistical analysis of
Parkinson disease gait classification using artificial neural network,” in
IEEE International Symposium on Signal Processing and Information
Technology (ISSPIT), 2011, pp. 60–65.
[6] S. H. Holzreiter and M. E. Köhle, “Assessment of gait patterns using
neural networks.,” J. Biomech., vol. 26, no. 6, pp. 645–651, 1993.
[7] J. G. Barton and A. Lees, “An application of neural networks for
distinguishing gait patterns on the basis of hip-knee joint angle
diagrams,” Gait Posture, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 28–33, 1997.
[8] S. Ilias, N. M. Tahir, R. Jailani, and C. Z. C. Hasan, “Classification of
autism children gait patterns using neural network and support vector
machine,” in 2016 IEEE Symposium on Computer Applications and
Industrial Electronics (ISCAIE), 2016, pp. 52–56.
[9] Vicon Motion Systems, “Vicon plug-in gait product guide: foundaton
notes.” Vicon Motion Systems Limited, 2010.
[10] H. J. Woltring, “A Fortran package for generalized, cross-validatory
spline smoothing and differentiation,” Adv. Eng. Softw., vol. 8, no. 2, pp.
104–113, 1986.
[11] R. Baker, Measuring walking: A handbook of clinical gait analysis, no.
1. London, United Kingdom: Mac Keith Press, 2013.
[12] V. L. Chester and A. T. Wrigley, “The identification of age-related
differences in kinetic gait parameters using principal component
analysis,” Clin. Biomech., vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 212–220, 2008.
[13] K. Allison, T. V. Wrigley, B. Vicenzino, K. L. Bennell, A. Grimaldi, and
P. W. Hodges, “Kinematics and kinetics during walking in individuals
with gluteal tendinopathy,” Clin. Biomech., vol. 32, pp. 56–63, 2016.
[14] K. Kaczmarczyk, A. Wit, M. Krawczyk, and J. Zaborski, “Gait
classification in post-stroke patients using artificial neural networks,”
Gait Posture, vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 207–210, 2009.
[15] R. Kohavi and F. Provost, “Glossary of Terms,” Mach. Learn., vol. 30,
pp. 271–274, 1998.
1 December 2016
T01_078: ENERGY ABSOPTION CABABILITY

OF HEXAGONAL COMPOSITE STRACTURE
M.F.M. Alkbir1,4, S. M. Sapuan1,2*, , A.A. Nuraini1,
, M. R. Ishak 3 , M.S.Hamuoda4 and E.Mahdi 4
1
Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering,
Universiti Putra Malaysia 43400 UPM (Selangor, Malaysia
Laboratory of BioComposite Technology, Institute of Tropical Forestry and
Research Products (INTROP),
Universiti Putra Malaysia 43400 UPM, Serdang Selangor, Malaysia
3
Aerospace Manufacturing Research Centre (AMRC)
Universiti Putra Malaysia 43400 UPM, Serdang Selangor, Malaysia
4
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, College of
Engineering, Qatar University, P. O. Box 2713, Doha, Qatar
ABSTRACT
The current work describes an experimental investigation of the energy
absorption capability of the of fabric plain weave /epoxy hexagonal tubes, Series
of experiments were performed for composite hexagonally with aspect ratio L/t
= 70 and deferent hexagonal angles ranging from 35˚ to 55˚ in 10˚ increment.
The effects of mandrel geometry on crashworthiness performance of fabric plain
weave /epoxy hexagonal tubes and their effects on energy absorption
capabilities have been observed. The result showed that The hexagonal tube with
β=45˚exhibited the highest energy absorption capability as well as average
crashing load. Furthermore, the failure modes noted as progressive failure mode
Keywords: energy absorption, hexagonal tube. Hand-lay up
Introduction
Investigations of crushing energy absorption are important and are expected
from the point of view of safety design of passenger vehicles. In order to reduce
the damage to occupants in a collision, it necessary to understand the crushing
behavior and to enhance the energy absorbing capability of tubular structures.
Structural crashworthiness is currently an important criterion within the design
of vehicles, rail cars and aerospace application [1–4] In passenger vehicles the
ability to absorb impact energy and be survivable for the occupant is called the
“crashworthiness” of the structure. This absorption of energy is through
controlled failure mechanisms and modes that enable the maintenance of a
gradual decay in the load profile [5–8]
The effect of the number of layers, type of the fiber, a type of the matrix and
fiber orientation angles were the common features which are usually evaluated
for each structure by developing the load-displacement and energy absorption
relation[9–12]. Bartosz et al [13] carried out an experimental investigation to
study the behavior of axially crushed hemp yarns/epoxy composite tubes. Five
fiber orientation angles of designed winding orientations of 10°, 30°, 45°, 60°
and 90° were studied. Four compression collapse modes were observed for the
tested NFC tubes, namely micro -buckling, diamond shape buckling, concertina
shape buckling and progressive crushing. Throughout this investigation, the
energy absorption capability and failure modes in hexagonal composite tube are
carried out experimentally an axial crushing load.
Methodology
The wet hand lay-up technique was used to fabricate a( Fabric plain weave
/epoxy) hexagonal shape composite tube. Woven Fabric plain weave was
passed through a resin bath, causing resin impregnation. This was followed by
632
the appliance of wet fibre to the solid wooden spindle to create the hexagonal
composite. A layer of wax coated the outer surface of the mandrel in order to
make it easier to extract the hexagonal from the mandrel. Two layers of Fabric
plain weave /epoxy wrapped to get thickness of approximately 2 mm. The
fabricated tubes were concerned at room temperature for 24 hours to afford
optimum stiffness and shrinkage. In the current study, the axial, quasi-static
crushing tests were carried out using a Universal testing machine), with a
capacity load of 100 kN, at a constant speed of 15mm/min. The schematic
diagram of crashworthy subfloor structure can be seen in Figure 1, where the
composite tubes are used as primary energy absorption units for this
crashworthy subfloor structure
Figure 1 Crashworthy subfloor in helicopter fuselage.
Figure 2 A schematic diagram of the specimen
Result of hexagonal tube with aspect ratio (L/t=70 and β=35˚)

Figure 3, shows a typical load-displacement curves and deformation history for
a hexagonal composite tube with aspect ratio (L/t=70 and β=35˚) subjected to
quasi-static compressive load. Linearity is evident during the pre-crushing stage
as shown in Figure 3(a) .In this stage the tube resistance reaches first and highest
peak Pi=PH= 14.3 kN at a displacement of 4 mm (0.05h) followed by a gradual
decrease till it reaches the lowest load value PL=0.6 kN at displacement 24 mm
(0.32h). A rapid rise of the load carrying capacity was observed and reached its
second peak value of 8.8 kN at a displacement 33 mm (0.44h). The splaying
failure mode then occurred as result of local buckling as shown in Figure 3 (c).
After that, the progressive folding is dominating the post -crushing stage
633
Figure 4 shows the load -displacement curves and deformation history for
hexagonal composite tube with aspect ratio (L/t=70 and β=45˚). Initially, the
load increased linearly to its first peak Pi= 11.1 kN at 1 mm (0.009h)
displacement. Hence, the tube resistance dropped gradually to 1.5 kN at 10 mm
(0.09h) displacement .In this stage, the specimen is torn apart from the bottom
end due to transverse crack and it is evident from Figure 2 (a, b). The tube
resistance was then recovered immediately to reach its second peak and highest
peak PH=13.3 kN at 33 mm (0.31h) displacement. Splaying failure mode with
local buckling was initiated at the bottom end of tube leading to a sudden drop
of the load as shown in Figure 4 (c). A rapid rise of the load was observed
following its sudden drop. Lastly, splaying failure mode dominated the post -
crushing stage as clearly illustrated in Figure 4(d-f).

The load-displacement curves in Figure 5, shows crushing history of hexagonal
composite tube with aspect ratio (L/t=70 and β=55˚). Initially, the load rises
almost linearly to its first peak Pi=14 kN at 1mm (0.009h). High sudden drop
was then noted due to transverse crack at the middle of the tube and after the
sudden drop the load-displacement curve becomes almost stable about sustained
a load value of 3.1 kN for displacement between 7 mm (0.06h) and 42 mm (0.4h)
displacement as shown in Figure 3, (a, b). Few tiny drops of load later appeared,
evolving a transverse cracks by splitting the tube into two segments (see Figure
5, (c, d)). The tube resistance recovered immediately to reach its highest peak
load value of 14.8 kN at 87 mm (0.82h) displacement. The tube finally collapsed
as indicated in Figure 5, (e, f). Table 1 summarizes the axial crushing results of
the hexagonal composite tubes with aspect ratio (L/t=70) and various angles
Table 1: Crashworthiness parameters for hexagonal composite tube with

aspect ratio (L/t=70) and various angles
Pi (kN)
Specimens (ID) Es (kJ/kg) Pcr(kN)
(H.70.35˚) 11.5 6.96 11.5

(H.70.45˚) 13.2 10.7 13.2
(H.70.55˚) 8.5 8.6 8.5
Conclusion
The conclusion should be tallied with the result and discussion of result. The
main conclusions, which can be drawn, are:
• From the average crushing load value it can be concluded that the average
load increases as the hexagonal angle increases from 35˚, the crush load
becomes maximum at hexagonal angle 45˚, the average crush load
decreases as the hexagonal angle increases up to hexagonal angle of 60˚.
• The hexagonal tube with β=45˚exhibited the highest energy absorption
capability with value of 35٪ compared to the tubes with other tubes.
• It appears that, for these models of L/t=70, a transverse crack at any section
of the tube at the pre-crushing stage leads to catastrophic failure mode
followed by stable load-displacement behavior.
• The failure of hexagonal tubes appeared as a progressive crushing type
when subjected to compressive load.
634
Figure 3. Typical load –displacement and crushing for ( H.70.35 ο)

635

636
References
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1 December 2016
T01_079: YOUTH PARTICIPATION IN THE

NEIGHBOURHOOD OUTDOOR SPACE
Kamarul Ariff Omar1
Dasimah Omar2
Zaharah Mohd Yusoff4
Faculty of Architecture, Planning and Surveying, Universiti
Teknologi Mara (UiTM), 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor,
Malaysia
Saberi Othman3
Faculty of Science and Mathematics, Universiti Pendidikan
Sultan Idris (UPSI), 35900 Tanjong Malim, Perak Malaysia
ABSTRACT
In defining the outdoor space provision especially for young people in the urban
neighbourhood experiences to present challenges. These outdoor space
influence the rating upon youth quality of life (QOL). Youth liveliness is
signifying by the variables of happiness, activeness, safety and comfortable.
Outdoor space is one of the built environment requirements, especially for the
neighbourhood unit. This research aimed at examining the level of youth
participatory in their community outdoor space by indicating both qualitative
and quantitative data. The youth has been gathered in focus group discussion
(FGD) session to understand their current issues by giving them chances in
expressing their feeling and experience on the outdoor features provided.
Instruments like the voice recorder and video recorder are applied to perform
the data collection in this qualitative method. As a result of the discussion, 400
respondents between 15-25 ages has been selected randomly by using ‘snowball'
technique to answer a set of questionnaire that was from the FGD session,
questioning on their awareness of each outdoor space. The results from these
two analysis methods were cross-tabulated to find the relationship between
youth participation and neighbourhood outdoor space.
Keywords: outdoor space, neighbourhood, youth, quality of life, focus group

discussion,
Introduction
Neighbourhood outdoor space development nowadays essentially more
conducive idea and decision-making method for better outcomes on human
quality of life (QOL). This outdoor space includes built environment structure
or spaces and natural environment elements. Despite the fact, it's challenging to
measure the quality of outdoor space; a process is developed to measure the
quality of outdoor space throughout user participation [1]. As people used the
space frequently, it can determine their rate of participatory upon the space and
relate it with the satisfactory towards the outdoor space character. These results
then indicated the regulatory among the users to participate in their
neighbourhood outdoor space. A study has been made at one of the People
Project Housing (PPH) precisely in the urban area as it happened to be the lack
of natural environment space for human interaction.
The previous studies were conducted and investigated on youth behaviour
and characters in the cities including Kuala Lumpur. [2] has developed a method
of measuring positive youth development using future expectations and
intentional self-regulation relationship; [3] investigated youth involvement
related to adult support and individual decision-making skills; [4] indicated
youth social activity with social and cultural measurement; and the latest
639
research on adolescence positive development according to public housing

neighbourhoods perception of risk and resilience made by [5].
These studies had given the idea to conduct a survey on outdoor space
development in public housing in an urban area. A hypothesis has been
suggested as the outdoor space development may affect youth characters and
influence their QOL. Youth often related to physical activities and sports as they
belong to the active group of ages [6]. Therefore, youth characters are influence
by the outdoor space development at their residential area.
Methodology
Focus Group Discussion Session
The research based on the focus group discussions (FGD) sessions with two
groups involving 21 (twenty-one) participants. The first meeting attended by 12
(twelve) youth who are the residents from the PPH in Kuala Lumpur. The
selected site is the Kerinchi PPH (People Project Housing), Lembah Pantai. The
second group representing the stakeholders which consists of nine (9)
participants of the PPH Residents' Committee members (three participants), a
Town Planner from Kuala Lumpur City Hall (DBKL), a Town Planner from
Federal Department of Town and Country Planning Department, Headquarters,
Kuala Lumpur and four members of the Malaysian Youth Council Committee.
These FGDs held at two different venues between September 2014 and
November 2014. The first session was at community hall of PPH on the
afternoon between 3-5pm. The time was appropriate for the youth as most of
them were in schools in the morning. The second FGD group held at 10am-
12pm at Hotel Ramada in Petaling Jaya, which is accessible to all participants.
Questionnaire distribution
The next stage is the quantitative data collection. A set of the questionnaire
has been developed through the variable and highlighted subjects from the FGD
sessions. A total of 400 questionnaires were distributed to the youth age 15-25
randomly using ‘snowball' sampling technique because the total number of
youth live there not clearly indicated. This survey took about 2 (two) weeks
because most of the respondents were available during their leisure time at about
five (5) p.m. after school and after working hours.
Result Finding
FGD summary
Youth understand the term of ‘outdoor space' as the keyword to express their
sentiment and viewpoint; a majority of them sensed the disappointed upon the
next neighborhood outdoor space. These youth frequently quoted that they were
unsatisfied and disagreeable about the outdoor space management and
functionalization. Most of them prefer to go outside their neighborhood for
outdoor activities.
However, some of the FGD's participant quoted that youth should not be
given too much priority in the outdoor space because youth often interconnected
to social issues rather than a useful and behavioral user. Participation is part of
having social interaction in human connection, youth and stakeholders decided
that; ‘social interaction' complicated arise because of the absence of outdoor
space due to functional issue and inappropriate type of spaces, especially for
youth activities.
The gap in participation in outdoor space to create social interaction verified
by the previous study [7][8][9] as they summarize the availability and functional
space must be determined by the user participatory. Therefore, indicating the
640
level of user participation in outdoor space among youth is reliable with the
neighborhood outdoor space availability and functionality.
Questionnaire report
Table 1 shows the number of respondents participating in the survey
according to their gender. By using snowball technique, the users are more likely
conquered by the male with over 225 respondents compare to female 175 fields.
This table indicates that the male youth often takes place in outdoor space rather
than female youth because of inappropriate condition for them to have outdoor
activities.
Table 1: Number of respondents by gender

Kerinchi PPH, Lembah Pantai
Gender Frequency Percentage
Male 225 56.2
Female 175 43.8
Total 540 100.0
From the Table 2, the respondents acknowledged the various type of outdoor
space in their neighbourhood area. The involvement among youth depends on
certain outdoor space. For example, badminton and futsal court are mostly
available and realized amongst the highest space to be chosen for outdoor
activities. Table 2 shows the result of respondent's awareness of outdoor space.
According to the previous FGD and site observation, there are five (5) types of
outdoor space. Futsal court recorded the highest awareness among youth, with
399 over 400 respondents upon the availability of the space. Despite, only 254
respondents are currently using the space due to its unavailability of the unit.
This scenario may happen due to the by lifestyle factors of youths who were
living in urban areas, whereas their leisure time limits by the space provision,
and causing them to use the areas randomly, particularly at night to carry out
outdoor activities. Thus, some of them choose to put themselves in outdoor
space at any time as it does not crowd with other dwellers.
Table 2: Respondent awareness upon outdoor space

Availability Usage
Types Of Outdoor Activities
Yes No yes no
Futsal Court 399 1 254 146
Badminton Court 381 19 215 185
Football Field 377 23 205 195
Playground 376 24 251 149
Jogging Track 331 69 213 187

According to the result of focus group discussion (FGD) and questionnaire
report, youth participation in the neighborhood outdoor space is still at the low
level and ineffectively week. Presently, youth felt that the community
marginalized them in using the space. Besides, youth live in this neighborhood
encountered the shortage of outdoor space and limited of functional facilities.
Table 3 show the result or correlation between youth gender and their
participation with outdoor space.
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Table 3: Cross-Tabulation between Gender and Outdoor space

Type of Outdoor Space
Respondents
/Percentages
Futsal Court Soccer Field Jogging Track
Gender
Outdoor Space Total Outdoor Space Total Outdoor Space Total

User by User by User by
Yes No Gender Yes No Gender Yes No Gender
N 163 62 225 145 80 225 128 97 225
within 72.4 27.6 100.0 64.4 35.6 100.0 57.1 42.9 100.0
Male
Total
Gender
Total 40.6 15.5 56.1 36.2 20.0 56.1 32.1 24.1 56.1%
N
N 100 75 175 80 95 175 94 81 175
within 56.8 43.2 100.0 46.6 53.4 100.0 53.7 46.3 100.0
Female
Total
Gender
Total 24.9 19.0 43.9 20.4 23.4 43.9 23.6 20.3 43.9
N
Total 263 137 400 225 175 400 222 178 400
Tota
l
N 65.6 34.4 100.0 56.6 43.4 100.0 55.6 44.4 100.0
This group faced problem in accessing the spaces because of the crowdedness
and malfunctions of the spaces. Some of the space have been used for the car
parking and regularly used for some social event at the weekend. The pedestrian
linkages also affect the youth to access the outdoor space as covered by some
unwanted barricades.
Consequently, with the participation of youth in neighborhood outdoor space,
the community cannot ignore their existence as the need to be part of the user of
neighborhood outdoor space user.
The youth is the best sources that can contribute to this success because they
are very active and always moving forward with the desire to achieve the better
goal in life. Therefore, the involvement of the youth in the neighborhood
community considered as one of the national agenda in Malaysia.
Finally, the outdoor space development is important as people use it equally
and rightfully among themselves. Youth and outdoor space must be
interconnected to increase behavioral quality index and enhance their social
interaction. The dweller must help the youth to be a better person and motivate
them to be the leader of future development towards a better quality of life and
healthier living environment.
Acknowledgement
This study is made possible by the Long-term Research Grant Scheme (LRGS
2014-0006-106-42), Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris Perak associated with
Universiti Teknologi MARA Shah Alam, and Universiti Putra Malaysia. Special
thanks to the supportive supervisor and kindness co-supervisors in supporting
the success of this research.
References
[1] Lai, D., Zhou, C., Huang, J., & Jiang, Y. (2014). Outdoor space quality : A field study
in an urban residential community in central China, 68, 713–720.
[2] Schmid, K. L., Phelps, E., & Lerner, R. M. (2011). Constructing positive futures:
modeling the relationship between adolescents’ hopeful future expectations and
intentional self-regulation in predicting positive youth development. Journal of
adolescence, 34(6), 1127–35. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.07.009
[3] Crean, H. F. (2012). Youth activity involvement, neighborhood adult support,
individual decision making skills, and early adolescent delinquent behaviors: Testing
642
a conceptual model. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 33(4), 175–188.

doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2012.04.003
[4] Yeshpanova, D., Narbekova, G., Biyekenova, N., Kuchinskaya, J., & Mukanova, O.
(2014). Social Activity of Youth in Social and Cultural Measurement. Procedia -
Social and Behavioral Sciences, 140, 109–114. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.04.394
[5] Forrest-bank, S. S., Nicotera, N., Anthony, E. K., & Jenson, J. M. (2015). Children
and Youth Services Review Finding their Way : Perceptions of risk , resilience , and
positive youth development among adolescents and young adults from public housing
neighborhoods, 55, 147–158.
[6] Batlle, I. C., Carr, S., & Brown, C. (2015). Exploring Sport as a Site for Children’s
Relational and Socio-Psychological Development. Procedia - Social and Behavioral
Sciences, 191(0), 1069–1076. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.04.662
[7] Aziz, N. F., & Said, I. (2012). The Trends and Influential Factors of Children’s Use
of Outdoor Environments: A Review. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences,
38(December 2010), 204–212. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.03.341
[8] Huang, S. C. L. (2006). A study of outdoor interactional spaces in high-rise housing.
Landscape and Urban Planning, 78(July 2005), 193–204.
doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2005.07.008
[9] Runcharoen, S. (2014). The Development of Social Interaction of Children with
Autism in Inclusive Classrooms. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 116,
4108–4113. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.899
1 December 2016
T01_080: TAGUCHI OPTIMIZATION FOR BIO-

RECOVERY OF SILVER FROM WASTEWATER
USING PALM (ELAEIS GUINEENSIS) LEAVES
EXTRACTS
AHMAD ARIF
Junaidah Jai*1
Norashikin Ahmad Zamanhuri*2
Faculty of Chemical Engineering
Email: ahmad.uitm.edu@gmail.com
junejai@salam.uitm.edu.my*1
shikin.zamanhuri@salam.uitm.edu.my*2
ABSTRACT
In this research, the bio-recovery of silver from silver-bearing wastewater using
palm (Elaeis guineensis) leaves extract was studied. The Taguchi robust design
method was applied to design the experiments and optimize the parameters for
silver bio-recovery effectiveness. L16 (45) orthogonal arrays was applied in
experimental design planning and the bigger-the-better response category for
signal-to-noise ratio was selected to maximize the amount of silver being
recovered. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to evaluate the percentage
contribution of each controllable factor which affecting the silver bio-recovery
effectiveness. The optimum conditions were found to be 40% of palm leaves
extracts, 2000ppm of initial silver ions concentration, pH of 2 (acidic
conditions), no impurities present and recovery time of 2 hours. From the
optimum conditions, validation experiment is conducted and results 4.39%
error. Hence, these method was acceptable since the validation result is within
the range of 95% confidence limit. ANOVA results indicated that the initial
silver ions concentration was the most important variable influencing the silver
bio-recovery effectiveness, and its contribution value was obtained 56.82%. The
significant factors affecting the silver bio-recovery effectiveness in descending
order is Ci > PLE > pH > t > Imp
Keywords: Palm leaves extract, silver wastewater, bio-recovery, Taguchi
method, ANOVA.
Introduction
Recovery of silver have been extensively studied recently because of its present
demand as a precious metal. Owing to its special properties such as the highest
electrical and thermal conductivities and the lowest contact resistance of all
metals, silver, a lustrous, soft, white metal, is extensively used in industry,
especially in the electronics industry. Till this date, silver recovery has been
performed from spent electrical and electronic applications, mining wastewaters
[1], photo-processing wastewater [2] and electroplating wastewater [3].
The supplies of silver raw materials are dwindling because of their
scarcity while demands for silver in industries are still increasing. Therefore,
recovery of silver from industrial wastewater is of interest, for both water
resource protection and silver reclamation. To date, many methods have been
developed to recover silver from industrial wastewater, including chemical
reduction, membrane filtration, ion exchange, adsorption, and electrochemical
methods [4]. Each of the methods has pros and cons in practical applications.
644
Bio-recovery methods which utilize plant parts or living microorganisms to

recover precious metals from wastewater are being increasingly explored
recently by several researches concerning about green technology applications.
One of it is bio-reduction using plants (inactivated plant tissue, living plant and
plant extract). Extracts from palm (Elaeis guineensis) leaves extract are known
to contain a naturally occurring phytochemicals which exhibit great antioxidant
properties [5]. This oxygen-containing free-radicals bioactive compounds have
the abilities to act as both reducing and stabilizing agents which is first reduce
the silver ions to silver solid and then stabilize the colloidal solid formed in the
solutions [6]. However, no studies have been conducted to find the optimum
condition parameters to recover silver from silver-bearing wastewater using
palm leaves extracts.
The Taguchi method applies fractional factorial test designs called
orthogonal arrays that serve to reduce the number of experiments. The selection
of a suitable orthogonal array depends on the number of control factors and their
levels. This orthogonal array was selected because there was no interaction
between factors. The design of experiment using the Taguchi method provides
a simple, efficient and systematic approach to determine optimum conditions.
This approach involves numerous steps including design of the experiment,
performing the experiments and estimating results [7].
In the Taguchi method, the optimum conditions can be determined
using the signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio of the results obtained from experiments
designed. There are three basic S/N ratios, the larger-the-better, the smaller-the-
better and the nominal-the-better. The larger S/N ratio corresponds to better
performance characteristic [8]. Hence, Taguchi optimization method can be
used to maximize the amount of silver that can be bio-recovered.
Methodology
Preparation of palm leaves extract

Fresh palm leaves were collected, washed with distilled water, cut into small
pieces and oven dried at 70°C for 12 hours. The dried palm leaves then grinded
into powder using grinder. 500 mL of distilled water was heated in a beaker until
reach temperature 70°C. 50 g of the palm leaves powder were weighted and
poured into the beaker. The mixture was stirred for 10 minutes and filtered using
filter paper. The palm leaves extract obtained was stored in refrigerator at 4°C
[5].
Bio-recovery of silver from silver-bearing wastewater

A percent of palm leaves extract was added into a wastewater solution which
contains silver (I) ions (silver nitrate) and stirred for several hours. Then, the
mixture was centrifuged at 14000 rpm for 10 minutes and the unreacted silver
ions concentration was measured using atomic absorption spectroscopy, AAS
(model Hitachi Z-2000).
Design of experiments using Taguchi method

In this study, five controllable factors: percentage of palm leaves extract (PLE),
initial concentration of silver ions in the wastewater (Ci), wastewater
acidity/alkalinity (pH), presence of impurities (copper (II) ions) in the
wastewater (Imp) and recovery time (t) were selected to estimate the effects on
the amount of silver being recovered (M) per litre of wastewater. PLE, Ci and
pH were designed in four levels, and Imp and t were designed in two levels.
These factors and their levels are presented in Table 1.
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Table 1: Controllable factors and their associated levels

Level Level
Factors Description Level 1 Level 4
2 3
Percentage of palm leaves
PLE 10 20 30 40
extract (%)
Initial concentration of silver
Ci 500 1000 1500 2000
ions (ppm)
Wastewater acidity/alkalinity
pH 2 4 8 10
(pH)
Presence of impurities
Imp No Yes - -
(copper (II) ions)
t Time (h) 2 4 - -
A Standard L16 orthogonal array was employed to design these

experiments to include five factors (PLE, Ci, pH, Imp and t) and their levels.
Each row of the matrix shows one run. The standard L16 orthogonal array is
presented in Table 2. These (16 experiments) are the minimum number of
experiments that can be performed effectively to estimate the effects of these
above-mentioned factors.
Table 2: A design of L16 (45) orthogonal arrays by the Taguchi method

Factors
Run
PLE Ci pH Imp t
1 10 500 2 No 2
2 10 1000 4 No 2
3 10 1500 8 Yes 4
4 10 2000 10 Yes 4
5 20 500 4 Yes 4
6 20 1000 2 Yes 4
7 20 1500 10 No 2
8 20 2000 8 No 2
9 30 500 8 No 4
10 30 1000 10 No 4
11 30 1500 2 Yes 2
12 30 2000 4 Yes 2
13 40 500 10 Yes 2
14 40 1000 8 Yes 2
15 40 1500 4 No 4
16 40 2000 2 No 4
The amount of silver being recovered, M (mg) per litre of wastewater is given
by Equation (1) as follows:
𝐶𝑖 −𝐶𝑓
𝑀=( ) × 1000 (1)
𝑉
where Ci and Cf are the initial and final concentrations of silver ions (ppm), and
V is the volume of wastewater being recovered (mL) respectively.
In the Taguchi method, quality characteristics are categorized into larger-the-
better, nominal-the-best, and smaller-the-better types. As the goal of this study
was to recover silver from wastewater by PLE, the larger-the-better quality
characteristic was selected. The related S/N ratio is given by Equation (2) [9].
1
∑𝑛
𝑖=1𝑦2
𝑖
𝑆/𝑁𝐿𝐵 = −10𝑙𝑜𝑔 (2)
𝑛
where the subscript LB represents “larger-the-better”, n is the number of

repetitions under the same experimental conditions, and yi is the result of each
646
repeated measurement. In this study, each test was repeated three times; namely,
n was 3.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA)

In order to determine levels of significance and importance of the factors,
analysis of variance, ANOVA was performed. ANOVA results are carried by
separating the total variability into contributions by each of the design
parameters and error. In ANOVA analysis, the values of sum of squares (SS),
degree of freedom (DOF), mean square (MS) and associated F-test of
significance (F) were calculated. Sum of squares (SS) of factor A is calculated
using Equation (3) [8]:
𝐴 𝑘 𝐴2𝑖 𝑇2
𝑆𝑆𝐴 = [∑𝑖=1 ( )] − (3)
𝑛𝐴𝑖 𝑁
where kA is the number of the levels of factor A, nAi is the number of all
observations at level i of factor A, Ai is the sum of all observations of level i of
factor A and T is the sum of all observations. SS of error is computed using the
following equation (4) [8]:
𝑆𝑆𝑒 = 𝑆𝑆𝑇 − (𝑆𝑆𝐴 + 𝑆𝑆𝐵 + ⋯ ) (4)
where SST is the total SS:
𝑇2
𝑆𝑆𝑇 = ∑𝑁 2
𝑖=1 𝑦𝑖 − (5)
𝑁
where yi is the observation of i. MS is calculated by dividing the sum of squares

by the degrees of freedom. DOF A is estimated by DOFA = kA − 1. F value is
calculated as follows:
𝑀𝑆𝐴
𝐹𝐴 = (6)
𝑀𝑆𝑒
where MSe is the variance of error.
Bio-recovery of silver
Figure 1(a) shows the extracts from palm (Elaeis guineensis) leaves which
contains bioactive phytochemical compounds that can act as reducing and
stabilizing agents to recover silver from silver-bearing wastewater [6]. Figure
1(b) and (c) shows the changes appear from the silver bio-recovery process and
Figure 1(d) shows the suspended bio-recovered metallic silver nanoparticles [6].
(a) (b)
647
(c) (d)
Figure 1: (a) Palm (Elaeis guineensis) leaves extracts; (b) initial silver-bearing
wastewater; (c) silver-bearing wastewater + PLE after several hours; (d) silver-
bearing wastewater after centrifuged.
Taguchi results
Results of experiments designed by the Taguchi method was analysed and
performed using Minitab 17 Version 17.1.0.0 software. This software is for
automatic design and analysis of Taguchi experiments. The calculated S/N
(signal to noise) ratio for each experiment using equation 2 are presented in
Table 3. From the mean averages, the associated S/N ratio for each level of every
controllable factor are presented in Figure 2. It shows that there were different
slopes between the lines of various levels (expect for impurities and time that
were in two levels). This means that each level had a different effect on treatment
performance indicators.
Table 3: Response table for S/N Ratios larger-is-better

Level PLE Ci pH Imp t
1 75.08 73.72 80.72 79.59 79.75
2 79.11 79.17 80.46 78.03 77.87
3 80.35 79.57 78.13
4 80.71 82.78 75.93
Delta 5.63 9.06 4.80 1.56 1.89
Rank 2 1 3 5 4
Figure 2: Response distribution of S/N ratios
Moreover, from Figure 2, the optimum conditions for this study given
by the maximum amount of silver that can be recovered, M of 22003.2 mg/L is
648
Percentage PLE of 40%, Ci of 2000ppm, pH of 2, no impurities and time of 2

hours.
The significance of each controllable factor can be further quantified
by the range of S/N ratio (the difference between the maximum and minimum
S/N ratios or Delta) given in Table 3. A larger range implies a more significant
factor and should be utilized first. The range in descending order is Ci > PLE >
pH > t > Imp. It can also be noted that the range for Ci is the most significant as
compared with others.
ANOVA results
ANOVA, using Minitab 17 statistical software, was performed to evaluate the
percentage contribution of each controllable factor by SS A and FA. The results
are tabulated in Table 4 below shows exactly the same order of influence of the
controllable factors on amount of silver recovered as given by the range of S/N
ratio. For means, all the controllable factor are significant because their p-values
are less than 0.10.
Table 4: Analysis of Variance, ANOVA for S/N ratios

Source DOF Seq SS Adj SS Adj MS FA P
PLE 3 79.845 79.845 26.6151 26.74 0.004
Ci 3 169.665 169.665 56.5549 56.82 0.001
pH 3 60.618 60.618 20.2061 20.30 0.007
Imp 1 9.745 9.745 9.7448 9.79 0.035
t 1 14.235 14.235 14.2354 14.30 0.019
Residual Error 4 3.981 3.981 0.9953
Total, SST 15 338.089
Validation
The final step is validation testing in the Taguchi method. Validation
experiments is highly recommended by Taguchi in order to verify the
experimental predicted results. If the observed results in the validation
experiments are within the confidence limit (±5% error range) then the predicted
results, according to the Taguchi method, are acceptable [7]. Validation
experiments were performed at optimum silver recovery conditions. The amount
of silver being recovered, M was found to be 21037.25 mg in the confirmation
experiment with error of 4.39%. They are within the range of the 95%
confidence limit.
Conclusions
To conclude, the Taguchi robust design method can be applied to design the
experiments and optimize the parameters for silver bio-recovery effectiveness.
L16 (45) orthogonal arrays was applied in experimental design planning and the
bigger-the-better response category for signal-to-noise ratio was selected to
maximize the amount of silver being recovered. Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
was used to evaluate the percentage contribution of each controllable factor
which affecting the silver bio-recovery effectiveness. The optimum conditions
were found to be 40% of palm leaves extracts, 2000ppm of initial silver ions
concentration, pH of 2 (acidic conditions), no impurities present and recovery
time of 2 hours. From the optimum conditions, validation experiment is
conducted and results 4.39% error. Hence, these method was acceptable since
the validation result is within the range of 95% confidence limit. ANOVA
results indicated that the initial silver ions concentration was the most important
variable influencing the silver bio-recovery effectiveness, and its contribution
value was obtained 56.82%. From this conclusion, we recommends that this
method is being experimented and validated by the use of real industrial
wastewater instead of simulated wastewater which was used in this studies.
649
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to acknowledge Ministry of Education for Research
Acculturation Grant Scheme (RAGS) Project number
RAGS/2012/UITM/TK05/6 for the financial support to carry out this research.
References
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power generation using a microbial fuel cell,” Bioresour. Technol., vol.
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[3] Y. Gao, Y. Zhou, H. Wang, W. Lin, Y. Wang, D. Sun, J. Hong, and Q.
Li, “Simultaneous silver recovery and cyanide removal from
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cylinder electrodes,” Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., vol. 52, no. 17, pp. 5871–
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[4] Y. Su, Q. Li, Y. Wang, H. Wang, and X. Yang, “Electrochemical
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170, no. 2, pp. 1164–1172, 2009.
[5] N. A. Arham, N. A. N. Mohamad, J. Jai, J. Krishnan, and N. M. Yusof,
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Bioactive Component from Palm Leaves (Elaeis guineensis),” Int. J.
Sci. Eng., vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 95–100, 2013.
[6] A. A. Azmi, J. Jai, and N. A. Zamanhuri, “Bio-recovery of silver from
simulated silver electroplating wastewater using Palm (Elaeis
guineensis) leaves extracts,” in Mechanical Engineering & Science
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190–198.
[7] A. Zirehpour, A. Rahimpour, M. Jahanshahi, and M. Peyravi, “Mixed
matrix membrane application for olive oil wastewater treatment :
Process optimization based on Taguchi design method,” J. Environ.
Manage., vol. 132, pp. 113–120, 2014.
[8] Z. B. Gönder, Y. Kaya, I. Vergili, and H. Barlas, “Optimization of
filtration conditions for CIP wastewater treatment by nanofiltration
process using Taguchi approach,” vol. 70, pp. 265–273, 2010.
[9] H. Y. Yen and J. Y. Li, “Process optimization for Ni ( II ) removal from
wastewater by calcined oyster shell powders using Taguchi method,”
J. Environ. Manage., vol. 161, pp. 344–349, 2015.
1 December 2016
T01_081: A PRELIMINARY REVIEW ON

CRYPTANALYSIS OF ACOUSTIC SIGNALS
LEAKAGE
Farah Hanim SAJ
Janatul Islah Mohammad
Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Data encryption devices are most vulnerable to side channel information
attacks. In cryptography, acoustic attacks on electrical components inside
computers among the latest side channel attacks that have been drawn into
attention of attackers. The electrical components in a CPU’s voltage
regulation circuit vibrate as they struggle to supply constant voltage to the
CPU despite fluctuations in power consumption caused by different
operations. Most acoustic attacks studies have focused on the attacked
hardware and this may not be the case in real world. This paper reviews on
the acoustic attacks using only simple mobile devices embedded with decent
signal processors and techniques which includes signal classification and
spectral analysis for clustering and recognition to employ the attacks. This
paper also discusses the threats and proposes some countermeasures against
the attacks, which helps in reducing the risk. Based on the initial
investigations, signal classification is the most suitable technique to be
explored further in future research due to its ability of solving efficiently by
standard linear algebra software and yet simple to implement.
Keywords: Acoustic attacks, side channel, low-bandwidth signal,
classification, spectral analysis.
Introduction
We live in the era where security is the main concern of protecting private
information which is controlled via computer system. A lot of effort have
been done in protecting this information but there are still many concerns for
the security systems in which the orientation is visible and easily accessed.
As such system like data encryption using our laptop that we use daily is
vulnerable to the attacks through their cryptographic protocols. Previously an
651
encryption device was regarded to receive plaintext input and produce

ciphertext output or vice versa [1]. The attacks therefore were based on the
known input of both processes. Today encryption techniques imposed certain
input or output of the encrypted devices such as timing, voltage or even power
consumption that can be modified to cause certain predictable outcomes. The
attacks of the information that can be retrieved from the encryption device
which is neither encrypted plaintext nor the output ciphertext is known as side
channel attacks. Side channel attacks are considered as physical attacks in
which an attacker tries to exploit physical information leakages from the
encryption devices. Based on the type of attacks the analysis is
significant because the system can easily be implemented within
a short period using cheap hardware made available in the
market. In cryptography, acoustic attacks are among side channel attacks
which exploits sounds produced by computers or encryption devices.
Historically, acoustic attacks have been applied to impact printers and
electromechanical cipher machines. Other conventional side-channel
leakages can be power, electromagnetic radiation, sound/acoustic emanation
and light emanation [2]. Modern analysis focuses on the sounds produced by
internal components and peripherals such as CPU and keyboards which will
be discussed further in later section.
Related Past Attacks

It is crucial for public users and service providers to stay abreast of the
progress and trends on cryptanalysis of security protocol. Facilitating this
process is the objective of this paper. The source of attacks on the security of
computer systems produced by emanations electronic devices have long been
investigated among researchers. Past attacks have exploited many kind of
method analysis including electromagnetic emanations [2,3,4] as well as
optical emanations [5,6]. Timing attacks also one example that use the idea
of certain operations input dependable which vary in time. This is usually
done by sending multiple requests to the server and timing the responses by
guessing the potential private key. Other research investigates acoustic
emanations of a PC keyboard clicks to detect upon what is being typed. This
attacks is based on the hypothesis that the sound of clicks can differ slightly
from key to key, although the clicks of different keys sound very similar to
the human ear [7]. The experiments show that a neural network can be trained
to classify clicks using the neural method have been successfully solved
related problems, such as speaker identification [8]. This attacks is
652
inexpensive and non-invasive because the only other hardware needed to

perform the attacks is a parabolic microphone. Physical intrusion into the
system also is not required and the sound can be recorded from a substantial
distance.
In another perspective, many computers emit a high-pitched noise during
operation, due to vibration in some of their electronic components. During
the CPU operation, the power consumptions fluctuate to supply the constant
voltage within the chipsets components. These cause the electrical
components in a CPU circuit vibrates to produce a high-pitched noise during
operation. The acoustic signals vary according to the CPU’s workload, and
can leak valuable information regarding the kinds of computations running.
Interestingly, previous studies have shown that it was possible to extract a
4096-bit RSA key from a laptop computer by analysing the audible noise
during operation [9,10]. These acoustic emanations can convey information
about the software running on the computer, and in particular leak sensitive
information about security-related computations. A very low bandwidth of
acoustic side channel was the main issue (under 20 kHz using common
microphones, and a few hundred kHz using ultrasound microphones). Further
investigations by Genkin et al. have proposed a new acoustic cryptanalysis
key extraction attacks, applicable to GnuPG’s current implementation of
RSA [11]. The acoustic attacks can extract full 4096-bit RSA decryption keys
from various model of laptop computers using the sound generated by the
computer during the decryption of some chosen cipher texts. Latest research
presents the first physical side-channel attacks on elliptic curve cryptography
running on a PC targeted the Elliptic Curve Diffie-Hellman (ECDH) public-
key encryption algorithm, as implemented in the latest version of GnuPG’s
Libgcrypt [12]. The paper demonstrates the first side-channel attacks via low-
bandwidth measurements on PC implementations of elliptic curve cryptology
making the multiplication operands using Libgcrypt is noticeable. The attacks
extract the secret decryption key within seconds by measuring the target’s
electromagnetic emanations from a target located in an adjacent room across
a wall. The attacks utilize a single carefully chosen ciphertext, and tailored
time-frequency signal analysis techniques, to achieve full key extraction.
The paper is organised as follows; section 3 introduces the experimental setup
and preliminary analysis, which include the simple recording devices and the
laptops, signal frequency and possible method in signal processing. Section
4 discuss on the possible device under threat and countermeasures against the
attacks. Lastly, section 5 concludes the paper and recommend few
suggestions for further works.
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Setup and Preliminary Analysis

This section describes previous methods and approaches that have been used
in the attempt of carrying out an acoustic attack [9,10]. The first subsection
explains the common experimental set-up and justifies the reasons for
choosing the equipment. Then this will be followed by a description on the
initial diagnostics performed to determine whether or not a laptop was
suitable for the acoustic attacks. Finally, we describe potential problems that
arise from the occurrence of other signals are described.
Experimental setup
The crucial stage of the experiment is to select the appropriate equipment

which will be discussed further in the next subsection. According to Tromer
et al. in [9], the basic experiment may require three main components (1) a
suitable microphone from mobile phone to record acoustic leakage, (2) a
suitable laptop to function as the attacked computer as shown in Figure 1 and
(3) a method to perform elementary signal processing.
Figure 1: Example of mobile setup [9]

Laptop/Attacked Computer
Selecting a suitable laptop to run as the attacked computer is the most crucial
stage in the lab setup. For mobile phone setup in [9,10], the need to use an
older version of laptop is a must as most of the acoustic signals to be captured
are at a higher frequency for the phones to record. The reason is that an older
processor would be much slower and that the capacitors would more likely
be worn out and thus leak out more acoustic noise. The processor which was
running CPU instructions are at too high rate for the phones to actually record
any acoustic signal. Meanwhile the location of the CPU within the laptop has
made recording very difficult which according to the authors of the original
paper [9], had very weak acoustic leakage that would hardly be captured by
a phone’s microphone. By using the much slower processor would produce
654
better result and more relevant to the recordings. Figure 2 below shows the
example of mobile setup in [10] while placing the microphone at proper
location to find the best position to record acoustic leakage. Some laptop
configuration was not very useful in providing acoustic leakage due to the
fact that there were not a lot of openings at the sidewall. Most of the
connections that would be seen on a laptop today, for example, USB drive,
wireless mouse or keyboard, may or may not have interfered the signal as
they are all are closely connected and embedded.
Microphone
The main component to perform the recording acoustic leakage is
microphone as the transducers which is commonly used. Genkin et al. [11]
reported that a highly operated microphone with frequency range of 3Hz up
to 350kHz has been used for accurate recording. However, these type of
transducers is costly and bulky in size, which is visible for public and
inconvenient for the attackers. Then another research done by Shroff et al.
[10] used a simplified setup using mobile phones as the transducers. The
sampling rate was set to 48,000 kHz, as this is a standard sampling rate for
many microphones. By the Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem, this means
that the phone can capture frequencies of up to 24,000 kHz. However, the
Android phone was only able to capture frequencies up to 22,000 kHz. This
is most likely due to the other hardware inside the Android phone and the fact
that Android phone is not intended to be used as a high-end recorder. On the
other hand, the iPhone type microphone gives more promising result with less
distortion of signals on the spectrogram with the same sampling rate of
48,000kHz as the Android phone. It also gave more flexibility in locating the
microphone, which is very important for the set-up. The highly sophisticated
mobile recorder such as Zoom Recorder was also used which had a sampling
rate of 96,000kHz. With up to frequencies of about 48,000kHz this device
essentially has double the sampling rate than both the Android and iPhone.
Typically, the output graphs concerning the RSA algorithm were not much
clearer when using this microphone.
655
Figure 2: Example of mobile setup [9]
Potential Audio Signal Profiling Method

Profiling an audio signal is considered as easy tasks for human ear. For
instance, detecting a voice or differentiating between an animal sound or
human voice. However, it is quite difficult to recognise weak sound or when
overlapping with background noise, which is the case of acoustic emanations
from the attacked devices. Thus, the audio signal need to be characterized in
order to get the appropriate signal for further analysis.
Signal Classification
Signal classification is a field of research that has historically been explored
in a few typical areas, with less work done on the general problem. Some
previous works have been done especially on the area of speech recognition
and related problems, music transcription [13,14], and speech/music
discrimination [15,16]. The major exception that has recently appeared is the
multimedia database [17,18]. Hence potential algorithms that can sort sounds
into appropriate categories must be robust and sophisticated which should be
able to deal with a much larger audio signals data. These algorithms must
distinguish between all possible features, including prosodic features such as
pitch, energy and timing. Classifying could be applied to equalisation, the
boosting or attenuating of particular frequencies in a frequency signal to make
it more intelligible or readable. Previously this process has been done
manually, thus a finite number of equalisation filter settings are often
employed in an audio application. Equalisation filters are currently used in
hearing aids as well as in public address systems, where the user must change
the setting by hand depending on the input. An automatic equalisation system
could detect the current environment and apply an appropriate filter setting.
Each of these possible applications represent a separate classifying problem
656
which must be examined and researched individually. The quest for the
universal classifier is probably as futile in the audio field as it is in any other
classification field at this point.
Features extraction
The first step in a classification problem is typically data reduction. Most real-
world data, and in particular sound data, is very large and contains much
redundancy, and important features are lost in the cacophony of unreduced
data. The data reduction stage is often called feature extraction, and consists
of discovering a few important facts about each data item, or case. The
features that are extracted from each case are the same, so that they can be
compared. Feature extraction is rarely skipped as a step, unless the data in its
original form is already in features, such as temperature read from a
thermometer over time. The important information is usually in the form of
quantities like frequency, spectral content, rhythm, formant location and
such. These features can be physical, based on measurable characteristics, or
perceptual, based on characteristics reported to be perceived by humans.
Spectral Clustering
In any classification problem, the crucial step is to find what are the feature
values that correspond to which categories. When a set of features has been
extracted from a sound, the features are usually normalised to some specific
numerical scale, and then the features are assembled into a feature vector. The
next task is usually to decide to which of a set of classes this feature vector
most closely belong to. This is known as spectralclustering. In the field of
clustering, the features are usually referred to as parameters, and the feature
vector representing a specific datum is called a case. In a typical clustering
problem, there are a large number of cases to be clustered into a small number
of categories. Many clustering techniques are available depending on the type
of data being clustered and how much pre-information is available. A
different clustering system would be employed if the desired categories are
known a-priori, then one where the categories are discovered as the algorithm
progresses. These algorithms are very popular because they are intuitive and
easy to implement. Most research in the past have focused on extracting
musical features or voice signal from audio files. Some are by studying the
raw waveform and applying signal processing techniques to find a close
match with specific genres. Diekroeger [19] concluded that analysing solely
on lyrics is not sufficient to classify songs using a Naïve Bayes classifier.
Motivated by an auditory cortical processing model, Panagakis et al. [20]
used multiscale spectro-temporal modulation features but these techniques
657
fail to incorporate subjective features like liveliness, energy and so on. Recent
research explores a novel technique to cluster songs based on Echonest Audio
Attributes and K-Means algorithm with 75-85% accuracy compared to
human reporting for 4 genre-datasets [21]. Clustering a high frequency audio
signals is inherently a subjective task and it is important to transform those
subjective features into some quantifiable measure. In 2009, the clustering
method has been utilized to characterize the defects for Non Destructive
Testing materials during ultrasonic inspection. A neural network was used to
classify the ultrasonic signal and has proven to be effective in internal defect
assessment [22]. Tzanetakis et al. [23] used combination methods of timbral
texture, rhythmic content and pitch content as features to train statistical
pattern recognition classifiers.
Threats and Countermeasures

Leakage in private information caused by electronic devices’ emanations has
been a wide concern recently. Emanations such as sound produced by
electronic devices can be from different sources. Audio capturing device such
as microphone can measure sound signal as it carries information in the form
of frequency, wavelength and amplitude. Powerful acoustic attacks sources
have been identified previously such as computer keyboard, keypads of ATM
machine and key strokes of printer machine are mainly for capturing login
detail, passwords and other secret information recovery. In the case of signal
leakage, the acoustic emanations would be originated from the operated
microprocessors inside CPU of the attacked devices.
An obvious idea for counter measuring acoustic attacks is silent
microprocessors, which do not produce any sound or leakage signal. The
latest version of CPU for example like Intel i5 and above would produce
faster processing time and lower sound. Smaller size device such as tablets
and mobile gadgets would also prevent the acoustic signals from transmitted
externally. For acoustic attacks emanated from other component such as
keyboard or printers, also required a silent and faster technologies.
Nowadays, virtual keyboards have appeared whereby they can be projected
on a flat surface [23] and printers with acoustic shielding foam which
minimise sound of keys pressed. However, these choices are more expensive
than the standard devices yet it can avoid our valuable information from
leaking.
The above mentioned ways are useful in avoiding emanation of sound from
processors or CPUs. But there are also a couple of other methods by which
we can prevent this attacks to take place. The first method is to increase the
distance in such a way where the recognition rate drops substantially if the
658
distance between the device and the microphone is increased. Then the
second method is to introduce some obstacles. Any obstacles between the
device and microphone can prevent the sound reaching the recording device
(microphone). Avoiding contact with microphone: the absence of
microphones near emanation device is also sufficient to protect privacy.
Conclusions and Further Work

This paper describes a preliminary review on acoustic signal emanated from
CPU and other chipsets. Selecting suitable recording transducers and
acoustics emanations sources are crucial to carry out the acoustic attacks.
Few different techniques are discussed such as signal classification system,
feature-based extraction and classifying the signals using clustering
algorithm to recognise the data that are recorded. Some countermeasures are
discussed to avoid and overcome any threats. Based on the initial
investigations, signal classification is the most suitable technique to be
explored further in future research due to its ability of solving efficiently by
standard linear algebra software and yet simple to implement.
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1 December 2016
T01_082: A COMBINED METRIC TO ASSESS

THE AVAILABLE FLEXIBILITY WITHIN
CONVENTIONAL GENERATION POWER
SYSTEM
Saleh Y. Abujarad
Mohd Wazir Mustafa*
Jasrul Jamian Jamani
Abdirahman Mohamed Abdilahi

Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, johor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
With increasing concerns about climate change and the need for a more
sustainable grid, power systems have seen a fast expansion of Renewable
Energy Sources (RES) in recent years. The modern power system contorts to
balance demand and supply. The power system operators must maintain this
balance while meeting the evolving challenges facing the system while
obeying system constraints at the least production cost. The operational
flexibility describes the technical ability of the power system to cope with the
net-load within a controllable power at a certain time to accommodate the
variation due to RES. The objective of this research is to present a metric to
assess and quantify the operational flexibility within the conventional power
system. It is significantly important to evaluate whether the available system
flexibility is adequate to meet the large variations in the net-load. This paper
contributes to the uprising field of the RES electricity-based generation and
power system flexibility by assessing and quantifying the power system
flexibility using the developed metric. The assessment of the developed metric
is tested on the IEEE RTS-96 test system. The results demonstrate the
consistency of the combined flexibility metric. This metric is useful for the
power system operators and planners who seek for a fast, simple and offline
metric to assess the technical flexibility of the RES-integrated power system.
Keywords: Flexibility, Netload, Renewable Energy, Power System

Operation
662
Introduction
With the increased penetration level of the variable and intermittent
Renewable Energy Resources (RES), the conventional generators power
outputs must be skillfully adjusted to satisfy the net load ramps at all times in
the most economical way. The netload is defined as the system demand that
is not fed by RES and must be supplied by the conventional generation [1].
The integration of the intermittent RES has highlighted the importance of
flexibility for a reliable and economical operation of the power system [2].
The term flexibility is describes the ability of the power system to respond to
the variations and uncertainty of both the generation and the netload [3].
Traditionally, power systems output is required to be adjusted to balance the
fluctuations caused by the demand side whereby load variations are
predictable as their correlations with time and weather patterns are well
understood. As the increasing level of variable RES shares are taken into
account in the integration to the power system, the flexibility requirements
become more sever [4].
A power system composed mostly of insufficiently flexible generation
resources will have a forced load shedding and curtailment of intermittent
RES generation output [5, 6]. Due to these issues, it is serious for the current
power planning methodologies to account for generator operational
characteristics that affect system flexibility [6]. Thus, in the high integration
situation of intermittent RES to the power systems, the power system
operators and planners must ensure that sufficient flexibility resources are
available in the generation fleet to enable reliable operation of the power
system [6, 7].
This evolving interest in power system flexibility has led to the development
of metrics that provide an indication to operators about the inherent amount
of flexibility they can call upon to balance generation and net load at all times.
In particular, the flexibility level measures offered by individual generating
units are found to be of greatest importance [6].
Recently, research is actively focus to assess the available flexibility in power
systems, the assessment of the available flexibility is a difficult exercise [8].
A few metrics have been proposed to evaluate the availability of flexible
resources in power systems. These metrics vary in their complexity. One of
the most commonly used metric in the latter category is the insufficient
ramping resource expectation (IRRE) [9]. The research in [10] proposed a
flexibility chart that provides an overview of the potential flexibility resources
in a power system. The presented research have graphically illustrated the
percentages of installed capacity, pumped hydro, hydro, combined cycle gas
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turbine, combined heat and power, and interconnection relative to peak

demand. In [11], a FAST version quantifies the available flexibility from
generating units for different time scale ranging between 15 minutes and 12
hours.in this research, assumptions are made to cater for flexibility provision
through interconnection, storage and demand response.
Thus, periods marked by sudden fall in RES output will need running
generating units with steep RUR and large OR together with offline units with
fast SUT and MDT. Conversely, a sharp rise in RES production will call for
operating units with fast RDR, low P min as well as small MUT and SDT [6].
This paper provides a more realistic assessment of the flexibility availability
from generating units.
Description of Flexibility Parameters
In this section, each of the flexibility parameters for the power plants is
defined and provided.
System Capacity
The power system generator is designed to work within a predefined capacity

under the normal operating conditions limited by the generator minimum and
maximum capacity. The minimum power output ( Pmin ) is given as a
percentage of the maximum power output ( Pmax ).
Ramp Rate
The ramp rate is defined as the average speed at which a power generator can
increase its output level (ramp up rate – RUR) or decrease its output level
(ramp down rate -RDR) between the limits of its capacity range, the ramping
is expressed in terms of MW/h [6]. With the high level of RES penetration in
the power system, the conventional generators need to adjust their output
levels more flexibly to meet the fluctuations in net load.
Start-up and shut down times
Start-Up Time (SUT) refers to the time spent once the generator is turned-on
until its power output reaches ( Pmin ) and it is measured in hours. The SUT
highly depends the time elapsed since its last shutdown; it defines whether
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the generator is started in a cold, hot or warm state. The Shut-Down Time
(SDT), is the time taken once the generator output drops below ( Pmin ) until
the generator is stopped and also measured in hours.
Minimum up and minimum down time

Due to the economic reasons, a conventional power generator must keep
online for a minimum number of hours which is called Minimum Up Time
(MUT). Furthermore, in order to prevent generator from thermal stress which
will reduce its lifetime, a generator must keep offline for a certain number of
hours once it has cycled of which is called Minimum Down Time (MDT).
Both MUT and MDT constraints are generally expressed in hours. Hence,
extended MUT and MDT restrict the generator flexibility. Traditionally, these
constraints have, to a large extent, influenced the role of generators in the
supply of electricity. With the high level share of variable RES, the
conventional generators output must be skillfully adjusted to follow net load
ramps at all times. A sharp rise in RES production will call for operating units
with fast RDR, low ( Pmin ) as well as small MUT and SDT [6].
Test System
The applied flexibility metric is tested on IEEE RTS-96. The IEEE RTS-96
is chosen due to its diversity in terms of diversity in unit type and operation
range and technical parameters availability. This test system consists of 8
different types of units and a total of 26 generation units with a maximum
generation capacity of 3105 MW. The system’s technical parameters are
summarized in Table 1 [12]-[14].
Table 1: IEEE RTS-96 Generating Units Technical Characteristics
Unit
Units
No.
Pmin RUR RDR OR SUTSDTMUTMDT
Unit Type Size of
Range (%)
(MW) Units (MW/h)(MW/h)(MW) (h) (h) (h) (h)
Oil/Steam 12 1-5 5 0.20 9.6 9.6 9.6 4 0 0 0
Oil/combustion
20 6-9 4 0.79 4.2 4.2 4.2 0 0 0 0
turbine(CT)
Coal/Steam 76 10-13 4 0.20 38.5 60.8 60.8 12 2 3 1
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Oil/Steam 100 14-16 3 0.25 51 74 75 7 4 4 2

Coal/Steam 155 17-20 4 0.35 55 78 100.7511 3 5 2
Oil/Steam 197 21-23 3 0.35 55 99 128.057 6 5 2
Coal/ 3 Steam 350 24 1 0.40 70 120 210 12 5 8 3
Nuclear 400 25-26 2 0.25 50.5 100 300 NA 5 8 4
Results And Analysis

In this research, the eight flexibility characteristics of generators listed in
Table 2 are compared in pairs in terms of their relative importance in
contributing to the power system flexibility. To obtain the relative weights of
the individual indicators using the right eigenvector method as shown in [15].
The weights are calculated and shown in the most right column of Table 2.
As in Table 2, it should be noted that the relative weights are scaled such that
their sum is equal to 1.
Table 2: Pair-Wise Comparison matrix of flexibility characteristics and their
calculated weights
Pmin OR SUT RUR RDR MUT MDT SDT Weight

Pmin 1 1 1 3 3 3 3 5 0.02186
OR 1 1 1 3 3 3 3 5 0.02186
SUT 1 1 1 3 3 3 3 5 0.02186
RUR 1/3 1/3 1/3 1 1 1 1 3 0.0079
RDR 1/3 1/3 1/3 1 1 1 1 3 0.0079
MUT 1/3 1/3 1/3 1 1 1 1 3 0.0779
MDT 1/3 1/3 1/3 1 1 1 1 3 0.0779
SDT 1/5 1/5 1/5 1/3 1/3 1/3 1/3 1 0.0328
As clearly shown in Figure 1, each of the following indicators as named,

Pmin, OR and SUT are of an equal weights. Based on the results obtained in
Table 2 and as shown in Figure 1, these indicators are the most valuable
indicators for the power system flexibility. The RUR, RDR, MUT, MDT give
a relative importance to the system flexibility. The SDT is of the least
significant among the other system indicators as stated in Table 2 and shown
in Figure 1. Moreover, the consistency ratio of the system is calculated as in
[15] and is found to be with the value of 0.0066 indicating a high level of
consistency.
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Pmin
OR
SUT
RUR
RDR
MUT
MDT
SDT
Figure 1: Weights of individual flexibility indicator.
Conclusion
With the growing integration of variable RES to the power system, the
conventional generators output power must be skillfully adjusted to follow
the ramps at the net load at all times. Thus, the period with a sudden fall in
RES output needs a running generating units with steep RUR, fast start up
time, MDT and wide operating range simultaneously. On the other hand, a
sharp rise in RES power output needs generating units with fast RDR, lower
stable generation level and shorter MUT. It has become an important issue
for the operators and planners of the power system to quantify the system
requirements in terms of technical flexibility to avoid excessive RES
curtailment. The presented approach is also useful in comparing the flexibility
available in different power systems. The presented approach is tested on the
IEEE RTS-96 test system to quantify the technical flexibility of each
individual generation unit. Other important technical parameters need to be
involved to the flexibility metric for higher accuracy of system flexibility. The
results show that the system is relatively flexible.
References
[1] E. Lannoye, D. Flynn, and M. O'Malley, "Evaluation of power system
flexibility," IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 27, pp. 922-931,
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[2] H. Kondziella and T. Bruckner, "Flexibility requirements of renewable
energy based electricity systems–a review of research results and
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"Evaluating and planning flexibility in sustainable power systems," in
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[5] M. L. Kubik, P. J. Coker, and J. F. Barlow, "Increasing thermal plant
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[6] V. Oree and S. Z. S. Hassen, "A composite metric for assessing flexibility
available in conventional generators of power systems," Applied Energy,
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[7] M. Huber, D. Dimkova, and T. Hamacher, "Integration of wind and solar
power in Europe: Assessment of flexibility requirements," Energy, vol.
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[8] P. Denholm and M. Hand, "Grid flexibility and storage required to
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Flexibility," IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 27, pp. 922-931,
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[10] Y. Yasuda, A. R. Ardal, E. M. Carlini, A. Estanqueiro, D. Flynn, E.
Gomez-Lázaro, et al., "Flexibility chart: Evaluation on diversity of
flexibility in various areas," in 12th International Workshop on Large-
Scale Integration of Wind Power into Power Systems as well as on
Transmission Networks for Offshore Wind Power Plants, 2013.
[11] A. Tuohy and H. Chandler, "Flexibility assessment tool: IEA grid
integration of variable renewables project," in 2011 IEEE Power and
Energy Society General Meeting, 2011, pp. 1-4.
[12] C. Grigg, P. Wong, P. Albrecht, R. Allan, M. Bhavaraju, R. Billinton, et
al., "The IEEE Reliability Test System-1996. A report prepared by the
Reliability Test System Task Force of the Application of Probability
Methods Subcommittee," IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 14,
pp. 1010-1020, 1999.
[13] C. Wang and S. M. Shahidehpour, "Effects of ramp-rate limits on unit
commitment and economic dispatch," IEEE Transactions on Power
668
Systems, vol. 8, pp. 1341-1350, 1993.

[14] A. J. Conejo, M. Carrión, and J. M. Morales, Decision making under
uncertainty in electricity markets vol. 1: Springer, 2010.
[15] T. L. Saaty, Fundamentals of decision making and priority theory with
the analytic hierarchy process vol. 6: Rws Publications, 2000.
1 December 2016
T01_083: SYSTEMATIC LITERATURE

REVIEW: CORRELATED FUZZY LOGIC
RULES FOR NODE BEHAVIOR DETECTION
IN WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORK
Noor Shahidah Ishak, A. H Azni
Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia (USIM), Faculty of Science and
Technology
ABSTRACT
In distributed wireless sensor network, the possibility for one or several nodes
to become faulty is directly proportional upon the number of nodes within the
network. Unnecessary control of the network triggers the anomaly, faulty and
misbehavior in nodes which anyhow yield to degradation of network
performance. Therefore the identification of node behavior in distributed
sensory system is crucial important to improve the network performance
throughout the monitoring period. Though the detection schemes are several,
Fuzzy logic for node behavior detection in WSN however present a more
accurate incentive as it considered the uncertainties inherited in the WSN
environment during the fault diagnosis period. Yet this paper analyze several
fuzzy logic approaches for correlated node behavior detection. Using six
primary articles, this paper provide systematic literature review (SLR) and
presents an overview of current design of research trend in this area.
Keywords: Correlated Fuzzy Logic, Node Behavior, Wireless Sensor

Network
Introduction
Wireless sensor network comprises of several sensor nodes which use
wireless connection, low deployment, low data usage cost and self-organized
system[1]. Recently the application of wireless sensor to telecommunication
field, biomedical and geographical controller is progressively implemented
and demanded. In harsh environment especially in distributed network, the
behaviour of node shows significant relationship towards network
performance within the transmission range. The correlated events due to the
distribution of node behaviour towards its neighbour nodes rather severed the
network availability. An anomaly, faulty and node on the other hand are such
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events which poor the quality of service (QoS) in the network. The anomaly
shows deviation pattern of data from normal group of data. In a network,
while misbehaviour node namely malicious and selfish node which possibly
caused the next misbehaviour node in especially distributed network. Thus
the detection of any nodes behaviour in network topology is crucially in
demands. According to literature, there are several method to detect the node
behaviour meanwhile the classical approaches did not considered the
uncertainties inherited in the network environment. Therefore a novel fuzzy
approached introduced by [2] is used in recent studies. In fact, fuzzy logic
approaches in node behaviour detection had a capability to blend several
parameters determined node behaviour besides provide more flexibility and
simplicity for accurate representation. Anyhow, this paper analysed several
correlated fuzzy logic rules for node behaviour detection in WSN to cater the
possible correlated misbehaviour in the network.
3 4
1
2 Inclusion- Data Extraction
Research
Search Process Exclusion & Quality
Question
Criteria Assessment
Figure 1: Steps in SLR

In this paper, a review of correlated fuzzy logic for node behavior approaches
in WSN is presented according systematic literature review(SLR) by [3]. The
trend of Kithenham’s SLR is specifically based on the detail discussion on
relevant research questions, topic area or even phenomenon of interest. The
objective of this SLR threefold, 1) to critically and systematically review the
correlated fuzzy logic approaches for node behavior detection in WSN, 2)
identify the correlated fuzzy logic process for node behavior detection, 3) to
prove open issues for further development and enhancement of correlated
fuzzy logic technique for node behavior detection in WSN. The organization
of this paper is follows: Section 2 outline the review method, Section 3
discusses result and analysis, Section 4 is a discussion of potential research
while Section 5 is the conclusion of this SLR.
Review methods
This section outlined the review process along the study conducted.
According to Fig. 1, the process began with formulation of research question.
Then followed by search process which involve source selection and search
keyword. Third, is screening of the sources according inclusion and exclusion
671
criteria associated with quality criteria for selection of primary articles. Final
step is data extraction process whereby the information is extracted, collected
and organized in a list. The summary of primary articles are then presented
in Section 3
 The formulation research question
The detailed review aimed to provide solution for the following research
questions (RQ) in Table 1. In RQ1, the research question tends to construct
overall picture on current research trend on correlated fuzzy logic process for
node behavior detection. For purpose of answering RQ1, journal and
conferences along 2011 till 2016 are recognized while main topic and
problem statement of correspond sources are screened for further
understanding. The model of fuzzy clustering in WSN is analyzed using sub-
questions with respect to RQ2. Then a discussion upon current model
limitation is presented in RQ3 for any further enhancement and model
development.
Table 1: Research Question in SLR
RQ
# Research Question Details
RQ What is the current state of knowledge on correlated Fuzzy logic rules in
1 node behavior detection?
RQ
2 How fuzzy logic function in node behavior detection?
RQ2.1 What are the state of behavior of sensor nodes in WSN?
RQ2.2 How was the correlated fuzzy is modeled in previous work?
RQ What are the limitation of current correlated fuzzy rule for node behavior
3 detection in WSN?
 Search Processes
The important of SLR lies in this part which is to provide the best articles as
the sources for the research conducted. Those are the list of digital database
used:
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o ScienceDirect
o ProQuest
o IEEE Digital Library
o Google Scholar
The outline of the research process is detailed out in Fig. 2. The initial search
was using search keyword “Correlated” “Fuzzy Logic” in “Sensor Network”
or secondary keyword “Anomaly detection” or “Intrusion” or “misbehavior
node”. The selection of articles conducted based on the relevant titles and
abstracts which then downloaded in Phase 2. Here there are collection of
relevant article analysis process regarded correlated fuzzy logic for node
behavior detection in WSN. In order to have more relevant support article,
alteration of keyword search is used in Phase 4. Since there are merely a
number of articles based correlated fuzzy logic rule in WSN, a specific
keyword for WSN is chosen in Phase 5, such as anomaly detection, intrusion
detection and misbehaved node in WSN.
Phase 2 : Phase 3 : Phase 5 : Phase 6 :

Phase 1: Phase 4 : Phase 7 :
Title and Full Additiona Inclusion
Literature Synonyms Final
Abstract Article l Article Exclusion
Search Search Selection
Search Selection Selection Criteria
Figure 2: Search Process in SLR
 Inclusion-Exclusion Criteria
The collection of relevant articles are screened against the inclusion and
exclusion requirement, before they are considered as primary articles. For
final review, those article should fulfill inclusion criteria in Table 2 else
articles are excluded, those satisfied exclusion criteria in Table 3.
Table 2: Inclusion Criteria Table 3: Exclusion
Criteria
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Exclusion
INCL# Inclusion Criteria EXCL#
Criteria
Articles did not
focus on
Correlated fuzzy logic rules
correlated fuzzy
for node behavior detection
INCL1 EXCL1 logic rules for
in WSN must be the major
node behavior
topic of publication
detection in
WSN
Article did not
focus on
EXCL2
correlated fuzzy
logic model.
 Data Extraction and Quality Assessment
The process of data extraction aimed to accurately reflect information
reported in the publication to perform systematic analysis in coherent
presentation to be able address the review questions. Table 4 outlined the
criteria for grading the quality of the selected articles according quality
assessment criteria for SLR used in [4] and [5]. The ratio scales denotes
Yes=1 point, No=0 point and Partially =0.5 point.
Table 4: Quality Assessment Checklist

Item Answer
QA1: Was the article refereed? Yes/No
QA2: Was there a clear statement of the objective of the Yes/No/Partiall
research? y
QA3: Was there an adequate description of the context in Yes/No/Partiall
which the research was carried out? For example, clearly y
stated the problems that leads to the research, descriptions on
research methodology used etc.
Yes/No/Partiall
QA4: Was the data collection done very well? y
Yes/No/Partiall
QA5: Was the simulation results rigorously analyzed? y
Selected studies
From the keyword search, the outcome shows about 51 articles with different
categories such as journals, conference proceeding, thesis and part of chapters
from e-book. Then selectively filtered until the only relevant articles
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regarding correlated fuzzy in WSN and showed a number of three relevant

articles. From synonym keyword search there are additional three articles
which result merely eleven primary articles for further review purposes.
Correlated fuzzy logic research in WSN
 RQ1: What are the current state of knowledge on correlated fuzzy

logic rule for node behavior detection in WSN?
Historically, correlated fuzzy logic approaches did in many research area. The
study for nodes behavior detection in WSN shows an attractive topic using
the fuzzy logic. From 51 articles found, there are several research paper have
proposed scheme for node behavior detection but mainly concerned
individual node behavior. Meanwhile for this SLR paper, only selective
articles are considered based on five quality assessment criteria conducted.
Thus, Table 5 present the primary articles selected whereby according the
research publication distribution, over the five years back, there are a
continuous studies in this network management area. Within the year 2011
till 2015, on overall there is one research conducted in yearly basis. The
demanded and updated of this area of research have provide better
fundamental for high quality of service (QoS) of wireless sensor network in
general.
Table 5: Quality Assessment score for primary articles
Author Quality
Title
and Year Score
Salahshoo Simulation Modelling Practice and Theory Fault detection and
r et al. diagnosis of an industrial steam turbine using a distributed 5
2011 configuration of adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference systems
Khan et Application of fuzzy inference systems to detection of faults in
5
al. 2012 wireless sensor networks
Grigoras,
Gheorghe
The fuzzy correlation approach in operation of electrical distribution
Cartina, 4.5
systems
Gheorghe
2013
Shamshir
Co-FAIS: Cooperative fuzzy artificial immune system for detecting
band et al 4.5
intrusion in wireless sensor networks
2014
Shao,
Vessel track correlation and association using fuzzy logic and echo
Hang, et 5
state networks
al. 2014
Nisha et Improving Data Accuracy Using Proactive Correlated Fuzzy System
5
al. 2015 in Wireless Sensor Networks
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Fuzzy logic model for node behavior detection in WSN
 RQ2: How fuzzy logic function in node behaviour detection

process?
To answer RQ2, two sub-question are derived to explain the method lies in
this study
 RQ2.1: What are the state of behavior of sensor nodes in WSN?
There are four states of node behavior in network which give different impact
towards network performance
 Cooperative state
Wireless sensor node is self-organize and has to cooperate to form a working

communication network. Communication is only work if nodes participate
and forward other node’s packets. Meanwhile the limited resources is an
issues. In [6] stated that a node in network will behave properly in the energy
level at least at 80%. In addition, in this state the node is properly connected
with its peer nodes in order to functioning as data forwarding to base station.
Thus for efficient network performance, nodes are motivated to behave
according to possible energy level and forward a fair amount of other node’s
packet as needed [7].
 Selfish state
Nodes that refuse to forward other’s packets defined as selfish nodes. It thus
maximizing their benefit at the expense of others. They are acted
cooperatively and cheat only if it gives them an advantage. Hence the
watchdog technique for identification of selfish node recently approached
therefore to improve network availability and survivability.
 Malicious state
In general, malicious node defined as node which active in both data

discovery and launching attacks. Malicious event in somehow highly
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correlated in the anomaly event occurrence whereby intruder make the

sensors to get the false reading [8]. In distributed network, the false reading
yields to retransmission of packet data in alternate path hence energy is
exhausted in large amount. In [15], study found that anomaly event is highly
correlated to malicious behavior. While in paper [14] stated DDoS was
commonly due to malicious event. Therefore several previous work recently
Quantitative
Mamdani- method
type FIS
Fuzzy Inference Qualitative method
System (FIS)
Sugeno-type Quantitative
FIS method
study the identification and the impact of malicious node which consequently
aims to increase data accuracy and penalized anomaly event in the network.
 Fail state
Node is said to be failed if there is no participation in route discovery. The

main reasons for the faulty node is due to energy exhaustion which is below
50% of energy level, misconfiguration and thus change either to selfish state,
malicious state or failure state [9].
 RQ2.2: How was the correlated fuzzy is modeled in previous work?
In general fuzzy logic involves three main stages which are fuzzification,
inference engine and defuzzification process. The fuzzification phase is
whereby the crisp variable mapped to linguistic value which represent the
degree of membership function. While in inference engine the IF-THEN rules
is activated using variables in both condition and conclusion rules.
Consequently defuzzifier determined the crisp output value.
Figure 3: Overview of the Analysis
In fuzzy logic there are two domain fuzzy inference system (FIS) for rules
generation. For instance, papers [10-12] describes Fuzzy Logic control for
node behavior detection based on Sugeno-type FIS while papers [13-15]
describes Fuzzy Logic control for node behavior detection based on
Mamdani-type (FIS). The Mamdani-type FIS is more human-like manner
with substantial computation burden. Despite Sugeno-type FIS is
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computationally efficient besides works well according to optimization and

adaptive techniques. In addition Mamdani method used defuzzification
technique for the fuzzy output and has output membership function besides
is less flexible in system design. Meanwhile the Sugeno method computes the
crisp output using weighted average yields to no membership function on the
output.
For the quantitative process in fuzzy logic it involved mathematical
computation burden especially for output formation rather that the input. For
instance the study conducted by [10-12] used quantitative fuzzy logic
associated with Sugeno-type FIS method, while [13] used Mamdani-type FIS
method and most of the model implementation is in distributed network. The
flow of the quantitative process in fuzzy logic control is presented as follows:
 Quantitative fuzzy logic with Sugeno-type FIS
Paper [10], adopted Sugeno-type FIS in fault detection for wireless sensor
networks. The fuzzy process namely fuzzification, inference engine and
defuzzification phases adopted in this paper is summarizing as follows:
 Fuzzification
In this phase sensor measurement of a node is approximated by a correlation

function of peer nodes measurement, x = (𝑥1, 𝑥2,…, 𝑥𝑛, )𝑇 whereby x is the input
matrix in fuzzification process which consist of peer nodes. The measurement
is physically quantity basis such as temperature of the node and so forth.
 Defuzzification
In this phase the crisp output value is calculated which is the abscissa under
the center of gravity of the fuzzy set. The author also defined the output of
∑𝑛
𝑖=1∝𝑖 𝑦
𝑖
fuzzy system as 𝑦 = ∑𝑛
where ∝𝑖 denotes the overall truth value of the
𝑖=1∝𝑖
𝑖
premise of the ith implication and is computed as ∝𝑖 = ∏𝑀
𝑙=1 𝐴𝑙 (𝑥𝑖 )
 Inference engine
The method for fuzzy inference is on the basis of Takagi-Sugeno-Kang (TSK)

method. Several variables both in the condition and the conclusion of the
rules are utilized in fuzzy rule base. In this fuzzy inference engine the
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corresponding rules are activated and all the activations are accumulated
using max-min operations. A fuzzy IF-THEN rule can be written as the
following statement: 𝑅𝑙 : IF x1 is 𝐵1𝑙 and x2 is 𝐵2𝑙 and … xn is 𝐵𝑛𝑙 THEN
𝑙 𝑙
y is 𝑦 where 𝑅 (l=1,2,…,M) the lth implication. Xj (j=1,2,….,n) are input
variables of FLS, 𝑦 𝑙 is output 𝐵𝑛𝑙 is the fuzzy membership function which can
represent the uncertainty in the reasoning.
In addition authors [11] introduced adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system
(ANFIS) in order to diagnose distributed faults in steam turbine. This model
anyhow provide a mechanism to interpret the combinatory nature of data.
Furthermore ANFIS possibly able to handle high degree of interaction in
systems consisting multiple inputs and outputs. In general, a sequence of fault
detection in ANFIS divided into two adaptive layers for instance layer 1 and
4. The first layer considered premise parameter consist of modifiable
parameters while layer 4 includes three modifiable parameters pertaining the
first-order polynomial, called consequent parameters. The by layer process
for correlated fuzzy model is summarized as follows:
 First layer
Nodes in first layer act as adaptive and the membership function is:
OL1=𝜇𝐴𝑖 (𝑥1)
 Second layer
Nodes are fixed and each node measure the firing strength (𝑤𝑖 ) of a rule,
whereby it is the multiplication of the incoming signal:
OL2𝑖 = 𝑤𝑖 = 𝜇𝐴𝑖 (𝑥1) × 𝜇𝐵𝑖 (𝑥𝑛)
 Third layer
Nodes are fixed and each node estimates the ratio (𝑤𝑖 ) of the ith rule’s firing
strength to sum of the firing strength of all rules j. Here the normalization of
firing strength from the previous layer is sustained. While the output
𝑤
represented by: OL3𝑖 = 𝑤𝑖 = 𝑖 𝑖
∑𝑗=1 𝑤𝑖
 Forth layer
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Nodes are adaptive and the output of each node is the product of the previous
relative firing strength of the ith rule and denoted by: OL4𝑖 =𝑤𝑖 (𝑝𝑖 𝑋1 +
𝑞𝑖 𝑋𝑛 + 𝑟𝑖 )
 Fifth layer
Only a node and perform the function of simple summer which computes the
overall output as the summation of all incoming signal from layer 4:
𝑓 ∑ 𝑤𝑓
OL5i=∑𝑖=1 𝑤𝑖 𝑓𝑖 = ∑𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
𝑖 𝑤𝑖
In ANFIS, the IF_THEN rules can be constructed based on the following
structure which operated in inference engine stage.
If X1=𝐴𝑖 and Xn=𝐵𝑖 then 𝑓𝑖 = (𝑝𝑖 𝑋1 + 𝑞𝑖 𝑋𝑛 + 𝑟𝑖 )
Where 𝑝𝑖 , 𝑞𝑖 , 𝑟𝑖 are the parameters to be determined during the training stage.
Study in [12] performed vessel track correlation using Fuzzy k-Nearest
Neighbor (Fuzzy k-NN). Here data sample X = {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 } and
corresponding labels 𝑢𝑖𝑗 = {0,1}, where 𝑢𝑖𝑗 =1 denoted that data vector 𝑥𝑗
belongs to class i and 𝑢𝑖𝑗 =1 denoted that it does not belong to class i. while
the membership of a test vector z being assigned to class I can be calculated
by:
−2/(𝑚−1)
∑𝑘𝑗=1 𝑢𝑖𝑗 (‖𝑧 − 𝑥𝑗 ‖ )
𝑢𝑖 (𝑧) = −2/(𝑚−1)
∑𝑘𝑗=1‖𝑧 − 𝑥𝑗 ‖
Therefore, in fuzzy k-NN, the data points that are more similar to the test
sample are then more likely to affect the final classification.
 Quantitative fuzzy logic with Mamdani-type FIS
In addition the application of correlated fuzzy model found in operation of

electrical distribution system studied by [13]. This paper employed
correlation coefficient technique to address the correlated fuzzy logic control
and the algorithm is presented as below:
𝜎𝑝 𝜎𝑄
The coefficients 𝑘𝑃𝑟𝑃𝑖 = 𝜌𝑝𝑟 𝑝𝑖 ∗ 𝑖 ; 𝑘𝑃𝑟 𝑄𝑖 = 𝜌𝑝𝑟 𝑄𝑖 ∗ 𝑖
𝜎𝑝𝑟 𝜎𝑝𝑟
∑ℎ𝑗=1(𝑃𝑟𝑗 − 𝑃̅𝑟 )(𝑃𝑖𝑗 − 𝑃
̅𝑖 )
𝜌𝑝𝑟 𝑝𝑖 =
𝑛 ∗ 𝜎𝑃𝑟 𝜎𝑃𝑖
680
∑ℎ𝑗=1(𝑃𝑟𝑗 − 𝑃̅𝑟 )(𝑄𝑖𝑗 − 𝑄̅𝑖 )

𝜌𝑝𝑟 𝑄𝑖 =
𝑛 ∗ 𝜎𝑃𝑟 𝜎𝑄𝑖
2
∑ℎ ̅̅̅
𝑗=1(𝑃𝑟𝑗 −𝑃𝑟 )
𝜎𝑃𝑟 = √ , 𝜎𝑃𝑖 =
𝑛
ℎ 2
̅
√∑𝑗=1(𝑃𝑖𝑗−𝑃𝑖)
𝑛
2
∑ℎ ̅̅̅
𝑗=1(𝑄𝑖𝑗 −𝑄𝑖 )
𝜎𝑄𝑖 = √ i=1,…,n
𝑛
(𝑃𝑖𝑗 −𝑘𝑃𝑟 𝑃𝑟 ∗𝑃𝑟𝑗 )
𝑘𝑃𝑖 = ∑ℎ𝑗=1 ; 𝑘𝑄𝑖 =
𝐿ℎ
(𝑄𝑖𝑗 −𝑘𝑃𝑟𝑄𝑟 ∗𝑃𝑟𝑗 )
∑ℎ𝑗=1
𝐿ℎ
Where: 𝑃𝑟 − the active power from reference station r; 𝑃𝑖 - the active power
from the i substation (i= 1,2,…,n, n is the total number of the 20kV
substations from the analysis system); 𝑄𝑖 - the reactive power from the i
substation (i=1,2,….,n); 𝜌𝑝𝑟 𝑄𝑖 , 𝜌𝑝𝑟 𝑄𝑖 - the correlation coefficient between
the active and reactive powers of the substation i and reference station
𝑟; 𝜎𝑃𝑖 , 𝜎𝑄𝑖 , 𝜎𝑃𝑟 -the standard deviation for 𝑃𝑖 (𝑗), 𝑄𝑖 (𝑗), and 𝑃𝑟 (j) where
𝑟
j=1,2,…,h ; 𝑃 ̅𝑖 , 𝑄̅𝑖 and 𝑃̅𝑟 are the average values of 𝑃𝑖 (𝑗), 𝑄𝑖 (𝑗), and 𝑃𝑟 (j); 𝐿ℎ
is window dimension analysis; h is hours number for the analysis windows.
 Qualitative fuzzy logic with Mamdani-type FIS
The qualitative fuzzy model for correlated event detection presented in the
study by [14] and [15] both using Mamdani-type FIS method. The qualitative
study whereby they merely justified the event detection by considering
parameters to determine the output formation otherwise they may combine
correlation acts commonly spatial, attribute and temporal act. Thus this study
illustrates the detection process as follows.
This study by [14] employed Fuzzy Misuse Detector Module (FMDM) with
the objective to identify the anomaly (network packet anomalies) conditions
received from the traffic.
 Fuzzification
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Several parameters such as energy usage, buffer size, time response and count
is selected as the crisp value for fuzzy input. The linguistic variables for all
of the parameters divided into three level which are low, medium and high
with predefined range.
 Defuzzification
While the parameters for representing output is pattern which consist of four
linguistic variables namely bad, average, good and excellent with specific
range.
This phase determined whether the result from defuzzification attacked
inspected packets or not. The attack is assumed to occur if the crisp value of
the pattern is not equal to the threshold value of the detection attack rule.
While to predict the next points of anomaly attack, this paper had combined
fuzzy-based Q-learning strategy with fuzzy logic controller to convert the
continuous inputs into fuzzy sets. In the Q-learning algorithm, fuzzy min-max
methods were employed. Correlated process Fuzzy logic process in fuzzy-
based Q-learning strategy is as follow:
o Fuzzification: the input is represented by S(t)=[energy usage x time

respons, buffer size, count] and the
o Inference engine: if then rules formation for determined abnormality
function using crisp input variables
o Defuzzification : output represented by abnormality function, C j
= ∑𝑁 𝑁
𝑗=1 𝛼𝑗 𝑐𝑗 / ∑𝑗 𝛼𝑗
Furthermore study which conducted by [15] used correlated fuzzy logic by

comparative correlation techniques namely fuzzy spatial act, fuzzy attribute
act and fuzzy temporal act. The spatial act has addressed the relationship
among the nearest neighbor node readings. While temporal act cater the
sensor’s reading time difference whereas attribute act expressed the
relationship among the sensed physical phenomena of sensor nodes. Three
corresponding membership function for spatial, temporal and attribute acts
namely high, medium and low level are employed. Therefore, the output of
the three separate techniques are given as input to the proactive anomaly
detection system. At last the anomaly assurance levels are classified as
inferior nodes, doubtful nodes and superior nodes.
Research limitation and discussion

682
RQ3: What are the limitations of current correlated fuzzy rules for node
behavior detection in WSN?
Fuzzy logic models in fact employed parameters for fuzzy input with a
number of rules for decision making. Since the process of manually extracting
rules on the other hand can be time-consuming and the rules may be
approximated [14]. Because these methods commonly are off-line in nature,
if a very large data set is involved, it can become expensive and impractical.
Thus, it may fail to detect new attacks in real-time. To overcome this problem,
a hybrid soft computing method of identifying DDoS attacks is proposed for
further work.
In hostile environment, sensor nodes are vulnerable to several network
attacks. This result to change of node behavior from cooperative state to
abnormal state which eventually degrades the network performance. In paper
[10], the author proposed faults detection in WSN by concerning physical
measurements of the nodes without any influence of network attacks, while
paper [14] identified intrusion in WSN merely towards DDoS attack. Thus
the detection scheme of node behavior sound susceptible. Meanwhile, there
are additional types of attacks available in network such as attacks on secrecy
and authentication and also service attack against service integrity. Therefore,
if further study can incorporating several attacks in intrusion detection, it then
will provide an enhancement in decision making capabilities in order to
thwart existing and new attacks which address more severer impact on
network performance.
Conclusion
The systematic literature review conducted in this paper is with a motivation
to have fundamental understanding the issues pertaining correlated fuzzy
logic modeling for node behavior in wireless sensor network. All the process
started from selecting, reviewing literature based Kitchenham SLR till the
analyzing process is presented. The subject covered in the SLR is pertaining
state of node behavior in wireless sensor network which give high impact in
network performance, correlated fuzzy modeling process to identify
abnormal event in sensory system and limitation in current study. From the
analysis, it found that there is less work done related correlated node behavior
detection in wireless sensor network. As the wireless sensor applications are
growing recently, more challenges need to be addressed. Thus, powerful
automated fault detection and diagnosis especially towards uncertainty
inherited in network is interesting and challenging research area which is to
prevent regular and costly equipment maintenances in WSN.
683
References
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(2004).
[3] Kitchenham, B., “Procedures for performing systematic reviews,” Keele,
UK, Keele University, 33(TR/SE-0401), 28 (2004).
[4] Dybå, Tore, and Torgeir Dingsøyr. "Empirical studies of agile software
development: A systematic review." Information and software
technology 50.9, 833-859 (2008).
[5] Salleh, Mohamad Amran Mohd, et al., "Cationic and anionic dye
adsorption by agricultural solid wastes: A comprehensive
review." Desalination 280.1, 1-13 (2011).
[6] Fuentes, E. J., Lim, R. M., Tapia, F. B., & Pantola, A., “Misleading Node
Detection and Response Mechanism in Mobile Ad-Hoc Network,” 10(8),
1386–1390 (2016).
[7] Schütte, M. “ Detecting Selfish and Malicious Nodes in MANETs,” 1–7
(2006).
[8] Pridhi, Dr, and Rajesh Gargi. "Energy Need Minimization by Power
Aware Routing In WSN." Energy, 41-45 (2016).
[9] A.H Azni, Rabiah Ahmad and Zul Azri Mohamad Noh. “Modeling
Stochastic Correlated Node Behavior for Survivability in Ad Hoc
Networks,” International Journal of Cryptology Research 4(1), 1–16
(2013).
[10] Khan, S. A., Daachi, B., & Djouani, K., "Application of fuzzy inference
systems to detection of faults in wireless sensor networks,"
Neurocomputing, 94, 111–120 (2012).
[11] Salahshoor, K., Soleimani, M., & Kordestani, M., "Simulation
Modelling Practice and Theory Fault detection and diagnosis of an
industrial steam turbine using a distributed configuration of adaptive
neuro-fuzzy inference systems," Simulation Modelling Practice and
Theory, 19(5), 1280–1293 (2011).
[12] Shao, Hang, et al. "Vessel track correlation and association using fuzzy
logic and echo state networks." 2014 IEEE Congress on Evolutionary
Computation (CEC). IEEE, (2014).
[13] Grigoras, G., & Cartina, G., "The fuzzy correlation approach in operation
of electrical distribution systems," COMPEL - The International Journal
for Computation and Mathematics in Electrical and Electronic
Engineering, 32(3), 1044–1066 (2013).
[14] Shamshirband, S., Anuar, N. B., Kiah, M. L. M., Rohani, V. A., Petković,
D., Misra, S., & Khan, A. N., "Co-FAIS: Cooperative fuzzy artificial
684
immune system for detecting intrusion in wireless sensor networks,"

Journal of Network and Computer Applications, 42, 102–117 (2014)
[15] U, Barakkath Nisha N, Uma Maheswari Venkatesh, R, Yasir
Abdullah.,"Improving Data Accuracy Using Proactive Correlated Fuzzy
System in Wireless Sensor Networks," 9(9), 3515–3538 (2015)
1 December 2016
T01_084: INVESTIGATING THE FUZZY

ORDER ON DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
ASIA KHALAF ALBZEIRAT1, Muhammad Zaini Ahmad1, Shaher
Momani2,3
1
Institute of Engineering Mathematics, Universiti Malaysia Perlis,
Pauh Putra Main Campus, 02600 Arau, Perlis, Malaysia
2
Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science, The University of
Jordan, Amman 11942, Jordan
3
Nonlinear Analysis and Applied Mathematics (NAAM) Research
Group, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi
Arabia
ABSTRACT
This paper introduces new questions about the fuzzy order and relates it to
fractional differential equations.
Keywords: Fuzzy, Differential Equations.
Introduction
In this modern evolving world, many continuous changes are observed and
such changes require a mutual understanding of the nature and characteristics
of things around us in which the issue of uncertainty rises among individuals
especially in the field of applied sciences and engineering. The issue of
uncertainty in our daily lives is not just a matter of choosing a method or
providing an answer to a question, but it is closely linked to the accuracy of
a question and its consequences. These consequences could be the
performance of a device or a machine, or it might just be the efficiency of
daily instrument that surrounds us, either natural or man-made. Such relates
health in pollution issues, money in an economic crisis and nature of global
climate changes which are all linked to an interface or mathematical formulas.
Questions are often raised from the results of suspicious knowledge
or ignorance. An important example was the incident of a falling apple that
inspired Newton to learn and reveal the concept of gravity and achieve a
breakthrough through the discovery of the laws of gravity in 1966 [1-3].
Researchers today realized that the apple was the key object that leads to
many other discoveries and concepts thus eliminating doubts on logical
686
questions. In 1695 Leibniz wrote a question to “L'Hospital” which includes

the following: “Can the meaning of derivatives with integer order be
generalized to derivatives with non-integer orders?". This question opened
doors to many types of research in new areas in the field of differential
equations [4-13]. After 300 years, this question and its following subsequent
research have led to a tremendous amount of applications in multiple areas
such as science, engineering, astronomical science and also in the
interpretation of natural phenomena which is known as the science of
fractional differential equations [14-18]. This paper includes five sections as
follow;
The first section contains introduction about the topic, the second
section contains a summary of the concept of fractional differential equations
and important stages of the evolution of these equations, the third section
includes the concept of uncertainty and the concepts fuzzy, the fourth section
includes the questions about the fuzzy order and the last section includes
some examples of the proposed formulas.
Brief Histories of Fractional Differential Equations

Fractional differential equations are often associated with simple arithmetic
operations and the existence of fractional differential equations does not bring
any impact except if it exists in the form of an order. The fractional
differential equation was regarded as something eccentric not until it became
known and was applied in a tremendous amount of applications. Fractional
differential equation can be defined as a differential equation which has non-
integer order, and the following general formula can be considered:
D n y (t )  g (t ), t  a, b 
(1)
The previous equation was derived from a question by Leibniz in 1695, which
was in the form of a statement directed to L'Hospital about the order of
differential equations with questions that includes condition and possibility
“What if the order will be 1/2?" [19-21]. After the last equation, many
successive studies on fractional derivatives have developed and it plays an
important part in the evolution of the concept and calculation of fractional
derivatives, such studies included were made in, 1772 by Lagrange [22], in
1812 by Laplace [23], in 1819 by Lacroix [24] and in 1922 by Fourier [25],
these studies were linked to solving fractional differential equation and
introduce new concepts in this area but has not been linked to various
applications at that time. Applications that highlight the importance of this
687
calculations appeared in the study of "Able" in 1823, where he tackled many

general problems such as the “tautochrone problem”, where he solved by
using fractional calculus in accordance with the integral equation in his
formulation [26-27]. At that time, these applications were confined. In 1819,
Lacroix managed to answer the question of Leibniz where he applied the
general formula of d 1/ 2 y / dz 1/ 2 , y (z )  z n if f (x )  y  x r , where n is a
and he used the Gamma function in the following formula (Lacroix, 1862).
Brief History of the Fuzzy

Lotfi Zadeh [27] stated that uncertainty and probability terms were earlier
introduced in mathematics and its applications but the probability theory was
limited. Hence, Zadeh explored new concepts with applicable rules of
possibilities. These new concepts opened many paths to a new breakthrough
in the field of scientific research, and thus providing answers to many
ambiguous issues. This finding has been known as the “fuzzy set theory”.
Zadeh began publishing in 1966 in the field of projections which includes the
properties of convexity and concavity. Goguen [28] began to relate and
expand Zadeh’s findings to a bigger scope. Zadeh then continued to prove his
previous work through a new study [29] in the field of probability measures.
Chang [30] provided a clearer reference to [31].
At this stage, the fuzzy set became the language of redefining
concepts through practical concepts and rules. In 1972, the actual extension
of fuzzy logic into the field of differential equations was observed in the study
of Chane and Zadeh [32]. 1974, Diaz and Osler defined the fractional
difference through a natural approach by allowing the index of differencing
in a standard expression, either in a real or a complex number [33]. Pal and
Majumder used the fuzzy logic [34] to engage decision-making approaches.
Dubois in 1980 wrote a book about the fuzzy sets related to many applications
such as differential equations and he has written the ‘fuzzy differential'
equation [35]. And in 1982, Dubois and Henri introduced new applications
in the fuzzy logic field specifically in the integration of fuzzy mappings [36].
Kaleva in [37] and Wang in [38] addressed articles to clarify the application
of fuzzy in differential equations. Kaleva rewrote [39] by relating it to the
problems faced by Cauchy. Kloeden in [40] wrote remarks of fuzzy
differential equations and in [41]; Buckley and Qu solved the linear fuzzy
differential equation as well as in [42]; where they solved the first-order fuzzy
differential equations. The expansion of the fuzzy concept in numerical
methods as for solving differential equation was stated in [43], [44] by Tayler
methods, [45] by Runge-Kutta method, [46] by predictor–corrector method,
688
[47] by Nyström method, [48] by differential transformation method, by

Laplace transforms 49-50].
The previous review confirms that the field of fuzzy differential
equation expands day by day, especially in the area of numerical methods. As
observed the focus of differential equations was on the concept of fuzzy in
the scope of initial values but it was not related to the original image of the
equation, and thus, the concept of fuzzy was not adapted in the formula of the
equation, variables or in the order of the differential equation and this is the
sole motive of this investigation.
Fuzzy Order Questions

Inaccurate questions do not commit an error as much as an observation, and
here we will put raise questions that will focus on the subject of this paper,
which is to re-ask the same question posed by Leibniz within the following
formula:
“What if the order will be fuzzy?"
By the logic of the previous equation, we consider the following differential
equations:
DcF y (z )  g  z , y (z )  , y (z 0 )  Z 0 , z  0, 1 , F  unknown.
(2)
If we can't be sure that the equation (1) is a perfect description of the
phenomenon within the order of the differential equations, it means a
potential error may be the results in case of adoption of an order and to ignore
the uncertainty in the order of the equations, so we will try to visualize such
situation in the previous equation.
Numarial example
Example 3.1: In motion between speed and acceleration If the order of the
equation extended within the first and second derivative, it means the
interpretation of the phenomenon related to the movement is to pre-determine
the speed approach and then acceleration, in which accordingly impose the
fuzzy number of (0, 1, 2).
Now we relate the distant and the time is given by the following equation:
d (t )  y (t )
(3)
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From the equation (3), if we want to construct the relation

describing all the changes from distant to acceleration, how can we
do that?
In traditional solution, we apply the first derivatives to find the speed

and the second derivatives to find the acceleration, but in logical there is a
gap in derivatives from the distant to speed and similarly between speed and
acceleration, this gap can be formulated in a fuzzy order, from the last logical
we can rewrite the next form for the general cases:
DcF y (z )  f  z , y (z )  , y (z 0 )  Z 0 , z   0, 1 , F   0, 1, 2  .
(4)
By applying definitions for the fuzzy triangular number we get the following
coupled equation:
DcF y (z )  f  z , y (z )  , y (z 0 )  Z 0 , z  0, 1 , F  0  r , r  0, 1.
(5)
DcF y (z )  f  z , y (z )  , y (z 0 )  Z 0 , z  0, 1 , F  2  r , r  0, 1.
(6)
Now we take the cases for different value of r .
Case 1: if r  1 this means the equation (5) gives the speed and equation (6)
give the acceleration.
Case 2: If r  0 this means the equation (5) gives the distance and equation
(6) give the speed.
Case 3: If r   0, 1 in equation (5) this means the general description for
all cases for equation (4) from distant to speed.
Case 4: If r   0, 1 in equation (6) this means the general description for
all cases for equation (2) from speed to acceleration.
We can rewrite the general form of the motions equations in a fuzzy order
where the order F   0,1, 2 
This logic according to traditional knowledge is considered acceptable in case
1 and case 2, but in case 3 and 4 it needs a broader understanding of the
concept of speed and access to pre-acceleration, this leads to the following
question:
690
Does it have a relationship to relative speed, which can be a maximum speed

at a certain point at r   0, 1 ?
Does it have a relationship with relative and acceleration, which can be a
maximum acceleration at a certain point at r   0, 1 ?
These questions can be answered as follows:

If we assume that the value of r increases in, r   0, 1 this means that we
are relating it to the speed in equations (5) and (6), where we obtain it when
r approaches to (1) in equation (6). Table 1. shows more clarify the idea:
Table 1: Triangular Fuzzy order for y (z )

r Derivatives At minimum At maximum Situation of Situation of
situation situation A B
A B
0 D  (0,1,2) y  z   f  z , y  z  y  z   f  z , y  z  D 2 y  z   f  z , y  z  Distant Acceleration
0.1 D  (0,1,2) y  z   f  z , y  z  D 0.1 y  z   f  z , y  z  D 1.9 y  z   f  z , y  z  Unknown Unknown

0.5 D  (0,1,2)
y  z   f  z , y  z  D y  z   f  z , y  z 
0.5
D y  z   f  z , y  z 
1.5 Unknown Unknown
0.8 D  (0,1,2) y  z   f  z , y  z  D 0.8  z   f  z , y  z   D 1.2 y  z   f  z , y  z  Unknown Unknown
1.0 D  (0,1,2) y  z   f  z , y  z  D 1.0 y  z   f  z , y  z  D 1.0 y  z   f  z , y  z  speed speed

691
Example 3.2: another example related to these questions are the equations in
diffusion wave between subdiffusion and ballistic diffusion, such as Time-
fractional diffusion wave equation [51-57]. From new logic by positioning
the order of fuzzy triangular numbers = (0, 1, 2) that leads to cover all the
cases of subdiffusion (weak diffusion) and normal diffusion, respectively,
and covers all the cases of superdiffusion (strong diffusion) and ballistic
diffusion, respectively.
Example 3.3: in [58] heat equation given as:
D  u (t )  a T
(7)
In the last equation there is a wide range of choice for  , this range give
different heat conduction property between subdiffusion and superdiffusion.
As one of the aforementioned challenges, the value of the fractional order is
empirical and lacks clear physical interpretation [58]. However there is a clear
correspond with the new description of the fuzzy order.
Conclusion
In this paper we asked a question and tried to answer it, this paper considers
an initial paper on the subject which requires further research. The application
of this logic may not be obvious now and needs further research and
objectivity.
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1 December 2016
T01_085: ANALYSIS ON RELATIONSHIPS

BETWEEN GROWTH MORPHOLOGICAL
CHARACTERISTICS WITH
INFLORESCENCES OF ARENGA PINNATA
Muhammad Faiz Ibrahim
Mohd Yusoff Abdullah
Faculty of Plantation and Agrotechnology, Universiti
Teknologi MARA, 40450, Shah Alam, Selangor.
ABSTRACT
Arenga pinnata (A. pinnata) is a economically potential palm species known
for its variety of beneficial products. Study on its growth morphological
characteristics is important in order to provide a more rigid understanding
on the species. Sixty individuals with suitable characteristics were identified
where selected parameters of growth morphological characteristics and
inflorescences were quantified. Pearson correlation coefficients and
regression analysis were carried out to determine the relationship between
each parameter. It was found that there were strong relationships in palm
height against number of leaves (r = 0.78***), number of female
inflorescence (r = 0.5***) and leaf position of first male inflorescence (r =
0.5***). Strong relationship also exist between number of female
inflorescence and leaf position of first male inflorescence (r = 0.99***).
Regression between parameters show positive relationships in most
parameters where relationship between number of leaves and palm height (
r2 = 0.61***), trunk girth against plant height (r2 = 0.13**) and number of
leaves (r2 = 0.13**) are highly significant. There were strong positive
relationship between number of female inflorescence and while other
relationships were significant with r2 below 0.3. Result indicated that strong
relationship exist between various parameters of growth morphology and
inflorescence. This can be utilized further for study associated with male
inflorescence which is main source of sap, the most important product of A.
pinnata.
Keywords: Arenga pinnata, morphology, inflorescence, correlation,

regression
697
Introduction
The genus Arenga belongs to family Arecaceae and is known for its
economically viable palm especially for rural communities. Consisting of 25
species of small to medium-sized palm, there are few species in the genus
that can produce sap which are A. pinnata and Arenga westerhoutii (A.
westerhoutii) [1]. Commonly known as sugar palm, both species have been
sources of sugar long before the cultivation of sugarcane [2]. Among both
species, A. pinnata are highly utilized for its sap especially in region of
Sulawesi in Indonesia as well as Peninsular Malaysia [3].
As extensive study on growth morphological characteristics can provide
clarification on quantitative value of structure of species, it can also be used
for further understanding on relationships between each identified
parameters. This is useful as information in order to understand the species
further. Studies on growth morphological characteristics has been done on
economically important palms such as date palm, Pheonix dactylifera (P.
dactylifera) as done by [5] and sago palm, Metroxylon sagu, M. sagu by [6].
Correlation, regression and principal data analyses are common statistical
analyses associated with study on growth and morphology. [7] studied on
relationship between different parameters of Mauritanian date palm, P.
dactylifera of different cultivars. Studies on morphology of P.dactylifera
done by [8] and [9] combined with genetics to understand the species
variations in different locality.
The germination of A. pinnata takes as long as a month to a year while the
period from seedling to full grown palm ranged from 5 to 12 years. [10] stated
the difference in transition stage time where palm at lower altitude begin
flowering after 5-7 years and 12-15 years at 900m altitude. The emergence of
two consecutive leaves signal the end of vegetative stage where palm stops
producing new leaf and enter reproductive stage [11]. A. pinnata has a
basipetal flowering sequence where first female inflorescence emerges from
top in the axils of uppermost leaves in descending order [2]. The first
inflorescence is female and followed consecutively until the emergence of
first male inflorescence. When flowering reaches lowest axil, the palm will
start to wilt and dies; a hapaxanthic monoecious characteristic of the species.
Thorough understanding on phenology as well as growth morphological
characteristics is important in order to overcome drawback on long vegetative
stage which is a constraint for a larger scale plantation due to long payback
period. This caused rural communities to harvest on wild population. In
addition to intense labour practice and skills required to extract the saps,
698
commercialization of A. pinnata in industrial scale is a hard task. Therefore,

the purpose of this study is to provide an insight on growth morphology and
its relationship with inflorescence growth characteristics.
Materials and methods

Experimental site and study period
Study was conducted in Balong River Eco Resort and Plantation situated in
Balong, Tawau in the state of Sabah, Malaysia. The 3000 acre lands hold
various agrotourism activities and plantation of about 32 various species are
run by Kebun Rimau Sdn. Bhd. which headquartered in Kota Kinabalu,
Sabah. The A. pinnata plantation site was 148 ha in total from about 600 ha
land area allocated for plantation. The whole area was divided into more than
10 different planting plots with each hectarage about 7 ha and consists of
about 138 palms and cultivated as monocrop or intercrop. The experimental
plot for this study consisted of Block 8 (N4° 25.923' E118° 01.987) and Block
9 (N 4° 25.43.33' E118° 1.49.89') Bald Hill due to suitable palm
characteristics that met the objectives of study. The experimental plots
composed of volcanic soils and are about 190 m above sea level. The study
period run during month of June 2015 until March 2016 towards completion.
The study location lies on equator line where climate was hot and humid with
temperature ranged 24 to 33°c throughout the time research is conducted.
Table 1: Selected parameters of growth morphological characteristics and

inflorescences
Parameters Unit
Palm height m
Trunk Girth m
Number of leaves
Leaf position of first inflorescence
Number of female inflorescence
Leaf position of first male inflorescence
Sampling plants and parameters

Sixty individual palms at reproductive stage and undergone emergence of
first male inflorescence were selected for this study. Due to abundance of
individuals with desired characteristics in location of study, selections are
conducted randomly within the planting plots chosen for the study. Each
individual were tagged and labelled followed by record on general
information such as Identification (ID) number, planting block and GPS
699
coordinates. The parameters of growth morphological characteristics and

information are summarized in table 1.
Data Analysis
The descriptive analyses were performed on various inflorescence parameters

to determine mean, range and standard error of the mean. The relationships
between were carried out using Pearson correlation coefficient and significant
level at p ≤ 0.05, p ≤ 0.01 and p ≤ 0.001 were determined by test of
significance. Linear regression analysis was carried out to determine pattern
and regression parameters. All data analyses and test were performed using
the software Minitab ver.16.
Results
Correlation Between Selected Parameters Of Growth Morphology And

Inflorescence Characteristics
The correlation coefficients between parameters of growth morphology and
inflorescence characteristics are presented in Table 2. There were significant
relationships between palm height and other parameters with strong
relationships against number of leaves (r = 0.78***), number of female
inflorescence (r = 0.5***), leaf position of first male inflorescence (r =
0.5***) and estimated number of male inflorescence (r = 0.51***) while
moderate relationship existed between plant height and trunk girth (r =
0.36**). There were strong significant relationship between number of leaves
as well against number of female inflorescence (r = 0.5***), leaf position of
first male inflorescence (r = 0.51***) and estimated number of male
inflorescence (r = 0.76***) while moderate relationship existed between
number of leaves and trunk girth (r = 0.36**). Strong significant relationship
existed between number of female inflorescence and leaf position of first
male inflorescence.
Table 2: Pearson correlation coefficients of growth morphology and inflorescence

characteristics
No. of
Palm Trunk No. of female Leaf position of
Parameters height Girth leaves inflo. first male inflo.
Trunk Girth 0.36**
No. of leaves 0.78*** 0.36**
700
No. of female
inflo. 0.5*** 0.22 0.5***
Leaf position
of first male
inflo. 0.5*** 0.2 0.51*** 0.99***
Note: No. = number, info = inflorescence, *, **, *** significant at p ≤ 0.05, p ≤ 0.01 and p ≤
0.001 respectively while growth parameters without * have no significant correlations. n = 60
Regression Between Various Parameters Of Growth Morphological

Characteristics Of Arenga Pinnata
The graphs of regression on relationship parameters of growth morphological
characteristics are presented in the Figure 1. All regression lines in the graphs
showed positive relationship that existed between parameters. The
relationship between number of leaves and palm height are highly significant
with r2 = 0.61***. Other significant relationships are trunk girth against plant
height (r2 = 0.13**) and number of leaves (r2 = 0.13**).
40 2.5
a) c)
30
Number of leaves
2.0
Trunk girth (m)
20
1.5
z
n = 60
n = 60
r2 = 0.61***
10
r2 = 0.13**
TotNumLeaf = 9.40 + 1.84 PalmHght
TrnkGrth = 1.34 + 0.0126 TotNumLeaf
0 0.0
b) 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Number of leaves
1.8
Trunk girth (m)
1.5
1.2
n= 60
r2 = 0.13**
TrnkGrth = 1.40 + 0.0297 PalmHght
0.0
4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Palm Height (m)

701
Figure 1: Regression graph on relationship between parameters of growth

morphology; Graph of a) Number of leaves, b) Trunk girth (m) against Palm
height (m); Graph of Trunk girth (m) against Number of leaves. * , **, ***
significant at p ≤ 0.05, p ≤ 0.01 and p ≤ 0.001 respectively while relationship
without * have no significant difference.
25 40
a) d)
Number of female inflorescence
20
Number of leaves
30
15
10
20
5 n = 60 n = 60
r2 = 0.95*** r2 = 0.25***
TotNumFInflo = - 0.289 + 0.903 LeafFirstMaleInflo TotNumLeaf = 20.4 + 0.760 TotNumFInflo
0 0
b) 15 e)
Number of leaves
30 Palm height (m) 12
6
15
n = 60 n = 60
r2 = 0.27*** r2 = 0.25***
TotNumLeaf = 19.7 + 0.735 LeafFirstMaleInf PalmHght = 6.86 + 0.321 TotNumFInflo
0
16 0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
c)
14 Number of female inflorescence
12
Palm height (m)
10
6
n = 60
r2 = 0.22***
4
PalmHght = 6.84 + 0.283 LeafFirstMaleInf
0
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Leaf position of first male inflorescence
Figure 2: Regression graph on relationship between parameters of growth

morphology and inflorescence; Graph of a) Number of female inflorescence b)
Number of leaves c) Palm height (m) against leaf position of first male
inflorescence; Graph of d) Number of leaves e) palm height (m) against Number
of female inflorescence. *, **, *** significant at p ≤ 0.05, p ≤ 0.01 and p ≤ 0.001
respectively while relationship without * have no significant difference.
Regressions Between Growth Morphology And Inflorescence

Characteristics
The graphs of regression on relationship between growth morphology and
inflorescence characteristics are presented in Figure 2. Among the
relationships, number of female inflorescence against leaf position of first
702
inflorescence has strong positive relationship with r 2 = 0.95***. Other

significant relationships were number of leaves against leaf position of first
male inflorescence (r2 = 0.27***), plant height against leaf position of first
male inflorescence (r2 = 0.22***), number of leaves against number of female
inflorescence (r2 = 0.25***) and palm height against number of female
inflorescence (r2 = 0.25***)
DISCUSSION
Growth morphological characteristics are strongly correlated with each other.
Study done by [6] on M. sago found mutual correlation between almost all
quantitative morphological characteristics listed in the study. The strong
relationship between palm height and number of leaves is due to taller palm
permit more leaves emerged on the trunk. However, there is no relationship
between these characteristics in other palm species such as P. dactylifera as
found by [5]. Trunk girth is an important growth morphology associated
mainly with support. The moderate relationship however shows that it is not
necessary for girth to grow along as palm grows taller. Other studies done by
[6] on M. sago and [5] on P. dactylifera found no significant relationship
between these parameters. The reason can be identified from palm vegetative
stage which further classified into seedling, juvenile and stemmed phase.
During juvenile phase, palm experienced increase in girth size before a well-
defined trunk is established. After final girth achieved, it remain stable while
height continues to increase until palm reach reproductive stage [12]. The
relationship between trunk girth and number of leaves are also in accordance
to study done by [12].
This emergence of inflorescence of A. pinnata follow a specific rule
which is clarified through relationship between growth morphology and
general growth characteristics of inflorescence which were elaborated by
[12]. The strong relationship between number of female inflorescence and
leaf position where first male inflorescence emerges were due to the
consistency in leaf number where first inflorescence emerge and
inflorescence that always emerge on axil of every palm leaves. This provides
with easier determination of inflorescence based on number of leaves on
palm. Significant correlation between growth parameters and inflorescence
characteristics also shows that increase in growth directly affect growth of
reproductive structure of A. pinnata.
CONCLUSION
703
This study provides better understanding on relationship between growth

morphology and inflorescence emergence of palm. The strong relationship
shows that growth parameters change in accordance to other parameters in
order to accommodate of structural support and function. Relationships that
are related to inflorescence are associated with specific rule undergone by the
species. This is useful for further study on A. pinnata especially on estimation
of male inflorescence as it is important structure that associated with sap
extraction.
References
[1] Mogea, J.P. Four new species of Arenga (Palmae) from Indonesia.
Vol 12, Part 2, pp: 181 – 189. (2004)
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sugar palm. Agroforestry system. 13: 111-129. (1991).
[3] Pongsattayapipat, R. and Barford, A. On the identities of Thai
sugar palms. Palms. Vol. 49(1): 5-14. (2005).
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aren. Bulletin Palma. 37:100-114. (2009).
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morphological attributes of date palm accessions of diverse agro-
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[6] Kjaer, A., Barfod, A.S., Asmussen, C.B. and Seberg, O.
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[7] Salem, A.O.M., Rhouma, S., Zehdi, S., Marrakchi, M., Trifi, M.
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Croat. 67(1), 81-90, (2008).
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dactylifera L.) subpopulations in southern Tunisia. Spanish
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[9] Al-Khalifah, N.S., Askari, E. and Khan E.S. Molecular and
morphological identification of some elite varieties of date palms
grown in Saudi Arabia. Emir. J. Food Agric. 24(5): 456-46. (2012).
[10] Martin, F. Multipurpose palms you can grow – The World’s Best,
available at www.agroforestry.net/pubs/multipalm.html . (1999).
704
[11] Elberson, W. and Oyen, L. Sugar Palm (Arenga pinnata) Potential

of sugar for bio-ethanol production. FACT Foundation. Pp. 4.
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[12] Zakaria. R.M., Dransfield, J. and Kieth-Lucas, M. The
Demography of two wild Arenga species (Arecaceae) in Malaysia.
Malayan Nature Journal, 54:2, 95-107
1 December 2016
T01_086: THE EFFECT OF BY-PRODUCTS

PARTIAL REPLACEMENT TRIAL MIX ON
CONCRETE STRENGTH AND
PERFORMANCE
PhD Student, Jaharatul Dini Karen Lee Abdullah1, *Nazri Ali1 and Mohd
Roslli Noor Mohamed1
1
Faculty Of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Mohammed Mu’azu Abdullahi2

2
Civil Engineering Department, Jubail University College, Royal
Commission of Jubail and Yanbu, Jubail Industrial City, Kingdom of Saudi
Arabia
ABSTRACT
OPC is the biggest producer of carbon dioxide (CO2). Hence, partial
replacement of cement becomes a necessity as well as natural sand in
concrete by waste material or by-product without compromising the quality
of the end product. The aim of this study is to determine the effect of different
percentages of partial cement replacement with by-products usage, such as
Ground Granulated Blast furnace Slag (GGBS), Fly Ash (PFA), Silica Fumes
(SILICA) incorporates with 100% of Quarry Dust (QD) as a sand
replacement on concrete strength and performance. Three trial mix were
selected most consistent mix design and the results; OPC(326)+PFA(25%)
+GGBS(20%) +SILICA(7%), OPC(428)+PFA(30%)+SILICA(7%) and
OPC(428)+GGBS(30%) +SILICA(7%) with double dosage of an admixture
of ADVA 391M(1000) and MIRA 225R(200), ADVA 391M(1000) and MIRA
225R(200) and ADVA 391M(1000) and MIRA 225R(500) respectively for
further analysis.
Keywords: By-Product, Replacement, fly ash, silica fumes, quarry dust,
Introduction
The OPC contributes in harming the earth in its production as well as the
concrete production led to the reduction in the sources of natural sand. The
requirement for a reduction in the cost of concrete production has resulted in
706
poor quality sand supplied.Thus resulting in an increased need to identify

substitute material to sand as fine aggregates in the production of concrete
especially in green concrete. To overcome above mentioned crisis, the
replacement of sand with quarry dust can be an economical alternative.
The choice of utilizing the waste product/by-product as a
replacement and substitution for cement and natural river sand is supported
in the previous research [1] showing that up to 20% of the sand has been
effectively replaced by quarry dust in traditional concrete. The strength of
QD, concrete is comparably 10-12% more than of similar of conventional
concrete as reported by [2]. Experimentation on the behavior of the concrete
with the use of granite fines as partial replacement for sand up to 50% and
obtained the positive results in strength [3]. The development of high volume
fly ash concrete mix designs is typically attributed to [4], who developed
mixes with 60% and more of the OPC replaced by fly ash. The optimum
cement replacement level is often quoted to be about 50% and sometimes as
high as 55%.
GGBS improves many mechanical and durability properties of
concrete and generates less heat of hydration with major design objectives of
minimizing temperature differentials due to heat of hydration. Using quarry
waste as a substitute of sand in construction materials resolves the
environmental problems caused by the large-scale depletion of the natural
sources of river and mining sands [2]. Quarry waste can be a profitable
alternative to the natural sands when the overall construction cost increases
due to the transportation of sands from their sources [5]. The workability of
fresh concrete is increased, whereas the unit weight and air content remain
unaffected in the presence of quarry waste as postulated [5]. This research
determines the performance of concrete made with replacement of the high
percentage of GGBS, PFA and SILICA lower the amount of OPC usage and
to replace 100% of the natural sand with QD.

The Department of Environment method referring to [6], Standard
Specification for Ready Mixed Concrete, was used in designing the concrete
mix for high strength of 85 MPA of concrete, referring to [6, 7, 8, 9]. Then
modified to replace a higher percentage of combination blended OPC others
by-product; GGBS, PFA and SILICA and 100 % QD. The workability of each
mix was measured after batching the concrete, the fresh properties of the
concrete are determined through the Flow Slump Test only for the best
workability. Concrete samples were cast (100x100x100) mm and cured using
the normal curing and tested at the age of 4 days, 7 days, 14 days, 28 days
707
and up to 56 days as monitoring. The tests were conducted on 2 samples for

every individual age of curing period for the earlier of trial mix and estimated
50 sets of sampling.

The research utilizes by-products of various of combination with OPC with
100% QD to obtain high strength of concrete of 85MPA. Achieving good
workability together with the flow slump that similar to Self Compacting
Concrete (SCC). As well as achieving best mix design through a correct
proportioning of the ingredients. However, in order to achieve the targets
there are few challenges encountered where the uncertain raw material quality
and consistency, the inconsistency of the concrete strength and the poor
workability. The trial mix was divided into two stages, starting with the mix
design (agreed by the R&D team) and following by the second stage (best
mix design obtained). The mix design shown variation in the usage amount
of QD, AGG., and Water reducing admixture (ADVA 222). Figure 1 shows
the results of OPC (436 OPC m3/kg) + PFA (30 %)+ SILICA (6 %) +
QUARRY DUST (100%).
160
Compressive Strenght (MPa)
140
120
100
ADVA 1200, AGG. 960, QD 528
80 ADVA 1200, AGG. 935, QD 573
ADVA 1000, AGG. 823, QD 679
60 ADVA 1000, AGG. 905, QD 603
Linear (ADVA 1200, AGG. 960, QD 528)
40 Linear (ADVA 1200, AGG. 935, QD 573)
0
0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00
Ages (Days)
Figure 1 Variation of compressive strength with curing times for
different ADVA, AGG. & QD contents at 155 H 2O & 436 OPC m3/kg
at PFA (30 %) +SILICA (6 %)
From the Figure 1 a high strength in concrete (100MPA) was easily obtained
from trial mix, but workability wise very poor. For example, ADVA 1200,
AGG. 960 and QD 528, the flow recorded is 660x660 mm at 0.23 w/c. Due
top above reasons, the mix proportion was revised and adjusted to achieve
708
the targets of bench mark 85 MPA high strength. A good workability; flow
sump without concrete segregation and bleeding. At the beginning of the trial
mix, the admixture used was basically a single dosage of ADVA222. Figure
2 shows OPC + PFA + GGBS ++ADVA 222+QD (100%). The usage of 20
mm, quarry dust and admixture ADVA 222 was varied in order to control the
ratio QD and AGG., to improve workability, however, this combination
shows segregation.
130
Compresive Strength (MPa)
120
110
100
ADVA 1200, AGG. 962, QD 474
ADVA 1200, AGG. 876, QD 560
90 ADVA 1100, AGG. 746, QD 690
70
0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00
Ages (Days)
different ADVA, AGG. & QD contents at 150 H 2O & 312 OPC m3/kg
at PFA(25 %)+GGBS (35 %)
The QD needed to be adjusted to control the cohesiveness of concrete mix, if

the raw material 20mm and 100 % QD) are on the coarse side. Figure 3 shows
OPC + GGBS + QD (100%).
The ADVA and H2O, were adjusted to get the best workability in order to
prevent the bleeding and segregation of the concrete. But adjusting the
ADVA and H2O is very challenging, especially for the mix design using the
combination of OPC with GGBS.This is because GGBS has large surface
area and therefore absorbs more water. Consequently, segregation and
bleeding of concrete seems hard to control. The adjustment has to be done
accordingly to get the best slump without jeopardizing the targeted strength
of 85 MPA. The trial of OPC+GGBS (40 %) too much of segregation,
therefore it was discarded. Figure 4 graphs combination of
OPC+GGBS+SILICA+ADVA 222, MIRA 225R and mixture, MIRA 225R
and ADVA 391M to improve workability.
709
140
Compressive Strength (MPa) 130
120
110
100 ADVA 1200, AGG. 936, QD 482

ADVA 1200, AGG. 865, QD 553
90 ADVA 1000, AGG. 737, QD 681
80
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Ages (Days)
different ADVA, AGG. & QD contents at 150 H 2O & 432 OPC m3/kg at
GGBS(40 %)
120
100
Compressive stregth (MPa)
80 ADVA 1000, AGG. 882, QD 588

ADVA 1000, AGG. 882, QD 588
60 ADVA 1000, AGG. 851, QD 567
MIRA 1000, AGG. 882, QD 588
MIXTURE MIRA 1000 & ADVA 200, 882 QD 588
20 Linear (MIRA 1000, AGG. 882, QD 588)
Linear (MIXTURE MIRA 1000 & ADVA 200, 882 QD 588)
Linear (MIXTURE MIRA 1000 & ADVA 200, 882 QD 588)
0
0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00
Ages (Days)
different ADVA, MIRA, MISTURE, AGG. & QD contents at 155 H 2O
& 436 OPC m3/kg at SILICA (6 %) & GGBS(30 %)
The average compressive strength increase with increase in the concrete

curing age. With the ADVA(1000) 222 and admixture of MIRA(1000) and
ADVA(200), the targeted compressive strength of 85 MPa was achieved at
the early curing age of 4 days. Figure 5 shows a new combination of
OPC+PFA+GGBS+SILICA+ADVA 222 and MIRA 225R.
710
110
100
Compressive Strength (MPa)
90
80
70 MIRA 1000, AGG. 850, QD 567

ADVA 1000, AGG. 850, QD 567
60 Linear (MIRA 1000, AGG. 850, QD 567)
50
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Ages (Days)
different ADVA, MIRA, MISTURE, AGG. & QD contents at 155 H 2O
& 436 OPC m3/kg at OPC+PFA (20 %) +GGBS (30 %) +SILICA (7%)
+ADVA 222 OR MIRA 225R
Due problem of the segregation, bleeding of concrete and workability

difference mixes are combined and recombined using an admixture as single
or double doses of ADVA 222, ADVA 391M, MIRA 225R, varying the H 2O,
AGG. and QD. Resulting in selection of 3trial mixes namely; OPC+PFA
+GGBS +SILICA, OPC+PFA+SILICA and OPC+GGBS +SILICA with an
admixture of ADVA 391M, MIRA 225R for further analysis.
Conclusion
Various trial mixes as partial replacement, affects the workability and
overall compressive strength of the concrete with the curing ages. The
effects are on concrete cohesiveness, bleeding and segregation of
concrete. GGBS, PFA, SILICA and 100 % QD was used and they are
available for almost free of cost as the replacement. Based on a series of trials
carried out,three trial mixes were selected with most consistent mix design,
namely; OPC+PFA +GGBS +SILICA, OPC+PFA+SILICA and
OPC+GGBS +SILICA with an admixture.
References
711
[1] M. Maheswari and B. Vidivelli,. “The use of sheet glass powder as fine
aggregate replacement in concrete”, The Open Civil Engineering
Journal, Vol.4, pp.65-71 (2010).
[2] R. Ilangovana, N. Mahendrana and K. Nagamanib, “Strength And
Durability Properties Of Concrete Containing Quarry Rock Dust As
Fine Aggregate”. ISSN:1819- 6608, Vol 3, no. 5,October (2008).
[3] Y. Divakar., S. Manjunath , and M. U. Aswath, “Experimental
Investigation on Behaviour of Concrete with the use of Granite Fines”,
International J. of Advanced Engineering Research and Studies, Vol. 1
Issue. 4, pp. 84- 87 (2012).
[4] V.M Malhotra, “Superplasticizers and Other Chemical Admixtures in
Concrete”. Proceedings 3rd International Conf. Ottawa, Canada (1989).
[5] Md. Safiuddin, M. Zamin Jumaat, M. A. Salam, M. S. Islam and R.
Hashim, “Utilization of solid wastes in construction materials”
International J. of the Physical Sci. Vol. 5(13), pp. 1952-1963, (2010).
[6] American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM C 94, Standard
Specification for Ready-Mixed Concrete (2004).
[7] British Standard Institution, BS 1881: Part 3, “Methods of Making and
Curing Test Specimens” (1970).
[8] British Standard Institution, BS 1881: Part 102, “Methods for
Determination of Slump” (1983).
[9] British Standard Institution, BS 1881: Part 116, “Methods for
Determination of Compressive Strength of Concrete Cube” (1983).
1 December 2016
T01_087: EFFECTS OF LOCAL REGRESSION

SMOOTHING METHOD ON LOWER LIMB
ANGLES DURING WALKING
Solehah Jamilah Ismail

Mohd Azizi Abdul Rahman
Vehicle System Engineering iKohza,
Malaysia-Japan International Institute of Technology,
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur.
ABSTRACT
Kinect sensor has been broadly used in many recent studies because of its
ability to track human gestures without using marker. This low cost sensor is
able to replace the high cost tracking instrument in many applications
especially in monitoring system. However, this sensor has limitations as it
has the best skeletal tracking mode for the frontal view of human body. If it
was placed on the human’s side view, a very noisy joint positions data will
be tracked. In this paper, the robust version of locally weighted Linear
Regression method was selected to smooth the noisy joint positions raw data.
The linear (Rlowess) and quadratic (Rloess) polynomial model with different
span values s1=0.01, s2=0.05 and s3=0.1 were applied in the regression
smoothing method and was compared in this paper. Subsequently, Rloess
method with s1=0.01 span value was chosen to smooth the raw data that
needed in order to calculate the subject lower limb’s joint angles during
walking. The ankle, knee and hip joint angles calculated using the smoothed
data show a more reliable values compared to angles based on raw data with
Root Mean Square Errors (RMSE) 0.0014, 0.021 and 5e-4, respectively.
Keywords: Kinect, skeletal tracking, smoothing, joint angle, walking.
Introduction
Recently, more researchers are interested in human gesture tracking and
recognition research area which can be practiced to help simplify the human
work such as in surveillance systems, sports motion analysis, human machine
interface and health monitoring system. The low cost and marker-less motion
713
sensing device like Kinect, Leap Motion, Intel Creative camera, and Asus
Xtion [1] had encouraged the interest of researchers to develop numerous
frameworks using the sensors to replace the high cost devices to track and
recognize the human gestures. Kinect (Figure 1) is a depth and red green blue
(RGB) motion sensor which use Software Development Kit (SDK) that can
capture depth, colour and skeleton image based on depth information that
were estimated using infrared pattern projection. This sensor worked well in
bright and dark environments and return image with resolution of 640x480
pixels at 30 frames per second (fps). In the skeleton space, there are twenty
3D joints positions (x, y, z) of skeleton data (Figure 2(a)) can be detected
using this sensor which have the origin at the centre of the sensor[2]. The (x,
y) gives the particular coordinate of joint positions meanwhile the depth value
(z) gives the distance of the nearest subjects to the sensors in meters (m).
Figure 1: (a) Kinect sensor with its x, y and z (depth) axis.
Currently, the increasing number of patients who need rehab had

triggered the interest of researchers to fulfil the needs of easy and low cost
monitoring system using Kinect[3][4]. Some of researchers had carried out
studies about the Kinect’s accuracy and reliability, and employing Kinect in
rehabilitation system to provide clinical evaluation and validation[1]. Other
than that, Kinect skeleton data was broadly used to find the best recognition
rate to classify different gestures of human by using various research
methods, extracted features and type of classifiers[5][6][7][8][9][10][11].
Different angle of sensors, distance between subject and sensor, and
background are important characteristics to obtain a good system’s response
time[12].
However, Kinect were tied to some limitations such as it tracked the
best for human’s front view only, unable to differentiate between front or
back side of human, covered limited space and also suffered from occlusions
or clutter[13]. Tracking joint positions from human’s side views is a great
challenge because noises can also be captured during skeletal tracking
process. Noise in digital image usually caused by the lighting levels,
background conditions, sensor temperature and also the presence of dust on
sensor screen[14]. Referring to [1], the noise and occlusion problems can be
solved by doing calibration, applying Kalman filtering and employing sensor
fusion. Besides, the noise in image can be reduced or removed using noise
714
removal algorithm by smoothing the entire image using linear or non-linear

filtering techniques[15]. Despite the existence of the noises, Kinect was
proven able to track valuable joint positions of left or right side views of
human body parts which were closer to the sensor[13].
The aim of this study is to track and recognize the walking gesture
from the right side of the subjects using Kinect. The joint position’s raw data
collected by Kinect sensors were expected to be mixed with a lots of false
data (noises) because of its incapability to track a better joint positions from
side view. Therefore, the objectives of this paper are to figure out a suitable
smoothing method to reduce the noise in the joint position’s raw data and its
effects on joint angles calculations for walking activities.
Methodology
Experimental procedure
In this study, 10 healthy subjects (8 males and 2 females) were involved in
the experiment. They were asked to walk on a treadmill for 60 seconds in a
constant speed, one by one (Figure 2(b)). In order to avoid occlusions
between joint position of hands and lower limbs, the subjects were requested
to put their arms crossed on the chest. Other than that, the subjects need to
wear a tight clothes in order to reduce noises that might caused by too loose
clothes during tracking process. This experiment utilized only one Kinect
sensor that was placed facing the right side of the subject during the walking
experiment in a bright room.
Data pre-processing
Only five out of twenty joint positions were considered in this study (Figure
2(c)). The selected joints were hip centre, right hip, right knee, right ankle
and right foot which were named as P12, P13, P14, P15 and P16, respectively.
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2: (a) Twenty joint positions of body skeleton; (b) A subject
walked on treadmill with arms crossed on the chest; (c) Lower limb’s joint
positions and angles considered in this study.
715
In this paper, we used the robust version of locally weighted Linear

Regression to smooth the noisy raw data that caused by the placement of the
sensor from the subject’s side view. ‘Rlowess’ and ‘Rloess’ were two
different derived named of smoothing method which applied linear (1 st
degree) and quadratic (2nd degree) polynomial in the regression, respectively.
This method is considered as locally weighted because the regression weight
function was defined and it smoothing the data based on neighbouring data
points within the span. As it assigned zero weight to the data outside six mean
absolute deviations, this robust method was resistant to the outliers.
Data Analysis
After the smoothing process, we calculate three joint angles on the right side
of the subject; hip, knee and ankle angles which named as θ1, θ2, and θ3
respectively (Figure 2(c)). The angle θ1 refers to angle between joint positions
P12 P13 P14; meanwhile θ2 is angle between P13 P14 P15 and then θ3 is angle
between P14 P15 P16.
Results And Discussion

Rlowess and Rloess smoothing method with 0.05 span value were applied on
the five joint positions. Span value refers to the percentage of data smoothed
each time from the total number of data points which must less than or equal
to 1. Figure 3 shows the comparison of knee’s raw data and smoothed data
by using Rlowess and Rloess smoothing method for 3 seconds walking
activities.
Smoothing X-coordinate of Knee Joint Smoothing Y-coordinate of Knee Joint
-0.65 -0.26
raw
raw
Rlowess
Rlowess
Rloess -0.28
-0.7 Rloess
-0.3
-0.75
X coordinate
Y coordinate
-0.32
-0.8
-0.34
-0.85
-0.36
-0.9 -0.38
1500 1510 1520 1530 1540 1550 1560 1570 1580 1590 1500 1510 1520 1530 1540 1550 1560 1570 1580 1590
Frame Frame
(a) (b)
Figure 3: The comparison of applying Rlowess and Rloess method on P14’s
(a) X-coordinate and (b) Y-coordinate.
Rloess method shown a better smoothing process as it still follows

the raw data pattern, meanwhile Rlowess method went too far from the raw
716
data pattern. Therefore, we decided to choose Rloess compared to Rlowess as

smoothing method in this study. However, the span value for Rloess method
needs to be adjusted as the smoothed data resulted by using 0.1 span values
have a huge difference with the raw data itself. Then, three different span
values s1=0.01, s2=0.05 and s3=0.1 were applied in the Rloess method.
Smoothing X-coordinate of Knee Joint Smoothing Y-coordinate of Knee Joint
-0.65
raw -0.26 raw
s1=0.01 s1=0.01
-0.7 s2=0.05 -0.28 s2=0.05
s3=0.1 s3=0.1
-0.3
Y coordinate
X coordinate
-0.75
-0.32
-0.8
-0.34
-0.36
-0.85
-0.38
1500 1510 1520 1530 1540 1550 1560 1570 1580 1590 1500 1510 1520 1530 1540 1550 1560 1570 1580 1590
Frame Frame
(a) (b)
Figure 4. The comparison of using different span values (si) in Rloess smoothing
method on P14’s (a) X-coordinate and (b) Y-coordinate.
Angle of Hip Joint Angle of Knee Joint
90.08
Raw data 92.6 Raw data
90.07 Smoothed data
92.4 Smoothed data
90.06
92.2
Angle (Degree)
Angle (Degree)
90.05
92
90.04
91.8
90.03 91.6
90.02 91.4
90.01 91.2
90 91
600 610 620 630 640 650 660 670 680 690 600 610 620 630 640 650 660 670 680 690
Frame Frame
(a) (b)
Angle of Ankle Joint
90.08
Raw data
90.07 Smoothed data
90.06
Angle (Degree)
90.05
90.04
90.03
90.02
90.01
90
600 610 620 630 640 650 660 670 680 690
Frame
(c)
Figure 5: The comparison of θ1, θ2 and θ3 joint angle values calculated using
raw and smoothed data at (a) P13, (b) P14 and (c) P15.
717
Based on Figure 4, span values s1=0.01 shows the best smoothed

data as it ignored the outliers and still conserved the raw data pattern,
meanwhile the other span values produced a smoothed data that went far from
raw data pattern which may leads to different substitute values that are not
possible for walking data and will effect the further analysis results.
Next, the Rloess method with span value s1 = 0.01 were applied on
all (x, y) coordinates of the joint positions. The angle changes of hip, knee
and ankle were calculated based on the 2D raw and smoothed data and
shown in Figure 5.
The graphs show angle smoothed data gives better angles as it
reduced noises in the raw data. The root mean squared error (RMSE) values
between the mean angles values of raw and smoothed data was calculated.
The RMSE values for hip, knee and ankle mean angles were 0.0014, 0.021
and 5e-4, respectively.
Conclusion
Tracking joint positions of subject’s lower limb from side view of a Kinect
sensor will surely consists of a lots of noises. Different types of smoothing
method with various span values give different smoothed data. In this study,
Rloess method with 0.01 span value was used to smooth the raw data
collected from the Kinect sensor. As the result, the calculated joint angles
also smoothed. The RMSE of mean joint angles for hip, knee and ankle
between using raw and smoothed data were 0.0014, 0.021 and 5e-4,
respectively. Therefore, it can be concluded that suitable smoothing method
is necessary to reduce noise in order to get a better data in further analysis.
References
[1] H. M. Hondori and M. Khademi, “A Review on Technical and Clinical Impact
of Microsoft Kinect on Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation,” J. Medical
Engineering., (2014).
[2] Microsoft, “Kinect for Windows Sensor Components and Specifications.”
[Online]. Available: https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/jj131033.aspx.
[Accessed: 01-Jan-2015].
[3] H. Zhou and H. Hu, “Human motion tracking for rehabilitation-A survey,”
Biomedical Signal Processing Control, 3(1), 1–18, (2008).
[4] D. González-Ortega, F. J. Díaz-Pernas, M. Martínez-Zarzuela, and M. Antón-
Rodríguez, “A Kinect-based system for cognitive rehabilitation exercises
monitoring,” Comput. Methods Programs Biomed., 113(2), 620–631, (2014).
718
[5] O. Patsadu, C. Nukoolkit, and B. Watanapa, “Human Gesture Recognition

using Kinect Camera,” Computer Science Software Engineering Int. Jt. Conf., pp.
28–32, (2012).
[6] X. Chen and M. Koskela, “Skeleton-Based Action Recognition with Extreme
Learning Machines,” Neurocomputing 149, 387–396, (2013).
[7] M. D. Bengalur, “Human activity recognition using body pose features and
support vector machine,” 2013 Int. Conf. Adv. Comput. Commun. Informatics,
pp. 1970–1975 (2013).
[8] M.-J. Lim, J.-H.Cho, H.-S.Han, and T.-S.Kim,“Upper Body Pose Recognition
with Labeled Depth Body Parts via Random Forests and Support Vector
Machines,” Int. J. Inf. Educ. Technol., 3(1), 67–71, (2013).
[9] S. Saha, S. Ghosh, A. Konar, and A. K. Nagar, “Gesture Recognition From
Indian Classical Dance using Kinect Sensor,” Proc. - 5th Int. Conf. Comput.
Intell. Commun. Syst. Networks, CICSyN 2013, 3–8, (2013).
[10] M.Z.Uddin,“Human Activity Recognition Using Body Joint-Angle Features
and Hidden Markov Model,” ETRI J., 33(4), 569–579, (2011).
[11] A. Sinha, K. Chakravarty, and B. Bhowmick, “Person identification using
skeleton information from kinect,” The Sixth International Conference on
Advances in Computer-Human Interactions., 101–108, (2013).
[12] M. B. Manjuatha, B. P. Pradeep, and S. Y. Santhosh, “Survey on Skeleton
Gesture Recognition Provided by Kinect,” 8475–8483, (2014).
[13] T. Wei, B. Lee, Y. Qiao, A. Kitsikidis, K. Dimitropoulos, and N.
Grammalidis, “Experimental study of skeleton tracking abilities from microsoft
kinect non-frontal views,” 3DTV-Conference, 2015(1), 1–4, (2015).
[14] R. Verma and J. Ali, “A Comparative Study of Various Types of Image
Noise and Efficient Noise Removal Techniques,” Int. J. Adv. Res. Comput. Sci.
Softw. Eng., 3(10), 617–622, (2013).
[15] P. Kamboj and V. Rani, “A Brief Study of Various Noise Model and Filtering
Techniques,” J. Glob. Res. Comput. Sci., 4(4), 166–171, (2013).
1 December 2016
T01_089: IDENTIFYING THE GREEN HOME

FEATURES OFFERED BY DEVELOPERS – A
SYSTEMATIC LITERATURE REVIEW
Nurul Ainul Md. Yusoff1, Faridah Ismail2
1
MARA (UiTM) Shah Alam
ABSTRACT
Green home features are contributing towards to energy efficiency and
consequently meeting the criteria and standards of sustainability. Housing
developers start to develop green home after recognising the value of it.
Housing development in Malaysia starting to involve the provision of a
housing development that improves the quality of life without detrimental
impact to the environment. However, there are little specific studies in the
literature to examine the green features offered among the developers. The
objective of this paper is to identify the element of green home features
offered by developers based on literature review. Through a systematic
literature review from 2000 to 2016, this paper examines typical green home
features offered by developers. In this paper, data is analyze and tabulated
with the ultimate goal of identifying the typical green home features offered.
The finding deduced 6 typical green home features offered which are;, i.
recycle material finishes, ii. Energy Efficiency, iii. Ventilation System, iv.
Grey Water Recycling System, v. Landscape and vi. Site Location or Building
Orientation. This paper is part of an ongoing research to find the gap analysis
between the green home features offered by developers and homebuyers
expectation.
Keywords: green home, developers, housing development, green features.
Introduction
Real estate developers differentiate their housing products from others by
actively advertising the green features offered in their buildings. The concept
of green is believed to help minimize the impact of construction on its
environmental surrounding and promote a sustainable environment for the
future generation [1]. Green features are the crucial elements in classifying
the house as a green home. For a house to become ‘green’, every phase of the
720
building process from designing, construction until operation must

incorporate environmental considerations such as energy and water
efficiency, resource efficiency, indoor quality, waste and pollution control,
house maintenance and the overall impact of the house on the environment
[2]. Green Home is a space and energy efficient home which offer cosiness
and healthy living environment to its residents [3]. In addition to that, the
application of green concept in houses is to focus on how to optimise the
return whilst minimising the intake [4].
Nowadays Malaysia has been plagued with the issues of environmental
dissatisfaction with construction projects constantly. In a quest to bring
construction industry and development forward, sustainable construction is
adopted to ensure the natural environment is preserved whilst creating
healthy, comfortable and economically prosperous places for people to live,
work and play. This is aligned with the Construction Industry Transformation
Programme 2016-2020 (CITP) initiative in which aiming for more
responsible construction industry to lower CO2-eq. emissions while
compliance with ratings will make our infrastructure more resilient and
sustainable [5]. This Environmental Sustainability Thrust is in line with the
fourth strategic thrust of RMK11: ‘Pursuing green growth for sustainability
and resilience’[5].One of the agenda of sustainable construction is building
‘green’ Green Home is a space and energy efficient home which can offer
cosiness and healthy living environment to its residents[3].With the
government’s latest move to encourage the adoption of energy-saving
measures for residential properties, many green homes are built in the country
[6]
Even there is no doubt on the necessity of green housing development and its
benefits for the home owners, developers as well as government, but green
housing market still is not attractive for majority of home buyers [7]. Many
perceived the high price of green home is due to the additional features.
However, there are little specific studies in the literature to examine the
effects of housing characteristics on green homes inhabiting intentions in
Malaysians context [8]. The idea seems to be that housing characteristics may
lead to buying intentions for eco-friendly homes. Still, the willingness of
green home buyers to pay extra for buying green homes instead of traditional
non green homes in Malaysia is not well known [7].In this case, greater
knowledge of green home attributes that influence housing satisfaction could
lead to better understanding and prediction of decision making in determining
homeowners’ needs [9]. However, the empirical studies conducted to
appraise the green features of the green homes in the country are still limited.
721
Landscape of Malaysian Housing development

Demand for housing in Malaysia grew noticeably in 1960s and expanded
rapidly in the late 1980s and beyond as a result of rapid urbanization [10].
Over the decades, steady growth in housing development brings with it the
inevitable changes in the layout and physical design of a typical
neighbourhood [10]. Household’ preferences are continuously transforming
and this is well demonstrated by the evolution of houses styles in Malaysia
which display households’ preference on house styles in Malaysia from past
till present [9]. This include the change in house type such as, bungalow,
terrace houses, detached houses, apartment and condominium which portrays
continuous technology advancement to suit homebuyer’s preference.
Since past decades conventional housing in Malaysia did not meet the criteria
and standards of sustainability and contributing to energy efficiency. The
design, house orientation and materials used do not help in terms of cooling
the indoor environment which shoved the occupier to use air conditioner, thus
contributing to more greenhouse emission [1]. Housing development in
Malaysia starting to involve the provision of a housing development that
improves the quality of life without detrimental impact to the environment.
This is to follow the principles of Agenda 21 and Habitat Agenda’s goals.
Home owners used up large amounts of power and become a major source of
the global warming since it produced between 10 and 30 tons of carbon
dioxides annually [3].
About 40% of total world energy consumption is from built environment and
property industry contributes about 20% of CO2 emissions mainly via energy
use, waste and water production [11]. Society’s awareness on the importance
of building sustainable houses is still at its infancy and demand for it is almost
negligible. The concept of “green homes”, a relatively new home living
concept to the local Malaysians, is beginning to make foray into the local
housing scene [12]. Green home concept refers to the effort of reducing
environmental impacts from constructing and occupying the houses by both,
homeowners and builders.
The government has urged the industry key players especially the
professional bodies and developers to take proactive actions to promote and
take part in the sustainability concept which can contribute to better
environment. Developers should take more precaution in their development
approaches to reduce the impact to surrounding environment. People has been
using the conventional way to build a house for so many decades. Malaysian
housing developers are aware of the changing trends happening around the
world but they generally think the Malaysian market may not be receptive to
such homes [8]. Implementing change to the housing industry requires efforts
722
from different angles especially to overcome any resistances in the form of

human aspects, resources, technology, financial and many more. The
transition from conventional method into sustainable approach will be time
consuming as it requires changes from various facet in the industry ranging
from individual, organisational to industry level.
(d) The Green Rating Tools
Green building classification system is under the sustainable construction

umbrella, and it used to measure the sustainability of a building. Presently,
the classification system has several standards and most countries have their
own based on their particular climate, soil, environmental, and geographical
location [20]. There is various certification used in Malaysia namely Green
Building Index (GBI), MyCREST and GREENRE. One of the tools that
widely uses for the residential green building certification is GBI. In 2009,
Malaysia Government launched the Green Building Index in to support the
sustainable approach to the construction and the natural environment. The
GBI is a rating system which is applicable in both residential and non-
residential buildings and recently for a township. Six (6) criteria which are
rated by the GBI in all buildings are as follow:1) Energy Efficiency, 2) Indoor
environmental Quality, 3) Sustainable site and Management, 4) Material and
Resources, 5) Water Efficiency & 6) Innovation. These criteria are used as a
benchmark in providing the green features deemed necessary in the green
home constructed by developers.
(e) Housing Developers
According to Real Estate and Housing Developers' Association

Malaysia(REHDA), there are over 1000 housing developers registered with
the associates. Among this numbers, some of the developers start to develop
green home after recognising the value of it. More developers are joining the
green brigade as they believe it can attract demand from the growing eco-
conscious population and by earning premiums from their efforts [21].
Developers believe that green features will add the cost of green home.
Malaysian housing developers produce a range of products that has the
characteristics of being large, expensive and durable [22]. Hence many of the
green home cater to high-end home buyers. However, research in what
developers actually provided for green home features is still relatively low.
723
(f) Element of Green Features
Green home can help to preserve the environment since it uses various green
features to lessen the usage of energy. Based on previous literatures, various
green features offered by the housing developers were identified to find the
typical element of green features. According to Abidin, Yusof & Awang [23],
the material supply is one of the factors contributing to the perception that the
prospect is bright in the next 5 years for green home development. Although
at current the supply for green certified material is quite hard to obtained, it
is believed that in coming years many more suppliers will come in and
provide green certified material due to competitive advantages. The authors
stated that the developers prefer to use ‘green certified’ building materials or
obtain supply from manufacturers who have ISO 14000 certification.
Lightweight bamboo frame is being used to build green home at Bird Island
for YTL Project. The bamboo frame is being wrapped in a tensile,
environmentally friendly fabric and being used as the wall of the house [3].
The authors further explained that it can reflect sunlight, maintain the
coolness of the interior of the house and decrease the needs of air conditioner.
Green home gives the homeowner a healthier life since green materials are
being used to construct the house. One company has taken initiatives to
improve sustainable technology of building such as by introducing a concept
of “Smart and Cool Homes” which use discarded car tyres to reduce the
temperature inside the house [4].
Other than that, many researchers found that energy efficiency is a crucial
feature that developers offered when construct a green home. Many
developers use day lighting to lessen the usage of electricity [16] & [17]. It is
the natural light to come through the windows and openings of the house. It
also provides heating and cooling purposes to the house besides lighting up
the interior of the house [3] & [13]. On top of that, day lighting design can
help to maximise the usage of solar energy in green home as Malaysia has
exposure to sunlight all year long since it has tropical weather[14]. As an
example, green home at Bird Island used light tube because it has lesser heat
transfer compare to skylight [3]. It also uses solar energy which can produced
heat and electricity. This can help the owner of house in Bird Island to save
electricity cost.
Furthermore, grey water recycling system or rain water harvesting system is
perhaps the most common features can be heard in adding green home
features. It is also being installed at the green home of Bird Island. It can
channel the water from shower and sink back to the plumbing [3]. The authors
724
further stated grey water recycling system can help to save up to 35%-40%of
the annual water bill. This will benefit the home owners in a long run [15].
Other than that, the developers agreed that landscape is one of the selling
points and are keen on using landscape to increase natural shading and to
beautify the project area [4] & [18]. Abidin, Yusof & Awang[4] further
explained that among the actions that they have or will apply are (1) using
water feature as part of landscape; (2) replanted trees at designated area so
that they will grow in a more systematic way and not destructing the building
structure; (3) relocated trees to temporary nursery before replanted back to
the site; (4) maintain natural waterways; (5) use existing boulders as part of
landscape item; and (6) add many plantation spot such as plant between
building and also on the roof top. This features also applicable at Green home
which was developed by YTL. It is situated at an environmentally friendly
place which is at the Maple of West Sentul, where it is surrounded by the
greenery. This allows for the green home to maximise its exposure to the
sunlight to generate the required energy [3].
Homes oriented in the north-south position that could reduce heat by
minimizing direct sunlight into the house [4] & [18]. Many developers
admitted that they are aware of the importance of the right orientation of the
building to maximise the natural resources for lighting, ventilation and indoor
cooling effect [4] & [13]. Hence, this features have been applied and taken
care when doing the planning and designing. On top of that, Zhang [18] said
that building operation and maintenance is part of the green features offered
in green housing development.
Next, ventilation system is the most important feature of green home
according to home buyers. Ventilation is important because it is needed to get
rid of indecent odour, pollution and water vapour and bring in fresh air for
the homeowners [3]. According to Ismail & Rashid, green home relies more
on mechanisation of ventilation and reliance of passive ventilation and
cooling in Malaysia.
As a step to lessen the consumption of water, low-flow water fixtures are
being installed in green home. Low-flow water fixtures can function as good
as the normal high-flow water fixtures with lower amount of water usage.
Green home in the Bird Island uses low-flow water fixture in order to meet
the goal of water efficiency [3]. Table 1 illustrates the summary of the
research on element of green features offered by the developers in the green
home conducted by various researchers.
725
Table 1: Summary of Element of Green Features Offered by

Developers
Source Element of Green Features
Abidin, Yusof &
Awang [4] Recycle Material Finishes
Landscape
Ventilation System
Site Location/Building Orientation
Alias, Sin, & Aziz
[3] Recycle Material Finishes
Energy Efficiency
Low-flow water fixtures
Ventilation System
Grey Water Recycling System
Landscape
Ismail & Rashid
[13] Heating and Cooling Distribution System
Space Heating and Cooling Equipment
Material-Efficient Framing
Ventilation System
Kahn & Kok, 2014
[14] Energy Efficiency
Indoor Air Quality
Musa, et al.,
2011[15] Rain-water harvesting system
Deng & Wu [16] Energy Efficiency
Zhang, Sun, Liu, &
Energy Efficiency
Zheng [17]
Zhang X. [18] Landscape design
Innovative Green Building materials
Building operation and maintenance
Land sites’ planning
726
Table 2: Literature Review Analysis of Typical Element of Green

Features Offered by Developers
Abidin,
Alias, Ismai Zhang,
Element of Yusof Kahn & Deng &
Sin, & l & Musa, et Sun, Liu, Zhang
Green & Kok Wu,
Aziz, Rashi al. [15] & Zheng, X. [18]
Features Awang [14] [16]
[3] d [13] [17]
[4]
Recycle
Material / / / / 4
Finishes
Landscape / / / 3
Site
Location/B
/ / 2
uilding
Orientation
Energy
/ / / / 4
Efficiency
Low-flow
water / 1
fixtures
Grey Water
Recycling / / 2
System
Ventilation
/ / / / 4
System
Building
operation
and / 1
maintenanc
e
Research methodology
A systematic literature review, is a means to identify, evaluate and interpret
all relevant available research, whether for a question or topic area, or subject
of interest [19]. This paper reviews all relevant publications regarding
element of green features offered by the. In order to identify the relevant
literature, two major steps is undertaken. First, Google Scholar and Science
Direct are searched for relevant keywords, e.g., "green home" and
"developers". Second, a forward and backward search of the most relevant
publications is performed. The research is limited to English articles
published in peer-reviewed journals. Books, theses, PhD dissertations,
727
conference articles, and working papers are included. A focus is set on

publications after the year 2000 until yearend 2016. In summary, the
objectives of this review are to identify, classify and summarize existing
research for the elements of green features among the developers in Malaysia.
From the findings gathered, the data are tabulated and the most prominent
elements occurred are deduced as typical element green features for the
ongoing research work.
Finding & Discussion
There are limited studies conducted on the topic of green home features
offered by developers. Based on an extensive literature review conducted,
there are eight (8) dominant element of green home features offered by
developers. The variables are recycled material finishes, Landscape, Site
Location/ Building Orientation, Energy Efficiency, Low-flow Water
Fixtures, Grey Water Recycling System, Ventilation System and Building
Operation and Maintenance. Throughout the study, all 8 elements of green
features were analysed individually. It was shown that, there are 6 typical
green home features offered which are;, i. recycle material finishes, ii. Energy
Efficiency, iii. Ventilation System, iv. Grey Water Recycling System, v.
Landscape and vi. Site Location or Building Orientation. Table 2 illustrates
the literature review analysis conducted to find the typical element of green
home features offered by developers.
Conclusion
The purpose of this paper is to identify the typical green home features offered
by developers. As a result, there are 6 typical green home features identified
which are; i. Recycled Material Finishes, ii. Energy Efficiency, iii.
Ventilation System, iv. Grey Water Recycling System, v. Landscape and vi.
Site Location or Building Orientation. Developers, homebuyers and other
industry key players can use these elements into consideration when building
or buying a house. However, previous researches are very limited and did not
encompassed the aspect of green home features developed by developers.
Moving forward, the findings highlighted the need for more validation
instruments and further investigation.
References
[1] Abidin, N. Z., Yusof, N., & Awang, H. (2012). A Foresight into
Green Housing Industry in Malaysia. International Journal of
Environmental, Chemical, Ecological, Geological and Geophysical
Engineering, 6. 373-381
728
[2] Anantatmula, V., & Robichaud, L. (2011). Greening Project

Management Practices for Sustainable Construction. Journal of Management
in Engineering, 48-57.
[3] Alias, A., Sin, T., & Aziz, W. (2010). THE GREEN HOME
CONCEPT –ACCEPTABILITY AND DEVELOPMENT PROBLEMS.
Journal of Building Performance, 130-139.
[4] M.A., N. Z., & Abidin, N. Z. (2012). Main Element of Soft Cost in
Green Buildings. International Journal of Social, Behavioral, Educational,
Economic, Business and Industrial Engineering, 3601-3606.
[5] Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB) Malaysia. (2015).
Construction Industry Transformation Programme 2016-2020. Kuala
Lumpur: Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB) Malaysia.
[6] Green Building Index. (2016).
[7] Shafiei, M. W., Samari, M., & Ghodrati, N. (2013). Strategic Approach
to Green Home Development in Malaysia- the Perspective of Potential Green
Home BuyersMohd Wira Mohd Shafiei, Milad Samari, Nariman Ghodrati.
Life Science Journal.
[8] Tan, T. H. (2012). Predicting Homebuyers’ Intentions of Inhabiting
Eco-Friendly Homes: The Case of a Developing Country.
[9] Tan, T. H. (2013). Assessing Green Home Performance: The Case
Study from a Developing Country.
[10] Majid, M. R., A. N., & Medugu, I. N. (2014). Influence of housing
development designs on household vehiclemiles traveled : A case of Iskandar
Malaysia. Transportation Research Part D 33 , 63–73.
[11] Mustaffa, M., & Baharum, Z. A. ( 2009). Paradigm Shift in Property
Management Practice in Malaysian Office Buildings. 8th Annual Conference
and Meeting of the Management in Construction Researchers Association
(MiCRA), (pp. 180 – 189). Penang.
[12] Jamaldin, J. (2008, November 15). Here comes the green brigade.
pp. pp. 6-7.
[13] Ismail, M. A., & Rashid, F. A. (2014). Malaysia’s existing green
homes compliance with LEED for homes. Procedia Environmental Sciences
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[14] Kahn, M. E., & Kok, N. (2014). The capitalization of green labels
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25–34.
[15] Musa, A. R., Tawil, N. M., Sood, S. M., Che-Ani, A. I., Hamzah, N.,
& Basri, H. (2011). Constructing Formulation of Affordable Green Home for
Middle Income Group. Procedia Engineering 20 , 466 – 473.
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[16] Deng, Y., & Wu, J. (2014). Economic returns to residential green
building investment: The developers' perspective. Regional Science and
Urban Economics 47 , 35–44.
[17] Zhang, L., Sun, C., Liu, H., & Zheng, S. (2016). The role of public
information in increasing homebuyers'willingness-to-pay for green housing:
Evidence from Beijing. Ecological Economics 129 , 40–49.
[18] Zhang, X. ( 2015). Green real estate development in China: State of
art and prospect agenda—A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews 47, 1–13.
[19] Kitchenham, B. (2004). Procedures for Performing Systematic
Review. Keele University , UK.
[20] Elias, E. M., Bakar, A. A., Bahaudin, A. Y., & Husin, F. M. (2013).
Green Residential Buildings: The Perspective of Potential Buyers. 3rd Global
Accounting, Finance and Economics Conference. Melbourne.
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sustainable construction concept by Malaysian developers. Habitat
International, 421-426.
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the competitive advantage of Malaysian private housing developers through
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on Government Financial Incentives to Simulate Green Homes Purchase.
World Applied Sciences Journal.
1 December 2016
T01_090: ASSESSMENT OF ROOT CAUSES OF

INCIDENT IN OIL AND GAS PLANT IN
MALAYSIA USING SWISS CHEESE
ACCIDENT CAUSATION MODEL
Nora Afzam Bt Abd Wahab
Faculty of Engineering Technology,
Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Lebuhraya Tun Razak, 26300 Gambang,
Kuantan, Pahang
noraafzam.wahab@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Incidents in oil and gas has been known to give impact to an extensive severity
in industrial history. Numbers of incidents had affected not only the workers
and business operations, but also the community, environment and national
issues. The International Association of Oil and Gas Producers, (OGP)
published a report of total major incidents in onshore and offshore oil and
gas of 553 major offshore incidents and 13,502 major onshore incidents
occurred in 1970 until 2007. While in Malaysia, it has ten (10) disasters
involving major hazard installation in period 1968-2002, with 144 fatalities
and 201 injuries captured in history. Causes of incidents have been widely
studied in industries as a method to find the reason why incidents happened.
Most study has only conducted conventional hazard analyses in order to
identify direct causes of incident, without given extensive effort to understand
and identify the background knowledge of root causes of incidents in depth.
This has contributed to the repetition of incidents or almost the same
incidents and proved by increasing numbers of unwanted events and similar
events. The objective of this paper is to study the patterns of root causes of
incidents in oil and gas plant in Malaysia. The basic theory of James
Reason’s Swiss Cheese Accident Causation Model is taken as reference to
establish the failure themes. The information in causation path from incident
reports is extracted, organized and coded using thematic analysis method.
From the results, they are ten (10) types of root causes or failure patterns
that leads to incidents in oil and gas plant. Based on Swiss Cheese Accident
Causation Model, these root causes are owned by each layer's of Unsafe Act,
Unsafe Supervision, Precondition of Unsafe Act and Organizational
731
Influence. The study has concluded that the root causes of the incidents were
influenced from various levels in organization, such as workers working at
site, middle management or supervisory position until the higher
management level.
Keyword : Root Causes, Incidents Analysis, Incidents, Oil and Gas, Malaysia
Introduction
Industrial incidents have been widely discussed in numerous studies
on what, why and how they happened. The details study on each incident has
contributed to the findings of actual root causes. The learning impact from
this study has contributed to the several improvements to the industry on
technical and management perspective. Numerous incidents from the
industrial, including both oil and gas plant and non oil and gas plant have
been discussed in every corner of the safety study as lesson learnt.
The oil and gas industry contributes to the major incidents causing
number of deaths every year (Chettouh, Benaroua, and Hamzi, 2016), with
others significant impact such as injuries, property damages and
environmental related issues. The OGP published a report of total major
incidents in onshore and offshore oil and gas industry and also chemical
process industries, occurred in 1970 until 2007. The report also mentioned
that 553 major offshore incidents with 2,171 facilities damage, and 13,502
major onshore incidents with 21,785 facilities damage, occurred in 1970 until
2007. This report was published in 2010, however the latest and accumulated
numbers of year to date statistic is not available. History shows major
incidents will contribute to huge impact, mostly on its economic growth to
the region or country where the industrials are serving. For example, the
Flixborough disaster, occurred in 1974 has caused 28 killed, 89 injured (
including people inside and outside of the plant ), while 1821 houses and 167
shops suffered damaged, with total cost of destruction was well over $100
million (Flynn and Theodore, 2002). The Bhopal disaster occurred in 1984,
caused from the gas leak disaster and killed more than 3800 people in the
surrounding area, in the first few days of the incidents as the result of inhaling
unsecured leaking Methyl-Isocyanate (MIC) gas (AlKazimi, 2015). Another
disasters following the Bhopal are Piper Alpha Disaster, Philip 66 Disaster,
Esso Longford Gas Explosion , Texas City Refinery Explosion, and the most
recently the Macondo Blow Out in 2010 ( Okoh and Haugen, 2013).
The workplace incidents occurred related to oil and gas industry in
Malaysia is, 458 cases from total 35,898 cases as reported by SOCSO (
SOCSO Annual Report, 2013). The number seems insignificant numbers
732
from the total amount of cases reported (Malaysia’s overall industrial

incident), but once the incident occurred without proper mitigation, it may
cause a disaster to the workers, environment and facilities due to its nature of
major hazard installations.
A study from Shaluf and Fakhrurazi (2006) summarized that
Malaysia has experienced 10 disasters involving major hazard installation in
period 1968-2002, with 144 fatalities and 201 injuries. 30% from the listed
disaster are from petroleum Industry, which is part of oil and gas industry,
occurred in December 1997, April 1999, May 2002 (Shaluf et al., 2006). In
another study discussed by Ahmadun, Shaluf and Said (2003), one incident
had occurred at one of the Malaysia's petroleum plant in December 1997,
where 12 employees injured, and facilities were found badly damages.
Previously, before the incident occurred in Malaysia, the same incident had
occurred in China, in May 1997. The earlier incident in China had warned the
same industry on what was happened and the recommendations had been
shared for lesson learnt, but the lesson was failed to be learnt. Another major
fire incident had occurred in one of the oil and gas refinery plant in west
Malaysia in 1999, with no injuries but damaged of crude distillation column,
its piping and its platforms, estimated loss was RM5million, with 24 days unit
shutdowns (Ahmadun et al., 2003). The LNG World News reported recent
incidents from same oil and gas plant in Malaysia for 2012 and 2014 , where
fire and explosion occurred inside the plant, where it caused fatalities and
injuries to workers (LNG World News, 2012, 2014. Latest, the fatalities
involved in oil and gas incidents has caused one dead in June 2016, two dead
and three injured in August 2016, and one dead with two injured in October
2016 (Petronas Gas News, 2016, Malay Mail News, 2016, Energy Voice
News, 2016).
Anonymous says incidents are costly. Incident causes loss of
production, facilities, manpower and in total, the loss of money. The theory
of Heinrich’s iceberg stated about losses of incident in term of cost. He
concluded based on his study that indirect cost is 4 times greater than the
direct cost, while Bird’s iceberg published a study about uninsured cost is 5
to 50 times greater than the insured cost (Manuelle, 2011). In Malaysia, high
cost spent due to incidents can be proved with annual report published by
Social Security Organization, SOCSO. SOCSO spent nine (9) types of
compensation for workers affected with incidents. The total amount of
compensation or benefits paid increased in 2014 by 9%, to RM2.4b compared
to RM2.2b in 2013. This is one of the challenges raised in the current issue;
once there was an incident, then there were cost to compensate, repair and
rehabilitate the outcomes and consequences. This reflects to all industries, the
733
importance of avoiding incidents, since the incidents itself may reach to the
un-repairable cost : combination of direct and indirect cost (seen and unseen
impact, insured and uninsured impact).
From the overall challenges reviewed, it is believed that the industry

required exhaustive attention mostly in identifying the incident root causes in
order to develop further lesson learnt program to minimize and reduce
incidents at workplaces. The objective of this paper is to identify the pattern
of root causes of incidents in oil and gas industry in Malaysia. The paper will
adapt the elements of Swiss Cheese Accident Causation Model’s theory in
order to categorize the failure factors identified. The study of this paper is
important since it can contribute to the greater understanding of factors that
determine the industrial incidents. It is assumed that the underlying causes
found are beneficial for further discussion and lesson learnt in order to
prevent the recurrence of incident. This study used thematic analysis method
to analyze the qualitative data in order to extract the underlying root causes
which kept unseen under the direct causes in incident investigation reports. It
is done by analyzing and interpreting the causation path from the incident
investigation reports.
Section 2 in this paper will discuss the literature review on common
incident analysis, its importance and Swiss cheese theory, Section 3 will
discuss on method and procedure, while Section 4 will discuss on the result
and discussion, Section 5 will conclude the main ideas of the case study.
Literature Review
Common root causes analysis of industrial incidents

The section will focus on the findings from oil and gas industry
including petrochemical, chemical and process industries, due to their nature
of hazards or installations are having nearly the same risk. The International
Association of Oil and Gas Producer (IOGP) has been collecting the safety
incident data worldwide covering E & P operations, both onshore and
offshore and includes incidents involving member companies and their
contractor employees, since 1985. The annual reports provide trend analysis,
benchmarking and the identification of areas and activities on which efforts
should be focused to bring about the greatest improvements in performance
(IOGP, 2015). IOGP highlighted that the top ten common causal factors or
common root causes that contributed to the fatal incidents in oil and gas
industries worldwide are due to inadequate training/competence, improper
decision making or lack of judgement, inadequate work
734
standards/procedures, inadequate supervision, inadequate hazard

identification or risk assessment. Latest statistic published by IOGP, in 2015,
fatalities due to occupational incidents at oil and gas industries increased as
41% compared to 2014. However, in 2013, the fatalities incidents decreased
to 11% compared to 2012. The figures are still fluctuating, without constant
trending to conclude on the achievement of safety management programmes
so far. Dien, Dechy and Guillaume (2012) claimed that current operating
system shows some limits, where numbers of events do not decrease and
similar events seem to recur. In the current plant practice, it is either the
special system or workforce is not implemented to focus on thorough or/and
depth incident analysis study.
Flynn et al., (2002) stated that the root causes of incidents in
petrochemical plant found were mainly due to mechanical failure ,
operational failure (human error), process upset, design error and some were
unknown or miscellaneous. However, recently, more root causes are
discovered in the industries. The international researchers from different
locations have conducted several studies of the same industry to identify
factors contributed to the increased numbers of oil and gas related incidents
and major incidents. The studies have concluded that the factors of incidents
are due to ; the human-created major hazard (Waring, 2015), organizational
and managerial factors ( Waring, 2015) , maintenance factor or technical
conditions (Okstad, Jersin and Tinmannsvik, 2011; Okoh and Haugen ; 2013)
and design errors in engineering (Kidam and Hurme , 2012) and some other
findings to be highlighted below.
A study by Nivolianitou, Konstandinidou and Michalis (2006) has
been conducted to identify failures in oil and gas plant; the equipment failure,
44%, human factor, 19%, Environmental,3% as sole contributor . Some
incidents were caused by combination of more than one factor which are
equipment failure and human factor, 21%, equipment failure and
environmental, 4%. The other factor which was unavailable to be defined is
about 9%. The study also found cases related to human error which were
linked to the organizational failures such inadequate material and design
deficiency, lack of training, management organization, inappropriate
maintenance, inspection error and operator error.
Another study conducted by Okstad et.al, (2011) in one of the oil
and gas industry, and he claimed that 72% of incidents caused by inadequate
risk management, technical condition, general management. His study
focused on the technical failure, and not discussed the details of risk and
general management failures. He mentioned that the failure in technical
735
condition was due to lack of attention to preventive measures during

development and design phases.
Kidam et.al, (2012) conducted incident analysis study for the same
industry. The focus of the study was to identify errors in design stage, that
had led to some incidents. He concluded that design errors were caused by
poor process layout , 17%, inadequate analysis of chemical reactivity &
incompatibility ,16%, incorrect process conditions selected ,16%, lack of
safety protection, 14%, unsuitable construction materials, 11%, inappropriate
utilities set-up, 8%, unsuitable equipment, part or components, 7%, poor
installation, 6%, inadequate process control, 3%, incorrect sizing, 2% and
insufficient operating manual, 1%.
Okoh et. al, (2013) has also conducted incident analysis study in
chemical process industry and the study focused on identifying maintenance
based errors that had led to industrial major incidents. The active failure of
maintenance-based factors were due to lack of barrier maintenance,
maintenance directly breaching barriers, maintenance induces new hazards,
and maintenance being an initiating events. The failures captured in detail
analysis were deficiencies in regulatory oversight, risk assessment,
implementation of requirements, MOC, documentation, design/organization
or resource management, monitoring performance, audit and learning. Others
failure found are due to unbalanced safety and production goals.
Chettouh et.al, (2016) conducted a study in one of the oil and
refinery plant and they found the incidents were contributed by Equipment
failure, 36%, Leak, 18%, Unknown 16%, Sparks,15%,Flame, 9%,
Environmental Causes, 4%, Human Error, 2%. The study also mentioned that
old equipment suffered from corrosion, operational deterioration, inadequate
maintenance lack of inspection, equipment and tools not conforming to
acceptable standard, inappropriate use/supply of tools and equipment,
substandard quality of spare-part, weather condition (humidity leads to
corrosion), staffing shortage, competency gaps in some operating units,
overworking, no trainings to new hires/trainees, fail in use of PPE, resignation
of experienced operators.
Narrowing down the root causes of incidents in Malaysia’s oil and
gas industriy, there has been found that common causes of workplace
incidents are due stress and fatigue, unsafe act, machinery and tools, designs
of workplace, training procedures (Mansor, Abdullah and Zakaria (2011).
The study revealed the use of old machineries and tools, unsafe act by
workers such as not following the rules outlined by company, not wearing
appropriate PPE such as gloves and safety glass as the common issues led to
incidents. The study spelled that inability of management to provide effective
736
and efficient design of workplace might cause disturbance in operation. Reese

(2001) highlighted that analyzing injury and illness trends over a period of
time, patterns with common causes can be identified and prevented.
However, it is to highlight that there is insufficient sources of incident
analysis outcomes published in Malaysia related to oil and gas industry, and
the way forward to this gap will be discussed in chapter 5.
The important of Incident Analysis Study

Incident/incident analysis is the process of identifying the root
causes of incidents, and it is meant by analysing on why it is happened (cause)
and what has happened (consequence) in order to understand how incidents
occurred. The reviewed literature on the root causes of incidents and incidents
in oil and gas industry and some study in chemical and process industry
between 2006 untill 2016 varies from equipment failure, design failure,
maintenance failure, risk management failure, organizational failure, human
errors, environmental and others technical condition.
Referring to study conducted by Dien et al., (2012) safety incidents
were based upon “technical reliability” during 70s, “human error” during 80s,
“safety culture” in 90s where it comprises the beliefs, behaviours, norms, and
practices on both workers and management. In late 90s, Reason’s concept on
“organisational event” has widened the scope of defining the root cause of
industrial incidents/incidents. However, the study from this 21 st centuries on
root causes indicates that some of the issues from previous decades are still
repeated and never learnt. This is based on common categorization of failures
found since 70s still rise in this decade. Based on the study conducted by
Nivolianitou et al., (2006), Okstad et al., (2011) , Kidam et al., (2012), Okoh
et al., (2013), Chettouh et al., (2016), they have found that the root causes of
incidents still comprise issues raised in 70s, 80s, 90s for example, common
error in technical reliability, human error and organisation failure.
The incident analysis is one of the way to understand the knowledge
of the failures. They are learnt in depth, and not simply on its surface errors.
Specifically, the knowledge found as root causes can become a key factor or
main theme in safety programs (Chettouh et al., 2016) for each industrial in
order to assist incident prevention. The previous study by Chettouh et. al,
(2016), highlighted that an incident without lesson learnt will repeat, taken
into example of the repeated major incidents which had occurred in 2004 and
2005 ( less than two years ) in his study which caused 29 fatalities and more
than 74 injuries, with huge economic losses and environmental impact.
Swiss Cheese Accident Causation Model Theory

737
Huijer (2005) mentioned in his study that combination of events

causes an incident. Incident and incident happens due to unwanted events or
failures at different layers. The theory of Swiss Cheese Accident Causation
Model (SCACM) supports most of the incident analysis results – each
incident has been proved to have its “origin of events” or “initiating events”
from various layers. The SCACM introduces the four layers of failures which
are unsafe act, precondition of unsafe act, unsafe supervision and
organizational failures. It is known that the SCACM is not a new theory as it
had been introduced in late 1990s by James Reason. However, the idea of
using this theory to mismatch the current challenges faced within every layer
in the organization. In addition to that, SCACM has become the main
reference for the development of risk management tool such as Bowtie, and
incident investigation tool, Tripod Beta, and these tools are widely used in
the European industry. This can be read and referred directly in risk
management consultant website such as Risktec.
Omole and Walker (2015) has summarized the definition from
James Reason’s layer of failures introduced in Swiss Cheese Accident
Causation Model SCACM. Omole et. al, (2015) summarized the four factors
of SCACM which are ;
First, the Unsafe Act : It is mentioned as the easiest way to define
error by directly put a blame on an individual. They are further classified as
errors and violations. Errors are said to be an activities that fail to achieve the
desired outcomes which are further sub-divided into three parts – skill-based,
decision and perceptual errors. On the other hand, violation can be viewed as
a conscious effort to disregard established rules and regulations, this can
further sub-divided into two routine and exceptional violations.
Second is, Precondition for Unsafe Act : It is usually latent system
failures that lay inactive for long periods of time before ever contribute to an
incident. While unsafe acts executed by the operator are continually linked to
incidents, the preconditions for unsafe acts must also be understood and dealt
with in order to reduce errors leading to incidents or incidents. Accordingly,
understanding these preconditions wherein an individual is placed under will
assist in identifying other areas for organizational improvements.
Preconditions for unsafe acts include environmental factors, conditions of the
operator, and personnel factors.
Third is, the Unsafe Supervision : It is divided into four categories,
inadequate leadership, planned inappropriate operations, failure to correct
known problems, and leadership violations. Contributing to the leadership
influence is organizational failures which can also be further traced to latent
errors within the highest levels. These latent conditions regularly go
738
unnoticed during incident investigations. This is because these errors are

difficult to find unless a clear understanding of the organization’s framework
is understood, defined and a consistent incident investigation framework
used.
Fourth is, the Organizational Influence: It is mentioned as resource
management, organizational climate and organizational process.
Figure 1 : The holes and gaps introduced by James Reason for

Swiss Cheese Accident Causation Model
The rationales on why Reason's SCACM work is chosen to analyzed

the root causes or latent failure of the incident reports are because ; it is the
most influential piece of work in the human factors field (Moura, Beer, Knoll,
Lewis, Patelli, 2016), it explains the failure of numerous system barriers or
safeguards to block errors (Stein and Heiss, 2015), it has been adopted in
various industries such as aviation and health (Underwood and Waterson,
2014).
Method : A Case Study - Research Data and Research Procedure

The incidents data were taken from 54 available incident
investigation reports in 2013. 54 incidents investigation report included the
incidents report for Loss of Containment, Fire incidents, Near Miss cases ,
Total recordable cases – inclusive of Medical Treatment case, Restricted
work cases and Finger Injury, Environment related incidents– inclusive of
black smokes and spillages, and last but not least, Property damage incidents
and the percentage of the incident groups are shown in Figure 2.
739
Environmental
9%
Minor Fire Loss of
11% containment
28%
Property Damage
15%
Near Miss
Total Recordable 22%
Case
15%
Figure 2 : Sample of incidents’ types occurred in oil and gas

plant 2013
The requirement to start the study of this research was, collecting

the data.The analytical method used to analyze the data is the thematic
analysis method. Thematic analysis is a method used to analyze the data by
identifying the common issues occurred in one set of data, identify the main
themes that summarize or conclude all the views from the collected existing
data. (Patton, 2012)
Stage 1: Stage 2 : Stage 3: Stage 4 :

Preliminary data Identifying Developing Applying
observation theme of the coding scheme codes to all
data data
Figure 3 : The summary of the thematic analysis workflow ,

(Patton, 2012)
Using the thematic analysis method for this incident analysis

required basic understanding on the content or points as recorded in the
causation path of incident reports. Thus, the theory of Swiss Cheese was
adapted while developing the common theme. The details in causation path
were analyzed until each common theme were defined and the details failure
elements were coded. The coding process has led the content of the causation
data to match with the Swiss Cheese Accident Causation Model.
740
Figure 4 shows the flowchart of analysis process of the incident analysis

technique adapting the thematic analysis method.
The common theme of overall causation paths from all the incident
reports were matched to the basic layer of Swiss Cheese Accident Causation
Model (SCACM). Then, the coding scheme was developed based on finding
of the root causes or latent failure. Later, these failures were concluded as the
sample of determinant of incidents in oil and gas plant.

The main result has revealed the factors that cause the incidents in
oil and gas plant. The 54 incident investigation reports have generated 91
causation path that leads to several incident’s impact. This indicated that, one
incident has been caused by more than one factor or root causes (as found
from the causation paths).
Theme of failures based on Swiss Cheese Accident Causation Model

The themes of failures in incident analysis were produced based on
the SCACM which are Unsafe Act, Precondition Failure, Unsafe Supervision
and Organizational Failure, and the result is shown in Figure 5. Based on the
details analysis, it is found from 91 causation paths analyzed, that
Organization Failure has contributed to the highest common factor, 47%,
Precondition Failure contributed to second highest common factor, 20%,
followed by the Unsafe Act, 19% and lastly the Unsafe Supervision, 14%.
741
19% Unsafe Act
Precondition Failure
47%
20% Unsafe Supervision
Organizational
Failure
14%
Figure 5. The percentage of common failures theme of incidents based

on Swiss Cheese Accident Causation Model
The fundamental issues found under Organization Failure were due

to; most of the conditions where the plant maintenance module, and spare
part replacement plan unavailable, conditions of unavailable of equipment
inspection and some safety documents such as JHA/JSA, conditions where
the risk failed to be mitigated during design and planning stage such as
inadequate information in job method statement, job safety analysis,
procedure and checklist, conditions of inadequate manpower arranged to
complete the job, conditions of time pressure in work completion, conditions
of inadequate information for work instructions, work procedures indicates
the gap in resource management which meet the failure of this category.
There were several issues found under Precondition failure, which
led this theme as second highest contributor of the incidents. The failures
were due to; conditions of equipment found failed to be working as per
intended design, the condition where poor installation of plant equipment
causing high vibration or excessive heating, conditions where lack of risk
anticipation for how the jobs were supposed to be implemented such as failure
to identify space for working at height, ideal manpower for critical tasks,
body postures, tools and techniques required.
Based on figure 5, Unsafe Act is the third highest theme contributed
to the incidents, and the details were due to; conditions where the act of
general workers not following the official working documents such as work
procedure and Job Hazard Analysis, conditions of underestimating the hazard
while performing the job at site, fail to communicate among workers, and
742
between supervisor in order to confirm or ensure correct workflow or correct

method.
Unsafe Supervision is the least theme contributed to the incidents,
where most of the issues were due to; conditions of failure at supervisory
level to close the action item or task assigned such as incompliancy to
maintenance schedule and reporting of performance tracking, conditions
where supervisors initiated the unsafe direction such as incompliancy to
working procedure, safety procedure and working permits in order to catch
with the schedule timeline.
While assigning the theme for the information in causation path,
there were conflicts raised either to categorize the failure for those
unavailable procedures, plant maintenance modules or unavailable system
barriers, either under Organization Failure or Precondition Failure. Previous
study on SCACM model applications were reviewed, which conducted by
Stein et al., (2015) highlighted that Fourth Layer for SCACM which refers to
Organizational Failure were those 'policies and procedure that are system-
level agreements to commit to practitioners to safe, standardized and
consistent care'. Another study by Suryaputro, Sari and Kurnia (2015)
concluded that the fourth layer in SCACM was due to Line Management
Deficiencies and Fallible Decision such as unclear rules on specific task,
unclear decision on how the works to be conducted, tight and pressure work
schedule and less communication or socialization between supervisors and
workers. Referring to the information found in previous study, unavailable or
inadequate procedure, plant maintenance modules, or any barriers system,
were justified to be concluded as failure at Organizational layer.
4.2 Root Causes from the Common Failure
There were ten (10) root causes found after detail examination on
SCACM’s layer based on the information of causation path recorded in the
incident reports and it is shown in Figure 6. From the Figure 6, Unavailable
System Barrier is found to be the top contributor for the incident in oil and
gas plant in 2013 with 28.1%, followed by Incomprehensive Pre-Risk
Assessment as second highest contributor with 18%, followed by Violating
JHA/Procedure as third highest contributor with 11.2%, followed by
Insufficient System Barrier 10.1%, Manpower Issue, 7.8%, Task Unsolved at
Supervisory Level and Communication Failure are 6.7% each,
Underestimate Site Hazard, 5.6%, Schedule or Time Pressure, 3.4%, and
lastly Equipment Malfunction or Failures 2.2%.
743
Equipment Malfunction/Failures 2.2

Schedule/Time Pressure 3.4
Underestimate Site Hazard 5.6
Task Unsolved at Supervisory Level 6.7
Communication Failure 6.7
Manpower Issue 7.9
Insufficient System Barrier 10.1
Violating JHA/Procedure 11.2
Incomprehensive Pre-Risk Assessment 18.0
Unavailable System Barrier 28.1
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0
Figure 6. The root causes of incident analysis at oil and gas plant, in
2013.
The result will focus on the top three of incidents contributors based
on root causes found since this top three root causes in total contributed to
more than 50% of the overall incidents analyzed. Unavailable System Barrier
has contributed to 28.1% or 25 out of 91 causation paths analyzed, and it is a
sub-code for the theme, Organization Failure. The issue of inexistence of
plant maintenance module, or procedure shows unavailability of the barriers
at the first place. These types of barriers are supposed to be developed before
the installation of the plant equipment or before the execution of job at site.
Incomprehensive Pre-Risk Assessment has contributed to 18% or 16 out of
89 causation paths analyzed , it is a sub-code fall under theme, Precondition
Failure. There were data recorded in incident causation paths stated about
lack of anticipation on risk in construction planning, missing step/procedure
in job safety analysis, project execution without contingency or mitigation
plan and incomprehensive JHA and procedure, where some precaution steps
were not identified earlier. This result shows risk assessment has failed to
comprehensively identify the risk on the nature of job prior to its
implementation at site. Violating of Procedure and JHA has contributed to
11.2% and it is a sub-code which was shared by two themes which are Unsafe
Act and Unsafe Supervision. The difference in theme was based on the
position of actions being conducted. There was about 70% of procedure or
JHA violation conducted by general workers, and 30% of it conducted by
supervisors. The information in the causation path had clearly mentioned on
the action of noncompliance towards available procedure or JHA.
744
Conclusion
The paper has successfully met the objective to identify the pattern
of root causes of incidents in oil and gas industry in Malaysia based on the
analysis of data from incident investigation reports. The theory of Swiss
Cheese Accident has guided the process into four categories of failures, and
the thematic analysis method has guided the details information to be coded
and resulted into ten (10) patterns of root causes. This paper also presented a
root cause study by utilizing the thematic analytical method which is very
feasible without using critical tools, yet helpful in identifying the actual root
causes nurtured before the active failures took place. The SCACM
successfully used reference theory to guide the development of common
theme of failure before detailing it out into specific sub-coding theme or root
causes. Using the SCACM, it indicates that layer of failures in this case study,
varies from personal action until management decision. The results has
shown an implicit statistical information about the failures pattern which
require extensive actions on the root causes, to avoid the recurrence of the
same or future incidents.
The top and highest root causes found in this study has shown almost
the same pattern of root causes from previous literature as published by IOGP
and some identified authors. The failure in the risk management/risk
assessment, failure in design related issues, general management failures,
breaching procedures and barriers, equipment failure, human error or unsafe
action conducted by supervisors, workers, error in decision at management
level, technical condition relates to equipment failures and maintenance
related issues has been contributing to the incidents and incidents in oil and
gas industry since decades back.
There is limitation to highlight throughout the study of this paper
regarding on the sources of reference of incident analysis published related
to oil and gas incidents in Malaysia. Insufficient sources of reference in this
area should be notified, so that future study on the root causes of incidents
can be revealed for the purpose of future research and other opportunities for
improvement. The study by Mansor et al., (2011) managed to identify four
common causes of incidents in oil and gas industry in Malaysia, but this study
has enhanced the findings into ten (10) new common root causes. The
previous and latest findings are essential to support an enhancement in
incident reduction at workplaces specifically, oil and gas industry, by
incorporating the knowledge found from analysis, as sources of lesson learnt
and safety trainings.
745
Lastly, it is to propose that this incident analysis should be taken as

yearly safety monitoring initiatives for oil and gas industry, and also other
industries, mostly in Malaysia in order to determine the failures. The result
from the incident analysis study is described as best source of learning lessons
(Chettouh et al., 2016) , knowledge retrieval instrument ( Nivolianitou et al.,
2006), improvement focus area for engineers ( Kidam et al., 2012), source to
determine probabilities of future incidents ( Okoh et al., 2014) and etc.
Acknowledgements
This study was conducted by the author under the supervision of senior
lecturer in Faculty of Engineering Technology in partial fulfilment of the
requirements of a Master’s Degree by Research in Occupational Safety and
Health. The author wishes to thank Dr Norazura Ismail at University of
Malaysia Pahang for her support over the period of this article was written.
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the
public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
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1 December 2016
T01_091: FLOW AND HEAT TRANSFER OF

MHD NON-NEWTONIAN POWER LAW
FLUIDS DUE TO ROTATING DISK
Nur Dayana Khairunnisa Rosli
Seripah Awang Kechil
Faculty of Computer and Mathematical Sciences,
Universiti Teknologi MARA
ABSTRACT
In flows over rotating discs, substantial additional flow phenomena arise due
to the rotational forces or due to the nature of the three-dimensional
boundary layer flows. The resulting flow characteristics can be very complex
and almost every rotating system reveals novel and unexpected flow
characteristics over a sufficiently wide range of variables which affect the
hydrodynamic phenomena. This paper focused on the flow and heat transfer
in non-Newtonian power law fluids due to a rotating disk in the presence of
magnetic field. The number of independent variables in the highly non-linear
partial differential equations was reduced by suitable similarity
transformations. The coupled non-linear ordinary differential equations were
solved numerically. The effects of the magnetic parameter and Prandtl
number on the flow fields and heat transfer rate were investigated for the
cases of shear thinning and shear thickening power law fluids. The heat
transfer rate reduces as the magnetic field strength increases but increases
as the Prandtl number increases for both types of shear thickening and shear
thinning fluids. The effects are more significant in the case for shear thinning
fluids.
Keywords: power-law fluids, non-Newtonian, rotating disk, heat transfer
Introduction
Incompressible fluid flow and heat transfer over rotating bodies have
numerous applications in industrial, geothermal, geophysical, technological
and engineering. Complex flows in turbo-machinery can be modelled by the
rotating disk system [1]. A study by Von Karman [2] was the first theoretical
accomplishment of the boundary layer flow over a rotating disk. The
boundary layer flow and heat transfer on a rotating disk of Newtonian fluid
749
is an established problem [3]. Power law fluid is one of the examples of the
most common and simplest model of non-Newtonian fluids. The fluid is said
to be "shear thinning" if the viscosity decreases as the shear rate is increased.
The opposite effect is known as shear thickening. The effect of an externally
applied magnetic field on the flow due to a rotating disk show excellent flow
control mechanism. In Heydari et al. [4], increased magnetic number causes
weaker flow field in the radial direction. Ming et al. [1] dealt with the steady
flow and heat transfer of a viscous incompressible power-law fluid over a
rotating infinite disk. Substantial effects are the thickness of the velocity and
thermal boundary layer decays with increasing power-law index and Prandtl
number. In the presence of a uniform magnetic field and uniform suction and
injection, Attia et al. [5] considered a steady non-Newtonian fluid flow
induced by a rotating disk with heat transfer in which the effect of the non-
Newtonian fluid characteristics on the axial flow towards the disk and
temperature distribution depends on the magnetic field parameter. Griffiths
et al. [6] and Griffiths [7] investigated the boundary layer flow on a rotating
disk for a number of generalised Newtonian fluid models. Motivated by the
works of Griffiths et al. [6] and Griffiths [7] and practical applications of
magnetohydrodynamic fluid flow and heat transfer in rotating disk, the
purpose of the present paper is to study the effects of magnetic field on the
heat transfer in the power-law fluids flow due to a rotating disk.
Research Method
Mathematical Formulation
Consider a steady laminar flow of power-law fluid due to infinite rotating
plane located at z*  0 . The plane rotates about the z -axis with angular
*
velocity,  . The conducting fluid is permeated by an imposed uniform

*
*
magnetic field, B0 which acts in the positive z -direction normal to the
disk.
The governing boundary layer equations are

1  r F0
* *
 1 G* 1 H *
 * 0  * *0  0,
(1)
r *
r *
r  r z
  (2)
2
F0* F * G* F * F * G0*  r ** 1   * F0*   B02 *
 F0* 0*  *0 0  H 0* 0*     F ,
t *
r r  z r*  * z*  z*   * 0
G0* G* G* G0* G* F *G* 1   G*   B 2 (3)
 F0* *0  *0  H 0* *0  0 * 0  2* F0*  * *   * *0   *0 G0* ,
t *
r r  z r  z  z  
750
T0* T * G* T * T * 1   * T0*  (4)

 F0* 0*  *0 0  H0* 0*  *  ,
t *
r r  z  C p z*  z* 
where   is the fluid density and F0* , G0* , H 0* and T0* are the leading velocity

components and temperature term in the directions of r  , and z
respectively. The dynamic non-Newtonian viscosity is

   (  )  m (  ) and the rate tensor is   v  (v ) where m is
   *  n 1    T
the consistency coefficient and n is the dimensionless power-law index, with

n  1 (shear-thickening), n  1 (shear-thinning) and n  1 (Newtonian fluids)
[1]. The stress tensor and the thermal conductivity following the power law
( n1)/2 ( n1)/2
 F * 2  G* 2   F * 2  G* 2 
are   m  0*    *0   and   d  0*    *0  
* * * *
.
 z   z    z   z  
The boundary conditions applicable to the flow are
(5)
T0*  Tw , at z  0,
*
F0*  0, G0*  0, H 0*  0,
F0*  0, G0*  * r* , as z  . (6) T0*  T ,

*
Following Griffiths et al. [6], the generalisation of the classic

Newtonian similarity solution is introduced with the purpose of solving the
steady mean flow relative to the disk. The dimensionless similarity coordinate
(1 n )/( n 1)
r z 
of Griffiths et al. [6] are   2/( n1)
where L  . The dimensionless
2 n
L 
F0 G H
similarity variables are defined by F     
, G     0  , H    0 ,
r r 
1
    n1
where    1n 12 n  .

T T
* *
    0 
r  
,
T T
w
* *

Equations (1) - (4) areError! Reference source not found.

ransformed to the following set of non-linear ordinary differential equations.
 1 n  ' (7)
2F     F  H  0,
'
 n 1 
  1 n   ' (8)
F 2   G  1   H    F  F    F   MF  0,
2 ' '
  n 1 
  1 n   ' (9)
2 F  G  1   H    F  G   G   MG  0,
' '
  n 1 
751
 1 n   ' 1 (10)

 H   n  1  F    Pr    ,
'
   
where the primes denote differentiation with respect to .  B02 is the
 M
* 
d*
magnetic parameter, Pr  is the Prandtl number and    F '2  G'2 (n1)/2 ,
C p m*
subject to boundary conditions
F  0   G  0   H  0   0,   0   1, (11)
F      0, G      1,       0, (22)
The set of ordinary differential equations (7) – (10) and boundary
conditions (11) and (12) constitute a two-parameter two-point boundary value
problem which can be solved numerically using a finite difference of
MATLAB built-in solver bvp4c.
Results and Analysis

The results tabulated in Table 1 show the accuracy of the computed
values by bvp4c solver and are in good agreement with the results of Griffiths
[7].
Table 1: Comparison of the Numerical Values with the Results of Griffiths [7]
for Power Law Fluids with Power Law Index  0.6  n  1.0  .
F'  0  G '  0  H 
n Presen Griffiths [7] Present Griffiths [7] Present Griffiths [7]

t
0.6 0.5000 0.501 0.6769 0.678 1.3046 -
0.7 0.5015 0.502 0.6529 0.653 1.1966 -
0.8 0.5039 0.504 0.6362 0.636 1.0773 -
0.9 0.5069 0.507 0.6243 0.624 0.9688 -
1.0 0.5102 0.510 0.6159 0.616 0.8845 0.885
Effects of the Magnetic Parameter,  M 

The effects of magnetic parameter  M  on the flow are shown graphically
in Figure 1 on the radial velocity, F   and temperature,    for shear
thinning and shear thickening fluids, respectively.
752
(a)
(b)
Figure 1: The effects of  M  on F   and    for (a) shear thinning fluids,
 n  0.6 and (b) shear thickening fluids,  n  1.1 .
For both types of fluids, it is observed that increasing magnetic

parameter decreases radial velocity and increases the temperature. Increased
magnetic parameter signifies the strength of Lorentz force and the parameter
is the measure of the relative importance of Lorentz force to the viscous
hydrodynamic force, thus higher values of magnetic parameter corresponds
to stronger magnetic field strength. Stronger magnetic field imposes a
stronger Lorentz force results in viscous drag and the velocity of the fluid will
decelerate. The effect of the magnetic field on the velocity components and
temperature is more pronounced for the case of shear thinning fluids.
Effects of the Prandtl number,  Pr 

Figure 2 illustrates the effects of Prandtl number  Pr  on temperature,   
.
753
(a) (b)
Figure 2: The effects of  Pr  on    for (a) shear thinning fluids,  n  0.6 
and (b) shear thickening fluids,  n  1.1 .
An increase in the Prandtl number results in a decrease in thermal
conductivity thus reduces the thermal boundary layer thickness. It can be
observed that the power law index also plays a significant role. An increase
in the power-law index from shear thinning to shear thickening fluids, results
in the thinning of the thermal boundary layer. Small values of the Prandtl
number means the thermal diffusivity dominates (thicker than the velocity
boundary layer) whereas with large values of the Prandtl number, the
momentum diffusivity dominates (thermal boundary layer is thinner).
Effects on the Heat Transfer Coefficient, '  0

Table 2: Effects of magnetic field parameter,  M  for Pr  0.72 and Prandtl
number,  Pr  for M  0.1 on  '  0  .
M 0.5 3.5 6.5
 '  0  n  0.6 0.5675 0.5922 0.5618
n  1.1 0.4256 0.5618 0.2853
Pr 0.7 13.3 25.9
 '  0  n  0.6 0.5675 1.4487 1.8107
n  1.1 0.4256 1.4129 1.8091
The values of the heat transfer coefficient,  '  0 are tabulated in

Table 2. Increasing magnetic parameter leads to a decrease in the heat transfer
coefficient. However, an increase in Prandtl number leads to an increase in
the heat transfer coefficient for both types of fluids.
754
Conclusion
The velocity and temperature boundary layers in MHD non-Newtonian
power law fluids flow due to a rotating disk are considered for the effects of
an applied magnetic parameter and Prandtl number. For shear thinning and
shear thickening fluids, increasing magnetic parameter decreases the radial
velocity but increases the temperature distribution. The heat transfer rate is
reduced as magnetic field strength increases but increases as Prandtl number
increases.
References
[1] C. Ming, L. Zheng and X. Zhang, “Steady flow and heat transfer of the
power-law fluid over a rotating disk,” International Communications in
Heat and Mass Transfer 38, 208 (2011).
[2] T. v. Kármán, “Uber laminare und turbulente reibung,” ZAMM-
Journal of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics/Zeitschrift für
Angewandte Mathematik und Mechanik of Power Electronics 1, 233
(1921).
[3] P. Zandbergen and D. Dijkstra, “Swirling flows,” Annual Review of
Fluid Mechanics 19, 465 (1987).
[4] M. Heydari, G. B. Loghmani and A. A. Dehghan, “A combination of
pseudo-spectral method and extrapolation for solving mhd flow and heat
transfer about a rotating risk,” IJST 38 38, 25 (2014).
[5] H. A. Attia, K. M. Ewis, I. H. A. Elmaksoud and M. A. Abdeen, “Steady
hydromagnetic flow of a non-Newtonian power law fluid due to a
rotating porous disk with heat transfer,” Russian Journal of Physical
Chemistry A 86, 2063 (2012).
[6] P. T. Griffiths, S. J. Garrett and S. O. Stephen, “The neutral curve for
stationary disturbances in rotating disk flow for power-law fluids,”
Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanic 213, 73 (2014).
[7] P. Griffiths, “Flow of a generalised Newtonian fluid due to a rotating
disk,” Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanic 221, 9 (2015).
1 December 2016
T01_092: NATURAL HYDROMAGNETIC

CONVECTIVE INSTABILITY IN
VISCOELASTIC NANOFLUID LAYER
Norazuwin Najihah Mat Tahir
Fuziyah Ishak
Seripah Awang Kechil
Faculty of Computer and Mathematical Sciences,
Universiti Teknologi MARA,
40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia.
ABSTRACT
Interactions between magnetic field and electrically conducting fluids are
known to delay the convective instability. In this study, we examined the
effects of magnetic field on convective instabilities in a deep horizontal
viscoelastic nanofluid layer. Linear stability theory was used to determine the
onset of stationary and oscillatory instabilities. Closed form solution for the
critical Rayleigh number was obtained using the Galerkin-type weighted
residuals method. The effects of the scaled stress relaxation parameter and
Chandrasekhar number on the stability of the system were investigated.
Magnetic field also delays the stationary and oscillatory convective
instabilities in viscoelastic nanofluids.
Keywords: Stationary instability, Oscillatory instability, Oldroyd-B, Stress

relaxation.
Introduction
Classical Rayleigh-Benard problem has been considered for nanofluid layer
with gravitational and magnetic effects [1]. There are two types of fluids,
Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids. Newtonian fluids is the fluid with its
viscosity remains constant although being placed under external stresses and
non-Newtonian fluids can become thicker or thinner under applied stresses
and they have extensive usage in engineering and industrial applications.
Many studies on non-Newtonian nanofluids are experimental in nature [2]
and theoretical studies for flow instability problems are concentrated on
nanofluids as Newtonian fluids [3]. Experimental results have shown that
Newtonian model may not be accurate for explaining the behavior of some
756
particular nanofluids [4]. Nanofluids with low nanoparticle concentration

exhibited Newtonian behavior but with higher nanoparticle concentration,
they exhibited shear thining behavior. Narayana et al. [5] used nonlinear
stability analysis to study the effect of an external magnetic field on double
diffusive convection in a weakly electrically conducting of Oldroyd-B type
viscoelastic fluid. Magnetic field is found to stabilize the fluid layer for both
stationary and oscillatory convection. Gravitational effects are significant in
the deep fluid layer but negligible in a thin fluid layer. The purpose of this
paper is to examine the influence of the magnetic field on the convective
instability in a deep viscoelastic nanofluid layer. The critical thermal
Rayleigh number is determined through linear stability analysis. The
eigenvalue problem is solved analytically using the Galerkin-type weighted
residuals method.
Problem Formulation
Consider an infinite horizontal layer of incompressible viscoelastic nanofluid
of Oldroyd-B type of depth z  H with weak-electrical conductivity subject
to vertical temperature gradient. The gravity, g   geˆ z is assumed to act
vertically downwards. A uniform magnetic field, H  H 0eˆ z is applied parallel
to the z -axis. The magnetic Reynolds number is assumed small so that the
induced magnetic field is negligible. The conservation equations for flow in
the nanofluid layer are (cf. [1],[5],[6])
  v  0, (3)
   v 
1  1 { f 0   v  v   p  [ p   f0    f 0 T  Tc    f0 
 t   t  (4)
 
  f0 T  Tc ]g  u m H 0 e x  v m
2 2ˆ
H 0 e y }   1   2  2 v,
2 2ˆ
 t 
   
c f  T  v  T   k 2T  c p DB   T   DT
T  T ,

(5)
 t    Tc  
 D  2
 v    DB  2   T  T ,

(6)
t  Tc 
where v  u, v, w is the nanofluid velocity, 1 is the relaxation time,  2 is

the retardation time, t is time, p is the pressure,  f0 is the nanofluid density
757
at reference temperature Tc ,  p is the nanoparticle mass density,  is the

volumetric coefficient of thermal expansion,  is the electrical conductivity,
 m is the magnetic permeability,  is the coefficient viscosity,  is the
nanoparticle volume fraction, T is the temperature, c  f is the effective heat
capacity of the fluid, c  p is the effective heat capacity of the nanoparticle,
k is the thermal conductivity, D B is the Brownian diffusion coefficient and
DT is the thermophoretic diffusion coefficient.
The relevant boundary conditions applicable for the problem are
w 2w
w  0,  a1H  0, T  Th ,   0 at z  0, (7)
z z 2
w  2w
w  0,  a2 H  0, T  Tc ,   1 at z  H , (8)
z z 2
where a1 , a 2 are constants.
Linear Stability Analysis

The system (3) – (8) will be subjected to linear stability theory in order to
examine the onset of the stationary and oscillatory instabilities. The
introduction of the scaling quantities [3] for the length x, y, z  

x*, y*, z*  ,
H
 * *
velocity v  u , v , w
f

* H f *
, time t  2 t , pressure p 
H
H 2
 f
p* , nanoparticles
volume fraction    *  0* and temperature

* *
T *  Tc*
T gives the non-
1  0 Th*  Tc*
k
dimensional variables where  f 
c f is the thermal diffusivity of the fluid
and asterisks denote dimensionless quantities.
Perturbation Solution
The fluid is at rest in the reference steady basic state varying in the z -
direction [3]. The basic state is perturbed by infinitesimal perturbations
v  v , p  pb  p , T  Tb  T ,   b   , (9)
758
where prime denotes the perturbation quantity and pb  p0 , Tb  1  z, b  z,

where p 0 is the constant reference pressure. Performing basic calculus and
algebraic manipulation, the linearised perturbed systems are,
   1  2   
1  1   w   2H RaT    2H Rn   Q 2z w  1   2  4 w, (10)
 t  Pr t   t
T  N  T     N N T 
 w   2T   B   2 A B , (11)
t Le  z z  Le z
  1 2 N
 w      A  2T , (12)
t Le Le
subject to boundary conditions,
w  2 w
w  0,  a1  0, T   0,    0 at z  0, (13)
z z 2
w  2 w
w  0,  a2  0, T   0,    0 at z  1, (14)
z z 2
where  4 is the three-dimensional biharmonic operator,  2 is the three-
dimensional Laplacian operator and  2H is the one-dimensional Laplacian
operator in the horizontal plane. The non-dimensional parameters are,
f f f   f  Th*  Tc*   gH 3
  
1  1      
0
, , P , Le , Ra ,
f f  f
2 2 r
H2 H2 0
DB
Rm 
p 0 0 
     f 1    gH 3

* *
0
, Rn   0
  
  p   f 1*  0*  gH 3
,

 f  f
(15)

DT Th*  Tc*   c  p * * m2 H 02 H 2
NA 
DBTc* 1*  0* 
, N B 
 c  f
 1   0  ,Q 

,
where 1 is the scaled stress relaxation parameter,  2 is the scaled strain

retardation parameter, Pr is the Prandtl number, Le is the Lewis number,
Rm is the basic density Rayleigh number, Ra is the thermal Rayleigh
number, Rn is the concentration Rayleigh number, N A is the modified
diffusivity ratio, N B is the modified particle density increment and Q is the
Chandrasekhar number.
Normal Modes
759
The non-dimensional system constitutes a linear boundary-value problem

that can be solved using the method of normal modes given by
w, T ,    W z , z , z e sti x i y , (16)
where W z , z  and  z  are the amplitudes of the velocity, temperature and
nanoparticles volume fraction, respectively.    x2   2y  1 / 2 is the total wave
number and s is a dimensionless complex growth rate. The systems in form
of the normal modes are

1  1s  s
 Pr
D 2  

  2 W  QD2W  Ra 2  Rn 2  1   2s  D2   2 W ,

2
 (17)
 N N N  N (18)
W   D 2  B D  2 A B D   2  s   B D  0,
 Le Le  Le
W
NA 2
Le

D  2   


1 2
Le
 

D   2  s   0,

(19)
with boundary conditions

W  0, DW  a1D 2W  0,   0,   0 at z  0, (20)
W  0, DW  a2 D 2W  0,   0,   0 at z  1, (21)
d
where D . The Galerkin-type weighted residuals method is used to obtain
dz
an approximation of the closed form solution to the system (17) - (21).
Results And Discussions

The case with rigid upper and lower boundaries is considered. The thermal
Rayleigh number Ra determines the thresholds for the transition from
stationary patterns to weakly chaotic evolution to highly turbulent state. The
nontrivial solution for thermal Rayleigh number Ra is
c  1   2 i  Q  c 2 N A  Le  iLe 
 1   i   c P i  12 c c 2  i   
c3
Ra   1    Rn, (22)
 c 4  1  4 r 4   c 2  iLe 
where c1  504 24 2   4 , c2 27 2 The solution for

 10   2 , c3  12   2 , c4  .
28
the case of stationary convection is
760
Rastat  1 2  12Q 2  N A  LeRn,

cc c
c4 c4 (23)
and for the onset of oscillatory instability is
 1   2      c 
1     1   3  2  12Qc 
Raosc  c1c 2  1 2
  c1 2  2 
c4  
2
 1  2 2   1  2 2  Pr
  1   1  
(24)
 c 2 N  Le    Le 
2 2 2
 A  Rn.
 c 2 2   2 Le 2 
(a) (b)
Figure 1: Neutral stability curves of the stationary and oscillatory
convection for various values of Λ1 when (a) Q  1 and (b) Q  10 .
Figure 1 shows the neutral stability curves for the variations of thermal
Rayleigh number, Ra as a function of the wave number  for various values
of  1 . Stress relaxation occurs when the applied deformation rate is reduced.
The oscillatory thermal Rayleigh number decreases with an increase in the
 1 . The stationary instability doesn’t depend on the  1 . The critical thermal
Rayleigh number is at 1772.88 Q  0,1798.40Q  1,2022.73Q  10 . The effect
of  1 is to advance the onset of convection in a viscoelastic nanofluid layer
and the system is unstable. The critical thermal Rayleigh number in the
presence of magnetic field is greater than the critical thermal Rayleigh
number in the absence of magnetic field. Magnetic field acts as a stabilizer.
Figure 2 shows the thermal Rayleigh number increases for both stationary
and oscillatory convection as the value of Q increases. Increased magnetic
parameter signifies the strength of Lorentz force since the magnetic field is
the measure of the relative importance of Lorentz force to the viscous
hydrodynamic force. Hence, the influence of magnetic field delays the onset
of oscillatory and stationary convection thus stabilizes the system. The
critical thermal Rayleigh number is increasing when the value of
Chandrasekhar number increases is shown in Figure 3. The critical thermal
761
Rayleigh number remains stable for stationary convection while the critical
thermal Rayleigh number decreasing as  1 increases for oscillatory
convection.
Figure 2: Neutral stability curves of the stationary and oscillatory convection

for various values of Q .
Figure 3: The critical thermal Rayleigh number as function of Λ1 on the

stationary and oscillatory convection for several values of Q .
Conclusion
The influences of stress relaxation and magnetic field on the stability of
natural convection in viscoelastic nanofluids were studied analytically. The
system of conservation equations was solved using a linear stability analysis.
The effect of stress relaxation is to advance the onset of oscillatory convection
while magnetic field delays both stationary and oscillatory convection.
References
[1] L.M. Perez, J. Bragard, D. Laroze, J. Martinez-Mardones and H. Pleiner,
“Thermal convection thresholds in a Oldroyd magnetic fluid,” Journal of
Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 323(6), 691 – 698 (2011).
[2] C. Metin, R.T. Bonnecaze and Q.P. Nguyen, “The viscosity of silica
nanoparticle dispersions in permeable media,” SPE Reservoir Evaluation
762
& Engineering 16 (03), 327 – 332 (2013).

[3] D.A. Nield and A.V. Kuznetsov, “Themal instability in a porous medium
layer saturated by a nanofluid : A revised model,” International Journal
of Heat and Mass Transfer 68, 211 – 214 (2014).
[4] D. Yadav, R. Bhargava, G.S. Agrawal, N. Yadav, J. Lee and M.C. Kim,
“Thermal instability in a rotating porous layer saturated by a non-
Newtonian nanofluid with thermal conductivity and viscosity variation,”
Microfluidics and Nanofluidics 16 (1-2), 425 – 440 (2014).
[5] M. Narayana, S.N. Gaikwad, P. Sibanda and R.B. Malge, “Double
diffusive magneto-convection in viscoelastic fluids,” International
Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 67, 194 – 201 (2013).
[6] S. Chandrasekhar, Hydrodynamic and Hydromagnetic Stability,
(Courier Dover Publications, 2013).
1 December 2016
T01_093: LOW VOLTAGE DC POWER

MODULE FOR RELIEF CAMP
Tunku Muhammad Nizar Tunku Mansur
Rosnazri Ali
Nor Hanisah Baharudin
Syed Idris Syed Hassan
School of Electrical System Engineering, Universiti

Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), Kampus UniMAP Ulu Pauh,
02600 Arau, Perlis
ABSTRACT
One of essential elements at disaster relief camps is electricity supply.
Categorized under disaster preparedness, it is required to support
humanitarian aids, provide security and convenient for the victims involved.
The objective of this project is to design a centralized power backup scheme
at low voltage DC, powered from renewable energy resource which is solar
PV for disaster relief camps. The methodology includes DC load
configuration, sizing of PV array and balance of system (BOS), simulation
and lastly hardware implementation. In general, a relief camp will consist of
basic electrical appliances such as lightings, fans and hand-phone chargers
while in common area could be equipped with flood lightings, air-
conditioning unit and refrigerator to store foods and medicine. The solar PV
array, battery bank and DC bus regulator power rating are designed
accordingly to the local meteorological data and load profile based on
desired operating schedule. The system operates in stand-alone mode in
which the power is fully supplied in DC voltage. The energy generated from
solar array will be stored in the battery bank while the operation and
management of the system is controlled and coordinated by local controller
to ensure energy optimization system. The output will be distributed
accordingly to load’s power requirement which is either 12V DC or 48V DC.
This unit could be used to power up the appliances up to maximum power of
1,600W.
Keywords: Low Voltage DC, DC Microgrid, Solar PV, Renewable Energy,

Disaster Preparedness
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Introduction
In 2014, Malaysia was hit by one of the worst flood disaster in history where
more than 100,000 victims have been moved to evacuation centre. In
Kelantan area, there are extreme cases where victims have to live without
food, clean water and electricity for more than 40 hours due to the severity of
floods that prevented delivery of aids [1].
Electricity supply is one of elements required to support
humanitarian aids such as disaster relief centre or camps. So far, electricity
technology for disaster relief centre is not given serious attention since
government’s building are normally been used as a centre where electricity is
already available. In the meantime, outdoor camps only focused on traditional
fuel such as wood, biomass, agricultural waste and conventional fossil fuels
for heating, cooking, lighting and fuel driven electric generators for power
[2]. However, based on the extreme case during 2014 flood disaster, backup
power supply especially portable that could support basic loads such as for
lighting and communication devices should be considered.
Motivated by environmental and economic conditions, renewable
energy resources such as from solar photovoltaic (PV) is currently popular
technologies used especially for remote and rural electrification. In recent
years, tremendous improvements in efficiency and cost effectiveness of solar
PV technology have been made [3]. In addition, there have been intensive
efforts to utilize DC in distribution system to supplement the traditionally
used AC system [4]. Moreover, many of today’s consumer loads are available
at low voltage DC such as LED lightings and hand phone's charger [5]. The
advancement achieved in power electronics has made the DC voltage
regulation a simpler task and better efficiency. Today’s solid-state switching
DC converters have a power conversion efficiency in the range of 95% [6].
Figure 1: Methodology of the project

Methodology
The objective of this project is to design a centralize power supply unit at low
voltage DC for relief camp, powered from renewable energy resource which
is solar PV. The methodology of the project is shown in Figure 1 which
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consists of DC load configuration, sizing of PV array and balance of system

(BOS), simulation and lastly hardware implementation.
In general, a relief camp will consist of basic electrical appliances
such as lightings, fans and hand phones charger while a common area could
be equipped with flood lightings, air-conditioning unit and refrigerator to
store foods and medicine. These loads will be divided according to their
power rating where the high power loads will operate at higher voltage level
which is 48V while the low power appliances operates at low voltage level
which is 12V. Compared to AC system, the energy conversion losses of DC
system is minimized [7] since there is no reactive power [8]. For this project,
the loads are only for 4 camps and 1 common area to operate for 6 hours daily.
The list of loads with their respective power rating and with their daily energy
requirement is shown in Table 1. The total daily energy required is 8,820Wh.
Table 1: Load for Relief Camp
Quantity Power Hours Energy

Appliance
(Unit) (W) (h) (Wh)
LED Lighting 10 12 6 720
Fan 10 12 6 720
Charger 10 5 6 300
Flood Lighting 6 30 6 1,080
Air-Conditioning Unit 1 1,000 6 6,000
Next step would be sizing the solar PV array to meet the required
energy demand. The estimation of solar PV array output is based on annual
solar energy record which is obtained from Malaysia Meteorological
Department (MMD). It is assumed that the output energy of a PV array is a
function of peak sun shine hours and temperature. Figure 2 shows the average
daily solar irradiation and average maximum temperature for Kota Bharu,
Kelantan for 20 years (1994-2013). The estimation of energy generated from
PV array is simplified and calculated based on Equation (1) below [9]
Earray  Parray  PSH period  f temp _ ave (1)

where
Earray is PV array yield in kWh
PSHperiod is Peak Sun Hour
ftemp_ave is temperature de-rating factor
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The temperature de-rating factor, ftemp_ave is given by the Equation (2)
  pmp 
ftemp _ ave  1   
  Tcell _ ave  Tstc  (2)
 100  
where
γpmp is temperature coefficient for Pmp (%/oC)
Tcell_ave is average daily maximum cell temperature
Tstc is cell temperature at standard test condition which is 25oC
The average cell temperature, Tcell_ave is given by Equation (3)
 NOCT  20  
Tcell _ ave  Tamb _ ave _ max     Gamb_ ave _ max  (3)
 800  
where
Tamb_ave_max is average daily maximum ambient temperature (oC)
NOCT is Nominal operation cell temperature (oC)
Gamb_ave_max is average daily maximum solar irradiance (Wm-2)
Figure 2: Meteorological data for Kota Bharu, Kelantan.
The system will operate in stand-alone mode where the power will
be totally in DC. However, for special load that powered by AC, inverter
767
could be used to convert from DC to AC. The energy generated from solar
PV array will be stored in the battery bank. The operation and management
of the system in is controlled and coordinated by local controller to ensure
energy optimization for the micro-grid and to perform protection
coordination for the system. Figure 3 shows the block diagram of the system.
DC Air-conditioning
48V 1.0 kW
Main Controller Load Controller Module
Unit Flood Light
Load Controller Module
Camp
Solar PV Array 2kW

250Wp x 8 panels
Camp
Camp
Battery Bank Load Controller Module
48V 260Ah Camp
Figure 3: Block diagram of the system
Result
The performance of the system is show in Figure 4 below where Homer
software is used for simulation. For the 2 kW of PV array, the energy
generated could meet the energy demand for every month in a year except in
January, October, November and December. If the size is increased to 2.5
kW, then energy demand is not meet only in December. If the size is increased
to 3 kW, the energy demand could all be fulfilled but there are huge amount
of surplus energy that not be utilized on other months.
In addition, daily energy used only 183.75 Ah which is 35% of depth
of discharge. According to the batteries datasheet, the battery bank could last
for around 1,200 cycles which is more than 3 years. If it is used continuously
for 2 days without charging, then it is 71% of depth of discharge and could
operate up to 600 cycles which is less than 2 years. If it is used continuously
for 3 days without charging, then it is 100% of depth of discharge and could
operate up to 300 cycles which is less than 1 years.
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2.0 kW PV Array
2.5 kW PV Array
Energy Generated (kWh)
3.0 kW PV Array
Energy
Month
Figure 4: Energy Generated from PV Array for Relief Camp
Conclusion
The totally DC power system for disaster relief camp based on solar PV has
been studied, designed and developed. The DC load is configured based on
load’s power rating which are high (48V) and low (12V). The battery bank
will be at 48V and DC converter is used to step down the voltage level to
12V. The PV array needs to oversize in order to meet the energy demand
since flood normally occurred in December which has lowest solar irradiation
in a year. The DC loads are not common in the market especially for cooling,
however it has better efficiency.
References
[1] Malaymail Online, “Kuala Krai flood victims trapped without food,
water or electricity at shelter.,” 26-Dec-2014.
[2] J. Franceschi, J. Rothkop, and G. Miller, “Off-grid Solar PV Power for
Humanitarian Action: From Emergency Communications to Refugee
Camp Micro-grids,” Procedia Eng., vol. 78, pp. 229–235, 2014.
[3] K. Shah, P. Chen, a. Schwab, K. Shenai, S. Gouin-Davis, and L.
Downey, “Smart efficient solar DC micro-grid,” 2012 IEEE Energytech,
Energytech 2012, 2012.
[4] S. Sidopekso and M. Taufik, “The DC House Project for Sustainable
Rural Electrification,” no. November 2012, pp. 2–6, 2013.
[5] A. T. Ghareeb, A. a. Mohamed, and O. a. Mohammed, “DC microgrids
and distribution systems: An overview,” IEEE Power Energy Soc. Gen.
Meet., vol. 119, pp. 407–417, 2013.
769
[6] K. Shenai, K. Shah, and S. Member, “Smart DC Micro-grid for Efficient

Utilization of Distributed Renewable Energy.”
[7] M. Amin, Y. Arafat, S. Lundberg, and S. Mangold, “An efficient
appliance for low voltage DC house,” pp. 334–339, 2011.
[8] E. R. Diaz, X. Su, M. Savaghebi, J. C. Vasquez, M. Han, and J. M.
Guerrero, “Intelligent DC Microgrid living Laboratories - A Chinese-
Danish cooperation project,” 2015 IEEE First Int. Conf. DC Microgrids,
pp. 365–370, 2015.
[9] A.M. Omar, S. Shaari, S.I. Sulaiman, Grid-Connected Photovoltaic
Power Systems Design. Sustainable Energy Development Authority
Malaysia, 2012.
1 December 2016
T01_094: COSMETIC CORROSION OF

CLOSED CAR ‘PARKING LOT SURVEY’
Liza Anuar
Astuty Amrin
UTM Razak School of Engineering and Advanced

Technology, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Jalan
Semarak 54100,Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
ABSTRACT
Corrosion has been a major concern of vehicle manufacturers around the
world. A closed car investigation or ‘Parking Lot survey’ was conducted to
understand the cosmetic corrosion behaviour on vehicles under Malaysia
tropical climate. The investigation was targeted to observe and identify the
actual corrosion defects such as blisters, surface rust and perforation. It was
a “closed car” activity where vehicles were locked and only the exterior
panels were inspected. The survey has gathered beneficial information on
cosmetic corrosion behaviour of vehicles. The result revealed that surface
rust was the main cosmetic corrosion problem of vehicles under Malaysia
tropical hot and humid climate. External factors like stone chipping, surface
dent and other physical damage on the surface have contributed to the
degradation on paint system that lead to cosmetic corrosion defects.
Keywords: cosmetic corrosion, blisters, surface rust, perforation.
Introduction
Corrosion has been a major concern of vehicle manufacturers around the
world. Several important parameters affecting vehicle corrosion are
humidity, temperature, acidity of rain, chipping due to gravel or sand, and
exposure to deicing salts. Other environmental factors, including air pollution
in industrial areas, exposure to marine atmospheres in coastal regions, acid
(low-pH) precipitation, and dust control procedures on rural roads, also
contribute to the increased corrosion of automobile body panels and other
components [1].
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Cosmetic corrosion is defined as a corrosion typically characterized by

rusting that is aesthetically displeasing and/or blistering, but may not result
in catastrophic failure of the item [3].
Objective
A closed car investigation or ‘Parking Lot survey’ [2] was conducted
to understand the cosmetic corrosion of vehicles under Malaysia tropical
climate.
The investigation was targeted;
1. To observe and identify the cosmetic corrosion defects in the
category of blisters, surface rust and perforation.
2. To obtain an overview and preliminary data collection to understand
the performance of paint system as the corrosion protection on
vehicles. The data will be used as an overview to be shared with
National Car Manufacturer, Perusahaan Otomobil Nasional Berhad
(PROTON).
Materials and method

The ‘parking lot survey’ was conducted between January to March 2014 at
selected parking area in PROTON Factory, HICOM Industrial Estate, Shah
Alam, Selangor, Malaysia. The location was selected as the focus area due to
its high density of industrial zone. It was a “closed car” activity where
vehicles were locked. Only the exterior panels were inspected. Inspection of
inner panels and underbody were not conducted.
The corrosion imperfections or defects were categorized and defined as

below;
a) Blister – a dome-shaped projection on the surface of a coating

resulting from the local loss of adhesion and lifting of the film from
an underlying coat or from the base substrate [4], region of lifted
paint (ie. bubble) typically caused by loss of adhesion within the
paint system or between the paint and metal surface [3].
b) Surface rust – any area where the paint has been removed and the
steel surface is rusted, where total perforation of the metal has not
occurred [2].
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c) Perforation – any complete penetration of the sheet, usually

associated with inside-out corrosion, that leaves a hole visible to the
naked eye [2][3].
d) Others – non-corrosion defects like missing or broken components
and discoloration.
All vehicle models from various car manufacturers including local and
foreign maker were surveyed. Total of 300 units vehicle in the 3 parking areas
were inspected. Figure 1 shows the process flow of the survey. Locations of
parking lot were identified. Then, the vehicle information such as model,
Vehicle Identification Number (VIN) or Vehicle Registration Number (VRN)
was recorded. Defects identifications were made with naked eyes and if any
imperfection exists, photographs and measurement were taken as shown in
Figure 2. Finally, data analysis is conducted.
Figure 1 : Survey process flow
Figure 2 : Parking Lot Survey activity

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The survey has gathered beneficial information on cosmetic
corrosion behavior of vehicles in Malaysia tropical climate. The estimated
age of vehicles were tabulated in Figure 3, based on the VIN or VRN
information recorded. It is found that 29% of vehicles were aged 1-3 years
and 24% of vehicles were aged 3-5 years. This has summed up that more than
50% of the vehicles surveyed were aged between 1 to 5 years while 44% of
the vehicles were aged between 6-10 years. This information is used as a
baseline to understand the vehicle age to remark as new or old vehicles.
%, 9 - ≥10
years , 11%, Estimated age of vehicles
11%
%, 7 - 9
years, 1 - 3 years
13%, 14%
3- 5 years
%, 1 - 3
years, 29%, 5 - 7 years
%, 5 - 7 29%
years, 21%, 7 - 9 years
21% %, 3- 5
years, 24%, 9 - ≥10 years
25%
Figure 3 : Estimated age of vehicles
Figure 4, 5 and 6 showed the example of identified defects such as blister,

surface rust and perforation during the parking lot survey activity.
Figure 4 : Surface rust Figure 5 : Blister (broken)

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Figure 6 : Perforation
Table 1 : Survey findings

Item Blister Surface Perforation Other No
rust defects defects
No.of 57 113 33 38 59
cars
% 19 38 11 13 20
Table 1 showed the survey findings of 300 vehicles inspected.It is found that
57 vehicles having blisters (19%), 113 vehicles having surface rust (38%), 33
vehicles having perforation (11%), 38 vehicles having other defects (13%)
and 59 vehicles with no defects (20%) as shown in Figure 7.
Cosmetic corrosion defects : parking lot survey

No.of car recorded
Corrosion
Figure 7 : Cosmetic corrosion defects recorded.
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The survey showed that surface rust was the highest cosmetic
corrosion defects on most vehicles, followed by blister and perforation
defects. There were also vehicles with no cosmetic corrosion defects.
Observation made on the affected vehicles outlined that vehicle aged
more than 7 years have experienced surface rust on the body panels like hood,
door and roof. This is potentially due to the degradation of the paint system
over time with the influence of external factors like stone chipping,
weathering and car maintenance. Stone chipping may had induced
deterioration of the paint layers at top coat and base coat. When the layers of
paint system deteriorate, this has allowed moisture to penetrate into it. The
moisture has acted as electrolyte of corrosion process that led to a loss of
adhesion within the layers of paint system [5]. Blisters may have also
contributed to the surface rust at the early stage. Upon exposure to daily hot
and humid climate of Malaysia, corrosion processes have been accelerated,
that soon contributed to paint flaking or peeling. As a consequences of the
condition, body panel that is made from steel exposed to corrosion attack.
Finally, surface rusts were observed if no prevention or care is taken by the
vehicle owner.
Blisters were found on surface of body panels in irregular shapes
ranging from 1cm to 3cm in diameter. The blisters were broken and unbroken
with scattered and some in colonies distribution[3]. Some broken blisters
were rusty while unbroken blisters remained as a bubbles. Based on the
survey, blisters were found on new and old cars. In hot and humid climate,
blisters can occured through absorption and evaporation of water into the
paint system. It is a normal process and does not harm a well-constructed
finishing process. However, if poor processing of the primers exist, it will
leave hygroscopic/water soluble substances (salts) behind as contaminants.
These cause a local concentration of a salt water solution which lifts the paint
film into blisters [5]. Other than that, vehicles produced by automotive car
manufacturers must underwent a stringent painting quality. No blisters or
paint defects were allowed. Hence, it was believed that blisters found on the
vehicles may be caused by external factors like stone chipping, scratches and
others, same as the surface rust condition. It is also observed that some
vehicles had undergo rework or repainting process at external parties. The
blisters may also contributed by the improper surface preparation during
painting process.
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Low number of perforation cases were recorded by the survey. It

was observed on older vehicles that aged around 9 to 10 years and more.
Areas that prone to perforation were roof, hood and closure panels with
visible holes that can be seen by the naked eyes. Perforation is an inside-out
corrosion that occurs initially on interior surfaces, in areas such as gaps
between joined surfaces, under fasteners, etc. It can also occur when road
debris is trapped in pockets, ledges, and similar areas, forming a poultice on
the surface. Because perforation corrosion is often observed in (but not
limited to) crevices, it is sometimes referred to as crevice corrosion [6].
Perforation may occurred to areas that has started with blisters and surface
rust.It was then penetrated into the base metal and subsequently produced a
hole or perforation.
Other defect observed were not related to cosmetic corrosion problem such
missing or broken components and discoloration.
Conclusions
The ‘Parking Lot survey’ activity has outlined that surface rust is the main
cosmetic corrosion defects of vehicles under Malaysia tropical hot and humid
climate. This cosmetic corrosion defects provide a displeasing condition to
the vehicles and must be taken into consideration to avoid severe corrosion
behavior that may contribute to catastrophic failure of vehicle body
panels/system. The activity has ruled out that external factors like stone
chipping, surface dent and other physical damage on the surface may have
contributed to the degradation on paint system that lead to cosmetic corrosion
defects.
Moving Forward
It is recommended to investigate
a) The cosmetic corrosion behavior of vehicle components for under
hood and underbody area.
b) Precise survey and statistical analysis with large number of vehicles
at various locations
c) Actual painting market/vehicle owner’s complaints with PROTON.
References
[1] ASTM International (2003), ASTM G1-03.America : ASTM
International.
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[2] A.C Tiburcio (U.S.Steel Research) and M.J.Yergin (General Motors

Corp) (2003), Automotive Corrosion Trends:1998 SAE (ACAP)
Automotive Body Corrosion Survey Results, SAE 2003-01-1244.
[3] Society of Automotive Engineer (1993),SAE J 1617, Body corrosion – a
comprehensive introduction.
[4] NACE/ASTM G193-12D, Standard Terminology and Acronyms relating
to Corrosion
[5] BASF Paint Defects Advice,
www.refinish.basf.us/uploaded/files/Paint_Defects.pdf
[6] Dennis Davidson et.al (2003), Perforation Corrosion Performance of
Autobody Steel Sheet in On-Vehicle and Accelerated Tests,SAE 2003-01-
1238.
1 December 2016
TRACK 2: ARTS, HUMANITIES &

SOCIAL SCIENCES
1 December 2016
T02_001: A NEW ONTOLOGY MODEL FOR

SPECIAL EDUCATION ENVIRONMENT
Nur Fadila Akma Bt. Mamat

Rosmayati Bt. Mohemad
Noor Maizura Bt. Mohamad Noor
Arifah Bt. Che Alhadi
School of Informatics and Applied Mathematics
ABSTRACT
The concerns in special education for students with disabilities have
increased in many nations. Accurate identification of students with a specific
type of learning disability (LD) either by a special education teacher or by a
medical practitioner is a difficult process. Disproportionate identification of
LD is due to subjective definitions of LD and inconsistent criteria in
differentiating the types of LD. The identification of LD highly depends on
domain expert’s diverse and unstructured knowledge and experiences.
Knowledge is the most important component for supporting the decision
making process in the special education domain, especially to classify
students with a specific type of LD and to recommend an appropriate special
education plan. However, the existence of the information and knowledge in
a subjective, diverse, and unstructured manners requires having a uniform
knowledge representation model. Objectives of this research are to study and
analyse the state of the art in special education environment, to design and
develop an ontology model for identifying the type of LD and recommending
an appropriate special education plan, and to evaluate the proposed ontology
model.
Research methodologies consist of five phases: feasibility study, design of

ontology model, development of ontology model, development of ontology-
based supporting tool for special education domain and evaluation. A new
ontology model for special education environment is proposed to classify
types of LD and to recommend the type of educational service. Besides that,
an ontology-based supporting tool is expected to be developed in order to
evaluate the applicability of the ontology model proposed. The significant
780
output of this research is to educate students with special needs in enhancing

their quality of life in terms of academic, social, and emotional development.
This is in line with a plan of action to ensure that the very foundation of
education is established from the preschool stage.
Keywords: Learning Disability, Ontology Model, Classify Learning

Disability, Special Education
Introduction
The concerns in special education for students with disabilities have increased
in many nations. The aim to educate students with special needs is to enhance
their quality of life in terms of academic, social, and emotional development
[1, 2].
Based on the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO) report, special needs students are categorized into
three main disabilities: the hearing impaired, the visual impaired, and the
learning disabilities students [3]. Learning disability students are those with
Down’s syndrome, Autism, Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD),
Minimal Retardation, and Specific Learning Difficulties such as Dyslexia and
they are classified in the Learning Disabilities (LD) group. Accurate
identification of students with a specific type of LD either by a special
education teacher or by a medical practitioner (domain experts) is a difficult
process. According to [4], the disproportionate identification of LD is due to
the subjective definitions of LD and the inconsistent criteria in differentiating
the type of LD. The identification of LD depends highly on domain expert’s
diverse and unstructured knowledge and experiences. Meanwhile, racism is
also regarded as a factor that could contribute to the disproportionate
identification of LD [5], as it tends to influence a biased decision from domain
experts.
In Malaysia, the Ministry of Education’s Special Education Program
has been established to ensure students with disabilities in preschool, primary
and secondary school receive a free and appropriate special education.
Meanwhile, the Government of Tanzania had initiated an inclusive education
of students with disabilities program in a primary school in 1998 [6]. In the
United States, Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act
(IDEA) is a federal education program that provides guidelines for disability
classifications and eligibility processes for students with disabilities [7].
Despite these converted efforts to provide special educational services, the
challenge in recommending the appropriate and quality special education for
students with learning disabilities is a main challenge for a special education
781
teacher. Various criteria are used as a guideline to determine a special

education program. For example, in Malaysia, the Salamanca Framework of
Action 1994 identifies seven important criteria for conducting special
education, which are policy and organization, school factor, information and
research, recruitment of education personnel, external services and priority
area [8]. It has different symptoms or criteria based on each of their
personalization.
Information and knowledge are the most important components for
supporting the decision making process in the special education domain,
especially to precisely classify students with a specific type of LD and to
recommend an appropriate special education plan. However, the existence of
the information and knowledge in a subjective, diverse and unstructured
manner requires having a uniform knowledge representation model.
Ontology is a technology used to represent knowledge domain into
understandable form and can be manipulated by a machine. It is developed to
share common understanding of the structure of information among people,
to enable the reuse of domain knowledge, to make domain assumptions
explicit, to separate domain knowledge from the operational knowledge, and
to analyze domain knowledge. Several ontology models have been developed
in education environment such as e-learning [8, 9], university course retrieval
[11] and technological education [12]. These literatures however show the
absence of an ontology design for special education domain, especially to
support the classification type of LD and to recommend the type of
educational service and support needed.
Related Works
Children with special education require more attention from everyone
especially their parents. Since children are still young, parents should provide
more attention to their development and ensure they grow up just like normal
children. For children who need special education, they have to go to schools
that are specialized for them. Based on Figure 1, there are 13 categories of
special education that are identified by Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA), which are visual impairment, multiple disabilities,
autism, traumatic brain injury, deaf-blindness, deafness, emotional
disturbance, hearing impairment, intellectual disabilities, orthopedic
impairment, learning disabilities, speech or language impairment, and other
health impairment [13]. Based on IDEA, children with learning disabilities
are children that possess problems in learning and have trouble in basic skills
such as reading, calculation, spelling, memorization, writing, listening,
reasoning, and speaking.
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Figure 1: 13 categories of special education that are identified by Individuals

with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
Special education children need more attention from people to lead a

normal life. They lack in many ways to adapt to their environment. There are
a few causes of occurrence symptoms in children with special needs. The
causes are categorized into genetic, neurological, biochemical, nutrition, and
environment.
Based on Gliga and Gliga [14], a screening test using a Romanian
instrument was used to detect if the children had dyscalculia symptoms or
not. The researcher analyzed 45 students in grade 2 and 3 that scored poor
results in mathematics. The result shows that 10 students have high risk of
dyscalculia based on their scores from doing a screening test. These screening
tests using only the Romanian instrument detect dyscalculia symptoms based
on their scores. However, we cannot classify it based on their scores, as the
result would not be precise.
ElSayed [15] introduced one of the artificial intelligence techniques,
which is an intelligent agent based system to diagnose learning disability in
special education. There are three (3) parts in this system, which is user
interface, intelligent agent, and semantic KB (Knowledge Base). User
783
interface is used to interact with the user (student disability or their teacher).
Second part is the intelligent agent that used to diagnose and classify all the
data that comes into the system. When the process occurred, the agent built
an index through a semantic network and acquired the domain knowledge for
explanation and reasoning process. The agent learnt to classify efficiently and
was able to explain its classification. At the last part, it holds an indexing
structure used by the inference engine to locate questions. The proposed
system provides support in problem solving and acquires new domain
knowledge by generalizing it from training of its use. The system was
developed under the supervision of experts.
There are five (5) phases in the research methodology based on Figure 2. In
the feasibility study, the current issues in special education were analyzed
especially for identifying the type of ld students. Correlation between existing
ontology and current issues are also analyzed. Next phase is to design an
ontology model based on the feedback through extensive interviews with
domain experts and obtained from journal reviews in special education and
ld. In this phase, all requirement specification, static, and dynamic knowledge
are defined.
Figure 2: Flow Chart Of Research Activities.

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After collecting all the requirements and knowledge about special education,
the ontology model can be developed by the ontology editor that is the
topbraid in phase 3. Ontology model developed by topbraid can create
semantic relationship, attribute, formal axioms, rules and individuals into the
web ontology language (owl) format. At phase 4, an ontology-based
supporting tool will be used to apply the ontology model in the special
education domain.
Ontology model in special education will evaluate the last phase of

the research methodology. Consistency of the ontology model is evaluated by
checking the model consistency automatically. Other than that, the usefulness
of the ontology as a developed tool is also evaluated by getting feedbacks
from experts using interviews.
Comparison Of Ontology Model

Ontology has been used in various domains include education. In education,
ontology used for classify the children with suitable learning method based
on their current situation. Ontology were used to personalize learning
material based on type of dyslexia by Alsobhi et al. It examines assistive
technology that used by dyslexic children [16]. Another research by by Peleg
et al. combine clustering analysis and method of ontology to screening a
group of comorbidities for development disorders [17].
A research has been done by Cui Guangzuo et al. In this research,
the author proposes a flexible educational platform architecture for e-learning
named OntoEdu. This architecture consists of five elements, which are user
adaptation, automatic composition, service module, content module, and
education ontology. Ontology element is the core part for this research. It
spreads into two parts, which are activity ontology (AO) and material
ontology (MO). This new architecture can improve the concept of reusability,
device and user adaptability, automatic composition, function, and
performance scalability. Nganji et al. approach disable student to choose their
suitable learning resource based on their requirements using ontology [18].
Based on previous research, there is no literature available on the
study of special education identification of the type used in ontology models.
Therefore, we can use ontology to classify or identify students with special
education based on the model. With clear ontology, people can use the
knowledge map to make a better decision when facing complex problems
[19].
785
Expected Result
A new ontology model in the special education domain will be developed to
support decision-making in identifying the type of learning disability among
special needs students. A new ontology model in the special education
domain will be developed to support decision-making in recommending an
appropriate special education plan for qualified disabled students. Ontology-
based supporting tools were developed in the special education domain. This
research will lead to a new revolutionary approach to enhance the education
level in malaysia especially in the special education environment.
Conclusion
In conclusion, a new ontology model will be developed based on the
knowledge from the expert domain and journal reviews. There are no models
using ontology to classify and recommend a suitable teaching method for the
teacher and parents.
Every year, students and people with disabilities are increasing day
by day. For example, in the us, there are over 6 million students identified as
requiring special education. This number is very high and it will be difficult
to trace and identify all of them using the traditional method. Then, by
completing this research, it is a promise that it will help these groups to get a
better chance of learning by being early identified by the teachers and the
parent. This type of students still can achieve great success in their life if they
are able to get the suitable and appropriate learning method.
Further works need to be done such as method, architecture or
framework to improve the effectiveness and quality of special education. The
children with special education need more help to improve their life regarding
education and socialization.
References
[1] D. Mitchell, Education that Fits: Review of International Trends in
the Education of Students with Special Education Needs. 2010.
[2] N. A. A. Aziz, K. A. Aziz, A. Paul, A. M. Yusof, and N. S. M. Noor,
“Providing Augmented Reality Based Education for Students with
Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder via Cloud Computing: Its
Advantage,” in 14th International Conference on Advanced
Communication Technology (ICACT), 2012, pp. 577–581.
[3] M. UNESCO Office Jakarta and Regional Bureau for Science in Asia
and the Pacific, “National Report on the Provision of Inclusive
786
Quality Primary and Junior Secondary Education for Children with

Disabilities, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO),” 2009.
[4] D. Shifrer, C. Muller, and R. Callahan, “Disproportionality and
Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status,
and Language,” J. Learn. Disabil., vol. 44, no. 3, pp. 246–257, 2011.
[5] R. J. Skiba, A. B. Simmons, S. Ritter, A. C. Gibb, M. K. Rausch, J.
Cuadrado, and Choong-Geun Chung, “Achieving Equity in Special
Education: History, Status, and Current Challenges,” Except. Child.,
vol. 74, no. 3, pp. 264–288, 2008.
[6] E. Lehtomäki, M. T. Tuomi, and M. Matonya, “Educational research
from Tanzania 1998-2008 concerning persons with disabilities: What
can we learn?,” Int. J. Educ. Res., vol. 64, pp. 32–39, 2013.
[7] D. E. DeMatthews, D. B. Edwards, and T. E. Nelson, “Identification
problems: US special education eligibility for english language
learners,” Int. J. Educ. Res., vol. 68, pp. 27–34, 2014.
[8] L. K. Ganeswaran, “Challenges of Special Education in Rural
Schools : Teachers Perspective,” 2nd Int. Semin. Qual. Affordaable
Educ. (ISQAE 2013), pp. 528–531, 2013.
[9] C. Guangzuo, C. Fei, C. Hu, and L. Shufang, “OntoEdu: a case study
of ontology-based education grid system for e-learning,” Int. Conf.
Hong, no. 60103002, pp. 6–10, 2004.
[10] H.-S. . Chung and J.-M. . Kim, “Ontology design for creating
adaptive learning path in e-learning environment,” in Proceedings of
the International Multi Conference of Engineers and Computer
Scientists (IMECS), 2012, vol. 1, pp. 585–588.
[11] N. Malviya, N. Mishra, and S. Sahu, “Developing University
Ontology using protégé OWL Tool: Process and Reasoning,” Int. J.
Sci. Eng. Res., vol. 2, no. 9, 2011.
[12] D. Kyriaki-Manessi and M. Dendrinos, “Developing Ontology for
the University Archives: The Domain of Technological Education,”
Procedia - Soc. Behav. Sci., vol. 147, no. 147, pp. 349–359, 2014.
[13] L. Mizen and S.-A. Cooper, “Learning disabilities,” Medicine
(Baltimore)., vol. 40, no. 11, pp. 619–622, Nov. 2012.
[14] F. Gliga and T. Gliga, “Romanian screening instrument for
dyscalculia,” Procedia - Soc. Behav. Sci., vol. 33, pp. 15–19, 2012.
[15] K. N. Elsayed, “Diagnosing Learning Disabilities in a Special
Education by an Intelligent Agent Based System,” 4th Comput. Sci.
Electron. Eng. Conf., pp. 7–12, 2012.
[16] A. Y. Alsobhi, N. Khan, and H. Rahanu, “Personalised Learning
787
Materials Based on Dyslexia Types: Ontological Approach,”

Procedia Comput. Sci., vol. 60, pp. 113–121, 2015.
[17] M. Peleg, N. Asbeh, T. Kuflik, and M. Schertz, “Onto-clust-A
methodology for combining clustering analysis and ontological
methods for identifying groups of comorbidities for developmental
disorders,” J. Biomed. Inform., 2009.
[18] J. T. Nganji and S. H. Nggada, “Disability-aware software
engineering for improved system accessibility and usability,” Int. J.
Softw. Eng. its Appl., vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 47–62, 2011.
[19] N. F. Noy and D. L. McGuinness, “Ontology Development 101: A
Guide to Creating Your First Ontology,” Stanford University, Report,
2001.
1 December 2016
T02_002: ASYMMETRIC MARKET

REACTIONS TO SUKUK ISSUANCE: CASE
STUDY ON POST 2008-GLOBAL CRISIS
Syazwani Abd Rahim1
Nursilah Ahmad2
Faculty of Economics and Muamalat, Islamic Science University of Malaysia

(USIM), 71800 Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia1,2
ABSTRACT
The intention of the paper is to investigate whether the different announcement
of the sukuk issuance carries any new information to market for the period
2007-2011 in Malaysia. This study obtains data from the Securities
Commission Malaysia (SC) and Bloomberg databases. The investigation
exercises event study methodology using Cumulative Average Abnormal
Return (CAAR). The method also includes the extended CAPM covers data for
the Kuala Lumpur Interbank Offered Rate (KLIBOR) and government yield
sukuk on symmetric and asymmetric events based on the response of the Dow
Jones Islamic Market Index (DJIM) to the announcement of sukuk issuance.
This research would be valuable to issuers, investors, and decision-makers in
estimating the credit risk of sukuk issuance.
Keywords: Sukuk, CAAR, extended CAPM, DJIM, post 2008-Global crisis
Introduction
The recent modernization of Islamic finance has changed the dynamics of the
Islamic financial industry. The changes have caused the demand of Sukuk to
increase in the last few years and caused them to gain universal acceptance as
an alternative to conventional financial products. Sukuk has been advanced as
one of the most significant mechanisms to raise funds from the market using
Islamic guidelines [1]. The total Sukuk issuance in the third quarter of 2014
(3Q14) declined by 18.8 percent quarter-on-quarter, from USD35.05 billion in
2Q14 to USD28.5 billion, as issuances in the major markets such as Malaysia
and the GCC decelerated [2]. The problem comes with the increasing number
of defaulted sukuk following the 2008 financial crisis should be one of the
789
attention because it is nearly related to risk and this issue becomes the
motivation for this study. The primary focus of this research is, therefore, to
investigate stock market reactions following sukuk announcements in Malaysia
based on the event study methodology for pre, during and post 2008 financial
crisis. The paper presents the literature in Section II since the empirical work
on sukuk is relatively few. Section III addresses the theoretical framework.
Section IV highlights the research methodology. Section V reviews the findings
and the final section concludes the paper.
Literature Review
Event Study of the Stock Markets Reactions
A noteworthy first finding was by [3] who recorded the absence of any
significant reaction of the stock markets to conventional bond announcements.
It proofs that equity markets do not respond to debt announcements, including
bond issuances, even if some studies found a negative reaction [4]. The
response of stock markets to the bond issue was impressed by opposing
influences. The announcement effect of different corporate securities has been
the subject of numerous studies, such as [3] for equity, [5] for bonds.
Furthermore, these results supported the models proposed by [6]. The risk–
reduction advantage of issuing sovereign sukuk when no significant market
reaction to conventional bond issues, but a significant negative stock market
reaction to sukuk issuance [7]. The market reaction was significantly positive
during event windows [-3, 0] and [-3, 3] during the announcements of Islamic
debt issuance (2000 to 2006) in Malaysia [8]. The wealth effect of Islamic bond
issuance statements was positively impacted by the issuer’s investment
opportunity and negatively affected by the size of the issue, firm and whether
the announcement listed by the Securities Commission (SC) approval. Early
market reactions to Islamic bond announcements found positive results [9]. The
average abnormal return (AAR) of the subordinated bonds was significantly
positive compared to other types of bonds [10]. Since there was no risk of
expropriation from the current bondholders, the stock market would react
positively to such announcements. According to [11], a significant negative
abnormal return occurred one day before the announcement date of Islamic
debts during 2005 to 2008.
Theoretical Framework
Event Studies Theory
Efficient markets theory is the application of rational expectations to the pricing
of securities in financial markets. Current security prices will fully reflect all
available information because in an efficient market, all unexploited profit
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opportunities are eliminated. Efficient markets theory also views, expectations

of future prices as equal to optimal forecasts that use all currently available
information. In other words, the market’s expectations of future securities
prices are rational, which implies that the expected return on the securities is
equal to the optimal forecast of the return. In this theory, current prices in a
financial market will be set such that the optimal forecast of a security’s return
when all available information is used is equal to the security’s equilibrium
return. Financial economists state it more simply as: In an efficient market, a
security’s price fully reflects all available information.
Methodology
Data of sukuk issuance in Malaysia are obtained from the Bloomberg database.
The point of the subject area is set to be between 2007 and 2011. This research
focuses on post the 2007/2008 global financial crisis, which are 2009 till 2011
only, since the theory of random walk mentioned that there is no memory of its
past prices, which means the history of the series cannot be used to forecast the
future. The sukuk data that are garnered in this research are from 50 selected of
listed companies that issue sukuk in Malaysia. The data of stock markets are
collected from the historical prices available in the Data Stream database,
excluding Saturdays and Sundays, giving a total of about 265 days a year.
The formula for measuring the return is as follows:

R mt = [(P(t) ‐P(t‐1) ) / P(t‐1) ] (1)
where P(t) is the stock market daily price at closing. P(t−1) is the stock market
daily price at closing on the previous day. The daily return of any stock can be
calculated using the following formula:
R it = ln (Pit ⁄Pi(t‐1) ) (2)
where R it is the return on security i for day t. Pit is the price of share i for day
t and Pi(t−1) is the price of share i on the day before day t. The following
formula can be used to calculate the market model’s expected stock return:
E(R it ) = αi + βi (R mt ) + ϵit (3)
where αi is a market model parameter, βi is a market model parameter,
R mt is the return of a market index for day t, E(R it ) is the market model’s
expected stock return and 𝜖𝑖𝑡 is the error term. To calculate the difference
between the actual returns and the expected returns predicted by the market
model, the abnormal return (AR it ) can be obtained from the following formula:
AR it = R it − [(αi + βi R mt ) + ∈it ] (4)
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where R it is the return on share i in period t, R mt is the return on a market

index during period t, E(R it ) is the market model’s expected stock return,
AR it is the abnormal return and ∈it is the error time.
AR it = R it − [(αi + βi R mt ) + KLIBOR + YieldGov + ∈it ] (5)
where R it is the return on share i in period t, R mt is the return on a market
index during period t, E(R it ) is the market model’s expected stock return, AR it
is the abnormal return and ∈it is the error time, KLIBOR is the Kuala Lumpur
Interbank Offered Rate and YieldGov is the yield on sukuk, using data from
long term Islamic government investment issues with two years maturity. The
average abnormal return (AAR t ) is calculated after computing the abnormal
returns for all stocks in the sample. This research obtains the cumulative
average abnormal return (CAAR) by summing the daily excess returns over the
respective event windows. CAAR can be calculated using the following
formula:
CAAR t = ∑tt−k AAR t (6)
where k is the number of event days before day t, CAAR t is the cumulative
average abnormal return and AAR t is the average abnormal return.
CAAR needs to be tested for their statistical significance by using the t-test.

Table 1 shows the reactions on DJIM index following Malaysian sukuk
issuance (2007-2011) including the Kuala Lumpur Interbank Offered Rate
(KLIBOR) and yields on sukuk for each index.
Table 1: Summary of CAAR (2007-2011) – Multiple CAPM

Malaysian Sukuk Issuance by Listed Companies
(2004-2011)
Indicators
Cumulative Average Abnormal Return (CAAR)
*includes KLIBOR and yield on Sukuk for each index
DOW JONES ISLAMIC MARKET INDEX (DJIM)
2007-2008 2009-2011
Average Overall 0.0007 -0.0318
Average Significant -0.0070 -0.0301
Average Symmetric 0.0098 -0.0335
Average Asymmetric -0.0032 -0.0311
Minimum -0.0569 -0.0712
Maximum 0.1454 -0.0125
No of Significant (+ve) 3 0
No of Significant (-ve) 14 19
Source: Author’s calculation
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During the crisis, there were early reactions on indexes where negative
results were associated with the negative information. The long-term change in
positive results suggested that the markets had recovered after the crisis. All
indexes showed that all short term events would react to negative reactions and
all long term events would react to positive reactions during the crisis. The
asymmetric event [-40,+20] demonstrated the maximum CAAR on all indexes.
Thus, the asymmetric event [-5,+3] also showed the minimum CAAR on all
these four indexes. Overreactions made markets react positively, although the
crisis happened in 2007 to 2008. The results indicated a leakage of information
among the sukuk issuers and perhaps higher confidence levels among sukuk
issuers to issue sukuk as the alternative financial instrument during the crisis.
These are supported by DJIM index, which changed from negative results
before the crisis to positive and significant results during the crisis. As investors
slowly realized their overreaction before the bad news, the returns were positive
after the announcement day.
In short, the findings indicate that the markets reacted positively to the
crisis and negatively and significantly both during and after the crisis. The
alternative hypothesis is that the security market was inefficient, and the results
of stock prices did not accurately reflect the new information. It might arise
from the following: investors were unable to interpret the new information
correctly; investors had no access to the new information; the transaction cost
of trading security obstructed free trading; the restriction was on short sale; and
finally, the investors might have been misled by the changes in accounting
principles.
Table 2: Reactions on DJIM following Sukuk Issuance (2007-2011)

MALAYSIAN SUKUK ISSUANCE (2004-2011)
Event Cumulative Average Abnormal Return (CAAR)
No Types of Events
Window *includes KLIBOR and yield on Sukuk for each index
DOW JONES ISLAMIC MARKET INDEX (DJIM)
2007-2008 2009-2011
(During Crisis) (After Crisis)
-0.0268*** -0.0281***
1 [-1,+1]
-7.119 -10.016
Symmetric -0.0363*** -0.0258***
2 [-3,+3]
-3.830 -3.844
event -0.0283** -0.0242**
3 [-7,+7] windows -2.155 -2.632
0.1273*** -0.0372***
4 [-15,+15]
3.651 -2.879
5 [-1,+3] -0.0267*** -0.0286***
793
-3.609 -4.984
-0.0364*** -0.0252***
6 [-3,+1]
-6.511 -6.365
-0.0322*** -0.0275***
7 [-2,+4]
-4.175 -4.653
-0.0343*** -0.0303***
8 [-4,+2]
-4.124 -5.090
-0.0337*** -0.0280***
9 [-3,+5] Asymmetric -4.005 -4.067
10 [-5,+3]
event -0.0569*** -0.0259***
windows -3.592 -3.698
0.0119 -0.0498***
11 [-10,+20]
.607 -3.701
0.0992*** -0.0268**
12 [-20,+10]
2.821 -2.282
0.0432 -0.0125
13 [-20,+40]
1.215 -.521
0.1454*** -0.0712***
14 [-40,+20]
3.465 -4.015
Note: t-statistics are in parentheses, *Significant at 10%, ** 5%, *** 1%

Source: Author’s calculation
Conclusion
This research found that stock markets reacted negatively and significantly
before, during and after the 2008 global financial crisis as it was impacted by
the negative information. There were overreactions in the market, which took
a longer time to absorb the negative news because of the lack of information
among sukuk investors and issuers. However, the results showed positive
reactions after the crisis, indicating that the overreactions during the crisis
recovered slowly. Thus, there were no surprising results, although this study
was tested with the extended CAPM, including data on KLIBOR and the
government sukuk yield on the DJIM index data. This research assists the
sukuk issuers and investors in making profitable decisions on their investment.
Acknowledgements
Special thanks to my family for their support and prayers for me to finish my
thesis.
References
[1] Z. Mohamed, “Sukuk-A Brief Introduction”, Azmi & Associates. (2008)
794
[2] Global Sukuk Report, “Global Sukuk Market: Quarterly Bulletin”, Rasameel
Structured Finance. (2014)
[3] W. Mikkelson and M. Partch, “Valuation Effects of Security Offerings and the
Issuance Process”, Journal of Finance, Economics, 15. (1986)
[4] D. Spiess and J. Affleck-Grave, “The Long Run Performance of Stock Returns
following Debt Offering”, Journal of Financial Economics, 1(54). (1999)
[5] B. Eckbo, “Valuation Effects of Corporate Debt Offerings”, Journal of Financial
Economics. 15. (1986)
[6] S. Myers and N. Majluf, “Corporate Financing and Investment Decisions When
Firms Have Information That Investors Do Not Have”, Journal of Financial
Economics. 13. (1984)
[7] S. Cakir and F. Raei, “Sukuk vs. Eurobonds: Is There a Difference in Value-at-
Risk”, International Monetary Fund Working Paper. (2007)
[8] Y. Ibrahim and M.S. Minai, “Islamic Bonds and the Wealth Effects: Evidence from
Malaysia”, Investment Management and Financial Innovations. 6(1) (2009)
[9] Z.M. Ashhari, L.S. Chun and A.M. Nassir, ”Conventional vs Islamic Bond
Announcements: the Effects on Shareholders’ Wealth”, International Journal of
Business and Management, 4(6). (2009)
[10] R. Ameer and R. Othman, “Stock Market Reaction to Bonds Issuance: Evidence
from Malaysian Banking Sector”, International Research Journal of Finance and
Economics. ISSN 1450-2887. 45. (2010)
[11] S. Modirzadehbami and G. Mansourfar, “Information Content of Islamic Private
Debt Announcement: Evidence from Malaysia”, World Academy of Science,
Engineering and Technology. (2011)
[12] A.P. Serra, “Event Study Tests: A Brief Survey”, Universidade do Porto -
Faculdade de Economia (FEP). 2(3). (2002)
[13] S.M. Frederic, “The Economics of Money, Banking, and Financial Markets”,
Columbia University. (2001)
1 December 2016
T02_003: THE ANTECEDENTS OF CONSUMER

BUYING BEHAVIOR IN ONLINE HOTEL
ROOM RESERVATION
Cheng Fu Ze1
Hayatul Safrah Salleh2
Nik Hazimah Nik Mat3
Safiek Mokhlis4
School of Maritime Business and Management,

University Malaysia Terengganu
ABSTRACT
With the evolution of technology, electronic marketing has changed the way
how consumers purchase their needs and wants and thus, online shopping
will be a trend in the future. In Malaysia, internet usage by consumers is
growing and this has brought a lot of business opportunities to e-marketers.
Due to the rapid growth of the global tourism industry, e-marketers in
Malaysia need to understand consumers’ online hotel room booking behavior
in order to take advantage of this e-market opportunity. With a good
marketing strategy, e-marketers can convert an online browser into an online
buyer while retaining their old customers. The intent of this study is to
investigate the factors that have significant influences on consumers’
behavior towards online hotel room reservation. Four factors will be
investigated: website design, company reputation, price and website security.
Convenience sampling method will be used in this study and data will be
gathered through online survey method. The subjects to be studied are those
who have experience in online hotel room reservation. This study will provide
a comprehensive understanding of consumer buying behavior for e-
marketers in tourism industry and illustrate on the future study in online hotel
room reservation.
Keywords: Online hotel reservation, online booking behavior

796
Introduction
The Internet-based electronic commerce (e-commerce) revolution is
spreading rapidly and thus many businesses have started selling their physical
goods and services online. UNWTO [1] indicated that international tourism
grew by 5% between January and April in year 2016. UNWTO [1] also stated
that the Asia and Pacific region recorded the highest international tourism
growth in year 2015. Without any doubt, the use of hotel reservation websites
and powerful search engines have a big influence in bringing this huge growth
because now customers can make hotel room reservation directly online or
they can access information provided by hotels or their agents online. Thus,
the Malaysian online buying behavior has changed, resulting in increased
online purchases. Internet Live Stat [2] reported that the number of internet
users in Malaysia is increasing every year. As in year 2000, it was only 5
million internet users (21.4% of total population), and it has increased up to
20 million users in year 2015, which constituted 68% of total Malaysian
population. Hence, the number of internet users in Malaysia is expected to
reach 25 million in year 2017 [2].
Nowadays, hotels are selling their rooms online, customers can now
search, select and book hotel rooms wherever there is an internet connection.
Customers can either access the hotels’ official websites or Online Travel
Agents (OTA) in order to do online bookings. A hotel’s official website refers
to a platform provided by the hotel, using its own resources to run online
activities. On the other hand, OTA work as intermediary channels in helping
hotels that usually do not have enough resources to run their own online
activities to sell their rooms.
Although the number of internet users is high in Malaysia, most of
them are mainly for social networking and instant messaging instead of online
purchases. Shim et al. [3] stated that up to 81% of internet users only browse
websites but do not make any purchases online. Hence, with a better
understanding of consumers’ behavior towards online hotel room reservation,
e-marketers can transform these browsers into buyers. However, according to
Hasslinger [4], it is a big challenge to achieve this because different
customers have different desires and demands for products and services.
Manganari et al. [5] and Rong et al. [6] also reported that despite the growth
of online tourism research, only limited studies were focused on consumer
behavior in terms of online hotel reservation.
Past studies indicated that hotel official websites did not work well in
fulfilling customers’ needs and wants when making online hotel room
reservations. Schmidt et al. [7] found that the sales for hotel rooms through
hotel official websites is not as good as using OTA. In addition, Moroson and
797
Jeong [8] reported that only 27% of consumers booked their hotel rooms via
hotel official websites while the rest booked their hotel rooms via OTA. They
found that the reason consumers went for OTA websites is because OTA
websites are much easier and convenient to use.
Intense competition in the travel industry has made it difficult to
sustain loyal customers especially in an online business environment because
they need to provide better services than their competitors [9]. The advance
technology nowadays allow consumers to easily switch websites to search for
information, check out the offers and compare prices because it is convenient
to do so. Therefore, Lamb et al. [10] argued that although online consumers
are satisfied with the services provided, they will still go for another
substitutes.
Hence, based on the issues mentioned, this study will examine four
major factors that predict the behavior towards online hotel room
reservations. These factors are website design, company reputation, price and
website security.
Literature Review
Online buying behavior means a process of purchasing products or services
online. According to Gozukara et al. [11], the first dimension refers to
consumers’ attitude towards a utilitarian motivation (convenience, variety
seeking and the quality of merchandise, cost benefit, and time effectiveness).
Analyzing consumer behaviors is crucial because businesses’ main goal is to
sell to the consumers [12, 13, 14]. However, there is no face-to-face
interaction between businesses and consumers during the online hotel room
reservation process, therefore it becomes crucial to understand the important
aspects of consumers’ behaviors.
Asiegbu et al. [15] defined attitude as a mental and neural state of
readiness, organized through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic
influence upon the individual’s response to all objects and situations with
which it is related. Habibabadi et al. [16] stated that study on consumers’
attitudes and behavior towards online shopping has been the main focus in e-
commerce recently. Delafrooz et al. [17] indicated that attitude is an
important factor in predicting online shopping intentions or behaviors. He
also found that the level of online shopping intention relatively high and the
direction of attitude towards online shopping was positive among
postgraduate students in Malaysia.
Past studies indicated that website design is one of the critical element
which influencing consumers to make hotel room reservation online.
Gurvinder and Chen [18] reported that, website design, website
798
reliability/fulfillment, website customer service and website security/privacy

are the most critical factors contributing to how online customers perceive
online buying. In addition, Nik Mat and Meor Ahmad [19] suggested that
greater quality of a website will result in greater consumer intention to shop
online. Supported by Liang and Lai [20], they stated that website design
quality has a critical effect on consumers’ choice of electronic stores.
When the degree of service for a product or service is high, company
reputation is a vital factor in gaining customers’ confidence when buying
their product or service. In e-commerce nowadays, the technical nature of a
product is still imperfect, therefore, e-marketers need to develop the right
marketing strategy to gain a good reputation through online platform.
Previous studies have found that a typical brick-and-mortar traditional retailer
can build their reputation based on the customers’ ability to have face-to-face
interaction with the retailers [21, 22]. Therefore, compared to a brick-and-
mortar store, online businesses will have a big challenge in building up their
online business’s reputation and thus, decreasing the likelihood of the
consumers to buy online.
Clemons et al. [23] found that price dispersion and differentiation is
common among tourism providers in the online environment and customers
can easily retrieve hotels’ room rates and product information. As mentioned
by a hotel revenue manager, price war was the most critical issue for hotel
management [24]. Consequently, hotels providers have to keep monitoring
the market’s status so that adjustment on room rates based on current market
rates can be taken immediately.
Lastly, perceived website security of online shopping also affects the
purchase intention of online consumers. Salisbury et al. [25] defined web
security as the level of the consumers’ trust in transmitting their personal
information when shopping online. In addition, Kesh et al. [26] reported that
online business would fail if Internet users have no confidence to give out
their personal information. Swaminathan et al. [27] also found that the main
reason buyers did not buy online was because they were afraid to reveal their
personal credit card information to retailers over the internet. Hence, the
statement that web security has an impact to consumer’s online behavior is
supported.
Proposed Conceptual Framework

Research framework in this study is developed based on Cromme et al. [28]
and Lodorfos et al. [29]. Croome et al. [28] found that many factors shape an
online purchase behavior and they have established a model and empirically
799
verified the model. Research framework for this study is constructed as

showed in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Research Framework
Methodology
Quantitative research will be used in this study because it is a precise way of
getting the data for research. In this study, convenience sampling method will
be used. Bell and Bryman [30] indicated that convenience sampling is best to
use because of its degree of convenience and degree of accessibility. In
addition, they also stated that convenience sampling is a good method in
collecting data, especially in the business and management field.
Online survey was chosen as the most appropriate technique to be
used in this study because of the ability of an online survey to collect data
from online buyers throughout Malaysia, without limiting the study on just
certain states; hence a larger Malaysian population can be reached. Saunders
et al. [31] stated that the requirement of minimum sample size is 384.
Therefore, 600 questionnaires will be distributed through the online survey
channel “Survey Monkey”. The questions are developed from previous
literature and some of the questions we rephrased to suit the current study and
context.
There are 6 variables to be investigated in this study. All items in the
questionnaire will be developed in close ended questions with Likert Scale 1
to 5. The first variable is online hotel reservation behaviour, with 6 items that
were self-constructed based on Lee [32]. Secondly, 6 items for consumers’
attitude, developed from Hsiang-Ting Chen [33]. Next, 8 items for website
design were designed based on Kim [34] and Sultan and Uddin [35]. Follow
with 6 items for company reputation based on Kim [34] and Gurvinder and
800
Chen [18]. As for price, 7 items were developed based on Kim [34] and
Lodorfos et al. [36]. Lastly, 12 items for website security which based on Kim
[34] and Lodorfos et al. [36].
Conclusion
Without any doubt, the market potential for online hotel room
reservations is huge as past studies have indicated the rapid growth of the
hospitality industry in recent years. Hotels now can increase their revenues
by reaching more potential customers with the online reservation platform.
This study offers a starting point for hotel marketers in Malaysia in
understanding the relationship of the factors that influence consumers’
behavior towards online hotel room reservation. More in depth studies can be
built from here in future. The result of this study is important to understand
how Malaysian travelers find offers of hotel rooms online, decide on which
ones suit them best and finally book their hotel rooms.
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804
T02_004: EXAMINING THE POTENTIAL

DISTRACTION FACTORS AMONG
SEAFARERS’ ONBOARD SHIPS USING A
CAUSE AND EFFECT ANALYSIS
Mohammad Khairuddin OTHMAN1, Noorul Shaiful Fitri ABDUL
RAHMAN1*, Mohd Naim FADZIL2
1
Programme of Maritime Management, School of Maritime Business and
Management, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Terengganu, Malaysia,
khairuddin_din44@yahoo.com; nsfitri@umt.edu.my;
2
Programme of Nautical Science and Maritime Transport, School of
Ocean Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu,Terengganu,
Malaysia, m.naim@umt.edu.my
*
Corresponding Author
ABSTRACT
Shipping is an international sector that is widely multicultural
environment and technological industry which need an efficiency of its
global operations to ensure the economic profitability. Seafarer’s roles are
very crucial for this industry to assist in operating various types of vessels,
shipping operations and trades. However, seafarers are continuously
exposed to various threats of dangers on ships due to the significant
distractions affecting their wellbeing. These distractions create undesirable
outcomes in form of errors, injuries, casualties, poor health and even
fatalities. The objective of this study is to examine the potential distraction
factors that affecting seafarers’ conditions and lead to undesirable
outcomes in shipping industry. A Cause and Effect Analysis method
together with Ishikawa diagram is used to study the potential main factors
and sub-factors in relation to seafarers’ conditions at their workplace.
Finally, six potential main factors followed with thirty-six potential sub-
factors were examined. The outcome of this study may increase the
awareness of both seafarers and shipping companies to tackle the issue that
capable of leading the increment of marine incident cases and the shipping
operational costs due to poor performances.
Keywords: Distraction factors; Cause and Effect Analysis; Ishikawa

Diagram; Risk assessment; Maritime safety.
805
I. INTRODUCTION
Distraction may generate from various factors in our surroundings.
Something will turn to be distraction when those things make certain
individuals feeling uncomfortable and interrupted with its existence where
it is usually described in term of feeling of negatively confident, low
awareness, lack of focus, mentally stress or strain. The causes of the
occurrences of marine casualties and incidents in shipping industry are due
to the effects of distractions experienced by seafarers while they are
working on board. Distractions are disruptive to performance and induce
errors [59], where it is also increase the risk of ship collisions [14].
Career as seamen are synonymous with the less socialize lifestyle,
boring routines, and involves in hard work. These conditions also may,
sometime, become distractions to some individuals where it leads to both
physical and psychological stress [43]. Most of the threats of dangers
existed on-board ships are the result of the distractions, which continue to
affect their mental and physical conditions [16, 53], and has potential to
increase risk of casualties in shipping industry. However, due to lack of
existing studies on the distraction problem in shipping industry, the actual
causes contributing to such problem are still uncertain and lead the problem
continuously to affect seafarers’ conditions on-board.
Therefore, the objective of this paper is to examine the potential factors
that cause distraction to seafarers’ conditions and may contribute to the
occurrence of adverse incidents on-board ships, by using a cause and effect
analysis together with an Ishikawa based-diagram. The scope of this study
is focusing on the privately-owned merchant ships only which particularly
engage with international or near coastal trade including the ships that
operate in oil and gas sector because the demands of their operations and
environment do have impacts on the seafarers’ conditions. For example,
long or short voyages may influence the working hours and often lead to
cause mental and physical fatigue issue especially there is significant
distraction existed on-board. The reason of conducting this study is because
seafarers are a valuable asset of the nation [53] and their roles are crucial in
the development of the shipping business industry, improvement of
seafarers market worldwide and ensuring effectiveness of the international
trade.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW

806
As the previous investigations revealed, it is commonly repeated that

human factor causes 80 percent of all sea accidents [38] and most of marine
casualties and incidents are due to the human erroneous actions [13]. Over
past decades, shipping companies have been endeavouring to make ship
design, technology, safety equipment and system, and standard education
and trainings [18, 7] to produce competent crews in order to be more
efficient and effective in order to improve safety level at sea [26, 38],
however, the threat of dangers is still never diminished [18, 7].
Errors among workers usually indicate their poor performances. Poor
performance of a worker is a result of healthy staff not being sufficient in
numbers, or not providing care according to standards, and not being
responsive to the needs of the community and environment [11]. A poorly
designed ship or a system where the crew is tired or unaware of cultural
differences is said could contributes to lower the level of safety of the ship
operations [27, 43]. This statement also relates that human error is result of
an incorrect decision, improperly performed action, or an improper lack of
action by the individuals who failed to carry out his or her duty [48, 43].
Distraction issue used to be investigated in various fields such as aviation
[33], medicine [51], vehicle operation [32] in which human error can have
serious, potentially disastrous consequences or less-safety critical
workplaces, such as offices, where the distraction can induce stress [15],
anxiety [4] and poorer performance [6]. Based on the literature surveys
conducted on several issues that jeopardizing the safety level at sea, there
are various factors highlighted by previous studies as shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Factors of Affecting Safety Level at Sea

Issue Contributing factors Sources
1. Stress  Long  Work  Multi- [2],[7],[10],[15],
and working shifts with nationality [16],[19],[21],[31],[36],[
Fatigue days with unpredicta among 41],[44],
work ble crews [45],[46],[52],[54],[55],[
among
shifts, conditions  Language 56],[64].
Seafarers
 Insufficien  Long barriers
t number voyages  Limited
of  Loneliness recreationa
personnel  Sleep l activity
 Inadequate disturbanc  Home
qualificati es missing
on of the  Environme and
subordinat ntal of the isolation
e ship (i.e.  Inadequate
crewmem noise, Shift
bers. vibration,
807
 High job adverse arrangeme

demands weather nt
 Exposure conditions,  Low
to hazards etc.) support
 Lack of  Low and
shore control of rewards
leave task  Excess
 Imbalance demands responsibil
work  Low ity
demands nutritious  Cultural
and needs and diversity
and nourishing
resources. foods
2. Depressi  Fatigue  Low  Inadequate [2],[30],[36],[53].
on  High job control of Shift
among demands task arrangeme
Seafarers  Loneliness demands nt
 Lack of  Imbalance  Low
shore work support
leave demands and
 Piracy and needs rewards
incidents and  Excess
 Cultural resources. responsibil
diversity  Insufficien ity
t rests
3. Mental  Loneliness  Fatigue  Job [19],[21],[30],[53].
health of  Stress  Short ship security
Seafarers  Lack of turnaround  Cultural
shore time problem
leave  Piracy  Abuse
 Criminaliz  Separation
ation from
 Individual spouses
factors and
families
4. Human  Over-  Shift work  Poor [10],[17],[18],[19],[22],[
Errors in reliance on  Situation decision 24],[38],
Shipping automatio awareness making [40],[48],[49],[57],[61].
Industry n system  Affected  Communic
 Decrease health and ation
of well- problem
manning beings  Lack of
level  Weak training
 Fatigue safety  Language
 Stress culture and barriers
 Faulty climate  Inadequate
standards,  Cultural mind-set
policies, diversity
808
or  Poor  Less
practices maintenan Alertness
ces
 Teamwork
problem
5. Increase  Over-  Affected  Poor [10],[13],[14],[17],[18],[
of reliance on health and vigilance 22],[24],
Marine automatio well-  Absent [34],[38],[40],[48],[57],[
Casualtie n system beings  Asleep 61].
s and  Fatigue  Distracted  Illness
Incidents  Stress  Communic  Individual/
at Sea  Watch- ation personnel
keeping failure factors
failure  Lack of  Workplace
 Lack awareness conditions
supervisio  Social
n environme
nt
6. Psycholo  Harsh  Burden of  Disruptive [5],[7],[9],[14],
gical Working technology thinking [16],[18],[19],[21],[24],[
Distracti conditions and system  Poor 30],[31],
ons  High  Negative attitude [35],[39],[42],[43],[44],[
Among workloads firmness  Low moral 45],[46],
Seafarers  Poor  Limited support [48],[53],[60],[61],[62],[
nourishing approacha and 63],[65], [66],[67].
foods bility rewards
 Staffing  Negative  Unpredicta
strength discipline ble on-
 Limited  Intensified board
personal activities environme
experience  Autonomy nt
 Hygiene level
7. Poor  Affected  Distracted  Social [1],[4],[11],[12],
Performa health and  Individual/ environme [16],[21],[23],[24],[31],[
nces of well- personnel nt 35],[39],
Seafarers beings factors  Teamwork [45],[46],[60],[61],[66],[
 Limited  Workplace and 67].
personal conditions communic
experience  Inadequate ation
 Disruptive mind-set problem
thinking  Home
 Low missing
control of and
task isolation
demands
809
8. Suicides  Depressio  Affected [21],[24],[30].

Cases n and mental
Among Loneliness health
Seafarers  Abuse  Social
 Criminaliz interaction
ation problem

All the sources indicated in Table 1 are the previous studies that discuss
the possible factors may affecting seafarers’ condition as the human beings
at their workplace and lead to create the undesirable issues at as given for
examples in Table 1. However, the factors listed in Table 1 are not yet
examined or acknowledged of their potential contributions in affecting
seafarers’ conditions at their workplace.
Figure 1: Flow of Research Activities
III. METHODOLOGY
Methodology of this study is divided into two sections which are the
data collection and data analysis process. The data collection is based on the
literature surveys and qualitative method which is involving experts’
discussions and verifications, meanwhile the data analysis process is based
on the cause and effect analysis, which is a method of assessing all the
possible causes that have potential in contributing to specific problem by
using a diagram-based technique. The analysis method is combining the
brainstorming technique and the revision of the historical incidents recorded
which graphically illustrates the relationship between a given outcome and
all the factors that influence the outcome [28, 29, 25] and encourage
individual or groups’ participation in an investigation activity to enhance
the body of knowledge [3, 58]. It can be used to discover the root cause of
a problem, uncover bottlenecks in your processes, identify where and why
a process is not working [28, 29]. This method is suitable to be incorporated
with the qualitative data collection method as it may enhance the validity
and reliability of the dataset of this study. Flow of the research activities is
shown as in Figure 1.
810
Application of the Cause and Effect Analysis was known in quality

management [29, 58], quality improvement tool [20], risk determination
[25], nursing practice and management [47], and safety of industrial
automation [50]. Therefore, this technique is chosen and thinks suitable to
be used in assessing the potential factors of distractions affecting seafarers’
conditions on-board ships.
IV. FINDINGS
In this study, there are several steps shall be performed in order to

achieve the objective of this study and they are described in details as
follows:
Step 1: Identify the problem

The identification of the problem could be done based on the
assessment on the affected area or issue studied or called literature surveys.
This step may involve revision of the secondary sources such as historical
incidents reports, case study, statistical data reports and other reliable
publications which discuss the relation between the area of study and the
source leads to the outcome. Figure 2 shows the flow of identifying the
problem.
Figure 2: Identification of the problem
Step 2: Determine the major factors involved

There is a variety of contributing factors cited in previous studies or
incidents reports as shown in Table 1. However, in this step, the
determination of the potential major factors of this study is based on the
discussion and verification of the fields’ experts on the importance and
contribution of the major factors determined; so that the reliability and
811
validity of the major factors involved are strengthened. The potential factors
are analysed and simplified in form of groups so that the areas of focus are
established to be studied. Those simplified areas of focus are illustrated in
form of Ishikawa diagram as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3: The simplified groups of potential major factors involved
Step 3: Identify possible causes

Again, secondary data sources will be referred to gather the information
regarding all the possible causes that may contribute to the problem. In this
step, the study goes deeper inside areas of focus that cause the problem. The
possible causes are drawn in this step based on the assessment of studied
areas together, which also the major factors; 1) working conditions, 2) living
conditions, 3) human interactions, 4) individual factors, 5) on-board
environment and 6) food/ nutrition. The brainstorming technique is
incorporated in this step during the group discussions with the experts to list
out all the possible causes, according to its capability in affecting seafarers’
conditions, up to knowledge and experience of the experts in the particular
area involved. A draft of Ishikawa diagram is formed to shows the possible
causes that may be the elements in influencing the major factors which lead
to the main problem. A draft of Ishikawa diagram is formed to be analysis
in the next step. The draft of Ishikawa diagram is shown as in Figure 4 (refer
to Appendix section).
Step 4: Analyse the diagram.

This step aims to simplify all the possible factors and causes into the
most potential factors and causes based on the diagram analysis together
with qualitative method approach conducted in order to get the final result
of this study.
Diagram analysis helps to identify and highlight the potential causes
that warrant further investigation with current situation in a particular area.
Qualitative method incorporated in this diagram analysis step are to
812
examine all the possible causes in extend of clarifying the potential

distraction factors in affecting the conditions and productivity of the
seafarers’ performances. It includes the verification process (i.e. interview
and survey) of each items listed in the diagram with the seafaring field’s
experts. Diagram analysing process took some basic steps, before it helps
to point out the possible causes needed:
1. Look at the “balance” of the diagram, by checking for comparable
levels of detail for most of the categories.
 A thick cluster/mark of items in one area which may indicate a
need for further study.
 A main category having only a few specific causes may indicate
a need for further identification of causes.
 Highlight each causes contribute to the influence the main items.
 Items that have no solid justifications or not significantly
contribute in one area shall be set aside or eliminate.
 If several major branches have only a few sub-
branches/repeated/synonym sub-causes, it may need to combine
them under a single category which seen suitable.
2. Look for causes that appear repeatedly and locate them under
suitable areas/factors. These may represent root causes.
3. Look for what can be measured in each cause so it can quantify the
effects of any changes that are made.
4. Most importantly, identify and circle/highlight the causes that can be
taking action on.
Taking the main criterion of “Harsh working conditions” in Figure 4 as
the example for causing distraction problem, in process of literature survey,
the criterion was said to be influenced by an item which is the element of
“High workloads”. Although the item is seem realistic, however, based on
experts’ discussion, it is still not indicate the root cause that creating harsh
working condition as there are various elements/sub-items are contribute to
the create “High workloads”. Thus, a further research is needed for
exploring the particular item. After further research has been done, there are
four common sub-items that have been cited to create “high workload” in
working condition on-board ships. However, due to less solid or specific
justification on supporting high workloads as the actual cause of distraction,
then four sub-items are then mark to contribute directly to create harsh
working condition, meanwhile, the item “High workloads” is eliminated
(marked with dotted outline = eliminate/reorganised to suitable area of
focus) (as shown in Figure 3 (Refer Appendix section) and the final result
of the diagram analysis is shown as in Figure 5 (Refer Appendix section).
813
V. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Aim of the study is to examine the relationship between the distraction
factors and the seafarers’ conditions on-board ships, in which may lead to
cause undesirable outcomes and increase of marine casualties and incidents
recorded. Although there are many kinds of factors cited in previous studies
as shown in Table 1, however, throughout this study, there are only 6 main
factors and 36 sub-factors are examined, as shown in Figure 5, using the
cause and effect analysis together with the Ishikawa diagram, which is
meeting the objective of this study. However, the potential factors and
causes of the distraction problem on seafarers, or basically human being,
are very dynamic and subjective in which they are depending on the current
situation of a particular area of study and who are being involved in the
study. The final result of the analysis, therefore, may vary based on those
circumstances. Other possible factors may also be considered in other
further studies as it thinks fit to the particular circumstances, especially on
the characteristics of the current situation in the area of study and subject
that been assessed. Matching with the background of shipping industry
itself where it is an international sector with widely multicultural
environment and technological industry, therefore, it would be a variety of
characteristics are existed and may vary when compare to each other.
The information of this study may contribute to the body of knowledge
in term of theoretical and managerial application where it may useful for
the academician and industry to conduct assessment in discovering the
actual causes of the affected area in their particular area of research or
organizations, respectively, as it is practical to be applied by both sectors as
the qualitative method approach is also applied in this study and accepted
by the fields’ experts.
The novelty of this study is that, up to now, there is no solid study was
conducted in examining the causal chains of the distraction factors in
influencing the state of seafarers’ conditions on-board ships and this study
has contribute a new scope of knowledge in examining distraction problem
on seafarers and their workplace.
This information may provide seafarers and shipping companies to
increase their awareness on the potential distraction existed on-board ships
because if it is not controlled, then the distraction rates among seafarers may
be increase, thus lowering their work performances. Work performances do
have a chain of impacts including, but not limited to; shipping operations,
companies’ revenue, employability rates of seafarers and impression of
society toward seafaring career and the nation’s income from shipping
814
sector.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
A huge appreciation delivered to Universiti Malaysia Terengganu for
providing the research facilities and guidance, and also to the field’s experts
involved, which came from both academic and seafaring background (i.e.
lecturers and ship’s officers from Universiti Malaysia Terengganu,
Malaysia Maritime Academy and shipping industry, for their contributions
in sharing the valuable opinions, knowledges and experiences in this study.
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821
Figure 4: The possible causes that contribute to influence the major factors
822
Figure 5: Analysis using Ishikawa Based-Diagram

823
T02_005: THE PRELIMINARY

DEVELOPMENT OF CHANGE- ORIENTED
ORGANISATIONAL CITIZENSHIP
BEHAVIOUR SCALE
Nurharani Selamat
Norshidah Nordin
Chan Yuen Fook
Faculty of Education, Universiti Teknologi MARA,

Aras 5 & 7, Bangunan FSK 1,5, Kampus Puncak Alam,
42300, Puncak Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Change-oriented OCB is one of the important elements in ensuring the
organisational effectiveness. Change-oriented organisational citizenship
behaviour (OCB) refers to teachers’ voluntary acts in providing
constructive ideas and implementing changes to increase the school
performance and effectiveness. This study attempts to develop a Change-
oriented Organisational Citizenship Behaviour Scale (COCBS) to measure
teachers’ voluntary acts in providing constructive ideas and implementing
changes to improve the school situation and performance. Based on
extensive literature review, the conceptual model of change-oriented OCB
was built to serve as a guideline to generate an initial set of nine new items.
Content validity was assessed by two academic supervisors and five experts
of human resource, education, and psychometric. Reviews by academic
supervisors revealed that two items need to be refined to provide clarity to
the respondents and to suit the context of Malaysian school. Further, a
review from the panel of experts suggested that four items need to be deleted
due to low content validity index (CVI < 0.8). Thus, only five items were
retained as they represented the best content specification for change-
oriented OCB. Future research is required to assess the construct validity
and reliability of COCBS, which will provide empirical evidence on the
reliability and validity of this new instrument. COCBS has the potential to
measure and evaluate change-oriented OCB among teachers.
824
Keywords: Change oriented organisational citizenship behaviour, scale

development, item generation, content validity, teachers
Introduction
Organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB) is crucial in any organisation

as this noble behaviour could enhance employees’ job performance, and
increase the effectiveness of an organisation [1]. OCB is defined as
“Individual behaviour that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly
recognised by the formal reward system and that in the aggregate promotes
the effective functioning of the organisation. By “discretionary,” we mean
that the behaviour is not an enforceable requirement of the role or the job
description or the clearly specifiable terms of the person’s employment
contract with the organisation. A discretionary behaviour is a matter of
personal choice that its omission is not generally understood as punishable”
[1].
Schools need teachers who are willing to exhibit voluntary acts,
which could enhance students’ academic performance, thus, elevate the
quality of education in Malaysia [2] as teachers formal roles are no longer
suffice to raise the level of quality education to an international standard
[3]. However, according to [4, 5], the developed measurement of teachers
OCB is still inaccurate due to overlapping issues of OCB dimensions and
over emphasised on affiliative oriented OCB (helping behaviour form of
OCB).
Scholars, [5, 6] asserted that affiliative oriented OCB solely could
not assure organisational effectiveness. Employees who are willing to
exhibit helping behaviour but are not daring to voice their ideas or opinions
on improving the inefficient procedures or tasks are more likely to execute
inaccurate roles, or follow inefficient procedures, which could contribute to
the organisation dysfunctionality [7]. In order to ensure the school’s
survival, it is vital for teachers to voluntarily take an extra role effort to
provide constructive suggestions to improve school process, procedures,
policies or colleagues tasks. This type of discretionary extra-role behaviour
is known as change oriented OCB [5] and should not be neglected as one of
OCB dimensions [8]. Change oriented OCB is defined as “constructive
change-oriented communication intended to improve the situation” [8].
Therefore, this study aims to develop a valid and reliable change-oriented
OCB scale (COBCS), which could assess the teachers’ voluntary acts of
providing ideas and implementing changes to improve ineffective
procedures or tasks at a school.
825
Methods
Preliminary Development of Change Oriented OCB Scale
The preliminary development of change-oriented OCB scale was based on

comprehensive procedures suggested by the experts in scale development
field [9, 10, 11]. The first three steps conducted during the process of
developing a preliminary change oriented OCB scale (COCBS) are
discussed as follow.
In the first step, conceptualisation of the construct, the conceptual
model that was built based on the extensive literature review proposes two
sub-constructs of change-oriented OCB: (a) offering constructive ideas, and
(b) taking charges. Based on the proposed conceptual model, change-
oriented OCB is defined as the teachers’ voluntary actions to provide
constructive suggestions or ideas and implement the changes to enhance the
school effectiveness [8, 12, 13, 14].
In the second step of the COCBS development, potential items
were generated based on extensive literature reviews. Only items that best
represent the sub-constructs were selected. Ambiguous items and items that
did not reflect the teacher as the first person, school as the organisation,
principal as school’s manager, and the context of a self-screening
instrument were revised to provide clarity to the respondents.
Finally, two stages of content validation assessment were
conducted to ensure only the best items that represented the content domain
are retained [10, 15]. In the first stage, the academic supervisors assessed
the content validation through the qualitative procedure in which the
academic supervisors provided writing comments on items that need to be
refined, or deleted.
For the second stage, a panel of five experts with at least 10 years
experiences in human resource development, education, and psychometrics
assessed the content validation of COCBS through the quantitative and
qualitative procedures. Content validity index (CVI) suggested by [16] was
employed to assess the content validation through a quantitative procedure.
The items were rated from 1=not relevant to 4=highly relevant. Next, the
CVI for each item was calculated by dividing the number of experts who
rated 3 or 4 with the total number of experts in this study. Items with CVI
less than 0.8 should be considered for deletion [17].
826
Result
Item Generation
As shown in Table 1, a total of nine items were generated for content

validation by the academic supervisors and a panel of experts.
Table 1: Items for change oriented OCB
Sub- Items
dimensions
Offering 1. I offer recommendation to improve ineffective work
constructive procedures
idea 2. I provide solutions to solve issues that jeopardise the
effectiveness of this school
3. I communicate my ideas on how the school can be
improve
4. I suggest ideas for work improvement
5. I speak up my ideas during formal meeting
Taking 6. I create effective work procedure
charge
7. I take the initiative to correct a faulty procedure in this
school
8. I develop system that help teachers to ease their works
9. I find ways to eliminate redundant procedures in this
school
Content Validity Assessment by Academic Supervisors
The result of the content validation from academic supervisors suggested

that all items for offering constructive ideas should be retained. However,
two items (item 7 and item 9) need to be revised to suit the context of school
in Malaysia and to provide clarity to respondents as shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Revised items in response to comments from academic supervisors
Sub- Items Comments Action Revised items

dimension taken
Taking I take the Ambiguous Refine I take the
charge initiative to item item initiative to
correct a faulty rectify an
827
procedure in this ineffective work

school procedure
I find ways to Teachers are Refine I find ways to
eliminate not permitted item reduce redundant
redundant to eliminate work procedures
procedures in this any
school procedure.
Content Validity Assessment by Panel of Experts
In this stage, although four items were deemed relevant by academic

supervisors, they were considered not representative by a panel of experts
as CVIs were less than 0.8 as shown in Table 3.
Table 3: Revised items in response to comments from panel of experts
Sub-dimension Items CVI Action

taken
Offering constructive I communicate my 0.4 Deleted
idea ideas on how the
school can be improve
I suggest ideas for 0.4 Deleted
work improvement
Taking charge I take the initiative to 0 Deleted
rectify an ineffective
work procedure
I find ways to reduce 0.2 Deleted
redundant work
procedures.
Discussion
The content validation assessment has undergone two stages of expert
reviews and employed both qualitative and quantitative procedures of
content validation. The result suggested that the five content validated items
of COCBS are comprehensive, provided clarity to respondents, and the
items are not redundant. Therefore, this study showed that preliminary
COCBS that has been developed to measure teachers’ voluntary acts in
providing constructive ideas and implementing changes to improve the
school performance and effectiveness is comprehensive, reliable, and has
content validity. However, it is suggested for future research should provide
empirical evidence of the construct validity and reliability of this newly
828
developed instrument. As a conclusion, this study has successfully

developed a preliminary scale to assess change-oriented OCB among
teachers.
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1 December 2016
T02_006: GOVERNMENT GREEN

PROCUREMENT (GGP) IN MALAYSIAN
CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY: HAVE WE
GOT IT RIGHT?
Mohd Sallehuddin Mat Noor
Fadzil Hassan
Haryati Mohd Affandi
Mohd Firdaus Mustaffa Kamal
Shah Alam
ABSTRACT
This paper identifies the current position of the implementation of Green
Procurement process in the Malaysian construction industry. The
methodology adopted to identify this was by critical analysis of policy
papers, industry reports and research publications. The emergent themes
identified were mapped against the concepts public sector strategic
management using meta-data analysis. The findings suggest that although
various initiatives have been mooted, there are signs of gaps in the
implementation process which may inhibit its effective implementation.
Keywords: Malaysian Construction Industry, Green Procurement, Green
Procurement Implementation, Public Sector Strategic Management
INTRODUCTION
The Green Technology initiative launched by the Malaysian Construction
Industry Development Board (CIDB) in 2009 is a significant effort by the
construction industry to support the Malaysian Green Government
Procurement (GGP). However, its effectiveness in transforming the
industry to embrace sustainable construction practices has yet to be evident.
Arguments on the suitability of its implementation strategy are continuing.
This is namely because there has been dearth of studies that evaluates the
effectiveness of the initiative design and consequent implementation. A
critical literature review and meta-data analysis of policy papers, industry
reports and research publications was undertaken to gain insights to this
phenomenon. This aim was to establish the level of readiness of the Green
technology initiative set against the backdrop of public policy strategic
831
management concepts. The findings converge to suggest that,

notwithstanding the various initiatives mooted, there are signs of significant
gaps in its implementation design that tends to have inhibited its effective
implementation.
Malaysian Government Green Procurement (GGP)

GGP is defined as “the acquisition of products, services and work in the
public sector that takes account environmental criteria and standards to
conserve the natural environment and resources, which minimise and reduce
the negative impacts of human activities” [3]. The definition was chosen
to underline the significance of procurement of products and services in the
effort to minimize degradation to the environment and consequently reduce
carbon emission within the country [2,3]. To jump start GGP, the National
Green Technology and Climate Change Council (NGTCCC) was formed by
the Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water (KeTTHA) in 2009.
This was in line with the National Climate Change Policy introduced under
9th Malaysia Plan [26].
Why GGP?
The government is the biggest procurer of products and services in any
nation [4,17]. Malaysia’s GDP which measures at 12-15% annually was
identified as having the influence to change the spending trend. This
influence can be exercised directly through the procurement in government
owned projects, and indirectly through policies to govern private sector
procurement practices. GGP was identified as the enabler that will be able
to transform the national environmental through innovation while
supporting the local economy. It was envisaged that GGP can potentially
open up larger new markets, improving performance of business while at
the same time, stimulate sustainable consumption and production (SCP)
[3],[6]-[9]. It was believed that the introduction of it will create the domino
effect to enable the economy to flourish. Malaysia would be able to
facilitate long term saving through the production of higher quality
products, healthier working condition, reduce carbon emissions and
increase energy efficiency by 40% by 2020. The anticipated saving from
this is estimated at RM295 billion, with the creation of 47,000 jobs in the
green industry [10;9],[11]. This will transform the value chain and life cycle
in all sectors within the economy that will lead to the targeted carbon
emission reduction [12,13],[1].
Framework for GGP Implementation

832
The commitment to implement GGP was underlined in the 10 th Malaysian

Plan [14],[9]. This was linked to the other economic policy and
implementation projects which include the New Economic Model (NEM),
and the Economic Transformation Plan (ETP), National Green Technology
Policy (NGTP), National Renewable Energy Policy and Action Plan
(NREPAP), and Small Medium Enterprise Master Plan (SMEMP). [4]-
[6],[12]. Within the construction industry context, GGP have been extended
in the implementation of Integrated Building System (IBS) and Building
Modelling System (BIM), Value Management/Life Cycle Costing for Asset
Management, Outcome Based Budgeting (OBB), NextGen e-Procurement,
National E-Tendering Initiative (NeTI), ePerunding, and the Sistem Satu
Pendaftaran Kontraktor (SSPK) initiatives [3].
The GGP Action Plan

The GGP Action Plan was introduced by KeTTHA in 2010. The plan
underlines the (a) Green Procurement (GP) procedure, (b) evaluate, award
and follow the eco label certification, and (c) initiative of “Start with
Government”, as the guide for GGP [3],[9],[12]. The Key performance
Index (KPI) to assess the progress and achievements of GGP was also
established. The KPI elements are; (a) Establishing Eco Label certification,
(b) establishing the procedure of GP (c) acceptance of practice of GP in
agencies, private sector and public and (d) companies certified in green
technology.
MyHijau Program
The MyHijau Program launched by the National Green Technology and
Climate Change Council (MTHPI) in 2012 was intended to underpin the
GGP implementation. MyHijau Program promotes the concept of
sustainable production and consumption through 4 thrusts. These are; (a)
MyHijau Eco Label scheme, (b) MyHijau Green Procurement (which lists
the characteristics of green product, service and works for GGP), (c)
MyHijau Green Directory, which contain information of green service and
product for stakeholders, and (d) MyHijau SME, which promotes green
awareness and business matching within industries [15]-[18],[9].
The Construction Industry Green Technology Program And Ggp

The construction industry was identified as the biggest polluter and in the
emission of greenhouse gas. To circumvent this, the Construction Industry
Development Board (CIDB) in partnership with KeTTHA, Malaysian
GreenTech Corporation, and the major stakeholders has been engaged in
833
many change programmes and projects to encourage the industry to

embrace GGP [22]. This includes the development of Waste Management
Control System, Environmental Management Plan (EMP), Environmental
Management System (EMS), ISO 14001 certification for contractors and
Integrated Building System (IBS). In the meantime, the Public Department
Works (JKR) have been engaged with the Environmental Protection Works
using Bill of Quantity (BQ). Several publications on how to improve
environmental practices, management of construction waste, good
sustainable/green practice series, Guidebook on Planning and Implementing
Green Practices for Building Construction Works, Construction Industry
Standard (CIS) and compilation of environmental acts in the industry was
produced for the industry. To facilitate communications on green, a
centralised information centre for green technology was also established.
[26]
The emphasis to transform the construction in 2013, CIDB published a
Guidebook on Planning and Implementing Green Practices for Building
Construction Works contains the stakeholder involved, legislative
requirements, planning methods, implementation guides, and few case
studies for green practices construction project in Malaysia. The
development of Construction Industry Master Plan (CIMP) until 2015,
reinforced the environmental sustainability of its thrust [21,22] but in the
Construction Industry Transformation Program (CITP) started in 2016 until
2020 had stressed the environmental sustainability as one of its core
strategic thrust [1].
Environmental Sustainability Initiatives In Malaysian
Construction Industry
CIDB and Key Stakeholder in Implementing Green Technology Initiatives

CIDB as coordinator in green technology of the industry [19,20] thus,
facilitate the industry growth in environmental sustainability alongside with
industry stakeholders had come out with 2 major strategic plans namely the
(a) Construction Industry Master Plan (CIMP) started in 2006 until 2015
which regard environmental sustainability as part of the sub initiative but
(b) Construction Industry Transformation Program (CITP) started in 2016
until 2020 regards environmental sustainability as one of its core with
initiative. MyCREST is established under the CIMP but reinforced and
operated supporting the environmental sustainability thrust in CITP
834
alongside with Perolehan Hijau JKR (PhJKR) and Green Building Index
(GBI) to gauge initiative’s carbon emission under CITP.
Malaysian Carbon Reduction and Environmental Sustainable Tool

(MyCREST)
The MyCREST aims to quantify reduce carbon emission of building using
lifecycle view integrating socioeconomic to build environment. It is a rating
tool mainly focuses on new construction, existing building, new
construction without air-cond and new construction for healthcare. It caters
for cradle to cradle of building life cycle of the embodied and operational
carbon. Implementing the MyCREST comprises 3 applications involving
scorecard, reference guide and carbon calculator [24].
Green Building Index (GBI)

The GBI is a tool to ease public recognizes green building, serve as key
design principles and performance parameter of a building. It was design
within the context of Malaysian climate, culture, building codes and
practices. It is seen as an opportunity to design and construct sustainable
building, better connectivity with transport with adoption of recycling and
greenery involving residential and non-residential buildings. 6 criteria were
chosen to quantify the green rating of a building with tax exemption can be
applied. [25]
Green Procurement JKR (PhJKR)

Intertwined with the Integrated System Management (IMS) and Holistic
Asset Management (PAM), the Public Department Works (JKR)
established a policy of sustainable development covers 8 major areas
including Site Planning and Management, Energy Efficiency Management,
Interior Environment Management, Resource and Material Management,
Water Efficiency, Asset Management, Social Welfare and Green
Technology Innovation [28].
Discussion
Notwithstanding the various GGP policies and implementation strategies
mooted since 2009 [7], there has been little evidence to suggest the
achievements. To date there has been is no mechanism identified that can
gauge the achievement of Green Technology programme. The initiatives
taken by the industry stakeholder in public and private sector under the
CIMP started in Green Technology Programme in 2009 until the CITP
initiative is still in a bush. Transformation into GGP in short, medium and
835
long term usually requires a strategic management approach that suitable to

the specific industry, in this case, the construction industry. Among the
suggested approach is to use the public sector strategic management concept
[29]-[32] to identify the gaps thus link the existing and new initiatives and
translate it in project management. Conversion of people, policies, and
process on the industry level and project management will help enhance
efficiency of GGP implementation in construction industry.
Conclusion
The insight of GGP in Malaysian construction industry was presented. To
conclude the review, there is a need in study of public sector strategic
management in the respect of construction industry to link thus intertwine
the gap existed in the Green Technology initiatives established for the
industry. Redefining the public sector strategic approach, stakeholder
involve, the policies established, and the process involve must be in place
in enhancing transformation of government procurement system in long
term.
References
[1] Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB), “Construction
Industry Transformation Program (CITP)”, Kuala Lumpur, pp. 18-
31 (2015)
[2] Small Medium Entrepreneur Corporation (SMECorp),”APEC:
Survey on Business Environment,” Gifu, Japan, pp. 4-5 (2010)
[3] Kementerian Tenaga, Teknologi Hijau dan Air (KeTTHA),”
Malaysia’s Government Green Procurement (GGP): A Way
Forward,” Putrajaya pp.3-4 (2012)
[4] K.N.Adham and C. Siwar, “ Transformation of Government
Procurement in Malaysia: Direction and Initiatives,” pp1620-1641
(2012)
[5] K.N.Adham, C.Siwar, and S.A.A. Ghani, “Pertimbangan Alam
Sekitar Dalam Peraturan Perolehan Kerajaan di Malaysia: Analisis
Arahan Perbendaharaan,” Prosiding Persidangan Kebangsaan
Ekonomi Malaysia (PERKEM), pp. 808-882 (2012)
[6] K.N.Adham, C.Siwar, and A.M. Atan, “Pelaksanaan Perolehan
Hijau Kerajaan: Isu, Cabaran dan Strategi Daripada Perspektif
Pegawai Perolehan Kerajaan Malaysia,” Prosiding Persidangan
Kebangsaan Ekonomi Malaysia (PERKEM), pp. 291-304 (2012)
[7] K.N.Adham and C. Siwar, “ Opportunities and Challenges for
836
Asian Economies in the Millennium,” the 13th International

Convention of the East Asian Economic Association, Singapore,
(2012)
[8] K.N.Adham, C.Siwar, and S.A.A. Ghani, “Kajian Empirikal
Pembangunan Perolehan Hijau Kerajaan di Malaysia,”
Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi (KPT), pp. 44-58 (2012)
[9] W.Kahlenborn, N. Mansor,K.N.Adham,” Government Green
Procurement (GGP): Guideline for Government Procurer,”
Sustainable Production and Consumption (SCP), Putrajaya, pp. 3-
5 (2014)
[10] Performance Management and Management Unit (PEMANDU),
Economic Transformation Program. Performance Management
and Management Unit, Prime Minister Department. Kuala
Lumpur: Percetakan Nasional Malaysia Berhad (2010)
[11] A.Kataoka, “Networks to Promote Green Purchasing for Green
Economy,” International Green Purchasing Network, Tokyo, pp.
1-4 (2011)
[12] K.N. Adham and C. Siwar, “Mengintegrasi Kriteria Alam Sekitar
dalam Perolehan Kerajaan: Satu Transformasi” Persidangan
Kebangsaan Masyarakat, Ruang dan Alam Sekitar (MATRA),
Pulau Pinang , pp. 1-12 (2011)
[13] M. Kalubanga, “ Sustainable Procurement: Concept and Practical
Implications for the Procurement Process,” International Journal
of Economics and Management Science, pp. 1-7 (2012)
Sumber Elektronik,” Putrajaya pp.1-64 (2012)
[15] Kementerian Tenaga, Teknologi Hijau dan Air (KeTTHA),” Buku
Panduan Skim Eco-Label SIRIM di Malaysia,” Putrajaya pp.1-35
(2013)
MyHijau Programme,” Putrajaya pp.1-6 (2013)
[17] Lighthouse Technical, “ Bengkel Perlaksanaan Kajian Pasaran
Produk & Perkhidmatan Hijau di Malaysia,” Petaling Jaya, pp. 1-
22 (2013)
[18] F. Hassan, “Aplikasi Teknologi Hijau di Dalam Pembangunan
Projek Pembinaan,” Seminar on Green Technology in
Construction, Kuala Lumpur, pp. 1-40 (2014)
[19] H. Hasan,” Forging Strategic Business Partnerships between
Malaysia and IDB Member Countries,” Malaysia Islamic
Development Bank Group Investment Forum, Kuala Lumpur, pp.
837
1-9 (2012)
[20] Malaysia External Trade development Corporation (MATRADE),
“Construction Industry Development Board,” Kuala Lumpur
(2016)
[21] G. Sundaraj, “ The Way Forward: Construction Industry Master
plan 2006-2015,” Construction Industry Development Board,
Kuala Lumpur, pp. 48-51(2006)
[22] Real Estate and Housing Developers Association (REHDA), “
CIMP 2006-2015: The Way Forward for the Construction
Industry, Kuala Lumpur, pp.6 (2008)
[23] Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB),” CIDB
Programmes in Green Technology,” Technology & Innovation
Development Sector, Kuala Lumpur, pp. 1-8 (2009)
[24] & Environmental Sustainable Tool (MyCREST),” Construction
Industry Development Board, pp. 5-31 (2010)
[25] C.S. Aun,”The Green Building Index Way To Green A Green
Construction Industry for Malaysia,” ISM CPD Seminar, Petaling
Jaya, pp. 25-55 (2010)
[26] Kementerian Sumber Asli dan Alam Sekitar,’ Dasar Perubahan
Iklim Negara,” Putrajaya, (2009)
[27] Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB),” Guidebook
on Planning and Implementing Green Practices for Building
Construction Works,” Kuala Lumpur (2013)
[28] Jabatan Kerja Raya Malaysia (JKR),”Polisi Pembangunan Lestari
JKR Malaysia,” Kuala Lumpur, pp.26-35 (2015)
[29] R.E. Freeman,”A Stakeholder approach to Strategic
Management,” Graduate School of Business Administration,
Virgina, (1984)
[30] H.B. Leonard,”A Short Note on Publicx Sector Strategy-Building,
“Harvard Business School, (2002)
[31] J>M. Bryson, F.S.Berry, K.Yang,” The State of Public Strategic
Management Research: A Selective Literature Review and Set of
Future Directions,” The American Review of Public
Administration, (2010)
[32] W.C.Kim, R.Mauborgne,”Blue Ocean Strategy: From Theory to
Practice,” California Review Management, Berkeley, (2005)
1 December 2016
Policy Process at Industry Level Process at Project Management Level

Papers/Journal Inception Design Tender Construction Hand Over
and Development
Organisation
Construction  Value chain continuous
Industry improvement
Master Plan  Adopt quality manpower,
(CIMP) material, equipment and
Construction method
Industry  Knowledge enhancement
Development and skill-upgrading for
Board (CIDB) competent workers
(2006)  Sharing best practice
 Continuous research and
development
 Sustainable practice
 Generate new opportunity
both domestic and
international market
 Enhancement of
professionalism
CIDB  Promotion & Awareness  Guidelines  Eco label for

Programmes in  Regulation construction
Green  Training material
Technology  Standards  Waste
Construction minimisation
Industry guide
Development
Board (CIDB),
(2009)
839
Mengintegrasi  National Renewable

Kriteria Alam Energy Policy and Action
Sekitar dalam Plan (NREPAP)
Perolehan  Small Medium Enterprise
Kerajaan: Satu Master Plan (SMEMP)
Transformasi
Adham & Siwar
(2011)
Critical Success  Commitment and Support

Factor of Green  Policy Through
Purchasing Procurement
International  Enabling Driver
Green  Implementation
Purchasing  Green product Information
Network & Availability
(IGPN), (2012)  Task Force
 Target
 Training
 Criteria of Green product
 Budget and accounting
Rules
Sustainable  Standards
Public  Regulations
Procurement  Research & development
United Nation  Training
Environmental  Promotion
Program  Practice
(UNEP) (2013)
840
Pasaran dan  Legislations  ISO  Green  Audit

Permintaan  Standards 14020 Contract and
Produk Hijau  Education & Training internati law review
di Malaysia  Awareness & Promotions onal  Tendering
Lighthouse - organisa and
Technical (2013) tional Bidding
standard law
 Life
cycle
costing
 Guidelin
es of
criteria
of
product
and
services
Buku Panduan  Regulations
Asas  Promotions
Mekanisme dan  Education & training
Strategi  Standards
Pelaksanaan  Implementation
Perolehan
Hijau Kerajaan
di Malaysia
Kementerian
Tenaga,
Teknologi Hijau
dan Air
(KeTTHA),
(2013)
841
Government  MyHijau Eco Label

Green  MyHijau Green
Procurement Procurement
(GGP):  MyHijau Green Directory
Guideline for  MyHijau SME
Government
Procurer
Kahlenborn,
Mansor &
Adham (2014)
Construction  Regulations & policy  SWMP  Energy  Increase  Waste  Energy

Industry  Standards submiss efficient sustainabl categorisation monitori
Transformation  Training & Education ion Building e  Recycling plant ng and
Program  Awareness & promotion require Design specificati conserv
(CITP) ment for  Green Street on in BQ ation
Construction large concept in line guidelin
Industry project  BIPV with rating es
Development  Material tool
Board (CIDB), planning to
(2015) reduce waste
 BIM
842
Program Polisi  Ecolabel & Green Products

Teknologi  Establish GGP committee
Hijau (Majlis Teknologi Hijau
Kementerian Negara: Steering
Tenaga, Committee, Task
Teknologi Hijau Committee)
dan Air  Pilot Projects-Green
(KeTTHA), Township
(2015)  Master plan & Road Map
 Smart Partnership (Green
Jobs; Integration green
topics into all education
level; Green ICT; Green
partnership with Korea)
 Green Technology Funding
Scheme- GBI tax
exemption
 Education
 Awareness program
 E-procurement system
843
T02_007: COSMOPOLITAN LIVING AND

MALAYSIAN MALAYS’ LIFESTYLE
CHOICES: A REVIEW
Hasman Abdul Manan
Dr. Harlina Suzana Jaafar
Malaysia Institute of Transport (MITRANS),

ABSTRACT
The constantly evolving global retail landscape has brought about many
changes in the way humans’ live along with their dietary intakes; where
people have modified their consumption orientations together with the
progress of time. With each novel way of living (particularly in the
cosmopolitan setting) a new dietary habit emerged that signified to others
as a mark of life’s progression and (in present-day era) modernity.
Interestingly, food choices have also transcended into a mark of lifestyle as
a result of globalization. Interest on the Malays’ food consumption
behaviors in Malaysia has been extensively explored in the academia.
Nonetheless, there are little knowledge on the association between
cosmopolitan lifestyles and consumption of imported food products or
western diet among the Malays; hence, creating a void in the literature.
Therefore, in order to fill in the gaps; this review aims to explore the impact
of cosmopolitan’s living on lifestyle choices of the Malaysian Malays. More
cosmopolitan consumers in the country appeared to have increased the
portion of their disposable incomes on food-away-from-home. Findings
have shown that modern Malaysian are moving away from traditional
staple foods and exhibited more tendency toward meat and animal protein;
thus, characterizing a shift of orientation from traditional diet to the
western diet.
Keywords: Lifestyle; Malays; Cosmopolitan; Malaysia
Introduction
Throughout the ages (from the Paleolithic age to the industry’s revolutions
and to the present time), the constantly evolving global retail landscape has
brought about many changes in the way humans’ live along with their
dietary intakes; where people have modified their consumption orientations
844
together with the progress of time [1]. Therefore, with each novel way of
living (particularly in the cosmopolitan setting) a new dietary habit emerged
that signified to others as a mark of life’s progression and (in present-day
era) modernity. Many scholars have posited that cosmopolitan consumers
in emerging markets are altering and replacing their traditional diets (like
fruits, rice, vegetables, fish, herbs etc. in South East Asia’s countries) with
foods which are saltier, have high fats and sugar contents in addition to lots
of animal products owing to the abundance supplies of these food products
in domestic markets [2].
Interestingly, food choices have also transcended into a mark of
lifestyle as a result of globalization. At the same time, cosmopolitan
consumers are gradually becoming more sophisticated and demanding
which aptly reflect their novel lifestyles; as well as having greater
expectations in relation to their consumption experiences. In essence,
consumption behavior underlines one’s aspiration to acquire status and self-
fulfillment through brand possession and brand recognition. [3] suggest that
individuals’ penchants toward brands are essentially revolved around on
two key attributes i.e. intrinsic representations of the brands and
functionality. As in the case of Malaysia, the dynamisms of its demands for
quality products are equally shared with other nations in the world [4].
Interest on the Malays’ food consumption behaviors in Malaysia has been
extensively explored in the academia. Nonetheless, there are little
knowledge on the association between cosmopolitan lifestyles and
consumption of imported food products or western diet among the Malays;
hence, creating a void in the literature. Therefore, in order to fill in the gaps;
this review aims to explore the impact of cosmopolitan’s living on lifestyle
choices of the Malaysian Malays.
Cosmopolitan Living and Lifestyle of the Malays

The pace of urbanization in Malaysia has gained some momentum ever
since the last few decades in consequence of the nation’ rapid economic
growth; in which the development has triggered the shifts in the society’s
food consumption, lifestyle as well as common noncommunicable disease
(i.e. cardiovascular diseases, cancers, chronic respiratory diseases and
diabetes) trends [5]. [6] discloses that more cosmopolitan consumers in the
country appeared to have increased the portion of their disposable incomes
on food-away-from-home. In the past, both religious practices and dietary
habits were significant factors in the Malay’s household; nonetheless, the
fine line of what is permissible and what is unlawful has increasingly
becoming fuzzier as the latter grew in status and manifested into a novel
845
living standard among the Malays in cosmopolitan areas; owing to the effect
of globalization [7]. Likewise, scholars have postulated that cosmopolitan
consumers are modifying their daily nutritional intakes with higher
proportion of western diet whilst traditional foods are more accepted as the
food of choice in rural areas [8].
In addition, western diet, international fast food chains, shopping
centers, mass media and the Internet have manifested into symbols of
“modernity, seduction, desire and aspiration” which helped smooth the
progress of transforming the Malays into “modern, progressive, global and
cosmopolitan and affluent beings” [7]. [9] explains that in Malaysia, the
effects of modernization could be characterized by the rapid development
of urbanization, a new middle class group, demographic and
epidemiological transitions, declining of household numbers as well as the
“stylization” of food consumption patterns where these macro expansion
have influence the way of living and the dietary habits of the different ethnic
groups in the country significantly. Moreover, the food modernity’s stage
in Malaysia is the result of the modernization process that is happening
within the nation’s society in which could be clearly demonstrated by the
changes in the food’s supply channel, patterns of food consumption in
addition to the expectations toward new foods and aspirations among the
consumers [9].
Cosmopolitan Malays are living in a society that has become more
affluent as well as complex. People living in such environments have a
tendency to shift from being collectivist in nature to a more individualistic
lifestyle; owing to higher income that would permit them to be financially
independence and as a result, they are able to experience social as well as
emotional freedoms [10]. Any changes in individuals’ experiences (i.e.
personal, societal and cultural) would proportionally affect their value
systems and the stability of one’s’ value systems’ [11]. In other word,
changes in lifestyle would have significant impacts on the value systems
[12] and this is particularly true among the Malays as there is a distinct gap
in religious orientation between cosmopolitan Malays and their equals in
rural regions; hence, reflecting a striking lifestyle and culture disparities
between these two regions [13]. This enigma is manifested as the
consequences of globalization, the Internet and others like the acceptance
of cosmopolitan Malays toward foods that are free of pork and alcohol [14],
which did not reflect the true essence of Muslim’s permissible foods as
described in the Islamic law or Shariah.
Equally, young Malays are easily influence by western cultures
owing to repeated exposures to various foreign media sources [15]. As well,
846
the western’s way of life has been explicitly embraced especially by

cosmopolitan Malaysian families; in which the impacts are quite significant
among the younger generation as they wish to be more assertive and
independent [16]. Likewise, consumers’ lifestyles among the middle to
upper class group (representing 60% of the population) have gradually
becoming even more refined and modern where they would consistently
alter their dietary habits to suit their changing way of life; therefore,
Malaysia is currently witnessing greater foods and beverages consumptions
of foreign origins especially from western countries [17]. [18] share similar
views as they concluded that the new modern Malays (i.e. the upper middle
class) lived a totally different lifestyle which is strongly influenced by
western values. Similarly, the young generations are observed to show more
affection toward western fast food in addition to other foreign foods and
seemed to shun away from consuming traditional foods, as a result of
Malaysia’s present bullish economic environment [19].
Conclusions
Cosmopolitan consumers are more inclined on buying products with
international brand names since they are now primarily focusing on their
trendy image and social status [20]. Western, sophisticated and
cosmopolitan are the symbols of modern lifestyle in Malaysia; mainly as
the consequences of greater wealth accumulation, impacts of mass media
and higher education level [21]. Nonetheless, [22] posit that not all types of
modernization trends are aptly suitable with the Malaysian communities;
whilst, Adnan (2000) stress that globalization and the Malaysian cultures as
well as its traditions are not well-suited or compatible with one another (as
cited in [22]). [23] warn that the nation is extremely vulnerable to self-
obliteration if the younger society failed to hold onto true values and self-
worth. Then again, [24] postulates the Malay’s society in Malaysia is not
entirely equipped to embrace the challenges of globalization.
[25] postulate there is ample evident to suggest that city dwellers
and rural folks’ dietary habits are distinct from one another. At the same
time, a study by [2] showed that modern Malaysian are moving away from
traditional staple foods and exhibited more tendency toward meat and
animal protein; thus, characterizing a shift of orientation from traditional
diet to the western diet. In this era of globalization, access to all sort of
products and services from across the globe are becoming relatively easier
but nevertheless, the studies on consumers’ attitudes toward foreign
countries and their brands are not given much considerations as compared
to their domestic equals [26]. Thus, [26] recommend for international firms
847
to closely examine the link between attitudes, purchase orientations and

choice of products or services in view of the increased in trades across
nations as well as the diversification of consumers’ attitudes toward other
countries.
References
[1] S. Vasantha, S. Vijaylakshmi and P. Kiran, “Review on impact of
changing lifestyles on dietary pattern,” International Journal of
Current Research and Academic Review 3(6), 135-147 (2015).
[2] J.M. Soo and E.S. Tee, “Changing trends in dietary pattern and
implicating to food and nutrition security in Association of
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN),” International Journal of
Nutrition and Food Sciences 3(4), 259-269 (2014).
[3] S. Hosany and D. Martin, “Self-image congruence in consumer
behavior,” Journal of Business Research 65, 685-691 (2012).
[4] M.H.M. Saaid, “Consumerism trend in Malaysia,” Retrieve 25
October 2015 from
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848
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849
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850
T02_008: FOSTERING EMPLOYEE PRO-

ENVIRONMENTAL BEHAVIOUR: DOES
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND ISLAMIC
WORK ETHICS MATTER?
Faiq Aziz
Nomahaza Mahadi
Jihad Mohammad
Farzana Quoquab
International Business School,

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Environmental concern has become a dominant phenomenon around the
world and is now identified as one of the greatest challenges human has
ever faced. Besides, it is agreed by several researchers that organizations
are considered to be one of the highest contributor towards climate change
and in the final analysis, going green comes down to individual behaviour
because it is only through changing the behaviours of individuals that the
problems of environmental issues related to organization outcome can be
addressed. Thus, by changing behaviour towards pro-environment will not
only can contribute towards greening organization but also will help to
prevent further environment destruction. However, empirical research on
developing model or solution to foster employee pro-environmental
behaviour in workplace is still lacking. Parallel to this, many researchers
supported that emotional intelligence is belief to be one of the element that
can influence human behaviour specifically towards employee behaviour in
an organization. On the other hand, scholars from Islamic studies
mentioned that Islamic work ethics is positively related to commitment
behaviour and employee attitude toward change, therefore, by analyzing
previous researches, this study attempt to explore the role of emotional
intelligence (EI) and Islamic work ethics (IWE) towards Theory Reasonable
Action (TRA) in fostering employee pro-environmental behavior (EPEB).
Keywords: Emotional intelligence; Islamic work ethics; employee pro-

environmental behaviour
851
Introduction
Environmental degradation is not a new issue in this world but yet this
catastrophe keeps growing and continue endanger human life. Previous
research indicates that human activity within organizations is a major cause
of ecological degradation today [1, 2]. Thus, it is critical for organization to
find ways to foster pro-environmental behaviour among employees in
organization in creating organization condition that support environmental
sustainability for achieving long-term success. Employee pro-
environmental behavior (EPEB) can be described as an approach or action
taken by an employee to reduce the impact of organization towards the
environment which include waste management, recycling, minimum use of
resources and energy or perform any behavior that continuously seek to
reduce impact of employees towards environment in workplace [3].
Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) developed by Ajzen is one of the
model that most frequently used to explore human behavior. According to
Turaga [4], two factor that predict behavioural intention which are attitude
and subjective norm in turn postulated to be influenced by belief factor. The
study revealed that “behavioural belief” will influence attitude towards
behaviour and “normative belief” may influence subjective norm. In
particular, the researcher is aware that TRA has already expanded to Theory
of Planned Behaviour (TPB) by adding perceived behavioural control
(PBC), however, the use of TRA is most suitable with the motivation of this
study which states that a person’s volitional behavior can be predicted
directly by identifying behavioral precursors (attitudes and subjective norm)
and understanding their role in the context of a focal behavior, researchers
have attempted to develop suggestions for influencing and altering the
target employee behaviour. Subsequently, emotion play an important role
in encouraging human behavioral change. For instance, employee who
cares about the environment may use their emotion to communicate and
influence other employee’s decision in organization to participate in
preserving the environment at workplace [5]. Meanwhile, previous studies
show that Islamic work ethics (IWE) positively influence employee’s
behavior in workplace. However, there are still lack of literature that
discusses the relationship between IWE and EI with environmental
behavior.
Emotional Intelligence and Employee Pro-Environmental Behavior

852
The concept of emotional intelligence (EI) has been discussed in many

studies regards to scientific and psychology literature. However, the first
formal definitions within the scientific community was given by Caruso et.
al, [7] defined it as: “a part of social intelligence that includes the ability to
control one’s own and others’ feelings, to discriminate among them and to
use this information to guide our thinking and actions.” Emotional
Intelligence rely on understanding about personal and others, relationship
with other people and adapting this understanding with their surrounding
that can help individuals in communicating with other people. In the context
of environmental literature, environmental awareness that best explaining
behavioural change towards pro-environmental behavior, not only
constructed by knowledge and perception towards environment, however,
the role of emotion also can be associated with these conditions. Moreover,
Robertson and Barling [1] stated that, EI is the ability to deal with high
tensed environments through cognitively controlled over effective feeling.
In addition, Previous findings concluded that people with high emotional
intelligence will be more responsive towards their environment [8, 9]. In the
context of workplace, the researcher believe that emotional intelligence has
positive relationship with employee pro-environmental behavior.
Moreover, people may use their EI to become “role model” in encouraging
others to perform same behaviour as what they had shown. For instance, a
leader might show and educate their employee the importance of
environmental concern and how to preserve the nature [1]. Therefore, this
study derive proposition as below:
Proposition 1(a): The antecedence of EI is positively related to employee’s
attitude.
Proposition 1(b): The antecedence of EI is positively related to employee’s
subjective norm
Islamic Work Ethic and Employee Pro-Environmental Behaviour

Islamic work ethics is a set of moral principles that differentiate right or
wrong and good or bad certain things. Ali and Al-Owaihan [10] describe
that, Islamic work ethics is a route of human live in performing their work
853
and the approach that they use to achieve it. The elements of Islamic work
ethic are includes economic moral and social matters. In Islamic terms, ethic
is described as Hayy’a, which means the state of, resect and perform good
deeds. In addition, Quddus [11] stated that, Muslim must follow Islamic
ethic in performing their life, thus can also be practice in their work place.
Therefore, the implementation of Islamic work ethic among employees can
bring success towards organization because the ethics in Islam are based on
good deeds of individuals that can lead to effectiveness in doing their job.
Parallel to this, the philosophy in Islam explains about human responsibility
in understanding natural order. Besides that, Islam teaches individuals to
understand the importance of preserving the environment [10]. In fact, when
we go in depth regarding Islamic thought, we can discover that even there
are many aspects that being covered in human life, the topic of
environmental protection is more visible. Thus, it is believe that, the
implementations of Islamic work ethic have the potential to solve the
environmental crisis in this world [10]. Moreover, Mohamed et al. [12]
revealed that, in effort to promote environmental protection, individual
ethics is the most important element in fostering pro-environmental
behavior. In addition, Rice [13] discovered that, religion play an important
role in assuring a person to display pro-environmental behavior, therefore
when a Muslim take seriously the knowledge of Islamic teaching, it may
lead them to behave more environmentally in performing their daily task at
workplace for instance protecting green zone, influence other people to be
more economical in using water, recycling and promote environmental
management practice in organization. Therefore, this study derive
proposition as below:
Proposition 2: Islamic work ethics are positively related to employee’s
intention.
In the context of TRA, empirical evidence suggests that attitude alone is a

poor predictor of intentional pro-environmental behaviour. As mentioned
earlier, behavioural belief will influence attitudes towards behavior. In this
case, employee that have high EI may use their environmental descriptive
norm to encourage other employees to think about the environmental issues
and address environmental problem in an appropriate way. Therefore, this
will lead to positive change in behavioural belief of an employee regarding
environmental issues then will lead to a right attitude to overcome it.
854
Besides that, researchers argued that despite the strong theoretical basis for
a normative construct, studies show that there is weak relationship between
subjective norm with behavior. As discussed earlier, normative belief may
influence subjective norm of a person. Likewise, normative beliefs are
related with likelihood of important referent individuals or groups to agree
or disagree with a particular behaviour. In relation to this, employee as an
individual or in group that concern about the environment may use their EI
in encouraging action that will benefit the natural environment. This
employee can serve as a role model for other employees who then will
motivate them to engage in appropriate environmental behaviour
themselves (subjective norm).
On the other hand, most findings and data related to pro-
environmental behavior at workplace have been established in western
countries which are different with Malaysia in many aspects. Malaysia is a
multicultural and multireligious country which the majority of the
population (61.3%) practices Islam. Religion plays an important role in
shaping human life. This is supported by Quddus [11], that mentioned the
fundamental beliefs and religion will impact ethical thought of a person,
thus, people will follow their religious belief and perform what is required
in their religious teachings in performing their daily life. Prior to this,
employee that practice religious teaching in their life, will also perform the
ethical or right way of doing things according to their religion at the
workplace. In the context of Islamic teaching, Islam teaches all individuals
to understand the importance of preserving the environment. This is also
supported by Mohamed et al. [12] mentioned that Islam play an important
role in preserving the environment as what has stated in Islamic thought. In
working perspective, Ali and Al-Owaihan [10] revealed that Islamic work
ethic (IWE) is an orientation that forms and impacts the way that a believer
act in workplace. Many researches [10, 13] adopted the role of IWE in their
research mainly on human resource perspective in organization, work and
employee related outcomes like, employee job satisfaction, employee
commitment, staff turnover. However, there are no studies being done to
discusses the relationship between IWE and employee pro-environmental
behavior. Therefore, it is fruitful to explore this particular area that can
contribute towards pro-environmental behavior literature. Proposed model
for this study as given in the Figure1.
In short, this study shows that emotional intelligence can be the
antecedence towards attitude and subjective norm in TRA. Employee may
use their EI in influencing other employee’s attitude and subjective norm
855
that lead towards their intention to care about the environment, then lead
towards employee pro-environmental behaviour. Besides that, this study
treated Islamic work ethic as a variable that can directly influence employee
intention to concern about the environment, thus become employee pro-
environmental behaviour.
Figure 1: Proposed Research Model

References
[1] J. L. Robertson and J. Barling (2013). “Greening organizations through
leaders’ influence on employees’ pro-environmental behaviors,” Journal of
Organizational Behavior 34: 176–194.
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Ethics, 5(1), 13-23.
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857
T02_009: TOWARD REAL-TIME DECISION-

MAKING IN BUSINESS INTELLIGENCE
ENVIRONMENT
Ayad Hameed Mousa
Norshuhada Shiratuddin
Muhamad Shahbani Abu Bakar
maryemayad@yahoo.com
University Utara Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Business intelligence (BI) has been utilized in many domains to help
decision makers to take better decisions and it delivers a multi-level of
meaningful information to its stakeholders according to the organization
requirements and business needs. There are many of the existing models
and approaches that belong to BI design that uses traditional data
integration (DW). However, the main purpose of this paper is to present a
literature review on existing approaches that consider as an input to BI as
well as identified what the shortcomings and gaps in these approaches by
conducting comparative analysis for these approaches. Finally, we
proposed some suggestion to fill the gap between BI and its input.
Keywords: Data Warehouse, Business Intelligence, Data Integration,
Real-Time.
Business Intelligence
Business Intelligence (BI) is the mechanism to provide insights for most of
the operations and performance of organizations, in addition to identifying
strategic business opportunities. Over the years, numerous definitions of BI
have emerged, but there is still no comprehensive definition that is
acceptable by all researchers in this area. BI from a technical point is a set
of techniques, tools and methodologies that work together to transform the
information and data belonging to the organizations into meaningful and
actionable information and making this information available to decision
makers in an organization [1-10].
Decision Support Systems
Decision Support Systems (DSS) is one of the types of software systems
that have the ability to provide possible assistance to organizations to deal
with the available data and transform into meaningful information. DSS
858
also perform analysis onto these data and DSS represents one of the main
areas of information systems.[11].
According to “Whatis.com” and [12, 13], the Comparison of BI and DSS is
“The next generation of DSS applications evolved into business intelligence
systems”, while the similarity between them is both of them are help
decision makers to “making business decisions”.
Real-Time
[14] explicitly expressed that there is no specific accurate definition or
understanding of the term of "Real-Time" and he introducing three different
meanings; “Zero Latency” Processes, up to date information whenever
needed by user, and KPIs relate to current situation (i.e. now) [14].
However, according to literature, the current BI systems face two challenges
in regards to providing RT-BI i.e. the converting from data to information
and from information into action or knowledge [15].
Data Warehouse
Most BI systems are connected to a central database called the Data
Warehouse (DW). DW can be defined as “a subject oriented, non-volatile,
integrated and time variant collection of data in favor of decision making”
[16]. There are many main business measures, usually extracted,
transformed and loaded from various data sources and integrated in the DW
to make it ready for use by online analytical processing or any other BI
tools. Technically, DW data will be transferred and copied from one
database to another. During this transfer-copy process, data cleansing,
extraction and integration will be performed iteratively until an acceptable
quality is attained before it is loaded into a new database. This process is
named Extract, Transform, and Load (ETL) [3, 17, 18]. Figure 1 illustrate
the BI architecture.
Figure 1: Business Intelligence Architecture

859
We list in following sections, some of the existing models and approaches

that belong to BI design that use traditional data integration (DW). In order
to identify the shortcomings and gaps in the existing BI approaches, an
analysis of these approaches have been conducted as shown in table 1. In
response to that, this study analyzes (9) existing studies on BI models using
DW technique that totally focused on a data management in BI environment
for the past eight years (i.e. 2007 -2015).
Table 1: The Comparative Analysis for current BI Models

Studies/ Models Limitations
1 The Generic The provided elements in this model does not cater out for the
CRISP-DM universal approach for data integration.
[19] On the other hand, it does not detail to which type of data integration
(physical or virtual).
2 The DWARF The data management is not discussed and the requirements in this
Technique. technique focus on physical data integration only.
[20]
3 Business Process This study does not cater how to design and implement data
Intelligence integration. Instead, this study focus on how to enhance business
[21] process by using data warehouse and data mining. On the other hand,
this study focuses on physical data integration only.
4 The CoDMODS This study does not address how to design and implement data
Model integration. Instead, this study focused on how to gather requirements
[22] and use it in developing business intelligence by using physical data
integration.
5 The IIHS Model This study focused on designing business intelligence model without
[6] paying any attention to the requirements phase. , Instead, this study
focused on technical aspects only in designing and developing
business intelligence environment.
6 Academic The model is not comprehensive and is used for the specific
Business organization. On the other hand, it focuses on the physical side of data
Intelligence integration only.
Model [23]
7 DW Model for Focusses on Physical data integration only and not a comprehensive
University HRM model. On the other hand, the requirements phase in this model has
[24] been neglected.
8 Low-cost The provided elements in this framework does not cater out for the
Business universal approach for data integration, the data sources translate to
Intelligence the many data agents.
System Based on On the other hand, it focuses on data integration in the physical manner
Multi-agent [25] and does not have any concerns related to data in a timely manner
(Real-Time).
860
9 Business The provided elements in this model do not cater out for the whole
Intelligence data sources types because this model focuses on unstructured data. It
Model for is clear that in this model the focus is on the data stored physical way
Unstructured Data he certainly did not meet the requirements of the decision-makers in
Management[26] terms of providing real-time data.
Based on the above discussion it is concluded that most of the models and
approaches share the similar phases in proposing the design model for BI,
which are divided into some phases, sub-phases, and its components.
Although there are some the discussed models focused on data integration
while the others focused on the gathering requirements phase. In the same
aspect, some of them include detailed phases; the main steps are still similar.
More importantly, data integration in real time process is required to ensure
the BI applications meet the user requirement.
Conclusion and Propositions
In line with the above situation, it has been realized that, there are some
shortcoming and lacking to real-time for BI inputs as well as other
shortcomings, are summarized as follows:
1. Too much effort to locate and obtain the data
2. Data need to be not only extracted, but combined among different
applications, interfaces, and formats.
3. 3. DW design model is complex and not flexible.
4. 4. Must redesign in the case of add new data sources.
5. 5. lacking for real-time data due to DW updating is done off-line
manner.
6. DW does not allow rapid prototyping and testing.
7. The guideline for selection a suitable data integration technology
during building or redesign BI applications is missing.
Then, the propositions can be summarized as follows:
1- It will be most significant if the inputs for BI be single view and

virtual integration.
2- Comprehensive model using virtual data integration to be a
guideline for developers to develop BI applications should exist.
3- Toward to retrieving the real-time, relevant, and meaningful data
to use an input for BI applications.
4- Propose a guideline for selection a suitable data integration
technology during building or redesign BI applications.
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863
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864
T01_010: DRIVERS OF NON PARTICIPATION

IN ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
ASSESSMENT (EIA) WITH EVIDENCE TO
MALAYSIA’S MRT PROJECT
Fairiz Miza Bin Yop Zain

Dasimah Omar
ABSTRACT
The big scale project always involve a large number of parties and
stakeholder which might trigger a lot of issues. The study identified a level
of public participation in Arnstein’s ladder of participation and also
identified several of issues of public participation. However, this paper
focuses on the Non-participation of environmental impact assessment (EIA)
process through eight rung of Arnstein’s ladder of participation. The result
of the study lead on the drivers of non-participation in EIA’s public
engagement for Malaysia’s MRT project.
Keywords: Non-Participation, Public Participation, Environmental

Impact Assessment (EIA), MRT,Malaysia
INTRODUCTION
The big scale project always involve a large number of parties and
stakeholder which might trigger a lot of issues. In any propose development
there are a clause of requirement to do the public participation and certain
project are need to do environmental impact assessment. In a particular way,
the EIA process is not just preparing a technical report but it have a
requirement to have public engagement.
Public participation has been interpreted by some scholars as a
mechanism to reduce the likelihood of conflict by ensuring representation
of different interests and values, and by promoting transparency. [1].
Public participation is allowing the public to gain an understanding of
government decisions and policies, while providing the government with
input to help them design and implement a better and legitimate trade
process. Effective public participation requires not only dialogue, but also
the provision of relevant information and the allocation of adequate
865
resources in advance. [2]. While, the definitions of EIA is likely to be as a

tool that to ensure the sustainability of development through the evaluation
of impact to the proposed development that been handled by qualified
person or organization. [3, 4]
Non- Participation in Public Participation

Public Participation meeting provides an opportunity to the public to
express their own ideas [5]. However, there is a critical difference between
going through the empty ritual of participation and having the real power
needed to affect the outcome of the process. [6]. Author was highlights in
her research on the fundamental point that participation without
redistribution of power is an empty and frustrating process for the
powerless.[6]
In [7] and [8]Arnstein’s ladder first appeared in her 1969 paper
(Arnstein, 1969) and set out to distinguish different levels of participation
in relation to levels of, or access to, power. The simplicity of the ladder
metaphor explains much of its appeal to a wide range of audiences: a graded
movement upwards through 8 steps (rungs) from manipulation of citizens
(Non-participation) (1) through consultation (Degree of Tokenism) (4) to
citizen control (Citizen Power) (8).
Arnstein describes the type of "non-participation" represented by
the lower two rungs on the ladder as attempts to 'educate' participants [8].
Their real objective is not to enable people to participate in planning or
conducting programs, but to enable power holders to “educate” or “cure”
the participants [6]. It means that the process is not democratic and also not
people oriented. [8]. Furthermore, in his research identified, majority of the
respondents were not involved in the EIA process and this negate the
guidelines as prescribe by the government agencies in Malaysia. The result
implies of Malaysia’s public participation for MRT is fall under “Non-
participation”.
Issues and Challenge

There are several issues regarding the public participation in EIA. [9, 10]
had mentioned on the barrier that could lead to the insufficient and
ineffective participation is individuality attitude of human itself. In [11]
mentioned on poor of knowledge can become failure to have full range of
potential contribution of input and output. Besides that, Not In My
Backyard (NIMBY) Syndrome are clearly shows the attitude of public and
866
also government agency or consultant [12, 13]. Furthermore, [14] in their

research are mentioned on poor execution of participation method can be
considered as a failure to attract the public that could lead the low level of
public involvement and also can create distrust towards authorities. [8]
Case Study and Methodology

The single case study has been used in this paper. This paper is also based
on secondary data collection such as journal, articles, books, and several
online writing and primary data collection from qualitative method. A
qualitative case study research was conducted with Executive
environmental consultant and residents who willing to take part in this study
of Malaysia’s MRT project. The selected sample was purposive from
Department of Environmental (DOE) Malaysia, consultant of EIA and
resident along the line of MRT lane.
This study interviewed five respondents from executives of
environmental and five respondents form public and the total interviewees
were ten. The open ended questions through semi structure interview was
used as a tool for data collection. The tool of content analysis was used to
analysis the collected data.
The project involves the construction of a 51-km mass rapid transit line
connecting Sungai Buloh to Kajang line (SBK) (Figure 2). The SBK line
will pass through the Kuala Lumpur (KL) city centre and be integrated with
the existing KTM Komuter, Ampang LRT Line and Kelana Jaya LRT Line.
The SBK Line traverses under the jurisdiction of 5 local authorities Dewan
Bandaraya Kuala Lumpur (DBKL), Majlis Perbandaran Kajang (MPKl),
Majlis Bandaraya Shah Alam (MBSA) and Majlis Perbandaran Selayang
(MPS).[15]
Figure 1: MRT Sungai Buloh-Kajang Line

867
Discussion and Result
Government Agencies Perspective

Table 1, knowledge, behaviour, communication and marketing & strategies
were the main drivers to “Non-Participation” in public participation of EIA.
First, the report and language are too technical where the public will have
difficulty in understanding and this needs to be briefed beforehand.
Secondly, NIMBY syndrome is likely a habit here. Thirdly, it hard to have
comprehensive distribution information toward public and it also have
limitation of information provided as [16] mentioned sharing through
participation does not necessarily means sharing in power. Lastly,
marketing and strategy that had been conducted implies that it has lack of
interesting notices and advertisements. These are all important factors that
leads to Non-participation in EIA for the Malaysia’s MRT project.
.
Table 1: Drivers of Non-Participation government Agencies Perspective
Items Descriptions Respondent

Technical report, public are not
Knowledge expertise and need to be educate (about A,B.C.D,E
proposed development)
NIMBY syndrome, easy to submit the
Behavior A,B,C,D,E
report, public is not needed to involve
Hard to have comprehensive
Communication information distribution, some A,B,E
information is confidential
Marketing & Not enough interesting notice and
A,B,C
strategies advertisement s
Public Perspective
Table 2, main perception from public are also directly on knowledge,
communication and marketing & strategies. The public also realised that the
lack of knowledge regarding the proposed development and technical report
can be the main Non-participation factor. Referring to respondents there are
less of two ways dialogue, besides that, they also mentioned on nothing can
be contributed towards the project, meaning that nothing can be changed if
they were to be involved. Lastly, most of the public have not noticed the
advertisements and have no idea what is EIA and the process of it. These
868
are all the important factors that leads to Non-participation in EIA for the
Malaysia’s MRT project.
Table 2: Drivers of Non-Participation Public Perspective
Items Descriptions Respondent

Lack of knowledge regarding the proposed
Knowledge 1,2,3,4,5
development and technical report
Less of 2 ways dialogue, nothing can
Communication 1,2,3,4,5
contribute towards project (nothing change)
Most public never notice the advertisement
Marketing &
and never know what is EIA and the process 1,2,3,4,5
strategies
of public engagement
In sustainability of the environment and improving participation, it requires

attitude reformation within the public as well as government’s
establishment and transparency in sharing information. Above all it requires
both parties to play their part. [8]
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, this study contributes to the main problems that could have
different approaches from the government and government agencies to
increase the level of public participation process in Malaysia. It is important
to have relationship among the government organisations, private
organisations, Non-Government Organisations, public and environment.
The harmonisation among the stakeholder and environment is crucial for
long term sustainability of the environment. Currently, almost all human
being have self-awareness and conscious on environmental issues.
However, their actions behind it does not represent their concern.
Therefore, nowadays we have regulations and a system for the public
participation in environmental impact assessment (EIA). However, there are
rooms for improvement in achieving the quality of management,
environment, relationship between governments, private, public and
environment. Besides that, it may create awareness from the public for other
matters besides of public participation in EIA and environmental issues.
REFERENCES
869
[1] Rega, C. and Baldizzone, G. “Public Participation in Strategic

Assessment: A Practitioners perspective.” Environmental Impact
Assessment Review 50 (2015):105–115 (2014)
[2] Bastidas, S. “The Role of Public Participation In The impact
Assessment of Trade Process” Speaker paper for the Impact
Assessment for Industrial Development – IAIA’04 (April 28th 2004,
Vancouver)
[3] Azizan Marzuki “A Review on Public Participation in Environmental
Impact Assessment in Malaysia.” Theoretical and Empirical
Researches in Urban Management No. 3 (12) (2009)
[4] Wasserman, C. “Application of Public Participation Principles in
EIA,” Strengthening Public Participation in Environmental
Management in Indonesia Training Workshop, Jakarta, Indonesia.
(2012)
[5] Albayrak, A. “Public behaviour for public participation in EIA
process, Turkey.” IAIA16 Conference Proceedings Resilience and
Sustainability 36th Annual Conference of the International
Association for Impact Assessment (11 - 14 May 2016)
[6] Arnstein, Sherry R. “A Ladder of Citizen Participation”, Journal of the
American Planning Association, 35: 4, 216 — 224 (1969)
[7] Collins, Kevin and Ison, Raymond “Dare we jump off Arnstein’s
ladder?” Social learning as a new policy paradigm. In: Proceedings of
PATH (Participatory Approaches in Science & Technology)
Conference, 4-7 June 2006, Edinburgh.
[8] Aiyeola. A et al. “Examine the Level of Public Participation in
Environmental Impact Assessment Process: A case of MRT Project in
Malaysia.” IOSR Journal of Environmental Science, Oxicology and
Food Technology (IOSR-JESTFT) 8(2),:08-12 (2014)
[9] Abdul Latiff Ahmad et al., “The understanding of Environment
Citizenship among Malaysian Youths: A study on Perception and
Participation.” Asian Social Science, 8 (5):85-92 (2012)
[10] Yaakob, H. “Penyertaan Awam: Kejayaan dan Kegagalan Dalam
Perancangan Pembangunan.” Journal Pengurusan Awam 67-84
(2012)
[11] Glucker, et al., “Public Participation in Environmental Impact
Assessment: Why, Who and How?” Environmental Impact
Assessment Review43 (2013) :104–111
[12] Alam, S. “Public Participation in the Enforcement of Environmental
Laws: Issues and Challenges in the Light of the Legal and Regulatory
870
Framework with Special Reference to EIAs in Malaysia” Bangladesh

Research Foundation Journal Vol. 3, No. 1 (2014)
[13] Cheryl S.F. Chi, Jianhua Xu & Lan Xue. “Public participation in
environmental impact assessment for public projects: a case of non-
participation,” Journal of Environmental Planning and Management,
57:9 (2014)
[14] Dasimah Omar and Oliver Ling Hoon Leh. “Malaysia Development
Planning System: Kuala Lumpur Structure Plan and Public
participation”, Asian Social Science Vol.5,No.3 pp.30-35 (2009)
[15] Consulting ERE, “Klang Valley Mass Rapid Transit: Sungai Buloh-
Kajang Line: Detailed Environmental Impact Assessment,’ Malaysia,
(2011)
[16] Sarah White “Depoliticising development: the uses and abuses of
participation”. Development in Practice. Vol. 6 (1996)
871
T02_011: THE IMPACT OF INDEPENDENT

ONLINE MEDIA ON THE MAINSTREAM
MEDIA (IN THE CONTEXT OF MALAYSIA)
Ziinine Abdesselam-1
Dr Zulkifli Abd Latiff-2
Faculty of Communication and Media Studies
University Technology Mara, Uitm, Shah Alam
ABSTRACT
These last few years, more Malaysians have been seen shunning the
traditional mainstream media including its online versions, and instead
shifting to independent/alternative online media. This paper examines both
the mainstream media and independent online media practices and
coverage, with the aim to compare between the two media and identify the
main cause of this shift. The researcher applied a mixed methods approach
with a concurrent nested (embedded) design, and employed 3 data
collection methods: 1) In-depth interview; 2) Content analysis; and 3)
Survey/Questionnaire. The results show that More Malaysians are
migrating to the alternative online media because this latter is perceived to
provide quality content, besides giving a space, voice and power to the
public, and making a difference.
Keywords: mainstream media, alternative online media, quality content
INTRODUCTION
The presence of new media and the Internet, in particular, has posed a
challenge to conventional media, especially the printed newspaper
(Domingo & Heinonen, 2008). According to Wolk 2001 and Deuze 2003,
what distinguish online journalism/ media from the traditional media (TV,
newspapers, radio) are its technical parameters such as interactivity,
multimediality, hypertexuality, and immediacy. Online journalism is not
simply online news, but covers a much diverse area of online newspapers,
informative websites, weblogs, bulletin boards, and chat rooms, where news
sources, webmaster, and participants discuss, share and debate ideas,
opinions, and thoughts that concerned public interest ( Millison, 1999; Allen
872
2000; Hall 2001; Wolk 2001; Deuze 2003; Gunter 2003). The new
technology has made news and information faster, in real time, and at the
finger tip. Being aware that news readers are today shifting to online news
media, almost all news companies have created their own online versions
(e-newspapers or online TV). But, the question now is: why the public are
shunning the mainstream media and even their online versions, and instead
resorting to the independent alternative online news media?
METHODOLOGY
The researcher applies a mixed methods approach and he employed
three data collection methods 1) a survey; 2) in-depth interview; and 3)
content analysis. The participants in the survey were Malaysian urban
citizens from Kuala Lumpur and Selangor, who often read online news. Of
the 384 participants, 57% of them were Malays, 29% were Chinese, and
14% were Indians, male and female, and aged between 20 to 65 years old.
The in-depth interview was conducted with 11 informants: six news editors
(from prominent online news portals such as MalaysiaKini,
FreeMalaysiaToday, Star Online, Utusan Online, MyNewsHub), one
politician and former minister, one political analyst, two academicians, and
a senior journalist from newspaper and one former chief editor from the
mainstream media. The online content analysis was the third method used
in this study to collect data that would help to answer the research questions.
In utilizing this, the researcher observes and collects the most prominent
online news portals` contents / articles / coverage of politics, protests, and
national issues, politicians’ political analysis and views, along with users`
comments and views, which are related to the context of this study. Data
were collected between December 2015 and May 2016.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

The survey provided an insight into urban netizens` perceptions and
views of online media. The findings show that 48% of the urban netizens
still prefer to read the Star Online, whereas 39% of them prefer
MalaysiaKini for its political and national issues coverage. Most of the
urban online news readers who like the independent/alternative media news
portal ` Malaysiakini` are the Malaysian Chinese and the youth and the
educated (all races). Those who like StarOnline are the urbanites, mainly
educated people, and from all races. Utusan Online came in third place in
873
this survey. Most of the people who often read and follow Utusan Online
are Malays, mainly those who cannot speak English or who do not believe
in the independent/alternative online media. Yet, some respondents said
they like to read more than one news portal.
However, the online content analysis reveals that Malaysiakini was
ranked number 1 news portal in Malaysia, according to the comScore's
MMX™ report, February 2015.
This shows that MalaysiaKini and other independent alternative media
are challenging, to some extent, the well-established mainstream media
companies such as the Star and Utusan Malaysia.
The in-depth interviews provided an insight into people`s perceptions
and perspectives about online news media. The findings that emerged show
that more Malaysians today are migrating to online media, especially
independent online media because they perceive this latter to be more
daring, analytical, independent, credible, democratic, investigative, and
delivers quality content.
QUALITY CONTENT
According to Rupert Murdoch (2015), the content is king. Malaysians
resort to online media today not only because of its interactivity, or
multimediality, or immediacy, but because of its quality content.
The independent/alternative media have broken some taboos regarding
high ranked officials `corruption, abuse of power, and malpractices.
Research reveals that issues regarding democracy, freedom of speech,
human rights, government corruption, nepotism, abuse of power,
authoritarianism, racism, and extremism - those issues that the mainstream
media ignore or are silent on - are today openly discussed on online media
(Ghazali, 2011).
Actually, the independent alternative media have brought many new
features/dimensions to the local journalism such as critical reporting,
investigative reporting, independent and democratic reporting.
The mainstream media avoid investigative or analytical reporting or
being critical of the government. Maybe because they are "heavily
influenced by governments through various mechanisms and forms of
control ( Benerjee, 2011). All the mainstream media ( including TV, radio,
newspapers, including their online versions) set aside from talking about
issues of public interests or issues that matter the public most, and fill pages
with government speeches and campaigns and generally ignore the
874
opposition (Lent, 1982). Whereas the independent/alternative online media

came up with different kind of coverage and style of reporting which is more
in-depth and investigative, and they are more democratic and more flexible.
According to Freedom House (2013), the Internet has become the main
platform for free discussion and for exposing political corruption. Similarly,
Ghazali (2007) pointed out that open debates on social and political issues
in online journalism were rampant during these years but such was never
experienced through the conventional mass media.
Giving a Voice and Power to the Public and Opposition
The public, especially the marginalized and the minorities feel they have
been dumped down by the mainstream media that support and focus only
on the ruling elites during elections and after. They used to read only what
the ruling elites want them to read or know or vote for. The mainstream
media also have been one-sided, cover and report only about the
government, only the good thing about this latter. "The Internet media have
given the public a voice and power to choose their leaders, especially with
the emergence of social media” (David Girling, 2014).
The public and the opposition parties resort today to online media,
especially independent/alternative online media to voice up, complain,
criticize, express their opinions, exchange ideas, and debate on issues that
matter them and the society. The voice the opposition party started to be
heard only when independent online journalism arrived. Research reveals
that the opposition found an avenue in the new media to air their grievances
and reach their supporters (Ali Salman, Faridah Ibrahim, Mohd Yusof
Hj.Abdullah, Normah Mustaffa, and Maizatul Haizan Mahbob, 2011
Critical and Credible
The findings also suggest that the mainstream media newspapers and
Tv and their online news portals are losing readership because they not only
lack critical skills but credibility and fair reporting. Being not critical in
their reporting, just blatantly supporting the ruling elites, make some media
outlets look incompetent and untrustworthy. Past research suggests that in
today`s even-challenging world, a critical, analytical, creative and profound
reporting is the order of the day ( Azmawati, 2006). According to Mustafa
.K. Anuar 2006, the mainstream media`s coverage of especially national
politics became too obviously unbalanced, unfair, and even unethical since
875
the former Prime Minister Dr. Mahathir resumed power. This led many
Malaysians, especially the Malays, to boycott at one point in time these pro-
establishment media" (Mustafa .K. Anuar 2006). Perhaps among the
reasons why new media appear credible are the perceptions that the
conventional mainstream media in Malaysia are government controlled (Ali
Salman, Faridah Ibrahim, Mohd Yusof Hj.Abdullah, Normah Mustaffa,
and Maizatul Haizan Mahbob, 2011).
Independency and Freedom of Speech
Though many people perceive the alternative online media to be

independent because they are not owned by the government, and because
they seem to be neutral and not siding any political party, this study`s results
show that there is no total freedom of the press in Malaysia. The alternative
online media are not an exception; they are also restricted by either the
government or the sponsors` agendas and values. The government can still
block any news portal they do not like. Blocking a website is a sort of
control and censorship. Adhering to the sponsors àgendas and values also
restrains and limits online media independency and credibility. The media
would be independent only if they are self-funded - only if they can sponsor
themselves.
CONCLUSION
The independent/alternative media have brought in many new
features/dimensions to the local journalism`s practices such as democratic
reporting, investigative reporting, and critical reporting. They broke some
taboos regarding government corruption, abuse of power, racism,
extremism, and so on. Moreover, they fight for freedom of speech,
democracy, transparency, and accountability on the part of the ruling party.
Though the mainstream media also have their own online version or e-
newspapers, they cannot compete with the independent online media,
because their online versions or news portals remain only a hard copy or a
mirror of their print. The independent online media have had a very
considerable impact on the local journalism `s practices. The mainstream
media that can survive today are obliged to follow the independent online
media`s trend, stance, and styles of reporting, otherwise they will lose more
readership, credibility, and business. With the independent online media
around, the mainstream media can no longer conceal or hide the truth from
876
the public. The mainstream conventional media, including their online

versions, are today suffering lose in readership and sale revenues, not
because of the new technology, but because of their no-longer-relevant
content.
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Mahbob, 2011. The Impact of New Media on Traditional Mainstream Mass Media.
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878
T02_012: SHOPHOUSES PRICE IN MELAKA

HISTORIC CITY
Nur Hidayah Binti Hajar-1
Shahrul Yani Binti Said-2
Faculty of Architecture Planning and Surveying,

Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Shah Alam,
Malaysia.
ABSTRACT
Historic areas in Malaysia started to get recognized of its economic benefit
after the recognition of Malacca and George Town as a World Heritage
Site in 2008 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO). The UNESCO status has attracted many
investors to fund the conservation of its cultural built heritage- the
shophouses. Recent studies show that the price for the property increased
since its designation. The aim of this study is to identify the current average
price per square feet of the shophouses around the Melaka main city. The
scope of the study would be the price of shophouses along the main streets
of Bandar Melaka. The data collected for this study were from previous
research regarding property value in Melaka and Malaysia and the
recorded transaction of properties in Bandar Melaka. The study uses a
software, an ArcGIS 10.0, that produces an Isolines map showing the
average price of the Melaka main city shophouses around its main streets
in the year 2010-2016. Different colour in the map indicates different range
of average prices. The red colour indicates the high price range while the
blue indicates low price ranges. The results however are just a prediction,
because the price might be influenced by other factors. The study will
benefit the future generation to predict the next average prices of the
shophouses in Melaka.
Keywords: Shophouses, property price, townscape, development, heritage.
Melaka history: Old Malacca West Bank Heritage Trail

On the west bank of the Malacca River is the Old Malacca region
with its maze of narrow streets and heritage buildings dating back to the 17 th
century. This side of the historical city of Malacca was the residential
quarter of Dutch ‘Malakka’ (1641-1824) and commercial area. Jalan Tun
879
Tan Cheng Lock was the residential quarter of the nobleman’s and genteel
while Jalan Hang Jebat accommodated mostly the traders and merchants.
Malacca was a successful entrepot in its glory days. When the Dutch left
Malacca, their unique narrow and long Dutch-style townhouses, with its
lofty, high ceilings and interior open courtyard gardens became the homes
of the prosperous Peranakan Chinese. Peranakan Chinese were descendants
of the 15th & 16th century Chinese migrants and traders that intermarried
with the local Malay community. Until the 1980’s, this western part was
still a residential and commercial area not a tourist region. With some 600
properties comprising four main streets and four perpendicular cross-
streets, it is Chinese in character though not the typical Chinatown you find
in most towns but it has an old-world charm preserved in its heritage
buildings and existing business. With the revoke of the Rent Control Act
(1966) in the year 2000, the price and the rental of these properties
appreciated at market rates and many new developments took place as the
buildings changed hands and took on a new lease of life. [1]
Figure 1: Melaka West Riverbank (Residential and Commercial Area)

location source: (Google Maps, 2016)
This western section is included in the core zone of the World
Heritage Site, where the residential and commercial buildings are to be
protected. Only minor changes that would not compromise the original
design of the buildings are allowed in any conservation work carried out.
Property value in Melaka

Lam Jian Wyn [2] wrote that since Melaka was nominated as
United Nations Educational Science Cultural Organization, UNESCO
World Heritage Site in 2008, the values of commercial properties of the
town and the main heritage zones have developed significantly and also,
National Property Information Centre (NAPIC) stated that the amount of
commercial property dealings rose to 21% to 1508 in 2010 from 1246 in
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2009. Shops values have doubled which is within the UNESCO main
heritage zone since year 2008, a 2-storey pre-war shophouses currently
commanding RM1.4 million. Even stalls and kiosks are in great demand
and request in the region. Properties in Melaka city escalates by ten percent
per annum since the UNESCO listing.
Figure 2: Pre-War shophouses at Melaka West Riverbank (Residential and

Commercial Area) source: Researcher (2016)
Table 1: Price of shophouse along Jonker street from year 2006 to 2011
Year Price PSF (RM)
2011 to date >650
2010 550
2009 480
2008 400
2007 300
2006 280
source: Lam, J.W (2011) [2]
Table 1 shows the price of shophouses along Jonker street from the
year 2006 to 2011. The price per square feet of the property increase
significantly every year. While according to Asiahomes [3], the Malacca
property values rising since its declaration from UNESCO. Land prices are
going up swiftly in Malacca. Some new condos in the city development
have reached over RM1000 per square feet. The prices equal to similar lands
in Kuala Lumpur city center and also Penang Island. With more investments
predictable to come into the city, huge development and more infrastructure
to come, property prices would assume to accelerate to complement intense
development and property price will resume to ascend with better rentals
for investment point of view.
881
Table 2: Price listing from real transaction of Melaka prewar shophouses

from the year 2013 to 2016.
Date Address Building Lot Price

Nos. type size PSF
(ft2) (RM)
1 20/4/2016 92, Jalan Kampong Prewar 1,664 721
Pantai
2 12/03/2015 52, 54 & 56, Jalan Prewar 3,675 848
Tokong
3 18/06/2014 96, Jalan Tun Tan Prewar 2,047 1,124
Cheng Lock
4 10/12/2013 430, Jalan Tengkera Prewar 1,275 233
5 28/11/2013 213, Jalan Tengkera Prewar 4,582 84
source: [4] Brickz, (2016)
Table 2 shows price listing from real transaction of Melaka prewar

shophouses located on the west riverbank of the Melaka. From the table, 11
properties were sold from the year 2013 to 2016. The streets are Jalan
Kampung Pantai, Jalan Tokong, Jalan Tun Tan Cheng Lock and Jalan
Tengkera. All the properties sold were a pre-war shophouses that was
nominated under UNESCO world heritage site on 2008. From the table, the
price per square feet of the properties increasing in a very large amount for
just within 3 consecutive years. In the year 2013, two properties were sold
on Jalan Tengkera. For property 5, it was sold at a low rate of RM84 per
square feet despite its lot size were greater than property 4 which were sold
at RM233 per square feet. However, in the year 2014 property 3 recorded
the highest price at RM 1124 per square feet with 2047 ft2 lot size. Property
3 were located at Jalan Tun Tan Cheng Lock which is one of the main busy
street of Melaka city. Property 2 which were located at Jalan Tokong
comprises three (3) unit of prewar shophouses, with each has 3675 ft2 per
unit were all sold at the price of RM848 per square feet. Jalan Tokong is a
street that located just beside the Jalan Hang Jebat famously known as
Jonker street. Property 1 located at Jalan Kampung Pantai were sold at
RM721 in the year 2016. Based on table 2, across years, the price PSF does
not necessarily increasing.
Results and Analysis

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Figure 3(a): Property price of Melaka city’s Shophouses Year 2010-2016; (b):
Shophouses property price colour ranges (PSF)
source: Researcher (2016)
The data analysis that was carried out was based on real transaction
data at Jabatan Penilaian dan Perkhidmatan Harta (JPPH). The available
data was plotted on a map, and the coordinates were recorded by using an
application Geojot spatial expert on smartphone. The Isolines map were
generated by software ArcGIS 10.0. Estimated price value across Melaka
main city were auto calculated by the ArcGIS software. As there is no recent
available data in certain street in Melaka main city, this have affected the
prices ranges produce by the ArcGIS 10.0. Based on Figure 3, there are 16
main roads which is Jalan Tun Tan Cheng Lock, Jalan Hang Jebat, Jalan
Kubu, Jalan Tokong, Jalan Hang Lekir, Jalan Hang Kasturi, Jalan Hang
Lekiu, Jalan Tukang Emas, Jalan Tukang Besi, Lorong Hang Jebat, Jalan
Kampung Kuli, Jalan Kampung Pantai, Jalan Kampung Hulu, Jalan Masjid,
Lorong Masjid and Jalan Portugis. Twenty different colour ranges were
drawn on the map indicating 20 ranges of property prices. From the results,
the reddest color indicates the highest price per square of the area while the
bluest indicates the lowest price per square feet. The lowest range is below
RM100, followed by RM100-200, RM200-300, RM300-400, RM400-500,
RM500-600, RM600-700, RM700-800, RM800-900, RM900-1000,
RM1000-1100, RM1100-1200, RM1200-1300, RM1300-1400, RM1400-
1500, RM1500-1600, RM1600-1700, RM1700-1800, RM1800-1900 and
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RM1900-2000. Range RM900-1000 and RM1000-1100 is a range that can

be seen from the map covered most of the area. From the map, areas in
Jalan Tokong has a higher price that ranges from RM1900-RM2000 PSF
(red). Along Jalan Kampung Pantai, at the end of the street, high range of
the prices also identified. The bluest (below RM100 PSF) mostly located
along Jalan Tun Tan Cheng Lock. Basically, the price around the Melaka
main city mostly has an average price that lies between RM1000-RM1100
in the year 2010-2016.
Conclusion
As conclusion, the prices of shophouses in Melaka main city lies
on the ranges from below RM100 to RM2000 in the year 2010 to 2016.
However, most of the area in Melaka main city lies between RM900 to
RM1200. Based on researcher observations, the price of the shophouses
increase on the area of the shophouses that near to the Melaka river. Jalan
Tokong that has high price range and is located near to the main road and
the bank river. While in Jalan Tun Tan Cheng Lock, the price range is lower
as it a bit far from the river.
References
[1] Perbadanan Muzium Melaka PERZIM, Melaka Street Map
your Walking Guide, in New Waves Surging the Shores of
Malacca, T. Malaysia, Editor. 2015, Perbadanan Muzium
Melaka PERZIM: Melaka. p. 10-11.
[2] Lam Jian Wyn, Melaka Forges Ahead, in The Edge
Malaysia. 2011: petaling jaya.
[3] Asiahomes. Why you should consider buying in Malacca
right now?
Impiana Klebang- great investment potential in Malacca city. 2013;
Available from: http://www.asiahomes.com.hk/wp-
content/uploads/2013/07/SQF177_Spo_AsiaHome.pdf.
[4] Brickz.my. Transacted Properties Report. 2016 11th
october [cited 2016 5th october]; Available from:
http://www.brickz.my/transactions/commercial/.
884
T02_013: THE ROLE OF TRIALABILITY,

AWARENESS, PERCEIVED EASE OF USE,
AND PERCEIVED USEFULNESS IN
DETERMINING THE PERCEIVED VALUE OF
USING MOBILE BANKING IN YEMEN
Ahmed M. Mutahar ª, Norzaidi Mohd Daud ᵇ, T. Ramayah ͨ , Lennora Putit ͩ ,
Osama Isaac e, Ibrahim Alrajawyf
a
Faculty of Business & Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Selangor, Malaysia
(ahmed4mutahar@gmail.com)
b
Faculty of Business & Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Selangor, Malaysia
( zaidiuitm2000@yahoo.com)
ͨ School of Management, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia (ramayah@usm.my)
d
Faculty of Business & Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia
(lennora633@salam.uitm.edu.my)
e
Graduate Business School, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Selangor, Malaysia
(Osama2isaac@gmail.com)
e
Graduate Business School, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Selangor, Malaysia
(arajawy@yahoo.com)
ABSTRACT
Mobile Banking, as a banking services delivery channel, has provided a
significant competitive advantage for banks and financial institutions by
extending their clients base while retaining existing. As perceived value is a
subjective concept in banking services, and it varies from one client to
another. Very little attention has been given in the literature to exactly what
constitutes the value of using Mobile Banking services. The purpose of this
study is to test the critical antecedents that impact the perceived value of
using Mobile Banking services via using an extended model of the
technology acceptance model (TAM). The evaluation of this model was
done through a questionnaire survey that collected data from four hundred
and eighty-two valid responses from individuals who are non-users of
Mobile Banking services. Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) via AMOS
software was utilised to determine the relative importance levels of
associations and interactions between the factors tested. The research
achieved a goodness of fit of model to data, and explained 60% of the
variance in perceived value of using Mobile Banking services. The findings
of the multivariate analysis revealed that perceived ease of use, perceived
usefulness, trialability, and awareness are major predictors of perceived
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value. The results of this study has the potential to give further insights into
Mobile Banking strategies.
Keywords: Awareness, Trialability, Perceived Value, TAM, Yemen
1. Introduction
Technological advancement has dramatically changed the banking
services delivery channels, and banking activities have become more and
more dependent on technology. Banks and other financial institutions are
delivering their services through various electronic channels that are
reducing the position of traditional branch banking (Suoranta & Mattila,
2004). One of the mobile commerce subsets is Mobile Banking that is
defined as any form of banking transaction or service that is delivered via a
mobile device, such as a mobile phone or a PDA. As mobile technology and
devices have developed, Mobile Banking has increasingly emerged as a
major component of the financial services system because of mobile
technological advantages, such as ubiquity, convenience, and interactivity
(Turban, King, Lee, & Viehland, 2006).
Although most of the Yemeni banks provide mobile banking
services, the adoption rate of the services among their mobile phone holder
clients is still way behind from the respective other Arab countries (E-
Commerce in the middle east, 2013). Low usage will lead to low
performance, low productivity, and less return on investment (Goodhue &
Thompson, 1995; Norzaidi, 2008; Norzaidi, Chong, Murali, & Salwani,
2007). Bearing in mind the huge investments banks have made in Mobile
Banking systems development, it is crucial they ensure that their clients will
use them. However, there is a limited understanding of the factors
influencing client acceptance of Mobile Banking in Yemen. Only by
understanding how individual differences and customer perceptions
influence the adoption of Mobile Banking services will allow banks be able
to create solutions and strategic plans to attract customers to use the service.
In Yemen, there is a need for a study of this nature because very little
research has been undertaken on factors influencing the clients’ behavioural
intention and adoption of Mobile Banking in this country.
Many theories and models has been used to study the acceptance and
adoption of Information Systems (IS) application, among the most widely
accepted approaches is TAM (Davis, 1989; Davis, Bagozzi, & Warshaw,
1989) (Al-Ajam & Nor, 2013; Giovanis, Binioris, & Polychronopoulos,
2012; Hsu & Lin, 2015; Oliveira, Martins, & Lisboa, 2011; Zhong, Dhir,
Nieminen, Hämäläinen, & Laine, 2013). IS researches until today have
886
focused on innovation characteristics and user attributes rather than being

client value-driven and showing the relative advantage of e-services to them
(Zhou, Lu, & Wang, 2010). Perceived value is a subjective concept that
differs from a client to client. Although many factors have been suggested
as significant antecedents to the understanding and adoption of Mobile
Banking, little attention has been given in the literature to exactly what
influences the perception of the value of Mobile Banking services among
bank clients. Kim, Chan, & Gupta (2007), and Zhou et al. (2010) have called
for further studies on customer value perceptions to examine its importance
in driving a customer adoption intention in a Mobile Banking context.
Therefore, the focus of this study is to examine the factors that affect the
value perceived by bank customers toward the adoption of Mobile Banking
services and influences this decision. This study will extend the TAM model
by adding awareness and trialability to examine their indirect impact on the
perceived value, alongside the direct effect on the perceived value of the
core factors of the theory, perceived ease of use (PEOU) and perceived
usefulness (PU).
This study attempts to achieve the following research objectives: (1)
to examine the effect of perceived ease of use on perceived
usefulness. (2) To examine the effect of perceived ease of use on
perceived value. (3) To examine the effect of perceived usefulness on
perceived value. (4) To examine the effect of trialability on perceived
usefulness. (5) To examine the effect of trialability on perceived value.
(6) To examine the effect of trialability on perceived ease of us. (7)
To examine the effect of awareness on trialability.
2. Literature review
Perceived ease of use is defined as “The degree to which a person
believes that using a system would be free of effort” (Davis, 1989; Davis et
al., 1989). Ramayah et al. (2005), Ramayah & Suki (2006), and Tan, Leby,
Tan, & Lau (2016), Akturan & Tezcan (2012), Amin, Rizal, Hamid, Lada,
& Anis ( 2008) have confirmed the positive influence of perceived ease of
use on perceived usefulness. In addition, there have been some empirical
studies by Kim et al. (2007) which revealed that perceived usefulness and
technicality, as determined by user perception regarding ease of use, are
significant deciding elements in enhancing the value a client sees in
adopting a mobile internet service. There is also a research by Han & Yang
(2010) who surveyed consumer intention to switch from using internet
banking services to Mobile Banking, based on a consumer perceived value
perspective. Han & Yang (2010) found that the relative advantage of a
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Mobile Banking service and the heightened level of satisfaction with

internet banking positively affected perceived value. Therefore, the
following hypotheses are proposed:
H1. Perceived ease of use has a positive effect on perceived
usefulness.
value.
Perceived usefulness is defined as “The degree to which a person
believes that using a particular system would enhance his or her job
performance” (Davis, 1989; Davis et al., 1989). Studies have reported that
perceived usefulness plays a major role in the context of technology
(Anisur, Qi, & Islam, 2016; Ramayah, 2006), and more specifically with
Mobile Banking (Luarn & Lin, 2005; Norzaidi et al., 2011). PU has also
been studied as a predictor of perceived value. In Singapore, a research
conducted by Kim, Chan, and Gupta (2007) revealed that perceived
usefulness influences perceived value and consequently increases the user’s
intention to use mobile internet services. Likewise, perceived usefulness
could also improve the perception of value in the context of Mobile
Banking, leading to the following hypothesis:
H3. Perceived usefulness has a positive effect on perceived
value.
Trialability was defined by Rogers (2003) as “the degree to which
an innovation may be experimented with on a limited basis”. Therefore,
emerging products and services that can be tested before their full
implementation are normally accepted and adopted faster than those that
cannot be tested. Chemingui & Lallouna, (2013) and Chen (2013) have
reported that trialability is positively associated with the adoption rate.
Individuals need to try and test a new service or product to fully understand
its value, benefits, ease of use and usefulness to their needs, and they are
more likely to accept and adopt a Mobile Banking services if they are first
able to test it to perceive its benefits and discover how easy it is to use. This
leads to these hypotheses:
H4. Trialability has a positive effect on perceived usefulness.
H5. Trialability has a positive effect on perceived value.
H6. Trialability has a positive effect on perceived ease of use.
Al-somali et al. (2009) defined Mobile Banking awareness as “the
awareness of the existence of a Mobile Banking system and its benefits”.
According to Pikkarainen, Pikkarainen, Karjaluoto, & Pahnila (2004), the
amount of information that clients have about internet banking and its
benefits may have a critical impact on the adoption of internet banking. An
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earlier study by Sathye (1999) found that low awareness about internet
banking is a crucial factor that hinders clients' from using such service,
while Howcroft, Hamilton, Hewer, Howcroft (2002) reported that lack of
awareness of internet banking services and its benefits is perceived as a
reason for unwillingness of clients to use this service. Likewise, a lack of
awareness of the benefits of Mobile Banking and its value as a banking
service delivery channel will lead to lower adoption rate. This leads to the
following hypothesis:
H7. Awareness has a positive effect on perceived value.
3. Development of instrument and data collection

The instrument used to collect data for this study was a
questionnaire, specially designed to measure all the main constructs of the
research model. It contained close-ended questions that were tested and
translated into Arabic since the respondents were from Yemen. The survey
was divided into two sections. The first section measured five core
constructs using the seven-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 7 (strongly agree), these measurements were adapted from
previous literature as follow; perceived ease of use (Hanafizadeh,
Behboudi, Abedini Koshksaray, & Jalilvand Shirkhani Tabar, 2012; Yu,
2012), perceived usefulness (Akturan & Tezcan, 2012; Al-somali et al.,
2009; Lee, Park, Chung, & Blakeney, 2012), trialability (Brown, Cajee,
Davies, & Stroebel, 2003; Olatokun, 2012), awareness (Al-somali et al.,
2009), perceived value (Kim et al., 2007). While the second section
covered the demographic profile of the respondents, measured using a
nominal or ordinal scale. The respondents of this study were individuals
who: (1) had a bank account at any bank that provides Mobile
Banking services in Yemen, (2) had a mobile phone, (3) were non-
users of Mobile Banking services. In this study, a non-probability sampling
technique known as snowball sampling was adopted to reach potential
subjects among Yemeni Banks clients in the capital city Sana’a. This
technique is appropriate when the target population is difficult to reach (Al-
Qeisi, 2009). Four hundred and eighty-two valid usable responses were
received. The first part was analysed using a multivariate process
incorporating structural equation modelling (SEM) through analysis of
moment structures (AMOS) software version 21.0. AMOS is used because
of its simplicity and technically advanced nature (Miles, 2000). It also offers
a more precise assessment of the discriminant validity of an instrument than
exploratory analysis (Bagozzi & Phillips, 1982). Meanwhile, the second
889
part was analysed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS)
version 22.0
4. Data analysis and results

4.1 Measurement model assessment and confirmatory factor analysis
(CFA)
The Demographics profile showed that 71.0% of respondents are
were male and 29.0% were female. 2.7% (13 participants) were less than 20
years old, 93.1% (449 participants) were aged 20 - 49 years, and 4.1% (20
participants) were 50 years and above. Regarding their banking experience,
only 20.3 % had used banking services for a year, the majority (57.0%) are
had been bank clients for 2-7 years, and 22.6% had used banking services
for more than 7 years.
The mean and standard deviation of each core variable were tested
via SPSS and the results indicated that the level of perceived ease of use
was highest among the respondents in this study. This implies that the
respondents expect ease of use, flexibility, and usefulness when using
Mobile Banking services. Furthermore, the perceived value of using mobile
banking services was good (4.73 out of 7) (see table 2).
In this study, the CFA model tested all variables simultaneously, not
individually, because the hypothesised model integrates a small number of
items for each of the latent variables. Generally, the goodness-of-fit
statistics (see Table 1) support the integrity of the overall model. As
reported in Table 1, the model fit illustrates that the overall fit indices for
the CFA model are acceptable (Byrne, 2010; Hair, Hult, Ringle, & Rstedt,
2014; Kline, 2011), since incremental fit indices and parsimony fit indices
are fulfilled.
The CFA model also tested convergent validity by examining the
factor loading, composite reliability, and Average Variance Extracted
(AVE). High loadings (at least .50) on a factor indicate that the items
converge on the same common point (Hair et al., 2014). The composite
reliability is the same acceptable cut-off for the Cronbach’s alpha (at least
.70). High AVE values (greater than 0.5) show that the latent variables have
high convergent validity (Hair et al., 2014). The results of composite
reliability reveal that values are greater than 0.7 and AVE values more than
0.5. Therefore, all variables have convergent validity (Hair, Black, Babin,
& Anderson, 2010) (see table 2).
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Table 1: Goodness-of-fit indices for the measurement model

Fit Cited Admissibility Result Fit
Index (Yes/No)
X2 329.709
DF 82
P value >.05 .000 No
X2/DF (Kline, 2010) 1.00 - 5.00 4.021 Yes
RMSEA (Steiger, 1990) <.08 .079 Yes
GFI (Jöreskog & >.90 .916 Yes
Sörbom, 1993)
AGFI (Jöreskog & >.80 .877 Yes
Sörbom, 1993)
NFI (Bentler & >.80 .955 Yes
G.Bonnet, 1980)
PNFI (Bentler & >.05 .746 Yes
G.Bonnet, 1980)
IFI (Bollen, 1990) >.90 .966 Yes
TLI (Tucker & Lewis, >.90 .956 Yes
1973)
CFI (Barbbra, 2010) >.90 .965 Yes
PGFI (James, Muliak, & >.50 .626 Yes
Brett, 1982)
Note: X2 = Chi Square, DF = Degree of freedom, GFI = Goodness-of-fit, NFI = Normed fit
index, IFI = the increment fit index, TLI = Tucker-Lewis coefficient Index, CFI =
Comparative-fit-index, RMSEA = Root Mean Square Error of Approximation, PNFI =
Parsimony Normed Fit Index, AGFI =Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index
***The indexes in bold are recommended since they are frequently reported in literature
(Awang, 2014)
Table 2: Mean, standard deviation, loading, Cronbach's Alpha, CR

and AVE
Loading α CR AVE
Construct Item (above M SD (above (˃ (above
0.5) 0.7) 0.7) 0.5)
PEOU1 0.82
PEOU PEOU2 0.91 4.94 1.76 0.723 0.886 0.722
PEOU3 0.82
PU1 0.92
PU2 0.92
PU 4.72 1.80 0.867 0.959 0.853
PU3 0.92
PU4 0.94
TRI1 0.90
TRI 3.87 1.70 0.856 0.861 0.756
TRI2 0.83
AWR1 0.88
AWR AWR2 0.97 3.50 1.81 0.785 0.916 0.785
AWR3 0.80
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PV PV1 0.95
PV2 0.95 4.73 1.73 0.841 0.886 0.841
PV3 0.85
Note: M=Mean; SD=Standard Deviation, α= Cronbach’s alpha; CR = Composite
Reliability, AVE = Average Variance Extracted
CR= (∑K)² / ((∑K)² + (∑1-K²)), AVE= ∑K² / n. where K= factor loading of every item, n=
number of item in a model
 The measurement used is seven-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly Disagree) to 7
(strongly Agree).
Key: PU: perceived usefulness, PEOU: perceived ease of use, TRI: Trialability, AWR:
Awareness, PV: Perceived Value
The Fornell-Larcker criterion is a more conservative approach for

assessing discriminant validity, and compares the value of the AVE with
the latent variable correlations. Specifically, AVE should exceed the
correlation with any other construct (Hair et al., 2014). Table 3 represents
the Fornell-Larcker criterion for this study and shows that AVE exceeds the
correlation with any other construct.
Table 3: Results of discriminant validity by fornell-larcker criterion for
the model
Factors 1 2 3 4 5
PEOU PU TRI AWR PV
1 PEOU 0.850
2 PU 0.723 0.924
3 TRI 0.574 0.590 0.869
4 AWR 0.273 0.397 0.384 0.886
5 PV 0.680 0.734 0.542 0.426 0.917
Note: Note: Diagonals represent the square root of the average variance extracted while the
other entries represent the correlations.
4.2 STRUCTURAL MODEL ASSESSMENT

The goodness-of-fit of the structural model was comparable to the
previous CFA measurement model indices, providing evidence of adequate
fit between the hypothesised model and the observed data (Byrne, 2010).
All the hypotheses were tested using structural equation modelling via
AMOS software version 21.0 as presented in Figure 1. The structural model
fit as shown in Table 4 provides the indication of the hypotheses tests. The
p-values associated with each standardised path estimate are used to
determine significance at an alpha level of .05.
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Figure 1 : Research Structural Model Results

(g) Hypotheses tests results
Seven constructed hypotheses were examined and results are shown
below in table 4. The structural equation modelling (SEM) analysis
indicates that trialability remarkably predicts perceived ease of use
 and also is significantly predicts the usefulness
 All hypotheses constructed and tested are significant.
For results please refer to table 4.
Table 4: Structural path analysis result

Estimate
C.R
Depende Independe B
Hypothes (t- Decisio
nt nt (path S.E p
is value n
variables variables coefficie
)
nt)
< .558 .05 11.24 Support
**
H1 PU -- PEOU 9 1 ed
*
-
< .274 .07 5.008 Support
**
H2 PV -- PEOU 3 ed
*
-
< .461 .06 8.471 Support
**
H3 PV -- PU 1 ed
*
-
< .284 .05 5.995 Support
**
H4 PU -- TRI 0 ed
*
-
< .125 .05 2.678 Support
H5 PV -- TRI 5 .** ed
-
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< .579 .04 11.23 ** Support

H6 PEOU -- TRI 6 1 * ed
-
< .411 .04 8.391 ** Support
H7 TRI -- AWR 8 * ed
-
***p<.001; **p<.01; *p<.05 , S.E = Standard Error, C.R = Critical Ratio
(h) Coefficient of determination R²: the variance explained

The coefficient of determination for the proposed research model
shows that 60% of the variance of the perceived value of using Mobile
Banking is explained by trailability, perceived usefulness and perceived
ease of use. According to Chin (1998a), Cohen (1988), and Hair, Hult,
Ringle, & Sarstedt (2013), the R² of the perceived value of using Mobile
Banking services in this study is considered moderate to substantial.
5. Discussion
Potential users have concerns about the time and effort required to
learn and use Mobile Banking. If it is complex to use, has slow response, is
difficult to understand and learn, then bank clients will see limited
advantage in adopting it. Accordingly, bank clients need to take into account
the technical knowledge required in using a Mobile Banking service when
forming opinions of its value. This study found that PEOU is one of the
highest influencing factors on perceived value with ) while it also
has a significant influence on the PU with (274). Therefore, it is most
likely that as the perception regarding ease of use increases among clients,
perceived usefulness, and perceived value would therefore also increase. In
addition, consistent with previous empirical studies on the adoption of
technology, perceived usefulness is the one of highest concerns for potential
users of Mobile Banking when determining the value of the service
). One possible explanation for this finding could be that bank
clients are certain of the benefits and convenience of Mobile Banking over
other e-banking channels and it satisfies their need. Such bank customers
would already have the perception that the service is useful; and thus they
have a higher perceived value of for using the service. This finding is in
line with earlier conclusions of Ho & Ko (2008) who reported that
perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness of internet banking are
positively related to customer value. This finding is also consistent with a
894
study by Kim, Chan, & Gupta (2007), in which usefulness and ease of use
of mobile internet are found to have a positive relationship with perceived
value, especially in the early stages of adoption. The results of this research
lead back to TAM, which found that the ease of use construct is more
notable in the early stages of adoption when obstacles are presented by
process issues and need to be overcome.
Trialability as an antecedent of PEOU and PU was tested through the
assessment of the structural model and proved to have an important
influence on the PEOU and PU. Interestingly, the results showed that it has
more influence on the PEOU than PU with  respectively.
This implies that when clients have the chance to try the Mobile Banking
services, they understand how easy it is to use and learn. That its impact on
PU is significant which also implies that they clients will find more about
its benefits and value, although not as much as with the PEOU. Ultimately,
trialability was found to be a notable factor affecting the perceived value of
using Mobile Banking services indirectly through the PEOU and PU, and
directly as well.
` When bank clients get more guidance and information from the
bank about the service, the more informed they become about the benefits
of Mobile Banking and the clearer they are about how to use it. This is
supported by the findings of this research. In addition, the findings confirm
that the higher the awareness of Mobile Banking services benefits and
values (sufficient and concrete information), the higher is the perception of
the value of the customers through trialability. This study focused on
potential users, and the lack of Mobile Banking service information and
knowledge resulted in a limited perception of the benefits from using the
service.
In conclusion, all objectives of this study were achieved through
testing hypotheses H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, H6, and H7 and supporting this by
testing and examining the structural model.
6. Implications
The findings of this study will have definite and beneficial
implications for the banking sector, and also for government-related
authorities who need to be aware of the relatively important elements that
should be borne in mind when formulating strategies to promote Mobile
Banking This study has taken the perceived value construct into an
electronic context which was unexplored territory previously. The results of
895
the research can be added to the body of literature on Mobile Banking and
perceived value.
One of the most important implications of Mobile Banking is the
need to be aware that effective recognition of its perceived value f can only
be realised by making it easy to use and useful. Another major aspect is the
value of trialability to increase the perception of ease of use, usefulness and
value to each segment of a bank’s existing clients. Only by constantly and
consistently publicising their services and focusing marketing activity
through advertising and promotions that send the right messages on the
benefits and value to their clients, will banks get them to accept and adopt
Mobile Banking services. It is also about letting clients try and test the
system before accepting and adopting it, letting them appreciate the ease of
use, usefulness, low cost, and availability, and become comfortable with the
security of a mobile banking system. This will lead existing banks’ clients
who have not yet adopted Mobile Banking services, to understand the
significance and appreciate the value of the services offered when using
Mobile Banking applications.
7. Limitations And Suggestions For Future Work

Any study has its limitations, and this study is no exception. While
we employed perceived value as the dependent variable, we did not examine
the influence of value perception by clients towards intentional behaviour
and actual usage of a technology. In order to carry this study further, it is
suggested that this latter dependent variables be included.
8. Conclusion
The main objective of this study is was to define antecedents that
affect the perceived value of using Mobile Banking services among bank
clients in Yemen. The findings have shed encouraging lights on some new
variables that influence the value perception of using Mobile Banking
services. Perceived ease of use, and perceived usefulness both have a great
impact on the perception of value. In addition, trialability of Mobile
Banking services is essential to drive clients towards accepting and adopting
Mobile Banking services, especially in the early stages. Mobile Banking
services have to present something new to bank clients because of
competition from services in the same category (e.g. E-banking services).
As demonstrated by this study, when bank clients are able to evaluate
Mobile Banking services based on their awareness on its ease of use and
usefulness, and are offered trialability, they start to perceive the value of
using Mobile Banking services and thereby increase their acceptance of the
896
service. The study results clearly show that PU, PEOU, trialability, and
awareness are significant predictors of perceived value of using mobile
banking services.
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T02_014: PERCEIVED USEFULNESS,

PERCEIVED EASE OF USE, PERCEIVED
COMPATIBILITY, AND NET BENEFITS: AN
EMPIRICAL STUDY OF INTERNET USAGE
AMONG EMPLOYEES IN YEMEN
Osama Isaac ª, Zaini Abdullah ᵇ, T. Ramayah ͨ , Ahmed M. Mutahar ͩ , &
Ibrahim Alrajawy e
ª Graduate Business School, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Selangor,

Malaysia (osama2isaac@gmail.com)
ᵇ Faculty of Business & Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Selangor,
Malaysia (zabadu@salam.uitm.edu.my)
ͨ School of Management, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
(ramayah@usm.my)
d
Faculty of Business & Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA,
Selangor, Malaysia (ahmed4mutahar@gmail.com)
e
Graduate Business School, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Selangor,
Malaysia (arajawy@yahoo.com)
ABSTRACT
The Internet technology has become an essential technological tool
for individuals, organisations and nations for growth and prosperity.
However, Yemen has one of the lowest internet usage rates among all
countries in the world. This study extended the technology acceptance model
(TAM) with one antecedent variable to internet usage (i.e., perceived
compatibility) and one output variable (i.e., net benefits). This study also
proposed a second-order model net benefit which contains three first-order
constructs (knowledge acquisition, communication quality and decision
quality) in order to increase the power of explaining the output. The
questionnaire survey method was used to collect primary data from 530
internet users among employees at all thirty government ministries-
institutions in Yemen. The following analysis was conducted to examine the
relationship between the variables of the proposed model, which include
confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modeling (SEM)
via AMOS. Results of the data analysis showed that the data fit the extended
TAM model well. The findings of the multivariate analysis demonstrate four
main results. First, perceived compatibility has a positive impact on both
900
perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness. Second, perceived ease of

use has great influence on perceived usefulness and actual usage of the
internet. Third, perceived usefulness has a strong positive impact on actual
usage of internet. Fourth, actual usage positively influences net benefits. The
proposed model explains 60% of the variance in net benefits. The theoretical
and practical implications are discussed.
Keywords: Net benefits, internet usage, perceived compatibility, TAM,
Yemen
1. Introduction
The Internet/World Wide Web (WWW) has rapidly become
indispensable in the daily lives of most individuals, significantly impacted
every facet of operations in organisations and become an essential tool for
growth and prosperity (Greengard, 2015; Annunziata, 2013). At the rate of
24.70% (or, 6,773,228 internet users only) Yemen has one of the lowest
internet usage rates among the world's countries despite the fact that it has
a total population of 27,477,600 million (Internet Live Stats, 2016). It is
important to note that lack of technology usage can lead to low performance
and low productivity (Delone & Mclean, 1992; Delone & Mclean, 2003;
Norzaidi & Salwani, 2009; Makokha & Ochieng, 2014).
Technology acceptance model (TAM) by Davis (1989) and Davis,

Bagozzi, and Warshaw (1989) is considered as the most influential and
commonly employed theory for describing an individual’s acceptance of
information systems (Venkatesh, 2000), which focus on the technology
characteristics by proposing two main constructs; usefulness and ease of
use. TAM has already been validated in several studies (Anisur, Qi, &
Islam, 2016; Faqih, 2016; Peng, Ratan, & Khan, 2015; Negahban &
Chung, 2014). However, TAM ignores to address the link between actual
usage and output such as performance or net benefit, which is widely used
to measure the success of information systems (Delone & Mclean, 2003;
Montesdioca & Maçada, 2014). Moreover, this study extended TAM
through an external variable perceived compatibility (compatible with
values, lifestyle and needs) suggested by notable studies (Islam & Azad,
2015; Cheng, 2014; Yu, 2014; Brown, Venkatesh, & Hoehle, 2014; Cheung
& Vogel, 2013; Chan, Brown, Hu, & Tam, 2010; Park & Chen, 2007; Lin,
2007), and considered as one of the keys determining factors of innovation
diffusion (Rogers, 2003).
901
This study attempts to achieve the following research objectives:

(1) to examine the effects of perceived ease of use on perceived usefulness
and actual usage, (2) to examine the effect of perceived usefulness on actual
usage, (3) to examine the effect of perceived compatibility on perceived
usefulness and perceived ease of use, and (4) to examine the effect of actual
usage on net benefits.
2. Literature Review
Perceived ease of use is defined as the degree to which a person
believes that using a particular system would be free of effort (Davis, 1989).
There is a claim in IS literature that the higher perceived ease of use of any
system, the higher the perceived usefulness will be (Elkhani, Soltani, &
Nazir Ahmad, 2014). This is supported by the work of some other
researchers (see for instance, Bhatiasevi & Yoopetch, 2015; Kim, 2014;
Lee, Hsieh, & Hsu, 2011; Lee, Hsieh, & Ma, 2011; Lee, 2009; Ha & Stoel,
2009; Ramayah & Lo, 2007; Luarn & Lin, 2005). This is in contrast to
another study which found that perceived ease of use did not influence
perceived usefulness (Lee & Lehto, 2013). Moreover, a positive relationship
was found between perceived ease of use and system usage, which was
emphasised through different contexts and technological applications
(Anisur et al., 2016; Elkhani et al., 2014; Kripanont, 2007; Konradt,
Christophersen, & Schaeffer-Kuelz, 2006; McFarland, & Hamilton, 2006;
Ramayah, 2006; Teo, Lim, & Lai, 1999). However, other studies obtained
a contrasting result which stated that perceived ease of use did not
influence actual usage (Lee & Kim, 2009). Therefore, the hypotheses
proposed are as follows:

usefulness.
H2. Perceived ease of use has a positive effect on actual usage of
the internet.
Perceived usefulness is one of the fundamental antecedent factors of

technology usage and adoption (Tarhini et al., 2016; Negahban & Chung,
2014; Callum & Jeffrey, 2013; Joo & Sang, 2013). It defined as the degree
to which a person believes that using a particular system will enhance his
or her job performance (Davis, 1989). A previous study showed that
perceived usefulness has a positive influence on actual usage within the
context of intranet technology (Lee & Kim, 2009). This finding is similar to
902
results in various other studies (Kim et al., 2007; Anisur et al., 2016;
Kripanont, 2007; Norzaidi et al., 2007; McFarland & Hamilton, 2006;
Ramayah, Ignatius, & Aafaqi, 2005; Teo et al., 1999). Hence, the hypothesis
is as follows:
H3. Perceived usefulness has a positive effect on actual usage of

the internet.
Rogers (2003) considered perceived compatibility as one of the five

main key determining factors of innovation diffusion. In this study,
perceived compatibility is defined as the degree to which the internet
technology is regarded as being consistent with the existing values, belief,
lifestyle and needs (Rui-jin, Guo-xin, & Ze-zhou, 2014; Ifinedo, 2012;
Chan, Brown, Hu, & Tam, 2010; Lin, 2007). Kristensen (2016) found that
both perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness are influenced by
perceived compatibility. The result of this research is supported by another
study (Koenig-Lewis, Palmer, & Moll, 2010). Therefore, the proposed
hypothesis is as follows:
H4. Perceived compatibility has a positive effect on perceived

usefulness.
H5. Perceived compatibility has a positive effect on perceived
ease of use.
According to Kim et al. (2007), actual usage is the usage

frequency of technology and usage times. One of the most important
directions for future research in the topic of technology usage is the impact
of system usage on IS success factors such as performance or net benefits
(Venkatesh, Morris, Davis, & Davis, 2003). A few studies have proposed a
theoretical model which considers the impact of actual usage on
performance or net benefits (Hou, 2012; Son et al., 2012). The studies
found a significant relationship between system use and net benefits
(Makokha & Ochieng, 2014; D’Ambra, Wilson, & Akter, 2013; C.-K. Hou,
2012; D’Ambra & Wilson, 2011; Wang & Liao, 2008; Fan & Fang, 2006;
Lee et al., 2005). On the other hand, there are a number of studies that have
found actual usage does not predict net benefits (Cho et al., 2015; Khayun
& Ractham, 2011; Wu & Wang, 2006). Consequently, the following
hypothesis is proposed:
H6. Actual usage of the internet has a positive effect on net
benefits.
903
Net benefits defined as the extent to which information systems

are contributing to the success of individuals, groups, organizations,
industries, and nations, for example, improved decision-making, improved
productivity, increased sales, cost reductions, improved profits, market
efficiency, consumer welfare, creation of jobs, and economic development
(DeLone & McLean, 2016). While the previous studies evaluating the net
benefits and performance as one construct with multiple indicators (Cheng,
2011; Hasim & Salman, 2010; Hou, 2012; McGill & Klobas, 2009;
Norzaidi, Chong, Murali, & Salwani, 2007), this study made another
forward step and contribute to the IS body of knowledge by dealing with
net benefits construct with three separate dimensions; knowledge
acquisition, communication quality, and decision quality which every one
of the three variables has multiple indicators, this step made in order to
increase the power of explaining the output by the model.
3. Research Method
3.1 The Proposed Research Model
This study extended Davis' (1989) TAM with one antecedent
variable to internet usage, which is perceived compatibility (Rogers, 2003)
and one output variable, which is the net benefits (Delone & Mclean, 2003).
Furthermore, it also proposed a second-order model net benefits which
contains three first-order constructs of knowledge acquisition,
communication quality and decision quality (Hou, 2012; Norzaidi et al.,
2007; Norzaidi, Chong, Murali, & Salwani, 2009; McGill & Klobas, 2009;
Princely, 2014; Lwoga, 2013) to increase the power of explaining the output
(see Figure 1).
Figure 1 : Proposed extended TAM model

904
3.2. Development Of The Instrument And Data Collection

A questionnaire instrument comprising of 23 items was developed
for this study based on the existing IS literature. This study applied the
multi-item Likert scales which have been widely used in the questionnaire-
based perception studies (see for instance, Lee, Yoon, & Lee, 2009). Unlike
actual usage which is measured using a 5-rank scale, other variables are
measured using the seven-point Likert Scale, with 7 being ‘‘Strongly
Agree” and 1 being ‘‘Strongly Disagree”. This study also had a pre-test
among twenty-five university students from Yemen so as to solve any
ambiguity associated with wording or measurement. Then, these items were
pilot-tested to examine their internal consistency. The targeted population
at the time of this study comprised of approximately 6,090 of internet users
among Yemeni employees within all 30 government ministries in head
offices called Dwa'win. An adequate sample size for every ministry was
selected based on the total number of employees. Data for this study were
collected using a self-administered paper questionnaire survey. A total of
700 questionnaires were distributed, out of which, 530 sets were returned
and 508 responses were useful for the analysis. The final sample size was
considered as adequate (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2012; Krejcie & Morgan,
1970). The 76 percent response rate of this study is considered as very good
(Baruch & Holtom, 2008) in comparison to other studies found in the
relevant literature. Total questionnaires of deletion were 22 cases; 12 cases
were removed because of the missing data for more than 15% of the
questions, 4 cases considered as outliers and 6 cases involving straight
lining were also deleted. Therefore, the data ready for the analysis involved
508 cases out of the 530 returned questionnaires. Meanwhile, demographic
profiles of the respondents indicated 412 (81.1%) male respondents and the
remaining 18.9 per cent are female participants (96). As for the age groups
of the sample, 1.4 percent of them were less than 20 years old, followed by
28.3 percent of the respondents aged between 20 and 29 years, 53.9 percent
were in the age group of 30 to 39 years, 12.6 percent between 40 and 4 years
and 3.7 percent were 50 years and above. In terms of education background,
10.4 percent of the respondents have high school certificate and 8.7 percent
with a diploma. The respondents who have a bachelor degree represent the
majority of participation, with about 72.2 percent. Meanwhile, 8.7 percent
of the respondents have completed their postgraduate studies
4. Data Analysis and Results

905
4.1 Measurement Model Assessment And Confirmatory Factor

Analysis (Cfa)
Table 2 presents the mean and standard deviation of each variable in
the current study. The respondents were asked to indicate their opinion in
relation to their internet usage based on the seven-point scale ranging from
1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Perceived ease of use recorded
the highest mean score of 5.88 out of 7.0, with a standard deviation of 1.174
which indicates that the respondents considered the internet as easy to use,
understandable and flexible. Perceived usefulness recorded a mean score of
5.33 out of 7.0, with a standard deviation of 1.545, indicating that the
respondents believed that the internet has helped them to accomplish their
tasks quickly and easily. As shown in Table 1, all the goodness-of-fit indices
exceeded their respective common acceptance levels suggested by previous
research, thus demonstrating that the measurement model has exhibited a
fairly good fit with the data collected. Therefore, we could proceed to
evaluate the psychometric properties of the measurement model in terms of
construct reliability, indicator reliability, convergent validity and
discriminant validity.
For the Construct reliability, this study tested the individual
Cronbach’s alpha coefficients to measure the reliability of each of the five
variables in the measurement model. The results indicate that all the
individual Cronbach’s alpha coefficients are greater than the recommended
level of 0.7 (Kannana & Tan, 2005; Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). In
addition, to test construct reliability, all the composite reliability (CR)
values were higher than the recommended value of 0.7 (Kline, 2010; Gefen,
Straub, & Boudreau, 2000), which adequately indicates that the construct
reliability has been fulfilled (Table 2). Therefore, the achieved Cronbach’s
Alpha and CR for all constructs were considered to be sufficiently error-
free. Factor loading is used to test Indicator reliability. High loadings on a
construct indicate that the associated indicators seem to have much in
common, which is captured by the construct (Hair, Hult, Ringle, & Sarstedt,
2013). Factor loadings greater than 0.50 are considered to be very
significant (Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2010). The loadings for all the
items exceeded the recommended value of 0.5, as shown in Table 2. The
loadings for all the items in the model have fulfilled all the requirements
without being eliminated from the scale. This study also used Average
Variance Extracted (AVE) to test convergent validity, which indicates that
all AVE values are higher than the recommended value of 0.50 (Hair et al.,
2010). The convergent validity for all the constructs has successfully been
fulfilled and it exhibited adequate convergent validity (Table 2).
906
Table 1: Goodness-of-fit indices for the measurement model

Fit Cited Admissibility Result Fit
Index (Yes/No)
X2 601.111
DF 217
P value >.05 .000 No
X2/DF (Kline, 2010) 1.00 - 5.00 2.770 Yes
RMSEA (Steiger, 1990) <.08 .059 Yes
GFI (Jöreskog & >.90 .903 Yes
Sörbom, 1993)
AGFI (Jöreskog & >.80 .877 Yes
Sörbom, 1993)
NFI (Bentler & >.80 .931 Yes
Bonnet, 1980)
PNFI (Bentler & >.05 .798 Yes
Bonnet, 1980)
IFI (Bollen, 1990) >.90 .955 Yes
TLI (Tucker & Lewis, >.90 .947 Yes
1973)
CFI (Byrne, 2010) >.90 .954 Yes
PGFI (James, Muliak, & >.50 .710 Yes
Brett, 1982)
Note: X2 = Chi Square, DF = Degree of freedom, GFI = Goodness-of-fit, NFI = Normed fit
index, IFI = the increment fit index, TLI = Tucker-Lewis coefficient Index, CFI =
Comparative-fit-index, RMSEA = Root Mean Square Error of Approximation, PNFI =
Parsimony Normed Fit Index, AGFI =Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index
- The indexes in bold are recommended since they are frequently reported in literature
(Awang, 2014)
Table 2: Mean, standard deviation, loading, cronbach’s Alpha, CR

and AVE
Loading α CR AVE
Construct Item (above M SD (above (˃ (above
0.5) 0.7) 0.7) 0.5)
PEOU1: Easy to use 0.67
PEOU PEOU2: Understandable 0.89 5.88 1.174 0.837 0.845 0.648
PEOU3: Flexible 0.83
PU1: Accomplish tasks
0.89
quickly
PU 5.33 1.545 0.871 0.871 0.772
PU2: Accomplish tasks
0.86
easily
PC1: Compatible with
0.74
beliefs
0.87
values
PC 5.303 1.310 0.890 0.893 0.678
0.90
lifestyle
0.78
needs
907
USE1: Frequency of
0.82
USE usage 3.36 1.012 0.744 0.762 0.616
USE2: Duration of use 0.74
KA1: Acquire new
0.87
knowledge
KA2: Acquire new skills 0.93
KA3: Come up with
0.89
innovative ideas
KA4: Help to learn 0.82
CQ5: Communication
0.84
between employees
CQ6: Communication
NB between employees & 0.85
clients 5.07 1.409 0.910 0.748 0.515
CQ7: Employee’s
0.85
discussions
CQ8: Delivery of service 0.87
DQ9: Identify problems 0.90
DQ10: Involve others in
0.83
making decisions
DQ11: Higher quality
0.85
decisions
DQ12: More effective
0.87
decisions
Note: M=Mean; SD=Standard Deviation, α= Cronbach’s alpha; CR = Composite
Reliability, AVE = Average Variance Extracted
- CR= (∑K)² / ((∑K)² + (∑1-K²)), AVE= ∑K² / n. where K= factor loading of every item, n=
number of item in a model
- The measurement used is seven-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly Disagree) to 7
(strongly Agree). Only actual usage used 5 ranking scale.
Key: PU: perceived usefulness, PEOU: perceived ease of use, PC: perceived compatibility,
USE: actual usage, NB: net benefits, KA: knowledge acquisition, CQ: communication
quality, DQ: decision quality
The discriminant validity of the measurement model was checked

using Fornell-Larcker criterion. As shown in Table 3, the correlations
between the factors ranging from 0.310 to 0.704 are smaller than the square
root of the average variance extracted estimates which are in the range of
0.716 to 0.888. This indicates that the constructs are strongly related to their
respective indicators compared to other constructs of the model (Fornell &
Larcker, 1981), thus suggesting a good discriminant validity. In addition,
the correlation between exogenous constructs is less than 0.85 (Awang,
2014). Hence, the discriminant validity of all constructs is fulfilled.
Table 3: Results of discriminant validity by fornell-larcker criterion for

the model
Factors 1 2 3 4 5
USE PU PEOU PC NB
1 USE 0.785
908
2 PU 0.546 0.879
3 PEOU 0.382 0.488 0.805
4 PC 0.327 0.310 0.404 0.823
5 NB 0.632 0.704 0.429 0.447 0.717
Note: Note: Diagonals represent the square root of the average variance extracted while the
other entries represent the correlations.
USE: actual usage, NB: net benefits.
4.2 Structural Model Assessment

The goodness-of-fit of the structural model was comparable to
the previous CFA measurement model. In this structural model, the values
are recorded as X²/df = 3.188, CFI = 0.943 and RMSEA = 0.066. These fit
indices provide evidence of adequate fit between the hypothesised model
and the observed data (Byrne, 2010). Thus, we could proceed to examine
the path coefficients of the structural model.
(i) 4.2.1 Hypotheses tests

The hypotheses of this study were tested using the structural
equation modeling via AMOS (Figure 2). The structural model assessment
shown in Table 4 provides the indication of the hypotheses tests. All the six
hypotheses of this study are supported. Perceived ease of use significantly
predicts perceived usefulness and actual usage; hence, H1 and H2 are
accepted with   <0.001) and  <0.01) respectively.
Similarly, perceived usefulness significantly predicts actual usage, hence,
H3 is supported (p. Likewise, H4 and H5 are also
supported as perceived compatibility significantly predict perceived
909
usefulness and perceived ease of use, with ( and

respectively. Similar to actual usage which found
significantly influence net benefits, so, H6 is supported
 Note that standardized path coefficient indicates the
strengths of the relationships between the independent and dependent
variables, so the direct effects of perceived usefulness on actual usage is
much stronger than perceived ease of use as evident from the values of path
coefficient.
Table 4: Structural path analysis result

Estimate
Depende Independe B
Hypothesi C.R
nt nt (path S.E Decision
s (t-value)
variables variables coefficien
t)
< .43 .08 7.525** Supporte
H1 PU -- PEOU 9 * d
-
< .17 .05 3.097** Supporte
H2 USE -- PEOU 6 d
-
< .62 .04 10.049* Supporte
H3 USE -- PU 0 * d
-
< .15 .06 3.052** Supporte
H4 PU -- PC 6 d
-
< .41 .04 7.651** Supporte
H5 PEOU -- PC 4 * d
-
< .77 .05 7.184** Supporte
H6 NB -- USE 0 * d
-
(j) 4.2.2 Coefficient of determination R²: the variance explained

The R² value indicates the amount of variance of dependent
variables which is explained by the independent variables. Hence, a larger
R² value increases the predictive ability of the structural model. It is crucial
to ensure that the R² values should be high enough for the model to achieve
a minimum level of explanatory power (Urbach & Ahlemann, 2010). Table
5 shows the result of R² from the structural model, which indicates that all
910
the R² values are high enough for the model to achieve an acceptable level
of explanatory power.
Table 5: Coefficient of determination result R²

exogenous endogenous R² Cohen Chin Hair et al.,
construct construct
(1988b) (1998) (2013)
PC & PEOU PU .26 Substantial Weak Weak
PC PEOU .17 Moderate Weak Weak
PEOU & PU USE .51 Substantial Moderate Moderate
USE NB .60 Substantial Moderate Moderate
Table 6 shows the results of R² and factor loading for the second-
order model net benefits, which loads very well on two sub-constructs
knowledge acquisition and communication quality and loads weak on
decision quality. Furthermore, although the R² for the two sub-constructs
knowledge acquisition and communication quality are substantial, it is weak
for the sub-constructs decision quality (Chin, 1998).
Table 6: R² and factor loading for the second-order net benefits model
1st Order 2nd Order Factor loading R²
Constructs Constructs
KA <--- NB .88 .77
CQ <--- NB .78 .61
DQ <--- NB .41 .17
Note: NB: net benefits, KA: Knowledge acquisition, CQ: Communication quality, DQ:
Decision quality
5. Discussion
Perceived ease of use was found to positively affect perceived
usefulness, indicating that the easier to use of the internet, the more useful
the employees would feel the internet is. This finding is consistent with
some previous studies (Bhatiasevi & Yoopetch, 2015; Kim, 2014; Lee,
2009; Ha & Stoel, 2009; Luarn & Lin, 2005). However, the result relating
to the positive effect of perceived ease of use on perceived usefulness in this
study is inconsistent and conflicting with the result of Lee and Lehto (2013)
which found that perceived ease of use did not affect perceived usefulness.
The contradictory findings suggest that the effect of perceived ease of use
on perceived usefulness may be different across contexts and technology
applications.
911
This current study found that perceived ease of use has a positive
effect on actual usage of internet technology. The impact of perceived ease
of use on actual usage is also supported by some previous studies (e.g.,
Anisur et al., 2016; Elkhani et al., 2014; Kripanont, 2007; McFarland &
Hamilton, 2006). The result suggests that the more employees perceived the
internet as easy to use, understandable and flexible, the more actual usage
of internet would be (i.e., frequency of usage and duration of use). However,
this result contradicts with the study by Lee and Kim (2009) which revealed
no relationship between perceived ease of use and system usage. These
paradoxical results may suggest that perceived ease of use is not enough to
drive someone to use the internet without the awareness of the usefulness
of the Internet.
This study also indicated that perceived usefulness has a positive effect
on actual usage. The impact of perceived usefulness on actual usage is
supported by some previous studies (Anisur et al., 2016; Kripanont, 2007;
Norzaidi et al., 2007; McFarland & Hamilton, 2006). This is explained by
the fact that when employees perceived the internet as a useful tool, it would
increase their frequency and duration of internet use.
In addition, perceived compatibility was found to have significant
effects on both perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use. The results
support prior research by Kristensen (2016) and KoenigLewis, Palmer, and
Moll (2010). This indicates that the more employees found the internet
technology is consistent and compatible with their values, belief, lifestyle
and needs, the more they would see the internet as easy to use,
understandable, flexible and can be used to accomplish their tasks quickly
and easily.
One of the major findings in this study is that actual usage of internet
has a positive effect on net benefits. The impact of actual usage on net
benefits is supported by some previous studies (see for instance, Wang &
Liao, 2008; Hou, 2012; Fan & Fang, 2006; Makokha & Ochieng, 2014;
D’Ambra et al., 2013; D’Ambra & Wilson, 2011; Norzaidi et al., 2007; Lee
et al., 2005) and explained by the fact that when employees within
government institutions increased their frequency of internet usage and the
duration of internet use, this would lead to the increase in their net benefits
in knowledge acquisition (e.g., acquiring new knowledge and skills, coming
up with innovative ideas, helping to learn), communication quality
(communication between employees, communication between employees
and clients, employee’s discussions and delivery of service) and decision
quality (identifying problems, involving others in decision making and
higher quality decisions). Although notable studies support the result that is
912
related to the positive effect of actual usage on net benefits, Khayun and
Ractham (2011) found the opposite, i.e., there is no relationship between
actual usage and net benefits. In addition, Cho et al. (2015) indicated that
overall actual usage does not predict performance impact. However, this
study supports the claim of a positive relationship between system use on
net benefits in the context of internet technology among employees within
the government institutions in Yemen.
6. Implications
This study provided a strong support that TAM predicts system usage
of internet technology among employees within government institutions.
The findings of the present study also validated perceived compatibility as
an antecedent variable on TAM. Furthermore, the main contribution in this
study in relation to theory is that it has addressed the link between system
usage and individual net benefits. In addition, this study has contributed to
the literature of IS by proposing the second-order model of net benefits in
order to increase the power of explaining the output by the model, which
contains three first-order construct of knowledge acquisition,
communication quality and decision quality. Thus, future research can use
the proposed second-order model for a better understanding of net benefits.
The extended TAM model, with the consequences of usage through net
benefits and perceived compatibility as an antecedent variable, has
enhanced our understanding regarding of information technology (IT)
usage. This understanding can aid our efforts when promoting the internet
in organisations.
The results will also allow practitioners to determine factors that can
help increase employees' performance. The findings are very useful not only
at the individual organizational levels but also the Yemeni Government in
presenting the important effects of information technology on quality of
work. Therefore, information from these findings should encourage and
support the formation of future policy, not only at the organisational level
but also at the national level. If the government utilises these findings to set
up strategies to promote Internet usage, it may in turn improve professional
practice, personal development and quality of working life.
7. Limitations And Suggestions For Future Work

One of the limitations of this study is that data were gathered by cross-
sectional means which is not longitudinal in nature. Therefore, there is
ambiguity on the issue of whether or not internet usage is affected by
expectations. In addition, Straub, Limayem, and Karahanna-Evaristo (1995)
mentioned that there are biases when the researcher used self-reported
913
measures of usage because this has generally been found to differ from the
true score of system usage. Thus, future research should apply the proposed
extended TAM model with other technology applications such as mobile
learning, or within other sectors such as the private sector. These will further
enhance the ability of the model to thoroughly explain net benefits in the IS
context.
8. Conclusion
Studies have shown that the Internet technology has the potential
to improve most aspects of social, economic and cultural life (Kocaleva,
2014). Internet usage is also linked to national income (Pew Research
Center, 2013), and there is a significant impact of Internet usage on
organisational performance (Wang & Hou, 2003; Chen, 2008). As Yemen
is facing a variety of challenges, the Internet can contribute to overcoming
these difficulties. This study proposed an extended original TAM model
with perceived compatibility as the antecedent variable, and evaluation of
IS usage factors through net benefits among employees within the country's
public sector organisations. This study determined perceived compatibility
as a significant antecedent factor for both perceived ease of use and
perceived usefulness. Actual usage of internet has contributed significantly
to net benefits among employees, which included three dimensions and
twelve indicators; knowledge acquisition (acquiring new knowledge and
skills, coming up with innovative ideas and helping to Learn),
communication quality (communication between employees
communication between employees and clients, employees’ discussions
and delivery of service) and decision quality (identifying problems and
involving others in decision making and higher quality decisions).
Therefore, it is evident from the empirical findings that the implementation
of the Internet seems to be fairly successful within the organisations.
Moreover, organisations should be an emphasis when highlighting
usefulness and ease of use of the Internet to make the employees more aware
and prompted. Consequently, the findings of this study provide
policymakers with important insights into making more successful
approach to design and implement information technology within the
organisations, as well as encouraging top managers to utilise various
institutional powers so that employees will be more likely to use the internet
that can lead to enhancing knowledge acquisition, communication quality
and decision quality.
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T02_015: EXAMINING BASO MODEL-BASED

STRATEGIC PLANNING TRAINING AND
FOLLOW-UP SESSIONS IMPACT ON RURAL
COMMUNITY MOSQUE ORGANISATIONAL
EFFECTIVENESS.
ABSTRACT
The effects of globalisation have resulted in many non-profit
organisations (NPOs) especially rural community institutions need to
transform and exploring beyond their historical lock-in weather at the
national boundaries or global in search of a better organisational
effectiveness or performance. The objectives of this study is to examine the
impact of BASO Model-Based Strategic Planning Training (as independent
variable) and Training Follow up Sessions (as mediating variable) towards
Rural Community Mosque organisational performance. This study
intervention through BASO Model-Based Strategic Planning Training and
supported by Follow up Sessions showed evidence that mosque leaders able
to produce a comprehensive BASO model-based documented strategic
intentions for all four sample mosques. This present study also evaluate six
months posttest results on the execution of sample mosques short term
action plans. Empirical data explained there is significant contribution of
technical consultancy, peer review meetings and management support as
mediating factors towards mosque organisational effectivenss. Therefor,
this BASO model-based strategic planning training supported by training
follow up sessions is reliable to expand to other Rural Mosques in particular
within the context of FELDA, Malaysia and global.
Keywords: Organisational Effectiveness, Strategic Planning Training,

Training Follow up.
Introduction
This main objective this study is to examine the impact of the
BASO Model-based startegic planning training supported by training
follow up sessions improve the attitude, knowledge, and behaviour skills of
the rural community mosque leaders so as to alleviate the organisational
effectiveness of the mosques which is measured in terms of the documented
strategic intention and mosque performance.
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The researcher is bent towards examining the training intervention

on the rural mosque institutions that provides empirical evidence to the
argument that strategic planning training is indeed a prerequisite to
improving the capability and capacity of rural community mosque leaders
which ultimately enhances the organisational effectiveness. It is argued that
the development of the rural community mosques is hampered by: (i) non-
existence of strategic planning, (ii) weak and ineffective leadership, (iii)
poor managerial ability among the mosque leaders, (iv) poor organisational
systems, (v) poor organisational structure, and (vi) poor organisational
development [2-5].
BASO Model-based strategic planning training is
compartmentalised into the following sub-modules: (I) basic planning, (ii)
alignment planning, (iii) scenario planning, and (iv) organic planning. The
BASO model itself is rated as a more comprehensive strategic planning as
compared with other models which are mostly limited to basic goal-setting
junctureThe BASO model itself is rated as a more comprehensive strategic
planning as compared with other models which are mostly limited to basic
goal-setting juncture. This basic BASO model-based strategic planning is
argued to have a consequential effect particularly, in the transformation of
the mosque leaders to be more dynamic, democratic, and effective group
decision-making that is based on consensus. The second perspective of the
strategic planning is the so-called alignment planning which consists of the
following elements: (i) planned strategy, (ii) emergent strategy, (iii)
improved work process, and (iv) improved organisational systems and
tactical adjustment for execution plans.
In so doing, the researcher has the proclivity to adopt BASO
Model-based strategic planning training programme, and follow-up
sessions based on Kirkpatrick’s (1959) assertion that such training is a pre-
requisite to organisational effectiveness. Furthermore, Martin (2010)
argued that training impact can be improved through effective follow-up
techniques and applications which therefore justifies the researcher’s
adoption of follow-up sessions in order to ensure that the training
programme benefits the mosque organisational effectiveness. [25] This
present study applies an integrated adoption of four theories as the basis for
the theoretical framework. The first theory relates to the four levels of
training evaluation which was developed by Kirkpatrick to evaluate
BMSPT intervention. [27-31] The training evaluation variables used in this
present study consist of: (i) reaction, (ii) knowledge, (iii) behaviour, and
(iv) results. The second theory pertains to training follow-up theory which
was developed by Martin in year 2010,[25] consisting of variables as follows:
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(i) peer review meetings, (ii) technical consultancy, and (iv) management
support. The third theory for this present study is drawn from organisational
effectiveness model which was postulated by Cunningham in year 2009 and
the theory justifies the integration of the following variables: (i)
documented strategic intention, (ii) structure, (iii) systems, (iv) managerial
ability, and (v) organisational developments. [15]
Figure 1: Theoretical Framework
As evidenced by Zaki’s (2007) study, during Prophet

Muhammad’s (pbuh) era, mosques used to have 15 functions but today it is
reduced to being just a premise for two functions which are related to
prayers and celebration of Islamic festivals.[2] In Mohamed’s (2008) study,
it was affirmed that there are more than 5,490 mosques and 16,000 small
mosques in Malaysia.[39] The latest mosque statistic from JAKIM has it that
in 2015, there were 6,263 mosques and 20,000 small mosques (Surau) in
Malaysia. Therefore, there is no two-way handling about the management
of the mosques, and the only option is to look into the professional
development of the committee members, the youth and women by coaching
them in management gambit such as: (i) strategic planning training, (ii)
management ability, (iii) mosque organisational development, and (iv)
mosque organisational effectiveness.
The mosques are facing new challenges that need to be addressed
systematically. Among the challenges are: (i) the dearth of strategic
planning, (ii) lack of management acumen, (iii) poor leadership quality, (iv)
poor managerial ability, (v) insufficient financial resources, (vi) irregular
programmes or activities for the promotion of Islamic fellowship, (vii)
ineffective selection of committee members.[3] Finally, it is asserted that the
mosque infrastructure and facilities are not sufficiently conducive
especially in the traditional villages whereby the safety and cleanliness
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aspects are often neglected. As such, the image of the mosque as a

community centre is inadvertently tarnished. [35,37&38]
Method
This present study is a quasi-experimental research. Despite being
a systematic inquiry, the researcher have been given four selected
participating mosques by the FELDA management and JAKIM. Four
mosques are represented by 160 participants who are required to attend
BASO Model-based strategic planning training programme, The same set
of participants also attended a series of follow-up sessions which protest
and posttest set of data are collected. In this quasi-experimental study, the
effect of treatments can be measured by measuring the difference between
post-test and pre-test (O2 – O1). Quasi-experimental pre-test and post-test
are both useful means of guarding against threats to reliability and
validity.[12,10,20&15] This pre-test and post-test quasi-experimental study takes
measurement (O1) as the history of the sample before introducing the
experimentation manipulation known as (X), and followed by the
manipulation measurement O2 which is the change that the manipulation
has caused. The experimental effect is measured by the difference between
O2 and O1. If ‘E’ is change effect, then the equation is E = O2 – O1 (Cooper
& Shindler, 2011). As such, BASO Model-based strategic planning
comprises elements such as: (i) transformational change, (ii) people-based
ownership, and (iii) dynamic teamwork. Therefore, it is imperative that the
BASO Model-based strategic planning training is measured by the
participants’ perception on their: (i) reaction, (ii) learning (knowledge), (iii)
behaviour, and (v) results which is consistent with the four-level training
evaluation (Kirkpatrick, 1959; 1961). To the best of the researcher’s
knowledge, this present study has never been previously pursued, and more
so within the setting of the rural community mosque. Therefore, the
empirical findings of this present study will add to the body of knowledge
on rural mosques organisational effectiveness.
Typically, BASO Model-based strategic planning training is
supported by a series of training follow-up sessions (FUS) which enable
data to be collected three months after the completion of the strategic
planning training programme. The model for the training follow-up sessions
is adapted from Barton (1997). [15] It is argued that as the the setting for this
present study, the FELDA settlements offer elements of homogeneity in
terms of the settlers’ routine life, level of income, similar community
fabrics, age group. This homogeneity will contribute to the validity and
reliability for this present study [19].
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This present study adopted purposive sampling which is deemed

to systematically creating the samples for quantitatively testing the scale
items. The option for judgement sampling or similar term purposive used
like Sekaran (2013). [15] Purposive sampling is a way to implement to the
known group or groups and used when the researcher’s primary concern is
generating variation with respect to a key characteristic rather than
obtaining sample that are representative of large target group populations.
Example of purposive sampling units are community leaders, experts,
professional known for their work with and expertise on the problem of the
investigation.[24] The pursposive sampling is used to justify the inclusion of
rich source of data that can be obtained to generate or test out the
explanatory frameworks.[21] Personally administered questionnaire set and
face to face interviews with the 160 respondents resulted 100 percent
questionnaires return in data collection process.
Researcher used SPSS and SEM version 22.0 as the statistical
technique adopted for this present study in the wake of the 160 respondents,
it is incumbent upon the researcher to actually establish that it is reasonable
to have it as the sample size of this present study.[6,7&40] This longitudinal
study duration was six months, with 160 respondents which fall beyond the
range of 100 and 150 as the minimum number of respondents for structural
equation modelling as posited by Anderson and Gerbing (1988). [6] SEM will
be used as the main statistical technique to analyse the dataset and to test
the hypotheses for this present study. Its adoption as a research tool is
prevalent especially in testing the relationships in theoretical model. [33&34]
Results
Table 1: Summary of Results for Mediating Variables
No Relationships Mediators Sobel Results
Test
H25a: rea → Prm Technical Consultancy 3.481 Supported
[tco]
H25b: Rea → Tco Behaviour [beh] 2.536 Supported
H25c:: rea → Prm Behaviour [beh] 3.692 Supported
H25d: Rea → Dsi Technical Consultancy 1.680 Supported
[tco]
H25e: Beh → Prm Technical Consultancy 3.634 Supported
[tco]
H25f: Tco → Dsi Management Support 0.807 Rejected
[msu]
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Note: 1. rea: Reaction, 2. prm: Peer Review Meeting, 3. tco:

Technical Consultancy, 4. prm: Peer Review Meeting 5. dsi:
Documented Strategic Intention, and 6. beh: Behaviour
Training intervention is not a magic to solve or bring total impact

towards organisational developments. Martin, (2007) mentioned that
training follow up is the important mediator to support learning transfer [ ].
Table 1 showed that technical consultancy (tco) found as highly significant
mediator between behaviour (beh) and peer review meeting (prm) as it
Sobel Test score at 3.634 which is higher than critical ratio ± 1.653. In Table
1 also indicated that technical consultancy (tco) is highly significant
mediator between reaction (rea) and peer review meeting (prm) as its Sobel
Test score at 3.481 is more than critical ratio ± 1.653. Technical consultancy
also found as significant mediator between reaction (rea) and documented
strategic intention (dsi) as the Sobel Test score at 1.680 which is more than
criticall ratio ± 1.653. However, management support as mediator between
technical consultation and documented strategic intention (dsi) was rejected
as it Sobel Test score 0.807 as less than critical ratio ± 1.653. This happened
because respondents argued that they expected the Manager, Asistant
Manager, Social Development Officers, Religious Development Officers at
the FELDA Settlements Level should play a vital roles, actively participate
and involve in the peer review meeting sessions and decision makng
process.
In Table 2 empirically explained that all eight constructs in the
theoretical framework was found highly significant. Reaction was found
as the highest significant which it’s cronbach Alpha at α 0.937, followed
by mosque performance α 0.887, management support α 0.863, peer
review meeting α 0.862, technical consultancy α 0.853, documented
strategic intention α 0.798, knowledge α 0.796, and behaviour α 0.784.
Table 2 also measured training reaction items used Likert Scale 1 to 7

points. Score 1 meaning Strongly Disagree and scale 7 as Strongly Agree.
Mean score data in Table 2 revealed that the highest mean score
is participant attitude change which its mean score at 5.951, followed by
trainers performance mean score at 5.920, general reaction score at 5.853,
programme characteristics 5.846, training topics 5.766, methodology mean
score at 5.744, training management mean score at 5.686, and objectives
achievement mean score at 5.669.
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Table 2:Summary of Statistics for All Constructs

No Mean SD Items α Skewness Kurtosis
A Documented Strategic Intention 5 0.798
dsi1 Complete characteristics 5.670 1.136 -0.846 -0.846
dsi2 Information dissemination 5.840 1.043 -1.196 -1.196
dsi3 Adhere to planning 5.960 1.107 -1.125 -1.125
dsi4 BASO model 5.840 1.136 -1.410 -1.410
dsi5 Planning documentation 6.280 0.855 -1.249 -1.249
B Mosque Performance (mpe) 4 0.887
Ost Organisational structure (ost) 5.945 0.783 -1.302 2.665
Osy Organisational system (osy) 5.891 0.920 -0.947 0.190
Mab Managerial ability (mab) 5.846 0.798 -2.193 9.331
Ode Organisational development (ode) 5.951 0.651 -0.777 -0.129
C Reaction (rea) 8 0.937
Gre General reaction 5.853 0.648 -0.527 0.192
Oac Objectives achievement 5.669 0.701 -0.749 0,.969
Tme Training management evaluation 5.686 0.727 -0.715 0.693
Tpe Trainers performance 5.920 0.715 -0.545 -0.242
Met Methodology 5.744 0.717 -0.477 0.138
Pch Programme characteristics 5.846 0.689 -0.427 0.011
Tto Training topics 5.766 0.639 -0.346 0.112
927

Att Attitudes 5.951 0.651 0.415 -0.129
D Knowledge 5 0.796
kno1 ICT enhancement 5.590 0.899 -1.047 3.743
kno2 5S Culture 5.820 0.784 -0.382 0.306
kno3 Dakwah development 5.770 0.810 -0.485 -0.068
kno4 Strategic planning 5.900 0.762 -0.002 -0.884
kno6 Management excellence 5.880 0.780 -0.433 -0.033
E Behaviour (beh) 5 0.784

beh1 Interpersonal skills 5.610 0.825 -0.379 -0.013
beh2 Public speaking 5.760 0.828 -0.339 -0.334
beh3 Meeting technique 5.780 0.782 -0.391 -0.079
beh5 Transformational leadership 5.860 0.800 -0.631 1.017
F Technical Consultancy (tco) 7 0.859
tco1 Appreciate technical support 5.850 0.885 -0.253 -0.767
tco2 Useful technical guidelines 5.830 0.899 -0.344 -0.411
tco3 Understand BASO model 5.730 0.951 -0.399 -0.327
tco4 Mosque strategic planning 5.850 0.803 -0.461 -0.071
tco5 Mosque effective planning 5.640 0.928 -0.266 -0.534
tco6 Plan of action 5.870 1.026 -0.877 0.802
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tco7 Development of guidelines 6.010 0.978 -0.925 0.307
G Management Support (msu) 5 0.863
msu1 Working group meeting 5.650 1.083 -1.553 4.895
msu2 Meeting venue and facilities 5.770 1.087 -1.385 3.935
msu3 Working team evaluation 5.860 0.983 -1.034 1.396
msu4 Resources 5.630 0.963 -1.109 3.234
msu5 Complete documentation 5.862 0.948 -0.751 0.742
H Peer Meeting Review (prm) 6 0.862
prm1 Strategic planning skills 5.590 1.118 -1.114 1.511
prm2 Facilities and techniques 5.650 1.023 -0.752 0.689
prm3 Steering committee 5.820 0.924 -0.696 0.630
prm4 Charts for planning 5.750 0.991 -0.777 1.179
prm5 Check A and B charts 5.920 0.915 -0.549 -0.022
prm6 BASO model planning 5.280 0.905 -0.022 -0.502
929
In Table 2, posttest results after three months indicated that BASO

Model Training (BMSPT) and Follow Up Session (FUS) inputs
significantly proven as highly influence the improvements of Mosque
Documented Strategic Intention as its underlying items such as BASO
Model strategic planning documentation mean score at 6.280, mosque
leaders adhere to planning mean score at 5.960, information dissemination
to the community and public mean score at 5.840, mosque strategic
planning follow the BASO Model criteria mean score at 5.840 and mosque
strategic planning documented as complete characteristics followed BASO
Model format and guidelines mean score at 5.670.
Posttest data from Table 2 also specified that BASO Model
Strategic Planning Training (BMSPT) and Follow Up Session (FUS) found
as highly influenced on rural community mosque organisational
performance. Empirically affirmed that the organisational development
(ode) as the highest posttest mean score at 5.951, organisational structure
(ost) posttest mean score at 5.945, organisational systems (osy) postetst
mean score at 5.891, and mosque leaders managerial ability achieved
posttest mean score at 5.846.
4.0 Conclusion
This present study evaluated six months posttest results on the
execution of sample mosques short term action plans and proven that BASO
Model-Based Strategic Planning Training (BMSPT) and Follow up
Sessions (FUS) are the important antecedent towards shaping up the rural
community mosque performance. This present study finding is similar as
claimed by Kirkpatrick, (1961) and Martin, (2010). This study empirical
data clarified there is significant contribution of technical consultancy, peer
review meetings and management support as mediating factors towards
mosque organisational effectiveness. Therefore, this BASO model-based
strategic planning training supported by training follow up sessions is
reliable to expand to other Rural Mosques in particular within the context
of FELDA and Malaysia.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the help of the University
Technology MARA of Malaysia and Ministry of Higher Education
(MOHE) of Malaysia in providing the Fundamental Research Grant
Scheme (FRGS Project Number: UiTM 136/2015) and Federal Land
Development Authority (FELDA), and Department of Islamic
Development Malaysia (JAKIM).
930
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933
T02_016: FRED MCGRAW DONNER’S

INTERPRETATION OF Al-Futūhāt: AN
ANALYSIS FROM THE ISLAMIC
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Nur Aainaa bt Bajuri @ Mok
Kamaruzzaman bin Yussuf
Faculty of Islamic Civilization, University of
Technology Malaysia (UTM)
Mohd Hafiz bin Zakariya

Kuliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human
Sciences, International Islamic University of Malaysia
(IIUM)
ABSTRACT
This paper aims to study the Orientalist Fred McGraw Donner’s
interpretation of al-futūhāt through the Islamic historical perspective. Al-
futūhāt is a major event during the early phases of Islam that often attracts
scholars of Muslim and non-Muslims alike to interpret al-futūhāt, in
particular its remarkable victories which were achieved in a relatively short
span of time. Orientalists’ interpretations of al-futūhāt however are
sometime marked with inaccuracies and misrepresentations of the Islamic
history. An examination on Donner’s defining book on al-futūhāt The Early
Islamic Conquests (1981) is thus crucial for it remains a significant
literature in modern scholarship. A qualitative approach of historical
research methodology is used to analyze Donner’s view with assesment
through Islamic primary and secondary historical sources. Donner, a
leading historian in the field of early Islamic history is an authoritative
voice when discussing about the origin of Islam. His judicious use of Islamic
primary historical sources backed with appropriate ethnographic literature
resulted in a view that challenges mainstream Orientalists stance of the non
association of faith in the whole al-futūhāt and even Islamization process.
A view that is undoubtly not alien from the Islamic point of view.
Keywords: Al-futūhāt, orientalist, conquest and expansion.
934
Al-futūhāt is a process of territorial extension in Islamic history

which literally means “the openings”. Since 19 th century CE, Orientalists
had produced volumnious interpretation of al-futūhāt that conform very
little to Islamic view. In 20th century CE discourse of al-futūhāt, Fred
McGraw Donner is definitely a leading figure. His most well-known book
The Early Islamic Conquests (1981) usually serves as a general staple for
students of Islamic histories and a compulsory text book for those
embarking on future research in early Islamic history.
In The Early Islamic Conquests, Donner presented a thesis that
differed from many of its Western predecessors. He believed that Prophet
Muhammad’s ‫ ﷺ‬career and the doctrines of Islam revolutionized both the
ideological bases and the political structures of Arabian society, giving rise
for the first time to a state capable of organizing and executing an
expansionist movement.[1]
One of Donner’s basic contribution in scholarly discourse of al-
futūhāt is he paved the way for a crystal-clear discussion of the subject by
differentiating the interrelated phenomenas between the causes of the
Islamic al-futūhāt, the causes for its success, and the causes for the Arab
migration that followed. Donner proposed examining these factors
distinctively.
According to Donner, the pre-requisite in understanding al-futūhāt
is appreciating the ‘stateless’ condition of pre-Islamic Arabia. On the eve of
Islam, Arabia was essentially stateless thus lacking in many spheres of
political, administrative, military and legislative class that could exercise
state control. Political life remained of small polities and intertribal relations
only. For centuries, political struggles had either been internally among
tribal confederations consisting of warrior aristocrats and religious
aristocrats or beyond between powerful tribal confederations and their
neighboring states of Byzantine, Sassanian and the Kingdom of South
Arabia.
Historically, the three legendary states at the periphery could never
entirely subdue the fragmented Arab tribes and integrate them into their
states nor could the Arab tribes themselves be able to form their own state.
The emergence of Islam was therefore, according to Donner, the defining
ideology which at last successfully unified the ubiquitous Arab tribes. This
is further concluded with the skillful use of both traditional and novel means
of political consolidation.[1] These two factors resulted in the emergence of
the state of Muslims with the capability to organize and dominate more
effectively than ever before the different tribal groups of the Arabian
935
Peninsula. Only with the rise of this first Islamic state that al-futūhāt were
made possible. Such was Donner’s equation in interpreting al-futūhāt.
However, Donner regarded attempts to elucidate and make sense
of why al-futūhāt ever took place in the first place was even tougher than
explaining why it was so successful. There were of course several reasons
that contributed to the Muslims unparalleled triumph, the traditional
explanation of the exhaustion of the Byzantine and the Sassanian Empires
which made al-futūhāt a lot easier for the Muslims seemed plausible to
Donner. Both empires suffered dreadfully after the prolonged war, the
confusion that reigned in the Sassanian ruling house, the disruption caused
by recent enemy occupation in Syria and Iraq, the destruction wrought by
immense floods in southern Iraq, the disaffection of many of the subjects of
the two empires for religious or other reasons, the convenience of inner lines
of communication that the Muslims enjoyed, and the like.[1]
Nevertheless, Donner cautioned on overstating the other party’s
weaknesses, because “the relative merits of the military organization of
various contestants are difficult to assess since practically nothing is known
about the tactical or strategic practices of any of them. It seems clear that
the Muslims had no technological advantages over their opponents on the
battlefield and were in fact inferior to their enemies in the use of
cavalry.”[1]
Donner proposed consistently that Islam was the first and foremost
ultimate cause of al-futūhāt’s success.[1] “For it was Islam - the set of
religious beliefs preached by Muhammad, with its social and political
ramifications - that ultimately sparked the whole integration process hence
was the ultimate cause of the conquests’ success.”[1] This integration as we
have seen before led to the rise of the first Islamic state which Donner
further stressed, would be impossible to imagine al-futūhāt to succeed
without. The Muslims succeeded because they successfully organized an
effective al-futūhāt movement which was generated through its ideological
or religious underpinnings; Islam. “It was a truly Islamic movement. The
new Islamic state had also managed to weld the rugged warriors of Arabia
into an incredibly effective fighting force whose energies had long been
wasted in petty quarrels among themselves and whose political horizon had
been limited to their own tribe and its affairs.”[1]
Finally, the most challenging and difficult aspect of al-futūhāt
according to Donner was to make sense of the actual causes that triggered
al-futūhāt. He firmly believed that the Islamic state adopted an expansionist
policy and it was organised effectively until they achieved victory even
when facing great empires. But his firmness swayed slightly as to why the
936
state chose to do so in the first place. He outlined four plausible factors

which he called “guesses”. Nevertheless, Donner considered highly of the
religious and ideological factor that prompted al-futūhāt. Thus, al-futūhāt
were launched because it were seen by the ruling elites as a religious duty
to expand the political domain of the Islamic state as far as possible, a
divinely ordained mission which also gave psychological comfort for many
other Muslims embarking in the al-futūhāt mission. A traditional view of
the Muslims themselves which conversely is discredited by skeptical
modern scholars. Donner countered the skeptic’s notion to reject the
revolutionary impact of Islam which apparently had transformed the social
and political life of the seventh-century Arabs as ungrounded. Even if
estimating the precise degree of pure ideological/religious elements in the
state’s al-futūhāt’s decision is hard, dismissing it altogether is “unrealistic
and indeed foolhardy” for Donner.[1]
Donner also counted commerce as one of the causes of the al-
futūhāt. It promised rewards of properties, taxes, booty, slaves and wealth
as well as the ability to secure the trans-Arabian commercial route. Finally,
Donner suggested that al-futūhāt might have been necessary to allow the
ruling elite “to preserve their hard-won position at the top of the new
political hierarchy.”[1] This can be seen through the emigration policy
which gave dominance to the elite which could only be made possible with
the success of al-futūhāt which promised new lodging domains. Suggesting
that the futūh (opening) of Syria and Iraq were intended from the very
beginning, the case can also suggest otherwise that the futūh of Syria and
Iraq were not a deliberate action and were actually side effects of the state’s
drive to consolidate its power over all Arab tribes, including those living in
the Syrian desert and on the fringes of Iraq. Clashes with the Byzantine and
Sassanian will then be unavoidable resulting in the futūh of Syria and Iraq.
This, according to Donner did not imply that the futūh of both domains were
a conscious objective of the state.[1] Donner stressed that void of real
primary sources on individuals and the state ruling elite’s actual
motivations, all of these plausible factors remain guesses as to why the state
adopted the “expansionist policy”. He opined that the true causes of the
Islamic al-futūhāt will probably remain forever beyond the grasp of
historical analysis.[1]
The most glaring observation of Donner’s view from the Islamic
historical perspective is the absent of literary background for the Muslim
term denoting territorial expansion i.e. al-futūhāt in this book and that he
had opted for the classic english translation of conquest and expansion.
However, in future writings, Donner did elaborated on the term and his
937
stance, that although the typical translation “conquest” might be misleading

it is “too deeply ingrained in Western scholarship to be discarded” and one
using the term must always realize that the meaning goes beyond military
associated activities.[2] Donner, personally opted for the term “futūh”
henceforth this publication, although general western scholarship thematic
approach still prefers “conquest” or “expansion”. Historically, Islamic
primary sources had used the term futūh or al-futūhāt originating from the
word fataha which means opening with its plural form futūh or futūhāt. This
term is spurious in primary and secondary historical sources. Figuratively,
it refers to the victorious campaigns carried out by the Prophet and his
followers under the flag of Islam. Evidences are taken from the holy al-
Qur’ān in Sūrah Al-Fath verse 1-2: “We have opened for you [Muhammad]
a manifest opening; that Allah may forgive you your previous sins,
complete His blessing, guide you to the straight path and grant you a great
victory.”
A prominent Muslim scholar, Dr. Wahbah al-Zuhaili stated that al-
fath in this verse linguistically means the removal of closure, ‫إزالة األغالق‬
and in the jihād sense denotes victory over a country through means of force
or reconciliation, by war or otherwise, for a country remains closed until
won over, and when it is won and taken it is thus opened. And the opinion
of the majority, jumhūr‫ جمهور‬state that al-fath in this verse refers to the
Hudaibiyah Treaty.[3] In this usage, according to Ismail Raji al-Faruqi, the
term does not mean conquest, either in the literal or material sense. It
denotes two meanings: firstly, “the opening of the heart and mind to the
truth of Islam” and secondly: “to a change in the configurations of history
that makes it possible for the message of Islam to overcome obstacles and
reach the hearts and minds of men”.[4] The Qur’ānic revelation also
confirmed Prophet Muhammad’s ‫ ﷺ‬understanding of the Hudaibiyah
Treaty and called it a “manifest opening”, for it was a treaty of peace, a
situation most needed if people were to stop and listen to the call of Islam
although most of the ashāb (companions of the Prophet ‫ )ﷺ‬found it
disagreeable.[4] For the ashāb, the Hudaibiyah Treaty was a defeat not a
victory as correctly understood by the Prophet ‫ ﷺ‬and confirmed by al-
Qur’ān.
This shortfall however, is not in any way undermining the
significant contribution Donner had done in establishing the role of religion
in al-futūhāt, for he had been unswerving in renunciating classical
Orientalists’ claim of the none-association of religion in the whole process
of al-futūhāt or even the whole Islamization process itself. Absurd ideas
such as Ernest Renan’s “Islamic movement is produce without religious
938
faith” is continued to be subscribed and reiterated albeit with some

modifications by modern Orientalists. In his latest book Muhammad and
The Believers At The Origin of Islam (2010), Donner renewed his
commitment of the vital role of religion in motivating and spearheading the
subsequent Islamic movement that followed after the advent of Prophet
Muhammad ‫ ﷺ‬with emphasis on “the Believers” movement.[5] Eventhough
Donner is undivided over his position of Islam strictly in the religious
manner as the impetus of al-futūhāt, the Islamic perspective however
refines a divine intervention as the ultimate source of triumph in al-futūhāt.
Al-Qur’ān and hadīth relate to us Allah’s ‫ ﷻ‬assistance in various forms
during al-futūhāt that finally yielded victory to the Muslims. Even so, Al-
Qur’ān do instructs Muslims to undertake an ample preparation before each
battle as a pre-requisite.
On another note, Donner never conceals his uncertainty over the
objectives of al-futūhāt. Why the Muslims embarked on these large scale
al-futūhāt movement remain “guesses” for Donner, and his indecisiveness
are still evident in his latest book. Quite amazing that after almost two
decades Donner have not yet resolved his mind over the matter. Muslims
primary sources, Al-Qur’an (in Sūrah al-Hajj verses 39-41) and hadith of
the Prophet ‫ ﷺ‬nonetheless sum up to us two reasons; self-defense and
propagation of Islamic faith. Authentic hadīth of the Prophet ‫ ﷺ‬in Sahīh al-
Bukhari and Sahīh Muslim as well as Islamic historical sources, Tārīkh al-
Tabari, Al-Tabāqāt Ibn Sa’d, Sīrah Ibn Ishaq related to us the expedition of
Rasulullah’s ‫ ﷺ‬six emissaries with letters to rulers of the Arab and the non-
Arab lands inviting them to embrace Islam. Al-futūhāt can best be
understood as the amalgamation of defensive and proactive measures where
in the very act of protecting the early ummah from severe Quraysh
persecution, al-futūhāt also act as a disseminating vehicle to spread Islam.
Donner is an expert on the origin of Islam, his field of interest and
expertise lies on the early history of Islam including al-futūhāt. He
employed ethnographic method to understand al-futūhāt, for which he is
adamant to look the Muslims through the lens of the pre-Islamic Arabian
life. One can only appreciate the role of Islam once the nature and history
of the Late Antique life of Arabia is fully deciphered. It is through this blend
of ethnographic and historical justifications that Donner arrived at the
concrete role of Islam as the determining factor in initiating the grand
Islamic global movement. This is neither a baseless nor a blunt assumption.
Donner is also well known among modern Orientalists as a scholar who we
can described as practical yet judicious in utilizing Muslim historical
sources. He is neither the stubborn rejectionists nor is he a sympathetic
939
endorser, which one hardly find among Orientalists. He is also ready to

transform when change is desirable, this is evident in the case of “futūh”
terminology, where although initially Donner utilized the classic translation
“conquest”, more recent publication saw Donner using a term closer to the
Muslims terminology. While the vexing classical debate over the
authenticity of Muslim primary historical sources often impede some
scholars from engaging in advance study or is said to hinder any substantial
result gain. Donner plays the sensible and objective historian who is not
ready to accept anything at face value yet still believes that in between the
elusive and problematic data lies the truth. Embarking from this premise
Donner formulated his stance on al-futūhāt.
References
[1] Donner, F. McGraw, The Early Islamic Conquests, (Princeton
University Press, New Jersey, 1981).
[2] Youssef M. Choueiri (Ed.), A Companion to The History of the Middle
East, (Blackwell Publishing, 2005), p. 28.
[3] Wahbah al-Zuhaili, Al-Tafsīr Al-Munīr fil Aqīdah wa al-Syarī’ah wa
al-Manhaj, (Dār al-Fikr, Dimasyq, 2007), pp. 472-473.
[4] Ismail R. al-Faruqi and Lois L. al-Faruqi, The Cultural Atlas of Islam,
(MacMillan Publishing Company, New York, 1986), p. 202.
[5] Donner, F. McGraw, Muhammad and The Believers, (The Belknap
Press of Harvard University Press, London, 2010).
940
T02_017: DOES MANAGEMENT OF STATE-

OWNED COMMERCIAL BANKS OF
BANGLADESH SUPPORT HUMAN
RESOURCE ACCOUNTING?
Corresponding author
Bablu Kumar Dhar
Doctoral Program
Faculty of Leadership and Management
University Sains Islam Malaysia (USIM)
E-mail: babludhar@hotmail.com
Dr. Mahazan Bin Abdul Mutalib

Associate Professor
Faculty of Leadership and Management
University Sains Islam Malaysia (USIM), Malaysia
Dr. Farid Ahammad Sobhani

Professor
Department of Business Administration
Daffodil International University (DIU), Bangladesh
ABSTRACT
In human resource point of view, valuation of human recourse is very
necessary for any organization. It helps to take strategic decision for
obtaining competitive advantage to the management. The purpose of the
study is to evaluate the level of support of Human Resource Accounting by
the management of the State-Owned Commercial Banks (SOCB) of
Bangladesh. The research study adopted qualitative research. 36
questionnaires were collected, out of 40, by proportion allocation among
sixty (60) branches of six (6) State-Owned Commercial Banks of
Bangladesh. Data were collected by a structured questionnaire by five (5)
point Likert type ranking scale. Through various statistical analyses, the
study tries to find out the level of support of HRA through Rank Order by
the management of SOCBs of Bangladesh.
Keywords: Human Resource Accounting, Management Support
941
Introduction
As stated in the Holy Quran “Indeed Allah has created the human in the best
of forms” [1]. This verse indicates to humans being the best and most noble
creation of the Almighty. Whether we look at the human being’s physical
construction, or consider the human potential, or the human soul and mind,
we get a profound glimpse of HIS wisdom. When a human uses his or her
knowledge, potentiality and skill to make up the workforce of an
organization, firm, business or economy is known as human resource.
Without human resource, it is quite difficult to handle other resources.
Sustainability and development of any organization depend on the efficacy
of its human.
Men, materials, machines, money and methods are the resources
required for an organization. The most interesting thing is that the money,
machine and material are recognized in the statement of financial position
of an organization while the vital one, Men, is absent or omitted in the
statement of financial position [2]. Human Resources are yet to get
recognition in Balance Sheet [3]. It is highly complicated in the today’s
market to find well knowledge, coached, and highly motivated people.
Human resource is one of the most important back office operations of any
organization or business.
Developing countries like Bangladesh are overburdened with
population. These population can be converted into asset as human is the
important element in the modern knowledge based society. The financial
performance and financial sustainability of a developing nation is truly basis
on the utilization and valuation of its human. Based on this factor the
success & failure varies and depends very much not only for an organization
but also for a nation. The current study is to evaluate the level of support of
human resource accounting (HRA) by the management of SCOB as the
performance of an organization depends on the perfect measurement of
human resource.
Research Problem
For measuring human resource and its implementation, management plays
the key role. It has become a vital issue to find out whether management
support human resource accounting (HRA) or not. Though HRA is being
practiced in many developed countries, in developing countries like
Bangladesh, the application is not in satisfactory situation. Moreover, State-
Owned Commercial Banks contributes a lot not only in national economy
but also providing employment all around the country. So, it is important to
942
find out the intention to support Human Resource Accounting by the

management among the State-Owned Commercial Banks of Bangladesh.
Research Objectives
The objectives of the study are:
To find out the support of human resource accounting by the management
of SOCBs of Bangladesh.
To explore the reasons of applying or not applying HRA by the management
of SOCBs of Bangladesh.
To provide appropriate recommendations after exploring the missing
requirements within those banks.
Research Hypothesis
The research tries to find out the support of human resource accounting by
the management of the State-Owned Commercial Banks of Bangladesh.
The hypotheses of the study are:
H0: Top management has no positive and significant support to apply
Human Resource Accounting in the State-Owned Commercial Banks of
Bangladesh
H1: Top management has positive and significant support to apply
Human Resource Accounting in the State-Owned Commercial Banks of
Bangladesh
Literature Review
Though research on HRA began in the 1960s by Rensis Likert [9], still it is
in level of research and awaiting to be implement worldwide. As opposed
to external financial reporting, managerial reporting does not require
adherence to a strict set of GAAP in specific financial statements in
acceptable format reported to the public [10].
Sarkar et al., [11] and Alam and Deb [12] worked on Human Resource
Accounting Disclosure (HRAD) in Bangladesh. Cherian &Farouq [5] tried
to establish theoretical relationship between of human resource accounting
and organizational performance through their work. Skukla and
Naghshbandi [7] figured out the Comparative Analysis of Human Resource
Accounting Practices in Indian Companies. Bardawil [8] researched on the
assessment of Human Resource Accounting Application in Major Semi-
Public Organizations in GAZA strip. Bardawil [8] used the management
support, human resources measures reliability, financial resources
available, human resources information system, accounting system used as
independent variables. Karimi [13] investigated on relationship between
943
Intellectual Capital Accounting and Business Performance in the

Pharmaceutical Firms in Kenya whether he focused on human capital,
structural capital and relational capital as independent variables. Like
Karimi [13] many researchers studied on intellectual capital accounting
which is necessary for internal management control; that is management
and strategy, i.e. balanced scorecard (Andon et al., [14]; Bose and Thomas,
[15]
; Hoque, [16]; Lawrence and Sharma, [17]).
According to Sarkar et al., [11] overall human resource accounting disclosure
index of companies listed with DSE in Bangladesh was very poor (26.73).
Comparatively the banking institutions are better position than other type of
organizations. According to Ullah & Karim [18], though the level of human
resource disclosure in banking companies can be said to be satisfactory, but
the disclosure framework and the level of disclosure are not same for all the
banks. Moreover, Nizadeh and Mahesh [19] found that HRA can be used as
an effective tool for strategic Human Resource Management (HRM).
From the past literature, it is clear that many researchers worked on various
sectors of Human Resource Accounting. All of them have tried to justify
the proper valuation and disclosure of Human as human are being treated
Ashraful Makhluqat by the Holly Qur’an. However, there was no in-depth
research on the support of human resource accounting by the management
of the State-Owned Commercial Banks of a developing country like
Bangladesh. Based on this, the research started to find out the support of
human resource accounting by the management of the State-Owned
Commercial Banks of Bangladesh.
Methodology
Scope of the Study

The research carried out in the on the State-Owned Commercial Banks of
Bangladesh. According to the act of Bangladesh Bank, the Central Bank of
Bangladesh, each bank should maintain their accounts based on
International Standards of Accounting (ISA), International Financial
Reporting Standards (IFRS). The research will focus on four (6) State-
Owned Commercial Banks of Bangladesh. These are: Sonali Bank Limited,
Janata Bank Limited, Agrani Bank Limited, Rupali Bank Limited, BASIC
Bank Limited and Bangladesh Development Bank Limited.
Instrument of Data Collection

The instrument for data collection were questionnaire (Appendix 1)
designed on a 5-points Likert scale and administered on the companies
944
targeted at the staff of Human Resource, Accounting, Audit/Internal

Control departments and management bodies. A total number of 40
questionnaires were distributed to sixty (60) branches of SOCBs of
Bangladesh for responses on the subject matter and 36 questionnaires were
collected. For finding out the level of support and its rank order statistical
package for social science (SPSS) version 22.0 is used.
Data Analysis
Table 1: Mean (X̂), Proportional Mean (µ), Standard Deviation (σ), T-Value,
P-Value (sig.) and Rank Order of “Evaluation of Management Supports on
Human Resource Accounting” and the total of this field (Appendix 2)
µ σ T- P- Rank
Particulars X̂
(%) val. Val.
Management understands HRA 3.3 65 0.77 19.92 0 3
Mgt. are trained in HRA 2.5 51 0.60 19.93 0 10
Mgt. aware of importance of HRA 3.2 64 0.76 20.06 0 4
Mgt. applies method of valuation of HR 2.4 47 0.63 17.47 0 12
Mgt. disclosures HRA in annual report 2.5 51 0.69 17.18 0 11
HRA system is designed depending on specialized
2.5 51 0.60 19.93 0 10
consultants’ assistance
Mgt. costs for the safety and security for their
3.2 63 0.50 29.55 0 5
employees
Mgt. considers employees as most valuable assets 3.2 63 0.60 24.59 0 5
Mgt. uses HRA system in its employees-related
2.7 53 0.75 16.69 0 9
decisions
Employees turnover rate is considered relatively
2.8 56 0.63 20.62 0 8
low
Mgt. has plan for employees’ benefit 3.4 68 0.80 19.97 0 2
Mgt. cares about providing training 3.5 69 0.73 22.19 0 1

Mgt. has awareness on employees’ performance
3.1 63 0.72 20.54 0 6
appraisal
Mgt. provides promotion or bonus decisions based
3.1 63 0.59 25.05 0 6
on performance
Mgt. offers incentives to the employee based on
2.8 57 0.60 22.00 0 7
productivity
All paragraphs of the field 2.9 59 21.04 .00
Findings
The mean of the field “Evaluation of Management Supports of Human
Resource Accounting” equals 2.948 (58.9632%), Test-value = 21.0497, and
P-value=0.000 which is equal to the level of significance α= 0.05. It proves,
H0: Management has no positive and significant support to apply Human
Resource Accounting in the State-Owned Commercial Banks of
945
Bangladesh. The research concludes that though the respondents show

disagree or negative approaches in case of “Evaluation of Management
Support for Applying Human Resource Accounting" but HRA is being
practiced in the SOCB by the management in the various forms which
indicates to start a new era to practice HRA by the management in the
SOCB of Bangladesh.
Recommendations
The research suggests the following recommendations based on the findings
of the research:
a) It is significant for the SOCB of Bangladesh should take more steps to
evaluate value of their human resources even though HRA is not a popular
concept.
b) More awareness campaigns regarding HRA are needed by the
management at the selected banks. Moreover, SOCBs of Bangladesh still
suffer from the effect of bureaucracy system that didn't change up till today.
c) For decision making process, HRA can be used for as is related to
employees, such as reducing, promotions, providing additional benefits and
so on based on the level of their productivity.
Conclusion
Through qualitative research, the study tried to evaluate the support of
Human Resource Accounting by the management of the State-Owned
Commercial Banks (SCOBs) of Bangladesh, find out the lacking of the
management and recommend some guidelines for the sake of justifying,
recognizing and motivating human resources. For the financial
sustainability, it has become very necessary to support and practice human
resource accounting by the management of SCOBs. Otherwise the situation
may create worse situation not only for the stated banks but also for the
economy of the country.
References
[1] The Holly Qur’an, Surah Teen, verse 4 – 95:4
[2] Akintoye, I. R; Segun, O. P. and Oyetola. O., “Accounting for
Human Asset in the Statement of Financial Position: How
Realistic is the Lev & Schwartz Model?” British Journal of Arts
and Social Sciences, ISSN: 2046-9578, 20 (2), 67-87 (2015).
[3] Islam. A. I; Kamruzzaman and Redwanuzzaman, “Human
Resource Accounting: Recognition and Disclosure of Accounting
946
Methods & Techniques.” Global Journal of Management and

Business Research Accounting and Auditing, 13 (3), 1-9 (2013).
[4] Bowers, D. G., “A review of Rensis Likert's "Improving the
Accuracy of P/L Reports and Estimating the Change in Dollar
Value of the Human Organization”, Michigan Business Review, p.
25 (1973).
[5] Bullen, M.L., “Human resource accounting: A useful tool for
measurement and management in organizations,” Leadership and
Organizational Management Journal. 85-103 (2007).
[6] Sarkar. S. H., Alam. A. & Ali. I., “Human Resource Accounting
Disclosure Practices in Bangladesh,” Dhaka International
Business and Social Science Research Conference, ISBN 978-0-
9942714-3-3, (2016)
[7] Alam I. and Deb S. K., “Human Resource Accounting Disclosure
(HARD) Bangladesh: Multifactor Regression Analysis – A
Decisive Tool of Quality Assessment”. The Cost and
Management, pp. 9-13 (2009).
[8] Karimi J. M. N, “Relationship between Intellectual Capital
Accounting and Business Performance in the Pharmaceutical
Firms in Kenya”, unpublished Ph. D Thesis Dissertation,
University of Agriculture and Technology, Kenya, (2012).
[9] Andon, P., Baxter, J. & Mahama, H., “The balanced scorecard:
slogans, seduction, and state of play”, Australian Accounting
Review, 15 (1), pp. 29, (2005).
[10] Bose, S. & Thomas, K., “Applying the balanced scorecard for
better performance of intellectual capital”, Journal of Intellectual
Capital, 8 (4), p. 653, (2007).
[11] Hoque, Z., “Total quality management and the balanced scorecard
approach: a critical Analysis of their potential relationships and
directions for research”, Critical Perspectives on Accounting, 14
(5), 553-66, (2003).
[12] Lawrence, S. & Sharma, U., “Commodification of education and
academic labor using the Balanced scorecard in a university
setting”, critical perspectives on accounting, 13 (5/6), 661-77,
(2002).
[13] Ullah H. and Karim T., “Human Resource Disclosure in Annual
Report of the Listed Banking Companies in Bangladesh”, Global
Journal of Quantitative Science, 2 (1), 7-9 (March, 2015)
947
[14] Nizadeh F. R & Mahesh R., “Human Resource Accounting:

Disclosure of Indian Companies”, Tactful Management Research
Journal, 2 (5), ISSN: 2319-7943, 1-8, (2014).
948
T02_018: PRICE DISPARITY BETWEEN EAST

AND WEST MALAYSIA: ISSUE OF
CABOTAGE POLICY USING STAKEHOLDER
ANALYSIS
Siti Marsila Mhd. Ruslan
School of Maritime Business & Management, Universiti Malaysia
Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu, Malaysia, and
Department of Economics, Kuliyyah of Economics and Management
Sciences, International Islamic University Malaysia,
sitimarsila@gmail.com
Gairuzazmi bin Mat Ghani, Haniza binti Khalid

Department of Economics, Kulliyyah of Economics and Management
Sciences, International Islamic University Malaysia,
gairuzazm@iium.edu.my, hanizamv@iium.edu.my
ABSTRACT
This paper provides a qualitative analysis on the issue of price disparity
between East and West Malaysia, as well as its relation to the cabotage
policy. The Malaysian cabotage policy was introduced in 1980 with a
purpose to secure the domestic shipping industry. Ever since, it has
undergone several amendments with the latest being in 2009. The analysis
is principally based on a stakeholder analysis. The stakeholders involved
were those related directly to the maritime industry and those who were
qualified to comment on the issue of price mechanism especially in the East
part. The participants consist of shipping providers, port authority, the
Government, and special interest group. The main conclusion drawn from
the stakeholder analysis is that the cabotage policy cannot be regarded as
the sole reason for price hike. Other possible factors have more significant
effects that should be addressed prior to focusing on the policy.
Keywords: cabotage policy, price disparity, stakeholder analysis
Introduction
The issue of price differential between the East and West Malaysia has been
discussed for a long time. Several factors are linked to the problem which
949
include the total costs of transportation and logistics ashore such as the port
costs and the high surcharges in Sabah and Sarawak. In addition, the high
prices in the interior of Sabah may be due to the cost of inland shipping,
lack of competition, and lack of cost efficiency in the distribution of various
stages before reaching the consumer. Thus, the distribution of each
component in the supply chain is affected. Nevertheless, it is interesting to
identify the extent of the relative impact by certain policy to the negative
impact on the prices of goods. Its effects on the trader’s competitiveness in
East Malaysia also need to be studied. To that end, the existence of a
scenario in which traders take the opportunity to manipulate prices to
increase their profits by using the policy as a reason – “cabotage policy” –
need to be investigated.
The Cabotage Policy in Malaysia which was amended from the Merchant
Shipping Act 1952 (MSO 1952) [8] began on the 1st January 1980. It serves
to develop Malaysian ownership and local shipping in general, whilst at the
same time minimise the country’s dependence on foreign vessels and
decrease the outflow of foreign exchange in the form of freight payments.
Apart from that, the cabotage policy also acts as a platform for local
shipping companies to gradually expand and reach out into international
waters [10]. Such protection policy determines that only Malaysian-owned
shipping companies with vessels flying only the flag of Malaysia can
conduct trade between ports in the country. The cabotage trade is
administered by the Domestic Shipping Licensing Board (DSLB) which is
a part of the Maritime Division of the Ministry of Transport [5].
With the amendment to the MSO 1952, the Government provides for the
appointment of a DSLB to regulate and control the licensing of ships
engaged in domestic shipping between any ports in Malaysia [6]. The
purpose is to increase local participation in domestic shipping by
encouraging local registration of ships and local incorporation of companies
participating in domestic shipping [4]. The rationales of the cabotage policy
are part of the objectives of the Government policy as follows:
a) Making Malaysia a maritime nation;

b) Reducing the country’s dependence on foreign ships by increasing
the level of participation in Malaysia international and coastal
shipping business;
c) Engaging in shipping commitments through bilateral, regional, and
other trade agreements; and
950
d) Training and development of Malaysians in technical,

professional, and commercial aspects of the shipping business,
especially in regard to the “Malaysianisation” of floating staff and
the support to higher educational institutions.
DSLB was initially established to deal with matters relating to the licensing
of vessels that are allowed to operate in domestic waters. The policy
recognises Port Klang as the National Offloading (National Load Centre).
Vessels that are not owned by Malaysian shipping companies or ships flying
the flag of another country must unload their goods at Port Klang before
these goods can be delivered to the intended destination that includes other
port or area of economic zone [3].
The primary goal of the cabotage measures is the provision of a protected

environment for Malaysian shipping companies to prosper without being
exposed to the full force of international competition. Unfortunately, in the
absence of sufficient domestic activity to sustain a viable industry, the
protective barrier has proven to be an impediment to Malaysian shipping
companies seeking for performance efficiencies. The measures act as a
barrier that inhibits the international access to domestic market.
Consequently, a very challenging environment for Malaysian ship operators
has been created, along with the higher costs for the users of the services
they offer, particularly over the last three decades.
The National Cabotage Policy has gone through several stages of

liberalisation since its implementation. On the 3rd June 2009, the
Government gazetted PU (B) 179, which allowed several foreign ships to
carry their goods by container (transhipment trading) through Port
Sepanggar, Kota Kinabalu, Kuching, and Tanjung Pelepas Port (PTP)
without the need to apply for a shipping license [11]. Nonetheless, the
decision to import or export the container is determined by the business
consideration of the shipping companies and it is not influenced by the
government regulations. In other word, the policy will not prevent foreign
vessels to operate directly from port to port in the country, outside Malaysia,
or whether to go or to return. Imports and exports can be carried out directly
in the five ports without the need for transhipment at Port Klang and PTP
[8].
Through liberalisation, cabotage policy does not prohibit vessels from

foreign ports to call directly to or from any Malaysian port including ports
951
in Sabah and Sarawak. For example, a vessel from Singapore or Hong Kong
is free to call directly to or from any Malaysian ports. At the same time, the
cabotage policy that Malaysia practises is liberal as the country also allows
foreign vessels to operate within the domestic sector through the granting
of an exemption issued by the DSLB upon fulfilling the criteria set [7].
Even though the policy was liberalised in 2009, most international shipping
companies still prefer to go to Port Klang as the demand and population in
Peninsular Malaysia are higher than Sabah and Sarawak. According to a
published opinion in the media,1 this strategy saves a lot of their logistics
cost. Nonetheless, it inadvertently leads to the trade imbalance from within
and outside the state as fewer imports originate from the East side. To date,
less backhaul cargo travels from East Malaysia to West Malaysia 2.
The policy has often been referred to as trade barriers that cause the
industry’s inability to mobilise their capital in accordance with their
comparative advantage and create inefficiency in resource allocation. Thus,
the industry is unlikely to achieve economies of scale and its welfare gain
is not increased. For instance, the cabotage policy remains as a bottleneck
for the East Malaysia’s economic growth due to its imposition and limited
market access. An alternative report3 depicted that the cabotage policy fails
to benefit domestic shipping lines and continues to contribute to the high
cost of goods in East Malaysia. Evidently, the policy has a clear causal
relationship with the higher cost of goods in East Malaysia. Nevertheless,
the presence of protectionist policy may possibly limit the participation of
firms in the economic activities. This causes unfair competition and distorts
the price formation in the market. Such interventionist context leads prices
to become less competitive and forms a perception over the consequence of
high shipping costs that impact the market prices.
With higher shipping costs, more importers will have to pay for imported
intermediate goods. Eventually, the price that the customers need to pay as
the end recipients increases. In the competitive global market, higher
transportation costs would have to be offset either by lowering wages or by
1
The Star, 8th March 2009: “Shipping rates not the only factor in high
price of goods in Sabah and Sarawak”
2
The Star, 5th April 2014: “Leveraging on Logistics Strength”
3
Free Malaysia Today, 11 Jan 2013: “Cabotage policy for Sabah's high
cost of living”
952
reducing costs in other areas of the production process to allow firms to

compete [9]. In most labour-intensive manufacturing export activities,
where profit margins are thin and imported inputs constitute a high
proportion of total output value, small differences in the shipping costs can
impact the difference between price and loss of exports [1].
Nonetheless, cabotage regulation is not solely accountable for the issue of

price determination. Notably, market integration constitutes many
contributing factors such as (i) the level of infrastructure, (ii) production,
(iii) transportation, (iv) communication, and (v) storage facilities [10].
Therefore, the dispute over the price stipulation between the East and West
region must be studied in many different perspectives to find the real factor
and cause for this issue. This is to protect the nation’s sustainability while
taking care of public sentiment and their welfare.
The existence of price disparity in the two regions makes it logical to

understand the execution of the practice of the market pertaining to its
relationships among the players. Therefore, this research also aims to
examine other possible factors that might influence the market price. This
is done by studying the current issues on the interaction of price and the
scenarios occurring in the maritime transportation and supply chain
movement that eventually affect the market price between East and West
Malaysia.
Method
Stakeholder analysis aims to evaluate and understand stakeholders from the

perspective of an organisation, or to determine their relevance to a project
or policy. A wide range of approaches to stakeholder analysis exist. During
the analysis, inquiries were made about the position, interest, influence,
interrelations, networks, and other characteristics of the stakeholders, with
reference to their past position, present position, and future potential [3].
In the initial stage, the meaning of a stakeholder is clarified. One study [2]
cited the meaning of stakeholder as “any group or individual who can affect
or is affected by the achievement of the firm objectives”. This definition is
adapted to this study by considering the stakeholder as “any group or
individual who can affect or is affected by Malaysian cabotage policy”. For
the purposes of this study, the stakeholders are specified as the ones who
made a submission to the current shipping industry and its future. The
953
definition also includes those who are related to the determination of price
in East Malaysia.
The interviews were conducted on the shipping providers, port authority,

the Government, and special interest group; some of them were based in
Peninsular Malaysia whereas the others were located in Sabah. Table 1
provides a summary of their views using stakeholder impact matrix that is
derived from the submissions of the organisations. Their attitudes towards
the effects or impacts of cabotage policy on the performance of the maritime
industry and the price disparity between East and West Malaysia were
examined. The main variables of interest are shown in the columns and the
main stakeholder groups are listed in the rows of the table.
The potential effects or impacts of cabotage policy from a particular

stakeholder’s point of view are outlined in the table. For example, an
increase in domestic freight rates is seen as a negative impact from the point
of view of MASA (a shipowner association) because higher freight rates
lead to higher costs and lower profits for the shippers. The stakeholders’
views are classified into three types:
a) Positive impacts/effects on a variable of interest are indicated by

“+”.
b) Negative impacts/effects on a variable of interest are indicated by
a “-”.
c) For “nil”, “minimal”, “uncertain”, “unknown”, or “not explained
by the stakeholders”, the cell is left blank.
AMIM
MIMA
MASA
Related
Shipping
maritime
think tank
Stakeholders
operator and
Port operator
-
-
Cost and efficiency
-
Frequency and quality of transport
-
-
service
Accessibility from manufacturers to
-
-
-
port
Employment on Malaysian coastal
-
-
ship
Number of Malaysian coastal ships
-
Technology of Malaysian ships
-
-
-
Competition in transportation
-
-
services
Financing accessibility
+
Role of charterers in transporting

-
products
Domestic freight rate
-
Domestic port rate

-
-
Condition of ports in East Malaysia

+
Domestic cargo by Malaysia ships

-
+
Domestic cargo by rail/roads

+
Domestic cargo by international

ships
+
+
International freight rate

-
-
Export-import volume imbalance

+
+
Strategic plan (incentives and other

-
-
-
policies)
Bureaucracy and political issue
-
-
-
Technicality and infrastructure

-
-
-
Economic situation
954
955
Port and - - - - - - - - - + + - - - - + - - -
Harbour
Department,
Sabah
Government
MOT - - - - - - - - + + - - + - + - - -
Ministry of - - - - + + - - + - + - - -
Development
and
Infrastructure,
Sabah
Special
interest
group
CFOS - - - - - - - + - -
Table 1: Stakeholder Impact Matrix of Price Disparity and its Relation to Maritime Industry
Key: “+” = positive impact;

“-” = negative impact
956
Discussions on Stakeholder Impact Matrix
Generally, the Malaysian shipowners, maritime think tank associations, port

operator, and government agreed that the cabotage policy should remain in
place. They felt that the policy holds an extensive part in preserving the
nation’s sovereignty and protecting the domestic maritime industry.
Consequently, this would provide jobs for seafarers and maritime support
services. Nevertheless, few groups claimed that not enough measure is
being taken to “level the ocean” between the Malaysian coastal ships and
the international ship operators. Competition disparity, financing
accessibility, and the role of charterers in granting contracts to the shipping
companies are the major issues that could affect the capital-intensive
shipping industry.
From the perspectives of cost and efficiency, frequency and quality of

transport service, and number of Malaysian coastal ships available, most
charterers inevitably incline towards international ships to transport their
cargoes. These ships are relatively bigger, have more advanced technology,
and offer a competitive rate compared to the domestic ships. Nonetheless,
this situation creates a condition that triggers the outflows of currency and
consecutively affects the country’s balance of payment. A solid decision
needs to be done to counter this problem. The involvement of all related
stakeholders starting from the government, financiers, shippers, port
operators, charterers, and seafarers is fundamental and the issues must be
addressed simultaneously.
Currently, a new masterplan deemed as the Malaysian Shipping Master Plan

(MSMP) is drafted to revive and improve the challenges faced by domestic
shippers. It aims to further revitalise the shipping industry and maritime
sector in Malaysia through structured strategies from holistic
representatives. Consequently, the masterplan strengthens and ensures a
dynamic and sustainable industry4. Nevertheless, any initiative cannot be
realised unless everyone understands the mechanism of maritime industry
and its dynamic that continuously interrelates with one another. The focus
should not be given to the shipping operators only. It is vital for MSMP to
be aligned with other national plans and agendas to realise this effort. The
targets recommended by MSMP need to be in line with the nation’s
4
The Star, 12th March 2016: “Revival hope floats on shipping master
plan”
957
aspirations and policies by referring to the Shipbuilding and Ship Repair

Master Plan undertaken by the Malaysia Industry-Government Group for
High Technology (MIGHT) and the study of Malaysia’s port sector that is
currently being led by the Economic Planning Unit (EPU) 5.
Several arguments had taken place on the issue of price disparity with most
of the points referring to the condition in the East part, with the inclusion of
(i) the condition of ports, (ii) the existence of trade imbalance, (iii) the lack
of economic activities, (iv) the lack of accessibility from the port to the
retailers, (v) the lack of infrastructure and technical facilities, and (vi)
political sentiments. The shipping operators and the federal government
provided similar opinions regarding the condition of ports in the East by
saying that many shippers are reluctant to berth at the East ports due to its
inefficiency and lack of standards in handling cargoes.
This argument was dismissed by the Sabah port operator and Sabah
government who claimed that a comparison of technicalities is not relevant.
The development disparity between land infrastructure in the East and West
Malaysia is its main reason. Any goods that landed at the Eastern port
experience difficulty to be distributed across the state as most of the roads
are not paved well. Consequently, other land transports have to adjust with
that particular condition.
Nevertheless, all stakeholders agreed on the issue of trade imbalance due to

the fact that only 30% of outputs originate from Sabah. This creates cost
inefficiency as the shippers need to cover higher cost if nothing needs to be
transported to the West part. A majority of the Eastern stakeholders believed
that the sole cause of this problem is the lack of manufacturing and
industrial activities. They stated several examples and they were convinced
that the issue of lack of industrial activities “should not have happened” in
the first place. Compared to the Western part, the East has an abundant of
natural resources and is situated at strategic geographical location that can
support large economic activities. They believed that this issue is linked to
the political motive as most of the decision makers are located at the West.
These decision makers may view the East with different perspectives.
5
Hellenic Shipping News Worldwide, 2nd Nov 2015: Malaysian Shipping
Master Plan to be completed by end 2015”
958
The effectiveness of the government’s role in addressing the current

challenges of the maritime industry was also discussed. The federal
government concurred that many aspects in the country’s policies and
regulations are still lacking compared to other developed nations. Notably,
few “loops” need to be fixed and streamlined in order to realise the vision
to become a successful and thriving maritime nation. The shipping
providers mentioned several shipping companies that succumbed to the
tough environment and competition especially from the international
providers. Consecutively, the extent of the protection that the cabotage
policy is providing to the domestic shipping industry – its initial intention –
is questioned.
As the issue of price disparity was raised, the federal government stated that
initiatives such as Kedai Rakyat 1Malaysia, Coop1Malaysia, Agrobazar
Kedai Rakyat, and FAMA stores should be able to minimise the burden of
Eastern people. Nonetheless, not everyone will benefit from such assistance
because the number of private retailers is exceedingly higher compared to
the government initiative stores.
In general, the special interest group did not provide a lot of elaboration on
the cabotage policy and how it affects the price hike. Notably, they indicated
that the cabotage policy needs to be abolished as it promotes monopoly
among domestic shipping providers. This claim was supported as evident
by the port authority. Conversely, the shipping providers and federal
government refuted the claim and stated it as non-evident. They proceeded
to cite several counter-profiteering measures that have been carried out to
curb this activity. The special interest group also suggested for the prices in
Sabah to be standardised prior to regulating them at the national level.
Conclusion
Overall, this analysis indicates that the cabotage policy is not the “culprit”
for price disparity that occurs between East and West Malaysia. The lack of
proper regulation and execution is identified as the cause for disorder in the
industry and it needs to be addressed accordingly. Moreover, other decisive
factors also need to be solved because they can affect the price directly. In
particular, infrastructure development has to be encouraged by bringing
more industrial activities to the East part. Consequently, they will not have
959
to rely heavily on the outputs from the West part, improving the issue of
trade imbalance.
Apart from that, the facilities for transportation have to be improved,

especially for land transports. This is to ensure seamless connectivity can
be provided throughout all towns, cities, and areas. Finally, it is vital to have
strong political will to get every related stakeholder to realise the potential
of the maritime industry to spur the nation’s growth. Every stakeholder has
to be under one “roof” to ensure that any procedure or process in getting
financial assistance, license, approval, and other technical support related
to the industry can be done successfully without facing a lot of bureaucracy
issues.
Even though the issue of price hike is interrelated with many factors, the
streamlined policy and equitable development are seen as the fundamentals
that linked everything towards the improvement of price disparity. On the
whole, the cabotage policy should be maintained based on the consensus
given by the shipping providers, port authority, and the government in both
East and West sides. The policy is significant in protecting the nation’s
suzerainty over coastal waters.
Evidently, a decline in total fleet will result in the decline of turnover and
profit in the overall shipping industry. Apart from weathering the foreign
vessels off the coastal lines, it is also equally imperative to provide an
efficient regulation to accommodate the industry in effort to ensure a
sustainable number of fleets are available to support the domestic trading
activities. Consecutively, fewer cargoes will be carried by vessels from
other countries, keeping the balance of payment intact for the future well-
being.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank everyone who had generously contributed
to this study, especially to the General Manager and Operation Officers of
Malaysian Shipowners Association; Fellow of Economics of Malaysian
Institute of Maritime; Association of Marine Industries of Malaysia; the
Director of Port and Harbour Department, Sabah; the Officers in Maritime
Department, Ministry of Transport, Malaysia; the Chief Assistant Secretary
of Ministry of Development and Infrastructure, Sabah; and Consumers
Front of Sabah for their supportive feedback and response on this issue.
960
Nevertheless, the opinions and interpretations stated within this paper were
wholly provided by the authors.
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961
T02_019: THE PHILOSOPHY AND IDEA OF

EDUCATION IN WESTERN CIVILISATION
Jalal Faiz
Faculty of Education, Lasbela University of Agriculture, Water and

Marine Sciences, Uthal, Balochistan, Pakistan
Email: jalalfaiz@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Education was seen as a means of achieving different goals in different
societies, as is evident from the vast philosophical debate on the idea of
education in western civilisation. There is a long history in western learned
community that has correlated the role of education in resolving social,
economic and political conflicts. It origin goes back to ancient Greece, the
age of Enlightenment until the Modern era. Most leading philosophers of
that period were particularly Plato, Aristotle, Voltaire, Locke, Rousseau,
Hume, Morelly, and Helve’tius and others. The debate over the nature of
human being and role of education, this paper argues that the human race
is not wicked and violent by nature; however, they are innately benevolent,
kind and compassionate. This research also mentions that, if people are
good by nature or even neutral then it is the environment and education
system that would make them good or bad. Moreover, socialist writers have
also considered education very helpful both in terms of improving the
wellbeing of the masses and in terms of educating the working class to
realise its historical role and its rights. This paper neither intervenes
directly in the history of the philosophy of education nor includes it in its
scope. However, it has been worthwhile discussing the contributions of
these scholars to corroborate the inferences made in the field of education.
Keywords: Philosophy, Education, Ancient Greece, Enlightenment
Introduction
The scholarly growth and development of education is not straightforward.
Modern education in Western civilisation evolved during the Ancient
Greek, Renaissance, Reformation Movement, and later Enlightenment
periods. This gradual development continued through the early seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries and, later, in the modern world. Consequently, the
advanced doctrine of education has undergone numerous phases of change.
962
The idea of education in Western civilisation had emerged in ancient

Greece. The most important Greek philosophers were Socrates (470/469–
399 BC), Plato (428/427–348/347 BCE) and Aristotle (384–322 B.C.), all
world-renowned philosophers. The thought and ideas of these great
philosophers on education have influenced nations from ancient times to the
modern world.
Education in Ancient Greece
Plato and Philosophy of Education

Plato was born in 428/427 BC to a wealthy family in Athens. He pursued a
career in philosophy as a student of Socrates. After the death of Socrates, to
continue his philosophy Plato established a school of philosophy in Athens,
around 387 BC. Plato’s ideas on education emerged in his famous and
widely-read book the ‘Republic’. The work focused on the importance of
education for the evolving society. This seminal work is a compilation of
dialogues dealing with the essence of education in greater detail. Plato
believed that education was the key factor in creating and sustaining the
Republic (Rusholme, 1975: 2). Plato believed that the main purpose of
education was to recognise the good that prepared human beings for better
lives in the state (see Lawton and Gordon, 2002).
Scholars have described the established learning Academy of Plato as the
first European university and learning institution. According to Rusholme
(1975), in Plato’s idea of an education system children first learn reading,
writing and counting at the age of six when they go to school. His education
system is based on learning, dialogue, motivation and interest. His idea of
learning consisted of facts, skills, physical discipline, music and arts, which
he considered the highest form of endeavours in society.
Plato’s state or Polis is basically an educational community. The survival
of the Polis was based on education that enabled its citizens to accomplish
rational thinking and decision-making. It is to be noted that the objective
and purposes of education were not meant to be individual personal
interests; rather, education should serve the interests of the state (Lawton
and Gordon, 2002: 17). Thus, the state should be the guarantor of the
pleasure of its people for as long as they allow it to be the embodiment of
justice.
Plato attached greater importance to the subject of education. For Plato,
“education is a basic component of life” (Lawton and Gordon, 2002: 16).
“Plato saw education as a nursery that played a vital role in the education of
963
man, helping to build his moral character and state of mind” (Rusholme,
1975: 2). In his view, nursery education played an important role in building
moral character in the Polis. “A good society was one in which all
individuals played a useful part” (Lawton and Gordon, 2002: 16). Thus,
proper training at nursery level plays an important role in creating the best
rulers.
Plato’s Republic was a kind of Utopian recipe for a stable, just society in
which the citizens could enjoy a ‘good life’. Plato’s central idea was that his
ideal society would have three levels of citizens: the workers or men of
bronze; the warriors or men of silver; and the guardians or philosopher-
leaders, the men of gold. Each of these three groups would be carefully
educated and trained specifically for their future roles in society (Lawton
and Gordon, 2002: 16).
Aristotle idea on role of Education

As a young man, Aristotle (384–322 B.C.), a Greek philosopher, joined
Plato’s academy in Athens. He is one of the founding figures of Western
philosophy (Hummel, 1999: 1). The writings of this great thinker have
largely been lost; only one third of the original works have survived for the
modern world to contemplate the significance of education. A number of
disciplines are saturated with his philosophy such as, politics, ethics, poetry,
psychology, metaphysics, philosophy and education (Hummel, 1999: 1). It
is believed that Aristotle contributed to every field to explore the complete
domain of knowledge.
Aristotle devoted his life to teaching, learning and spreading educational
thoughts in society. Libraries and museums were established to preserve
knowledge and to proliferate education. The Lyceum (his School) was his
great achievement. According to Hummel (1999: 2), the Lyceum “was a
type of university where research was pursued as an extension of higher
education”. Research, the philosophy of education, and politics are his most
important contributions. Moreover, Aristotle laid the foundations of
knowledge and methods of teaching with the principal aim of education.
The intellectual and moral virtues were emphasised in his teachings on the
correct actions. “The happy man, the good man, is a virtuous man, but virtue
is acquired precisely through education” (see Hummel, 1999: 2). The
Aristotelian viewpoint counted education as a powerful force in every
sphere of social life (Curren, 2000).
Man alone lives by reason, for he alone possesses rationality. In his case,
therefore, nature, habit and the rational principle must be brought into
964
harmony with one another; for man is often led by reason to act contrary to
habit and nature, if reason persuades him that he ought to do so. We have
already determined what natures will be most pliable in the legislator’s
hand. All else is the work of education; some things are learned by habit
and others by instruction. Hence certain attributes are necessary in order to
achieve happiness, the full development of the human being. One must be
fortunate enough to possess from birth certain natural gifts, both physical
and moral (a healthy and beautiful body, a certain facility, intelligence and
a natural disposition towards virtue). But these are insufficient. It is only
through education that potential happiness can become truly accessible.
Education is the touchstone of Aristotelian ethics. The virtues, wisdom and
happiness are acquired through education. The art of living is something to
be learned. Aristotle’s ethics are based on such concepts as happiness, the
mean, leisure and wisdom, which we also encounter in his theory of
education (Hummel, 1999: 3).
From the remaining fragments of Aristotle’s treatise on educational

philosophy, it can be argued that he studied and debated human nature as
an important force demonstrated in education. The principal function of
education was to produce virtuous and good citizens for the Polis.
Despite the philosophical, political and intellectual contributions of ancient
Greek scholars, the Church and religious class had an immense impact on
society in Western civilisation. The middle ages witnessed the dominance
of the priesthood in the life of the masses. Eventually, this led the Orthodox
Church, the nobility, and the ruling class to play a powerful and supreme
role in social affairs. This supremacy brought the layman and the weaker
classes under the suppression of the religious elite.
The debate over the “idea of original sin”, according to Manuel (1965: 4),
was still prevalent as a subject of concern during medieval times. The
religious class’s influence was not limited to certain spheres of society; in
fact, the nature of truth, scientific knowledge and educational thoughts were
controlled by the religious institutions. In this regard, Manuel (1965: 4)
states that, “crucial for the traditional theology of all Christian sects,
whether Protestant or Roman Catholics, had been the belief that man after
the Fall was naturally corrupt, and that from the time of Adam this
corruption had been passed on through every successive generation”.
Education during the Enlightenment and Contribution of Scholars

965
The religious domination and debate over the good and bad nature of human
beings resulted in the emergence of an independent and secular
philosophical movement during the 17th and 18th centuries, known as the
Enlightenment or Age of Reason. The beginning of this intellectual and
educational revolution was aimed at curbing the rampant repression that had
spread to every aspect of human life. Evidently, the forerunners of the Age
of Enlightenment found societal redemption in education. The wide
dispersion of educational philosophy brought awareness and produced great
scholars. Most leading philosophers of this period, particularly Voltaire,
Rousseau, Hume, Morelly and Helvetius, according to Karimzadi (2015:18)
“offered a diametrically opposite description of human nature to that of the
prevailing time and religion”.
Instead of the belief that by nature man was evil, Voltaire and Rousseau,
Hume, Morelly, and Helvetius all held the conviction that man was by
nature good, or at least neutral. If he was naturally good then the good in
him should be allowed to express itself; if he was neutral then could easily
be persuaded to the good by education (Manuel, 1965: 5).
They believed that the “human race is not wicked by nature” (Karimzadi,
2015: 18). The philosophers emphasised that the human being is essentially
kind and compassionate. “If human beings are naturally good then the good
in them should be allowed to develop and grow. If they are neutral then they
can nurtured and educated to become good. So the human race by its nature
is said to be good or capable of being good” (Karimzadi, 2015: 18).
Despite overt religious conformity and even nominal acceptance of the

doctrine of original sin, many came to regard man as by nature good, or at
least capable of becoming good. Given a proper environment he would be
gentle, loving and unwarlike. He had a natural benevolence and a natural
sympathy for other men (Manuel, 1965: 5).
Karimzadi (2015: 18) writes “[I]f people are ruled by reason and are
allowed to live freely without the intrusion of outside irrational influences,
they will create societies that are good and harmonious”. But what are the
causes of peoples’ greed, viciousness and brutality? He continues “[T]hese
characteristics are described as not being innate. John Locke (1632–1704)
described the brain of the newly born child as a clean slate which is empty
of any facts” (Karimzadi, 2015: 19).
966
John Locke, the influential English philosopher and Enlightenment thinker,

had influenced scholars such as Voltaire and Jean Jacques Rousseau.
Locke’s idea of ‘consciousness’ explains that a child’s mind is a ‘blank
slate’ or Tabula Rasa. His idea suggests that human beings are born without
innate ideas (Gianoutsos, 2006: 1). Common knowledge and education can
be inculcated to people through interactions in society via shared
experiences and a sense of perceptions (see Baldwin, 1913: 180). Thus, “In
attempting to combat Descartes’ theory of innate ideas, Locke apparently
takes the opposite extreme in his philosophy and holds that knowledge is
entirely the product of experience, for the mind at birth is an ‘empty tablet’”
(Baldwin, 1913: 180).
Locke’s doctrine on education holds that ideas develop through experience,
sensation and reflection (Rickless, 2014: 67). In an essay, ‘Human
Understanding’, he debates ‘Sensation’ because this is a tool through which
senses are conveyed as perceptions in the mind, while ‘Reflection’ makes
the mind work with perceptions to generate ideas. His original belief saw
the mind as a Blank Tablet of experience, but he never claimed that all
human minds are similar. In his contribution ‘Some Thoughts Concerning
Education’ (1963), he mentions that some minds have greater intellectual
potential than others. However, the philosopher’s idea of Empiricism is
based on focused learning that is achieved with experience.
In Jean Jacques Rousseau’s (1712–78) ‘state of nature’, human beings are
regarded as pure and innocent (MacIntyre, 1998: 183–84). Rousseau was
an eighteenth-century philosopher, writer and intellectual who wrote a
discourse on inequality and a historical account of the development of the
human race. He distinguished between natural man (man formed by nature)
and social man (man shaped by society), arguing that a good education
should develop the nature of man. Rousseau discovered that mankind has
several forms of nature. According to him, man had originally lived in a
pure state of nature (see Lawton and Gordon, 2002: 94).
Rousseau describes the education of children not in a school but at home,

protected from the corrupting influences of society. It provides us with one
of Rousseau’s fundamental articles of faith: that children are born naturally
good, but become infected by the evils of society unless measures are taken
to keep the child away from them (see Lawton and Gordon, 2002: 94).
Rousseau’s philosophy revolves around the nature and the child themes,
which have also influenced the field of education greatly. Among his
writings, Emile and On Education have had a great impact on political,
967
social and educational thought. Rousseau’s Emile (1762) is beyond doubt

an influential work in the history of modern education (Manuel, 1965: 52).
The work sheds light on the nature of education and the nature of human
beings. It established a profound influence on the Enlightenment era and
has influenced contemporary political thought and the idea of education.
Emile describes an attempt to educate a simple and pure child for life and
work (see Lawton and Gordon, 2002: 95). Rousseau’s aim was to show how
natural education, unlike the artificial and formal education of society,
enables Emile to become social, moral and rational while remaining true to
his original nature. Because Emile is educated to be a man, not a priest or a
soldier, he will be able to do whatever he wants.
Francis Hutcheson (1694-1746), tutor to the father of ‘Scottish
Enlightenment’ Adam Smith, wrote in A system of Moral Philosophy (1755)
that people are born with sympathy and fellow-feelings. Like many other
Scottish philosophers, Hutcheson had an important role in eighteenth-
century writers’ debate concerning the moral sense. Consequently, the
natural goodness of the human race and the ‘moral sense’ school beliefs
emerged from his pen.
Claude Adrien Helvetius, another French philosopher, presented an
argument against both the ‘moral sense’ school, as presented by Hutcheson,
and Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s belief in the natural goodness of man
(Manuel, 1965: 76). According to Helvetius, “man in the cradle [is] neither
good nor evil” (see Manuel, 1965: 76). Helvetius’ Essays on the Mind, and
Its Several Faculties, published in 1759, proposed that all men are equal.
They naturally have the same understanding and the same level of learning.
However, the differences between men are due not to innate characteristics
but to the education system. In this regard, the distribution of educational
facilities matters. Therefore, it is education that shapes the child’s mind.
[H]e is really an adherent of the “clean slate” doctrine in John Lock’s sense:
all of man’s capacities and his principles of morality are exclusively the
result of training and experience, and if an appropriate system of education
were devised, men, motivated by self-interest alone, could be conditioned
to will the good of society (Manuel, 1965: 76).
“The good can be achieved only through an education of a particular kind,

and if this education is to be available to more than a random selection of
mankind, it will have to be institutionalised” (MacIntyre, 1998: 53). If
human beings are good by nature, then it is the environment that will make
968
them good or bad. Humans have inherent abilities and potentials for
developing. Hence, education is not about creating moral or personal
character but about seeing society develop successfully. Men’s
“misfortunes, therefore, lie in the conditions in which they live. The clue to
their well-being was in education and in social, political and economic
reforms. By introducing an appropriate system of education and reforms,
people would be guided to behave in accordance with their natural
goodness” (Karimzadi, 2015: 19).
Helvetius influenced writers of the utilitarian school of thought, such as
Jeremy Bentham. The utilitarian school, including Jeremy Bentham (1748–
1832), J. S. Mill and others, based their analysis on this principle. The
utilitarian psychology was one of the important contributions of James Mill
(1773–1836). Mill’s theory of the association of ideas, according to Lawton
and Gordon (2002: 116), had contributed to the field of educational
development in the Western world. His emphasis was on “the intellectual
processes of a child rather than the emotional and was too mechanistic an
approach” (Lawton and Gordon, 2002: 116).
A vast body of literature exists on the philosophy and idea of education.
Many scholars contributed to this subject, including Johann Heinrich
Pestalozzi (1746–1827), Friedrich Froebel (1782–1852), Johann Friedrich
Herbart (1776–1841), Immanuel Kant (1724- 1804), John Dewey (1859–
1952) and Paulo Freire (1921–1997). The viewpoints of others in education
are quite significant in society. The aim of education, according to Kant, “is
a moral and socially better world which leads to the perfectibility of man”
(see Lawton and Gordon, 2002: 134).
Conclusion
This paper mentioned the idea and philosophy of education in Western
civilisation. It clarified that education has been considered capable of
achieving different objectives from ancient times to the modern world.
Enlightenment ideas replaced the traditional political hierarchy and social
structure by bringing the ideas of freedom, equality for all and the principle
of human reason based on philosophical enquiry. Yet, the reality of
education’s role in society has been very different. For instance, the
imparting of education and the access to it is limited to a specific class in
other part of globe. Education policies are made by a specific group of
people, the elite; to achieve particular objectives. Education has failed to
care for the people while offering the State the means to exercise control.
References
969
[1] Baldwin, B. T. (1913). John Locke’s Contributions to Education.

The Sewanee Review. Vol. 21, No. 2, 177– 187. The Johns Hopkins
University Press.
[2] Curren, R. R. (2000). Aristotle on the Necessity of Public
Education. USA: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers.
[3] Gianoutsos, J. (2006). Locke and Rousseau: Early Childhood
Education. The Pulse, Vol. 4, No. 1. The Undergraduates Journal of Baylor
University.
[4] Hummel, C. (1999). Aristotle. International Bureau of Education.
Paris: UNESCO.
[5] Available from: <
http://www.ibe.unesco.org/publications/ThinkersPdf/aristote.pdf>
[Accessed on 20/05/2015].
[6] Karimzadi, S. (2015). Dialectic of Regressive Errors. London:
Humgaam Press.
[7] Lawton, D. and Gordon, P. (2002). A History of Western
Educational Ideas. London: Woburn Press.
[8] Manuel, F. E. (1965). The Enlightenment. New Jersey: Prentice –
Hall.
[9] MacIntyre, A. (1998). A Short History of Ethics: A history of moral
philosophy from the Homeric age to the twentieth century. Second addition.
London: Routledge.
[10] Rickless, S. C. (2014). Locke. Oxford, UK: Wiley Blackwell.
[11] Rousseau, J. J. (2007). Emile. Middlesex: The Echo Library.
Rusholme, J. (1975). Plato’s Idea on Art and Education. England: The
University of York.
970
T02_020: POLITICAL ADVERTISING AND

YOUNG VOTERS
Suhaimee Saahar@Saabar
Ismail Sualman
Mohd Adnan Hashim
Wan Azizi Wan Mohamed
Faculty of Communication and Media Studies
ABSTRACT
In election, voters will be exposed with variety of information. The voters
will depend on the information to make their rationale decision in choosing
the right candidates and parties that will represent their voice. One of the
main political information source during election campaign is political
advertising. Political advertisements that created during election
campaigns serve multi purposes, either to persuade, influence, attacking,
informing and manipulate the voters’ information seeking. Research on the
role of political advertising on Malaysian young voters is still small.
Therefore, this paper will discusses the role of political advertising in voters
information seeking and voting behaviour based on some critical reviews.
Keywords: Political advertising, young voters, election, political

communication.
Introduction
One of the main discussion in the democratic process is the political
participation among young voters. At the same time, the number of young
voters in Malaysia has increased to nearly 1.3 million and surprisingly they
will happen to be eligible and first-time voters in the 14th Malaysian General
Election. One of the main discussion in the democratic process is the
political participation among young voters. At the same time, the numbers
of young voters in Malaysia have increased to nearly 1.3 million and
surprisingly they will happen to be eligible and first-time voters in the 14th
Malaysian General Election. Young generation plays a significant role in a
democratic process where their involvement and engagement in the political
process will determine the political direction of this nation. Even though
there are some arguments involving their interests and participation of
Malaysian young voters in the democratic process [1], their roles and
971
influence in political communication studies are one of the important

elements that scholars are looking forward since the 1980s. According to
Muralidharan & Sung (2015), motivating young voters is a daunting task,
and research is crucial to understand the factors that influence their attitudes
and behaviour[2].
Some scholars studied on young political participation found that this group
has relatively low rates of voter participation, they have a much lower
confidence in their political knowledge than the general population [3] ;
lack of information, knowledge, and intention form candidates [4] and
changes in the political culture has influence Malaysian young voters to
participate in political process [5]; created a new wave and movement
among young voters[6], [7]; and cause a big impact on 13th General
Election [8] and more depending on information from the internet as source
of political information compared with the elder voters [9].
In sum, turn out among young voters during elections has become main
concern among scholars. Most research associated to this topic focuses on
how young voters make their rational decision that will influence their
information seeking, political knowledge, participation, engagement,
efficacy and decision [4], [10]–[12] Similarly, most research focus on voters
as determinant factors that will influence voting process and may reflect
election results on certain location. The vast expansion of social media in
terms of accessibility, readiness and availability would cause a dramatic
impact on young voters’ decision. In this case, Malaysia is of no exception.
A part of that, mass media is believed to be one of the main avenues for
consumers to attain information about the current political goings on. From
the news coverage, voters could be influenced in their decision-making to
vote for the representatives for the House of Representatives (federal level)
and the State Legislative Assembly (state level) [13]. Meanwhile, social
media plays an important role in disseminating political ads messages to
these targeted groups. It is evident that the social media continuously played
a crucial role in disseminating the information or sharing opinion to date.
Despite, the limited exposure of traditional media, opposition depends on
the social media to organize events, disseminate information, to gather, etc.
After the 12th election in 2008, both the government and opposition
acknowledge the importance and the impact of social media in Malaysia.
Both parties were actively participating in the online wars through
Facebook, twitter, and blogs. Hence, the popularity of leaders was measured
with the number of likes in Facebook or the number of followers in their
972
twitter account. Indeed, the social media has reshape the political landscape
in Malaysia [14].
Definitions of Political Advertising

Since the first review of research on political advertising in 1981,various
definitions and conceptualizations of political advertising have been defined
and conceptualize by scholars [15]. Since 1980s, some prominent scholars
in political advertising discipline like Kaid (1994, 1997, 2004), Pinkleton
(1994), defined political advertising based on situation and medium used by
candidates and parties and its affect to the target audience. These definitions
have guided scholars and researchers in this study either to explain or
distinguish commercial advertising and political advertising based on its
purposes and objectives. Obviously, both have different purposes and
objectives. In political advertising, voters need additional information that
can guide them. The contents from political ads may give different
perspective and experience to the voters.
As addition, all these definitions may include the meaning of
political advertising as the source of political messages and local news [16],
[17]; persuasion [18] and issues [19], [20], to attack opponents strategically
and negatively [21]–[23] and to reinforce the values and evaluations among
voters ; stimulates information seeking and political conversation, it likely
also offers an opportunity for citizen deliberation and promotes democracy
[24] and the ability to control completely the message presented to an
audience is one of the greatest advantages of all forms of political
advertising [25]. Based on previous studies, some have influenced voters’
political efficacy, participation, information seeking and their behaviors.
In addition, to ensure the political messages created by contesting
political parties disseminated effectively to the target audience, political
advertising plays an important role in persuading, delivering, influencing
and communicating political ads systematically and effectively to the
targeted audience. According to Carlson (2001), the central advantage of
political advertising to candidates is that they have control over the message
conveyed to the voters [26]. Thus, during election campaigns, political
parties have the opportunities to presenting their ideas and creativity in the
form of political ads to stimulate voters’ efficacy and information seeking.
It creates a situation where voters will depend on various types of
information and political messages that will reduce their uncertainties about
political situation.
Nevertheless, it shows that political advertising is a crucial
political marketing tool for political parties not only to “market” and
973
“advertise” their candidates but also to ensure political advertising

messages created by them will influence and persuade young voters’
behavior. At the same time, developing a strategic and impact creative
strategy also part of effective campaigns that are purposely created to
influence voters behavior in winning an election [27] and created different
kind of campaigns content to reach out the target groups [10] and
influencing voters’ behavior during electoral process.
Currently, political scenario in Malaysia has changed drastically.
There are several influential factors such as education, technology,
religions, economy and global issues such as Arab Spring and War on
Terrorism, international politics and recently domestic political issues such
as BERSIH, 1MDB, Hudud had influenced how Malaysian young voters
look at the current political scenario [5]. Based on some research, it also
influence their selection of candidates , issues and parties [11], [28]. What
is most apparent about the 2008 , “Chinese Tsunami” [29], [30] and 2013
elections ‘the mother of all elections’ [30]–[32] is that it could have been a
turning point in Malaysia’s political struggles and has influenced the voters
turn out among young voters in this country. Meanwhile at the same time,
it has challenged the hegemonic power of BN and the political achievement
of opposition parties has created a new political phenomenon in Malaysia
politics. All these factors have strongly affected the way in which young
voters make their own decision. Their political orientation, political
efficacy, political information needs and sense of personal efficacy may
vary and has a great impact of current political process.
Research on Young Voters

Based on some research done by either local or international
scholars, some of the young voters are aware with political or national issues
that happening in their country [Tedesco, 2005; Noordin, Sawal, and
Zakaria 2010; Ismail, Siti, Shira, and Mahmood, 2013; Abdulhameed, 2013;
Mohd Fuad and Junaidi, 2013; Suhaimee, 2013] nevertheless the level of
political engagement and political knowledge still can be explored to
understand youth involvement in politics. If many non-voters are so
knowledgeable on issues important to the election, what stopped them from
turning in their ballots? [36]. Thus, does this situation will occur for next
election where young voters tend to avoid participate in politics and
simultaneously may influence their voting decision? In the last few
elections the number of turnout among young voters in Malaysia can be
deliberated high in our political history.
However, does this situation will occur again? How does political
974
advertising will affect their political knowledge, political efficacy, sense

making process and their behavior? Does political advertising will create a
new effect on their political information efficacy and their rational thinking
in making decision? Definitely there were numerous research on political
advertising effects on voting patterns unfortunately study on impact of
political advertising on young voters’ political information efficacy,
political disaffection, psychological factors and sense making process can
be considered small in this country. Media consumption, political
information efficacy, and political cynicism all have an effect on the
political process. The constant change in society requires that these three
variables be examined to better understand how they are currently affecting
the voter turnout of today[36].
Critically, many studies and scholars had demonstrated that
political campaigns and political communications especially political
advertising with various styles, techniques, and formats do influence
individual voting behavior and election outcomes[37]. Meanwhile, research
has examined the role of political advertising in campaign processes and
has observed a range of effects [24].
Furthermore, a sizable body of research has investigated political

ad effects on voter turnout, generating mixed findings [38]. Various effects
can be found on political advertising research. Due on its roles and
influences, political advertising studies has become one of the important
studies in the political communication field. Undoubtedly, some of the
findings have provided rich information either to the incumbents or also to
the voters to understand voters’ behavior.
Conclusion
The purpose of this paper is to discuss the role of political advertising in our
political process. The involvement of young voters in Malaysia politic has
become an important subject to be studied. Based some arguments made by
scholars in this field have agreed that there are multi effects that happened
when voters are exposed with various types of political ads. The role of
political advertising cannot be denied in influencing voters’ information
seeking. However, the role of political advertising on Malaysian young
voters is a crucial to study and understand more this phenomenon. Further
research are needed to understand holistically the importance of political
ads in democratic process.
975
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T02_021: THE ROLE OF ENTREPRENEURIAL

STRATEGY-MAKING DIMENSIONS
TOWARDS ORGANISATIONAL
PERFORMANCE OF INTERNET BUSINESS
IN MALAYSIA
Sabrinah Adam
Batiah Mahadi
Lom Hui Shan
Faculty of Management, Universiti Teknologi

Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor, MALAYSIA
ABSTRACT
The immense development of technology has brought dramatic changes to
business structure. More specifically, the internet has become an important
alternative distribution channel for good and services. Internet business
today is facing major transformations due mainly to increased competition,
changes in consumer behaviour, and technological advancements. As
Internet business is an important growth engine in Malaysia nowadays, a
potential of a good entrepreneurial strategy-making (ESM) can be
discovered to develop Malaysian Internet business. Besides, ESM is
recognised as the driver of growth and profitability. Thus, this paper aims
to develop a conceptual framework related to the role of ESM dimensions,
which is the role of innovativeness, proactiveness, risk-taking, competitive
aggressiveness and autonomy towards organisational performance. As
such, this article includes a discussion of the background and the
uniqueness of the Internet business and highlighting the role of
entrepreneurial strategy-making (ESM) dimensions that have a relationship
towards organisational performance of Internet business. The paper
concludes with implementation of effective strategy-making that can benefit
the Internet entrepreneur in future.
Keywords: Entrepreneurial Strategy-Making, Innovativeness,

Proactiveness, Risk-Taking, Competitive Aggressiveness, Autonomy,
Organisational Performance, Internet Business.
980
Introduction
In the digital era nowadays, ICT skills are a must for an individual in their
daily routine activities. If the individuals do not have or master in ICT skills,
they will be left behind by others. This is because ICT skills have already
become the current needs of an individual and future demand for an
organisation nowadays (Hassan, 2008).
The study found that the development of the current ICT has made
Malaysians more knowledgeable and informative because the information
is always ready and available with one click on the search engine [1]. Hence,
it is also able to generate critical thinking and abilities to brainstorm ideas
in order to increase the source of income for an individual and the
organisation. This statement has been supported by previous studies, where
ICT is also known as a gateway for the unlimited access to knowledge.
Besides, with ICT facilities and skills, it will enable individuals to gain
knowledge in various fields for the use of social, employment, economy,
educations, and politics [2].
A strategy-making mode is known as a combination of dimensions
or elements of strategy-making that work together and is able to define a
coherent pattern of action for the firm [3]. Hence, these dimensions of
strategy-making are “thought to include the full range of organisational
activities that address issues of decision-making, planning, and
management” [4].
Previous studies found that an entrepreneurial strategy-making
process is a specific strategy-making mode that is consistent with the
literature on corporate entrepreneurship and strategic management.
However, it needs to be noted that the term entrepreneurship is used together
with strategy-making to refer to a particular mode of strategy-making [3,5].
An ESM is a series of dimensions that guide decision-making at the
strategic level of the firm [6].
Meanwhile, an entrepreneurial strategy-making process is also
referred to as an 'entrepreneurial posture' [7] and an 'entrepreneurial
orientation' [4]. Entrepreneurial strategy-making (ESM) topic has been
much discussed in the field of management and entrepreneurship literature
for many years [4]. The definition of ESM consists of three aspects [8]. The
first aspect is innovativeness where the firms are involved in technological
innovation, the second aspect is able to undertake risky ventures, which
refers to risk taking, and the third aspect is to pursue opportunities
proactively, which refers to proactiveness [8].
Organisations play an important role in our daily lives and
successful organizations symbolizes a key ingredient for developing the
981
communities and the countries. Thus, these have been supported by the
previous study, where most of the economists consider that organisations
and institutions are similar to an engine in determining the economic, social,
and political progress [6]. The study confirmed that continuous performance
is the main focus of every organisation that enables firms to grow and
progress [9]. Therefore, organisational performance is known as an
important indicator of organisational success and also becomes an
important variable in research management.
Thus, this paper aims to develop a conceptual framework related
to the role of ESM dimensions which is innovativeness, proactiveness, risk-
taking, competitive aggressiveness and autonomy towards organisational
performance. As such, this article includes a discussion of the background
and the uniqueness of the Internet business and highlighting the role of
entrepreneurial strategy-making (ESM) dimensions that have a relationship
towards organisational performance of Internet business. The paper
concludes with implementation of effective strategy-making that can
benefit the Internet entrepreneur in future.
The Internet Business In Malaysia

Internet business plays an important part in the economic growth of a
country through new business venture formation and development of
current Internet firms. The increasing development of information
technology (IT) has significantly affected both firms and markets.
Therefore, the tool that presently has the most significant consequence in
the business world is the Internet, where the Internet is one of the functions
nowadays that is becoming important as a trade infrastructure.
Malaysia stepped into the beginning age of the Internet in 1995 and
according to them, around 1996, the development began for the total
Internet hosts in Malaysia [10]. Based on the result of the first Malaysian
Internet survey that was implemented from October to November 1995 by
MIMOS and Beta Interactive Service, it showed that one out of every
thousand Malaysians has the access to the Internet (20,000 Internet users
out of 20 million inhabitants. Previous study argued that this number
increased to 2.6 per cent from the total of the population in 1998 [11]. This
increased number of the percentage was proven by the number of computer
units sold, which was 467,000 in 1998 and increased to 701,000 in 2000
[11]. This percentage indicated an increasing growth.
Moreover, a survey conducted by the Malaysian Communication
and Multimedia Commission (MCMC) [12] on Internet users showed an
increase in the percentage of Internet users across Malaysia at 68.6 per cent
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against 31.4 per cent of non-users. However, the Internet has experienced
increasing popularity among Malaysians due to its functions in information
and idea sharing, which allows the development of new communities,
channels, and platforms for substantial business activities.
To date, as Internet businesses are important growth engines in
many developed countries and other emerging countries in driving the
economy of their countries respectively, including Malaysia, therefore, a
great potential can be exposed to develop Malaysian Internet businesses
through entrepreneurial strategy-making mode (ESM) in order to contribute
to the success of organisational performance.
The Underlying Theory
The Resource Based View (RBV) theory has become one of the most
important theories in strategic management literature since 1990s [13]. This
theory addresses the basic question of why firms differ and how firm
achieve and sustain competitive advantage by organizing their resources.
Previous researcher highlighted firm’s resources and capabilities are
described as all assets, capabilities, processes, attributes and knowledge
which is controlled by the firm in order to develop and implement strategies
to improve its efficiency and effectiveness [14].
Previous study stated resources can either be tangible or intangible where

intangible resources refer to capital, access to capital and location (among
others) [15]. In contrast, intangible resources include knowledge, skills and
reputation and also entrepreneurial orientation [16].
As described by previous researchers, RBV refers to the resources that firms

integrate [17]. RBV is crucial for firms as it reflects building businesses
based on existing resources and capabilities or acquire new resources [18].
The RBV suggests that the superior performance of a firm is derived from
its pursuit of strategies that best exploit its unique resource position [19].
Therefore, this study adopts RBV as one of its underlying theory since this
theory has become a central premise in explaining the firm’s success from
an internal perspective [20].
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The Role of Entrepreneurial Strategy-Making (ESM)

Dimensions Towards Organisational Performance
Innovativeness
The innovativeness dimension refers to the degree to which a firm engages
in developing and sustaining new ideas and processes, especially as the new
processes create new products and services [21]. Schumpeter developed the
concept of “creative destruction” which suggests that innovation shifts
wealth to greater productive uses. It spurs entrepreneurship as funds flow
from existing businesses to newer ones [22].
Innovation is a complex phenomenon that involves the production,
diffusion and translation of knowledge in new or modified products or
services, or the development of new production or processing techniques
[23]. Innovation is an important component of a firm’s strategy mainly
because it constitutes one of the principal means through which it can seek
new business opportunities [4, 23].
Today, more than ever, a firm’s construction of sustainable
competitive advantage will crucially depend on its capacity to innovate
[24]. Innovation is considered by many researchers and managers to be
critical for firms to compete efficiently in both domestic and global markets
[25]. The study of innovativeness is important for all firms as the ability to
innovate is one of the critical success factor in determining the growth and
future performance of firms and seen as the only means by which companies
can sustain competitive advantage [26, 27].
When a firm is innovative this is reflected by the firm’s tendency
to depart from established practices and technologies by embracing and
supporting creativity and experimentation, technological leadership,
novelty and R&D in the development of products, services and processes
[28]. Based on a report by the European Commission, Denmark, Finland,
Germany and Sweden are known as Innovation leaders with innovation
performance well above that of the EU average, while Austria, Belgium,
France, Ireland, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Slovenia and the UK are known
as Innovation followers with innovation performance above or close to that
of the EU average [29]. The European Union is one of the world’s best
performers when it comes to producing high quality science and innovative
products [30].
A recent study conducted among Taiwanese SMEs in China also
found that innovativeness is positively related to firm [31]. These findings
are similar to the findings among SMEs in Pakistan [32], Korea [33] and
984
the recent study among publicly traded firms in Istanbul [34]. A previous
study found that among the dimensions of EO, innovativeness shows high
influence on business performance [35].
By introducing newness in the market it will help to apprehend the
intense competition of today’s global economy [36]. The innovations may
be new to the world and may create totally new markets. The firm that has
the ability to offer various lines of product and excellent technological
support within an organization will obtain greater financial rewards [37].
Therefore, based on the reviewed of the above literature, innovativeness
shows high influence on organisational performance.
Proactiveness
Proactiveness refers to the act of responding quickly to the changes and
grabbing opportunities before anyone else does. Proactivenss takes place
when firm’s sleek new entry before competitor take those opportunities
[38]. The proactive firm would have advantages from its first mover status
because it is able to capitalize on market opportunities [36]. This is the best
strategy to compete in the business world. As the first to introduce new
products or services, the firm can capture extraordinarily high profits and
have a head start in establishing brand recognition [4]. The proactiveness
dimension can shape the firm’s competitive environment, influence trends,
and in some situation, create demand [4].
The ability to identify new opportunities and shape the
environment is described as proactiveness [39]. Proactiveness reflects a
firm’s action in exploiting and anticipating emerging opportunities by
developing and introducing, as well as making improvement towards a
product [4]. Proactive firms are not only proactive in pursuing
opportunities, but also respond aggressively to competitors [4]. This
behavior enables a firm to compete with its rivals and obtain superior
performance.
Lumpkin & Dess note, however, that proactiveness does not
require being first to market and that firm can seize new opportunities, even
if they are not first to market [4]. Proactiveness thus can manifest itself in
both first mover and second mover strategies [21]. Since the first movers
create new demand and markets, they would not be construed as employing
imitative resource bundles. Therefore, they should expect to become targets
of any other firm’s imitation or substitution strategy. Second movers often
succeed because they follow the market leader in a new market, and capture
market share before the leader has fully established a dominant position
within the market [21].
985
The characteristics of proactive firms such as being responsive to

market signals, having access to scarce resources, and strongly committed
to improving product and service offerings enable high performance returns
[38, 40,41]. The more proactive the firms in developing aggressive move
towards capturing of new business opportunities, the greater the growth
rates of the firms as found among the small and medium firms in Spain [42].
It is important or a firm to be proactive as it shows that by
exploiting opportunities and making their move faster than others would put
them ahead of their competitors. Therefore, based on the literature,
proactiveness shows high influence on organisational performance.
Risk-Taking
Strategic risk-taking suggests a willingness to accept greater levels of
uncertainty about the outcome of some action. Miller & Friesen define risk-
taking as “the degree to which managers are willing to make large and risky
resource commitment, i.e., those that have a reasonable chance of failure”
(p. 923) [43].
Risk-taking can be defined as a firm agreement to commit
resources with uncertain outcome [44]. The firm would typically display
risk-taking behaviour as business ventures are often associated with high
risk. Regardless of any types of business, a certain type of risks would exist.
Risk-taking is defined as the extent to which a firm is willing to make large
and risky commitments [45, 46].
A firm is said to take risks when they are willing to commit
resources to undergo activities and projects which resulted in uncertainty of
the outcomes [4]. This shows that firms are not scared of doing things out
of the norm which is from doing normal business and go venturing into the
unknown. Risk-taking involves the willingness of entrepreneurs’
commitment to exploit opportunities or engage in business strategies in
which the outcome may be highly uncertain [45].
In the study conducted by previous researcher, they examined the
relationship between each component of EO, innovation, proactiveness and
risk-taking; they found that risk-taking and performance are negatively
related [47]. A previous study found that risk-taking is positively related to
performance, but the level of the relationship is not significant [48].
Similarly, risk-taking has the lowest positive influence on performance
[49]. Besides, a recent study among Taiwanese SMEs in China also found
that risk taking is positively related to firm performance [50]. Based on the
previous study, the researchers also confirmed that risk-taking has a positive
and significant relationship with business performance [51].
986
The meta-analysis results revealed that the risk taking dimension

is positively related to firm performance even if it is significantly smaller
than other entrepreneurial orientation dimensions [52]. The positive effect
of risk taking on firm performance is due to the fact that firms that have the
courage to make a significant resource commitment to high-risk projects
with high returns would definitely have the advantage of boosting their
firms’ incomes. Therefore, based on the reviewed of the above literature,
risk-taking shows high influence on organisational performance.
Competitive Aggressiveness
Competitive aggressiveness, refers to a firm’s propensity to
directly and intensely challenge its competitors to achieve entry or improve
position and is characterized by responsiveness in terms of confrontation or
reactive action [53]. Competitive aggressiveness refers to how enterprises
“relate to competitors” and “respond to trends and demand that already exist
in the marketplace” [54].
Lumpkin and Dess stated that competitive aggressiveness is the
intensity of the firms to improve their position to outdo and overtake their
competitors in the market [4]. Competitive aggressiveness as the intensity
of a firm’s effort to outperform rivals and are characterized by a strong
offensive posture or aggressive responses to competitive threats [55]. This
is one of the ways on how a firm’s move to defeat their rivals in order to
perform better in the market [56].
Competitive aggressiveness reflects the willingness to challenge
the market rivals directly in order to gain market share and opportunity [57].
This concept involves the intensity of the efforts of a firm to do better than
industry rivals and their desire to assert themselves by enjoying the rivalry
and striving for success [58]. A previous study has reported highly
aggressiveness firm are intensive, forceful and combative, implying the
willingness to plot and execute competitive actions as the firm directly
challenges rivals [58]. These firms see themselves as a winner and need to
dominate their competitors. The context in which the organization operates
also influences competitive aggressiveness. It is common knowledge that
industry rivalry exists between competitors and therefore to succeed, a
competitive aggressiveness is necessary particularly in a highly competitive
industry.
Autonomy
987
Hickman believes that an “independent spirit” is necessary for

entrepreneurship, and autonomy refers to an independent action in terms of
“bringing forth an idea or a vision and carrying it through to completion”,
including the concept of free and independent action of an individual or
team [59]. “A tendency toward independent and autonomous action” is a
key component of an entrepreneurial orientation, since intentionally must
be exercised [59].
Lumpkin & Dess, defined autonomy as the freedom granted to
individuals by encouraging them to exercise their creativity to bring forth
an idea and be able to reach a certain conclusion [4]. This freedom is
necessary if creativity is to be unleashed within the individuals, which not
only helps organizations to perform better but also individual performance
is enhanced.
Autonomy gives employees the chance to perform effectively by
being independent, self-directed, and creative. This in turn will encourage
them to give their best and have the feel of belongings. Autonomy posited
to be independent action undertaken by entrepreneurial leaders or teams
directed at bringing about a new venture and seeing it to fruition [60].
Practicing autonomy promotes innovation, foster competitiveness and
effectiveness of a firm thus allows launching organizational traditions or
strategic norms, they are able to more effectively investigate opportunities
for entrepreneurial action and champion new venture concepts [61].
From the review of the above literature, it shows that the role of
ESM dimensions which is innovativeness, proactiveness, risk-taking,
competitive aggressiveness and autonomy have a relationship towards the
organisational performance of Internet business in Malaysia.
The Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework (Figure 1) portrays is based on the aims of the
study that is to identify the effect of ESM dimensions which is the effects
of innovativeness, proactiveness and risk-taking towards performance
achievements of Internet business in Malaysia. There are five independent
variables in this study, which are innovativeness, proactiveness, risk-taking,
competitive aggressiveness and autonomy. There is one dependent variable
which is organisational performance.
Implementation Of Good Strategy-Making In

Organisations
988
Strategy is about making a series of decisions that drive corporate action

under specific connection with the company’s environment and context
This is because decisions are actions and strategy itself is an action, not just
a description of the action. Strategy is a fit and purposeful action that will
impress both competitors and customers. This is because the poor
implementation of strategy development has been linked to the failure of
Internet business. Thus, the action of Internet entrepreneurs has to be
stronger and more consistent in order to implement an effective strategy-
making.
Innovativeness
Proactiveness
Risk-Taking Organisational
Performance
Competitive
Aggressiveness
Autonomy
Figure 1: Conceptual framework of the study
One of the implementations towards effective strategy making has

been discussed extensively in the previous study where the first is through
the planning and execution, in which both of these are independent [62].
They argued that the implementation follows the formulation whereby one
cannot implement something until that something exists. Thus, strategy
formulation and implementation are separated. However, formulation and
implementation are also interdependent, which is part of an overall process
of planning-executing-adapting. Therefore, this interdependence
recommends the intersection between planners and achievers, and helps to
improve the probability of execution success [62].
Next, the implementation of effective strategy takes longer time.
This statement is supported by the researchers, whereby this can challenge
the manager's attention to complete with details [62]. Hence, in order to
989
avoid external ‘shocks’ and changes, they suggested that the controls must
be set to provide feedback and keep management up to date [62]. However,
when an Internet business fails to execute its strategy, the Internet
entrepreneurs should not think about restructuring its processes. This is
because the essentials of effective implementation begin by clarifying the
right decisions and ensure the information flows in a right track where it
needs to go. Besides, if the Internet entrepreneurs get those rights, the
correct structure and motivators often become obvious.
In fact, everything done, surely has its own risks. Similarly, in the
Internet business, any other business still faces risks that can harm the
success of the implementation. Therefore, something that is well planned
and managed is able to reduce the risk that will be faced by the owner of the
business. Hence, using the right methods, frameworks, or timing may
reduce or minimize Internet business failure.
Conclusion
In conclusion, this paper has developed conceptually to examine the role of
ESM dimensions which is the innovativeness, proactiveness,risk-taking,
competitive aggressiveness and autonomy towards organisational
performance of Internet business in Malaysia using a review of related
literature. It has shown that the role of innovativeness, proactiveness, risk-
taking, competitive aggressiveness and autonomy may have a positive and
significant relationship with organisational performance. This means that
for Internet business in Malaysia by having the ability to innovate, with
sense of proactive behaviours and ability to take calculated risk. Propensity
to act autonomously and the tendency to be aggressive toward competitors
can do well in term of performance than those without those features.
Therefore, the Internet entrepreneur must seriously implement the effective
strategy-making that has been extensively discussed in order to promote the
ESM dimensions in organisation.
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996
T02_022: DETERMINANTS OF
RIDESHARING SERVICES ADOPTION
AMONGST URBAN RESIDENTS IN KUALA
LUMPUR
Razieman Mohd Yusoff
Centre for Postgraduate and Professional Studies,
Faculty of Business and Management, UiTM Shah
Alam
Norminsham Abdul Karim

Faculty of Business and Management, UiTM Puncak
Alam
Azimah Daud
Faculty of Business and Management, UiTM Puncak Alam
ABSTRACT
The expansion of ridesharing services around the globe rapidly becoming
a phenomenon. It practically changed the logistical fabric of cities around
the world. Technological advancements such as Global Positioning System
(GPS) and mobile internet services gave operators such as Uber and Grab
the ability to come out with an effective fleet management, namely
ridesharing services. Facilitated by smartphones and geo-location
technology, the sharing fleet services offer consumer with alternatives and
lower price for a private ride. This study aims to investigate influential
factors behind ridesharing services adoption amongst urban residents in
Kuala Lumpur. Six variables were formed based on past researches;
Attitude, Operational Characteristics, Knowledge, Alternative Travel
Modes Preferences, Adoption Intention and Ridesharing Services Adoption.
Online survey through email invitation was employed to 1000 specific
respondents and data collection was done from April to May 2016. In
addition, interview with Land Public Transport Commission (SPAD)
officers were conducted to gain input from their perspective in regards of
ridesharing issues as well as observation on local taxi drivers, Uber and
Grab drivers. The overall response rate was 41.5% and missing value was
less than 5%. The results indicated usefulness is the main determinants of
ridesharing services adoption. Adoption intention on the other hand was
997
found to only partially mediate between variables and ridesharing adoption

decision.
Keywords: taxi services; private transportation; ridesharing; real-time

information system, mobile internet services.
1. INTRODUCTION
Taxi driver plays a vital role in meeting various mobility demands of all
Malaysians and tourists, serving a premium door-to-door services and a
viable transport option outside rail and bus operational hours [1]. Good taxi
services uplift the image of the country as they can be the first and last
impression for tourist. However, there is no reliable platform to gauge
customer’s demands for taxi fleet with supply from taxi drivers. This
situation leads taxi drivers ended up with empty cruising to find customer,
customers on the other hand struggle to find a ride.
Recently, the intra-city transportation around the world received its own
facelift with the advancement of technology and new business models
known as ‘sharing economy’ [2], [3]. This leads to the advent of private
chauffer services like Uber or Grab. Information system-enhanced mobility
system and expansion of internet services helps improving existing fleet
resources for better utilization [2]. These services are known as ridesharing
services; it offers benefits of a private vehicle (i.e. door-to-door services,
flexibility) as well as public transportation perks (i.e. cost effective). The
process begins when commuters ask for a ride from a private commuter
vehicle driven by a normally non-commercially licensed driver through
mobile application real-time request, revitalizing the global positioning
systems (GPS) and charged users based on distance fare [4], [5].
2. PROBLEM STATEMENT
Failure to fulfill the gap between supply of taxi fleet and demand from
public at large is causing bigger problem to taxi industry in Malaysia [6].
This situation was driven by the fact that there are differences in what the
government thinks what consumer wants versus what actually consumer
needs for connectedness and flexibility of public transportation services [7].
Malaysia taxi services have reportedly been marred due to impoverished
conduct by the local drivers, such as refusing to use taximeters, fleecing,
and choosing preferred destination [8]. These situations caused customers
to feel dissatisfied with the current taxi services with average, Land Public
998
transport Commission (SPAD) received 400 complaints every month

regarding taxi drivers who refused to use the taximeter [6].
However, the interest of this study to understand the factors influencing

users’ adoption decision towards ridesharing seems to be lacking. Only few
has been done internationally by Rayle, Shaheen [4], Ackaradejruangsri [9]
and Charoen [10]. In recent research effort, Land Public Transport
Commission (SPAD) conducted an online survey in October 2015. This is
part of an extensive project with stakeholders to gather feedback, to identify
weaknesses and strengths to be used as data to formulate initiatives to help
sustain the industry, improves drivers’ welfare, and enhance services to
improve customer experience [11]. The survey showed more than eighty
percent of forty six thousand respondents have the experience using
ridesharing services like Uber and Grab [12]. The motivation for users to
switch for ridesharing services are mainly contributed by reliability and
affordability factors. Incidentally, the survey only discussed the issue
without properly addressing the influential factors of ridesharing adoption
in order to comprehend the issue.
This warrants for further investigation on the antecedents of adoption for

the latest travel pattern in the taxi industry. Recognizing the lack of
literature on ridesharing services in Malaysia, this study intends to
investigate the factors influencing ridesharing services adoption in Kuala
Lumpur. In order to achieve that, research objectives have been outlined to
guide the study into the right direction. The aim of this study is to identify
the determinants of ridesharing services adoption amongst urban residents
in Kuala Lumpur. The purpose is to understand, describe and predict
ridesharing adoption behavior.
3. LITERATURE REVIEW
The basic concept of user acceptance models towards new technology
derived from the individual reactions to using information technology to the
intention to use information technology [13]. In discussing adoption
towards any public transport adoption, public is concerned with the mode
of transportation to reach desired destination on scheduled time with
minimum cost and maximum flexibility [14]. The importance of having
measures that able to predict and explain use of certain information systems
are important in determining what causes people to accept or reject
information technology [15].
999
Ridesharing adoption in South East Asia was highlighted by

Ackaradejruangsri [9] and Charoen [10] showed the most favorable
constructs of travel adoption is the attitude towards ridesharing applications,
operational characteristics of ridesharing services, knowledge on
ridesharing operations and alternative travel modes preferences. These
constructs is mediated by behavioral intention to actually use the system in
order to complete certain goals such as moving from point A to point B.
This constructs were also supported by Mallat, Rossi [16], Budiono and
Malkhamah [17], Kamba, Rahmat [18], Gupta [19], Keong [1] and Wang
and Liu [20].
Recent researches on ridesharing adoption found that trips were made

mainly for social and leisure trips, work trips, airport trips and daily errands
trips [4]. This is significant with Veloso, Phithakkitnukoon [21] found
almost identical results for ridesharing services adoptions with trips were
mainly made for education, daily errands (i.e. bank, services), recreation
trips.
4. METHODOLOGY
This study employed the use of quantitative study. Six hypotheses was
formed to explain the relationship between influential variables such as
attitude towards ridesharing applications, operational characteristics of
ridesharing services, knowledge on ridesharing operations, alternative
travel modes preferences and adoption intention as mediator and
ridesharing services adoption as dependent variable.
Data collection was done cross-sectional between April until May 2016 and
the individual level of analysis was employed. Judgment sampling was
performed to focus on ridesharing services users only with minimum one
time usage. Online survey using Google Forms was sent out to 1000 Uber
and Grab users through email invitations with expected response rate of
41% [22]. The survey contained 7 sections including demographical
information and each section consists of each independent, mediating and
dependent variables.
In order to perform data analysis, the first stage of analysis was reliability
test using Cronbach’s Alpha. The overall result found every variable
exceeded acceptance level of 0.7 [23]. After the instruments approved with
high reliability level, empirical survey was carried out and the responses
received was statistically analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics version 20.
1000
The reading for each variable in the form of correlation and mediation
analysis will be reported.
5. RESULT
Based on the feedback of 415 respondents, the characteristics of each
demographic profile has been outlined as follows:
Questions Response
Gender 58.6% Female, 41.4% Male
Age 54.9% (26 – 35 Years), 19% (19 – 25 Years), 17.8%
(36 – 45 Years), 7.7% (46 – 55 Years) and 0.2%
(below 18 and over 56 Years)
Employment 41 % Private Sector, 35.4% Student, 15.4%
type Government Sector, 7.7% Private Business, 0.2%
Housewife and Retiree
Education level 97.3% University Graduate, 2.2% SPM Holder and
0.5% Secondary School.
Monthly 25.3% RM2500 – RM3999, 21.2% RM 4000 –
household RM6999, 19.5% Below RM1200, 19% RM1200 –
income RM2499 and 14.9% RM7000 and above.
Residency area 35.9% Shah Alam, 33.3% Kuala Lumpur, 7.7%
Kajang, 6.5% Petaling Jaya, 4.3% Putrajaya, 3.6%
Klang and Subang Jaya, 1.4% Selayang and Ampang
Jaya.
Main purpose 46.5% Work Purposes, 24.6% Academic Purposes,
of traveling 18.3% Leisure Purposes and 10.6% Shopping
Purposes.
Car ownership 76.9% own a car and 23.1% do not own a car.
Correlation analysis found that all hypotheses was accepted and the strength
of each correaltion varies from strong to weak correlation. However, no
multicollinearity was found between these variables:
Items Hypotheses Beta p- Result

coefficient value
1001
H1o Attitude towards ridesharing .654 .000 Accepted (

applications is likely to influence p < 0.05)
ridesharing adoption intention.
H20 Positive perception on the .715 .000 Accepted (
operational characteristics of p < 0.05)
ridesharing services is likely to
influence ridesharing adoption
intention.
H30 Good knowledge on ridesharing .070 .000 Accepted (
operations is likely to influence p < 0.05)
ridesharing adoption intention.
H40 Negative preference towards .141 .004 Accepted (
alternative travel modes is likely p < 0.05)
to influence ridesharing
adoption intention.
H50 Strong intention to adopt is .279 .000 Accepted (
likely to influence ridesharing p < 0.05)
services adoption.
Mediation analysis shown adoption intention only plays a partial role in

mediating the relationship between independent variables and dependent
variables. The following result illustrates the mediation results:
Items Hypotheses t R2 Result

value value
H6ao Individual with positive attitude 17.46 .11 Partial
towards ridesharing application is mediation
likely to influence adoption effect
intention and subsequently adapt
ridesharing services.
H6b0 Individual with positive 20.00 .10 Partial
perception towards operational mediation
characteristics of ridesharing effect
services is likely to influence
adoption intention and
subsequently adapt ridesharing
services.
1002
H6c0 Individual with good knowledge 18.06 .45 Partial

about ridesharing services is likely mediation
to have greater influence on effect
adoption intention and
services.
H6d0 Individual who perceived 2.46 .10 No
alternative travel modes as mediation
negative is likely to have greater effect
ridesharing adoption intention and
services.
6. CONCLUSION
Key findings for this study can be concluded as the decision to adopt
ridesharing services does not solely rely on adoption intention. Instead, the
decision to use Uber and Grab was driven by attitudinal factors such as
usefulness, accessibility, social norm and private car preference.
Correlation analysis, hierarchical regression analysis and mediation
analysis similarly found adoption intention to be partially effecting
ridesharing adoption decision. On the other hand, the main determinants of
ridesharing adoption amongst urban residents in Kuala Lumpur was found
to be the aspect of usefulness which respondents agreed that it is easier to
book a ride using ridesharing application.
REFERENCES
1. Keong, W.E.Y., Factors Influencing Malaysian Taxi
Drivers Behavioral Intention to adopt Mobile Taxi
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2. Teubner, T. and C.M. Flath, The economics of multi-hop
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3. Lee, C., To Uberize or Not to Uberize? : Opportunities and
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1003
Characteristics in San Francisco. University of California

Transportation Center (UCTC), 2014.
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6. Amirul, F.R. and D. Hands, The Taxi Service Review:
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trends, problems and policy practices. European Journal of
Transport and Infrastructure Research, 2004. 4(1): p. 27-45.
8. Kholid, F.N., et al., Improving the Taxi Drivers’ Attitudes
In Discharging Better Services to the Passengers in Klang
Valley, Malaysia. International Journal of Scientific
Research, 2016. 4(8).
9. Ackaradejruangsri, P., Insights on GrabTaxi: An
Alternative Ride Service in Thailand. Review of Integrative
Business and Economics Research, 2015. 4(3): p. 49.
10. Charoen, D., GRABTAXI: A Taxi Revolution in Thailand.
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technology: Toward a unified view. MIS quarterly, 2003: p.
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1004
Malaysia Transport Sustainability. 2010, Universiti Sains

Malaysia.
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1005
T02_023: THE IMPLEMENTATION OF

MILITARY LEADERSHIP TRAINING
PROGRAMME; RESERVE OFFICER
TRAINING UNIT (ROTU)
IN SHAPING ISLAMIC MORAL AMONG
CADETS: A CASE STUDY IN UNIVERSITI
SAINS ISLAM MALAYSIA (USIM)
Nurus Saadah Binti Md Yusof, Qistina Balikis Binti Mohd
Yusof, Rashidi Bin Abbas
Centre of Modern Languages and Humanities

Universiti Malaysia Pahang (UMP)
ABSTRACT
The ROTU training program is one of the curriculum courses
in USIM, that determine to transform holistic graduates, where
all the students must dominate all the soft skills such as
leadership, teamwork, communication and continuous
learning. Therefore, this study wants to identify the
implementation of military leadership training program
(ROTU) in shaping Islamic moral among its cadets. The
objective of this study is to find out the problems associated
with moral among cadets; the factors contribute towards it,
and the ways to overcome it. A set of questionnaire were
distributed to 60 respondents, which are among the third year
students who participate in ROTU UKM. Then, the data
collected were analyzed by using Statistical Package for Social
Science (SPSS) 20.0. As for conclusion, the findings indicated
that the military leadership training program give a positive
effect and lot of benefits toward cadets. For the purpose of
1006
further study in the future, researchers suggested that this study

will use different methods and respondents.
Key Words: military leadership training programme,

leadership, reserve officer training unit (ROTU), Islamic
moral, akhlaq
Introduction
Reserve Officer Training Unit (ROTU) or nowadays known as
PALAPES, is a cooperation program between the Malaysian
Ministry of Defense (MinDef) and Ministry of Higher
Education (KPT) for students in Institute of Higher Education
(IPTA).
The purpose of this training program is to create a
visionary reserve officer to fulfil the requirement of Malaysian
Armed Force (ATM). This ROTU program also supports the
effort of the country and IPTA to develop a discipline quality
and nurture the good characteristics to make them willing to
defend the country, patriotic and have a sense of nationalism.
This kind of training program will build a positive work culture
among its members to produce a quality, productive,
innovative and creative in primary and secondary works and to
create a strong relationship with the university in order to
facilitate all the matters regarding the training and
administration of the cadets (Palapes USIM, 2014)
The ROTU training program is one of the curricular
courses in Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia (USIM) that
coincides with the requirements of USIM’s Centre of Soft
Skills Development (PPKI) to transform holistic graduates,
which it’s students is not only outstanding in academic and
religious knowledge, but they must dominate all the soft skills
as listed by the PPKI. Soft skills have covered all aspects of
generic skills. According to Ministry of Higher Education,
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(2006) even there are not has a specific list of soft skills, but
most of them, is associated with mastering the skills such as
leadership, teamwork, communication and continuous
learning (Pusat Pembangunan Kemahiran Insaniah USIM,
2014).
ROTU is the one of the excellent training program in
order to help students to be more valuable and marketable in
the workforce after their graduates. However, the ROTU’s
cadets may be outstanding in leadership and teamwork, but
lack in terms of Islamic moral as a good Muslim. This is due to
the fact that, this training is more emphasized on military
leadership training but less stressing on morality building
among its cadets. According to Mohamed (2001) the manners
of most of Territorial Army were still at the same level as
before they got joined the Army. This means that their manners
remain unchanged before or after they become one of the
Territorial Army. Besides, there are negative influence in
military such as bullying, ragging and have to obey orders
blindly when given by their senior officers and superior (Ab
Razak, 2004). Therefore, this study aims to find out the issues
associated with Islamic moral among USIM’s students who
participate in ROTU training program.
Literature Review
Reserve Officer Training Units (ROTU)
History of ROTU
The origin of the Reserve Officers Training Unit (ROTU)
began on April 3rd, 1965 with the establishment of the
first infantry battalion branch of the reserve army at the
University of Malaya (UM). It started as a reaction and concern
of the staff and students of the University of Malaya with
regards to the confrontation with Indonesia in 1963.
1008
At its formation stage, 30 students from different

faculties underwent an elementary recruit course at Seputih
training camp in Batu Gajah Perak during their term break.
Most of these students had a military or police background, and
they were all former students of the royal military college.
Racial events of 13th May 1969 resulted in this company
spreading to other institutions of higher learning, with the
establishment of A Company in Mara Institute Of Technology,
B Company in the Putra University of Malaysia, and C
Company in the National University of Malaysia, with
University Of Malaya remaining as its battalion headquarters.
The high spirit shown by these students of higher
learning prompted the then Director of the reserve army,
Brigadier General Dato’ Abul As Bin Ismail to initiate
discussion with Vice Chancellors of all the universities to
establish the Reserved Officers Training Unit or ROTU
(Palapes UM, 2014).
Training program
I. Junior Cadet Officers
Trained to the level of a Second Class Rifleman that
includes subjects such as basic tactics, foot drills,
weapons, staff duties, map reading, regimental matters, social
etiquettes and general military knowledge.
II. Intermediate Cadet Officers
Trained to achieve the level of a Section Commander.
Subjects covered include advanced tactics, weapons, foot
drills, map reading, signal, leadership, military law,
staff duties and social etiquettes.
III. Senior Cadet Officers

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Trained to the level of junior officers capable of leading

platoons. Subjects covered inclusive of advanced subjects
covered before (Palapes UM, 2014).
Training period
I. Local Exercise (10 hours per day for 24 days)
Exercises were held every weekend at ROTU Complex.
All officer cadets are required to attend all training
except for those with special permission.
II. Annual Camp Exercise (15 days continuous)
Exercise divided into two phases. Camp phase and
Field phase:
i. Camp Phase
Academic test involving DS from PUSWATAN
(Pusat Latihan Askar Wataniah) and local units.
ii. Field Phase
To demonstrate practical skills from theory
learnt in lecture rooms by the cadet
officers. For Year 1, they will train in Counter-Insurgency
Warfare exercise while in the
intermediate and senior, they will train in Conventional
Warfare exercise.
III. Advanced Exercise (14 days continuous)
This exercise usually includes military activities such as fire-
arms shooting, compass marching and other related activities.
IV. Commission exercise (14 days continuous)
This exercise for senior cadet officers only (Palapes USIM,
Palapes UM, 2014).
Military Leadership in Islam

1010
According to Norhasniah (2011), the concept of defense refers

to the need of a country in preserving and protecting its
strategic interests to secure the country’s safety and peace
internally and internationally. From the Islamic point of view,
defending the society from harm was founded upon the five
basic principles – protecting one’s religion, soul, mind,
heredity and wealth or assets (Mahmud Shaltut, 1983).
In addition, a nation’s defense depends highly on the
military system adopted as the objective is to control and
conquer other countries, whether due to geopolitical or
economic reasons; or even to spread religion, ideology or
policies practiced (Khairuddin, 2008).
In Islam, the role of the army is not confined to protecting
the nation’s peace, but they are also tasked with the role of
spreading the religion of Islam to the conquered people
(Ahmad Nar, 1969). Even though Islam legalizes the spread of
Islam through war, but the stress is more on reaching truce and
maintaining peace. In fact, Islam calls upon the Muslims to
practice cooperation and tolerance when interacting with their
own community or with others, without discriminating the
race, or ethnic, or with non-Islamic communities of the same
race (Norhasniah, 2011).
Under the Islamic defense system, the army was organized
as the wall of defense for Muslim and non-Muslim
communities (kafir Dhimmi). The concept of the military is
‘jundullah’, that is Allah’s army, as stated in the al-Quran that
means,
‘Indeed, We have given you, [O Muhammad], a clear conquest’
(Al-Qur’an. Al-Fath 48: 7)
The call for war would only be made if there were any
invasion upon the religion or oppression towards the Islamic
community such as embargo. Islam is also against syirik
practices such as the acts of statue worshipping, exalting man
1011
to the status of God, and the act of revering supernatural forces.

In fact, Islam strongly outlaws slavery. The Islamic community
is expected to safeguard their religion, self, family and
community from being victimized (Taufiq, n.d.).
Islamic Moral and Ethics

Thiroux and Krasemann (2009) said that morality claims our
lives and it makes claims upon each of us that are stronger than
the claims of law and take priority over self-interest. Huge
number of Quranic verses calling for the necessity of
maintaining good maintaining good morality in oneself and in
a broader scale of public, warning us from bad consequences
of unethical conducts and misbehaves (Khairuneezam, 2013).
The behavior, conduct, nature or character of a person
as reflected in his/her daily activities are called ‘Akhlaq’.
‘Akhlaq’ is the plural form of the Arabic word ‘Khuluqun’,
which means character or nature that the human being acquires,
becoming as part of his natural disposition. Akhlaq includes all
personal, social and international aspects of human life. Good
manners could be an endowment from Allah, where a person is
born with high intellects and good manners, as the case with
prophets. Possibly the good manners might be acquired
through striving with oneself, and contending therewith in
order to be adorned with highest moral excellences (Malek et
al, 2013).
The word ‘Khuluq’ was mentioned twice in the Quran
(al-Shua’ra: 137 and al-Qalam: 4). Quran interpreters argue the
concept of khuluq as a custom, religion, ideology or doctrine.
Quran also uses a whole array of terms to describe the concept
of goodness such as khayr (goodness), birr (righteousness)
maa’ruf (known and approved) qist (equity), ‘adl (equilibrium
and justice), haqq (truth and right), taqwa (piety)
(Khairunneezam, 2013).
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According to Malek et al., (2013) there is a two type of

akhlaq or moral which are akhlaq-e-Hameedah and akhlaq-e-
Zameemah. The excellent and best virtues of human life are
called akhlaq-e-hameedah or characteristics, such as –
patience, honesty, patriotism and social service. A person
characterized by these qualities is renowned and honorable in
the society. While the worst and most hateful traits of human
life is ‘Akhlaq-e-Zameemah’ or detestable characteristics, such
as – pride, hatred, hypocrisy, interest, bribery, and indecency.
A man characterized by these bad qualities is hateful and
defamed in the society.
In Islamic point of view, Akhlaq is the most important
aspect. It is Akhlaq that works as the life-force of a civilized
nation. The more rectified the character of a nation is, the more
powerful the nation is. No nation discarding this moral force
can exist on this earth. All the Prophets have taught the
supreme values of good character. Allah sent Muhammad the
last of the Prophets to bestow perfection of the best character.
Khairunneezam (2013) said that ethical behavior may
depend on the factors that define and affect ethical behavior.
These factors have been identified as legal interpretations,
organizational factors, and individual factors. In secular
society, legal interpretations are based upon contemporary and
often transient values and standard. In Islamic society, these
values and standards are guided by the Shari’ah and the
collection of previous Fiqh judgements. The next factor is
organizational factors. One of the key sources of organizational
influence is the degree of commitment of the organization’s
leader to ethical conduct. The last factor is individual factors.
Factors affecting one’s ethical behavior include; stages of
moral development, personal values and morals, family
influences, peer influences, life experiences and situational
experiences.
1013
Aims of Study
This study aims to determine the implementation of military
leadership training programme ROTU in shaping Islamic
moral among cadets. This study has been conducted among
USIM’s students who joined ROTU Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia (UKM). As such, this study is guided by the
following research objective:
 To identify the problems that associated with moral
among ROTU in USIM.
 To analyze the factors that contributes towards moral
problems among ROTU’s cadets in USIM.
 To investigate the ways to overcome the moral problem
among ROTU’s cadets in USIM.
Methodology
Sample and data collection
The population consisted of 72 number of ROTU’s cadets in
USIM which is from senior year or ROTU or in third year in
university. In the real data collection process, a total of 60
questionnaires were distributed among the respondents. The
respondents were selected randomly from various faculties in
USIM.
Instrument
The instrument used in this study was self-develop by the
author based on the research questions. The form of
questioning that used in this study is closed ended question,
which is rating scales (a five-point Likert Scale). These
questionnaires consisted of 30 of questions that include 2
sections, which are Section A and Section B. Section A will
ask about background of respondents such as gender, age,
education level faculty and rank in ROTU.
1014
While, section B consisted of questions that created based

on research objectives. The selected items had been classified
based on three main aspects which are; 1) to identify the
problem that associated with moral among ROTU’s cadets in
USIM (10 items), 2) to find out the factors that contribute in
moral problem among ROTU’s cadets in USIM (10 items) and
3) to investigate the strategies to overcome the moral problems
among ROTU cadet’s in USIM (10 items).
Data analysis
The data collected were analysed using SPSS. Descriptive
statistic in the form of percentages and means were used in the
summary of the results. The demographic characteristics of the
respondents were measured and the details are given below in
results section of the study. Then, author gives an overview of
descriptive values of all analysis variables such as percentages
and mean for main characteristics of the sample.

Demographic characteristic of respondents.
The population consisted of 72 number of ROTU’s cadets in
USIM which is from senior year or ROTU or in third year in
university. Total of 60 questionnaires were distributed among
the respondents. Sample composed of men 33(55%) and
women 27(45%). The data show that (75%) of the respondents
were aged between 21-22 years old (n=45). Only 2 (3.3%) of
them were above 25 years of age, while the rest 7 (11.7%) were
between 23-24 years old and 6 (10%) were between 19-20
years. Of the subjects, 26 of (43.3%) of respondents were from
Sijil Tinggi Agama Malayisia (STAM)/Sijil Tinggi Pelajaran
Malayisa (STPM) and also 43.3% from
matriculation/foundation level of education. While, 8 the rest
of respondents (13.3%) were from diploma. The faculties
1015
represented by these students are Fakulti Ekonomi dan

Muamalat (FEM) (31.7), Fakulti Syariah dan Undang-undang
(FSU) (20%), Fakulti Kepimpinan dan Pengurusan (FKP)
(18.3%), Fakulti Quran dan Sunnnah (FPQS) (15%) and
Fakulti Sains dan Teknologi (FST) (15%).
Table 1: Percentage and Mean of items for Moral Problems

among Cadets
NO Moral Problems SA A N DA SD Mean
Among Cadets
1 There are lot of 0 9 12 16 23 2.15
problems that
associated with moral 0% 15% 20% 26.7% 38.3%
among cadets.
2 I do not care for my 1 13 16 20 10 2.58
manners in speech
when I am talking 1.7% 21.7% 26.7& 33.3% 16.7%
with others cadets.
3 I do not cover my 2 11 10 25 12 2.45
aurat perfectly as
outlined by Islam 3.3% 18.3% 16.7% 41.7% 20%
within and outside of
training.
4 I do not care about the 0 9 18 16 17 2.38
intercommunication
limits between male 0% 15% 30% 26.7% 28.3%
and female cadets.
5 I take for granted 0 7 6 28 19 2.05

about prayer whether
within and outside 0% 11.7% 10% 46.7% 31.7%
training.
6 I do not keep my time 0 6 16 25 13 2.25
properly such as came
late to the class or 0% 10% 26.7% 41.7% 21.7%
lecture within or
outside training.
7 I do not practices 0 3 15 23 19 2.13

mutual respect among
cadet’s members. 0% 15% 25% 38.3% 31.7
1016
8 I used to give 0 3 8 23 26 1.83

punishment to my
subordinates without 0% 5% 13.3% 38.3% 43.3%
concrete reasons.
9 I do not fulfill my 0 4 10 25 21 1.98
responsibility
properly when carry 0% 6.7% 16.7% 41.7% 35%
out a task.
10 I always violate the 0 5 9 20 26 1.98
rules that set by
training base. 0% 8.3% 15% 33.3% 43.3%
Total Mean 2.18
The table 1 shows the result of respondent’s opinion about the

problem that associated with moral among ROTU’s cadets and
consisted of ten items. The highest mean that recorded in the
data is for item 2 ‘I do not care for my manners in speech when
I am talking with the others cadets’ is 2.58, which is the mean
value is medium. It shows that, 23.4% of respondents, agreed
with this statement more than other statement. However,
majority of respondents (50%) disagreed with this item. The
reason cadets do not their manners when talking with other
cadets, because many people even not in military (civilian)
were not too concern about their manner in speech when they
talking with their friends. Besides in military itself, they were
commonly used immoderate language (swearing, demean,
assault) when they giving a command. This situation become
worst when the instructor or leader in military let themselves
intemperate bursts of anger. According to Department of The
Army Field Manual FM 22-100, (1999) frequent irritation,
petulance and uncontrolled displays of temper indicate that
they do not have even hold on their self. . Besides, the recruits’
in military go through harsh, humiliating, and physically and
emotionally exhausting process (Soeters et. al. 2006; Jones et.
al. 1975 and Moore 2011). They are exposed to their new
norms, language, codes, and identity. Therefore, all the
attitudes shown by instructor or leader in military camp were
1017
easy to influence others including cadets to act like that.

Therefore, all the attitudes shown by instructor or leader in
military camp were easy to influence others including cadets to
act like that.
While, the lowest mean that obtained in the data is item
8 data which is 1.83. It portrayed that most of respondents
(81.6%) disagreed with the statement ‘I used to give
punishment to my subordinates without concrete reasons. The
respondents probably treated their subordinates just and fairly
because they do not want to get punishment from the higher
authorities. Giving punishment without reasons is the other
word of ragging. In ROTU if the higher authorities had find out
that their cadets were ragging and bullying their subordinates
or their follower, they also get the punishment and even worse
from what they did.The overall range of mean for these items
is 2.18. It shows that level of problems that associated with
moral among ROTU’s cadets is low.
Table 2: Percentage and Mean of items for Factors that

Contributes towards Moral Problems
NO Factors That SA A N DA SD Mean
Contributes
towards Moral
Problems
11 Cadets were lack of 2 4 17 22 15 2.30
understanding of the
real definitions and 3.3% 6.7% 28.3% 36.7% 25%
concepts about moral
in Islam
12 The less emphasized 0 3 14 33 10 2.23
about the matters
associated with 00% 5% 23.3% 55% 16.7%
Islamic moral.
13 Cadets were easy to 1 8 15 23 13 2.83
be influenced by
negative manners of 1.7% 13.3% 25% 38.3% 21.7%
other cadets and
instructors during
training.
1018
14 The training 0 10 4 32 14 2.22

environment were
less stressed about 0% 16.7% 6.7% 53.3% 23.3%
the
intercommunications
ethics between the
male and female
cadets.
15 Lack of self- 0 10 10 25 15 2.33
awareness in each
member of the cadets 0% 16.7% 16.7% 41.7% 25%
to practice moral and
Islamic values.
16 The instructors were 2 7 9 24 18 2.25
more emphasize on
military aspects, 3.3% 11.7% 15% 40% 30%
physical, mental, and
tactical than spiritual
aspects.
17 Cadets had to listen 1 9 11 26 13 2.32
and carry out the
orders from the 1.7% 15% 18.3% 43.3% 21.7%
instructors, which are
less emphasis on
morality aspects.
18 The few number of 0 6 16 21 17 2.22
spiritual programs
28.3%
that organized by 0% 100% 26.7% 35%
training base were
lead members to take
for granted about
moral aspects.
19 Too much criticisms 1 8 8 30 13 2.30
and punishments
perceived by cadets 1.7% 13.3% 13.3% 50% 21.7%
during training
causes them
depressed
20 Cadets protest and 0 6 10 26 18 2.10
behave negatively
because they violate 0% 10% 16.7% 43.3% 30%
the rules
Total Mean 2.08
The data in table 2 consist of ten items for factors that

contribute towards moral problems among cadets. The highest
mean obtained in the data is 2.83 which are for item 13 ‘cadets
1019
were easy to be influenced by negative manners of other cadets

and instructor during training’. It revealed that 15% of
respondents agreed with that statement. This is due to the fact
that, the bad attitude were easy to be followed by others. If the
instructors show the negative side of them, cadets will tend to
follow what their instructors had showed. As what Aronson
(2001) in Zaharah Hassan (2009) said, the attitudes and
behaviors of the leaders or instructors will give the impact to
the organizational behavior and will influence the
organization’s performance. Despite of that, the findings
indicated that most of respondents (60%) disagreed with this
item. This is because majority of cadets actually have high self-
esteem so that they were not easily to be influenced by others
and were not influence others too. Besides, maybe the
instructors or cadets themselves were show their good attitude
or had good self-monitoring which means, they were capable
of monitoring their actions and appearance in social situations.
As claimed by Snyder (1974) people who are social monitors
are social chameleons who understand what the situation
demands and act accordingly, while low social monitors tend
to act the way they feel. High social monitors are sensitive to
the types of behaviors the social environment expects from
them. Their ability to modify their behavior according to the
demands of situation they are in and to manage their
impressions effectively is great advantages for them.
While, it was recorded that item 20 ‘cadets protest and
behave negatively because they violate the rules’ was the
lowest mean. It illustrated that most of respondents (73.3%)
disagreed that cadets protest and behave negatively because
they protest as the factor that contributes toward moral
problems among cadets. The reason most of respondents
disagreed because, ROTU is military training program that
shaping good attitudes among cadets, including the discipline.
1020
It well known that whoever break the law, would get a severe
punishment. As a result, most of respondents were not dare
enough to violate the rules. The respondents, who were agreed,
probably were not getting caught by their instructor or their
leader when they break the rules. Besides, the respondents
probably would likely to violate rules as a sign of protest and
rebellious.
Table 3: Percentage and Mean of Items for The Ways to

Overcome the Moral Problems.
NO Ways to Overcome SA A N DA SD Mean
the Moral Problems
21 Cadets have to 32 25 1 1 1 4.43
understand about the
actual definitions and 53% 41.7% 1.7% 1.7% 1.7%
concepts of moral
according to Islam
22 Cadets have to 31 27 0 2 0 4.45
understand the
importance of Islamic 51.7% 45% 0% 3.3% 0%
morality.
23 Cadets have to 33 19 8 0 0 4.42
enhance their self-
esteem that make 55% 31.7% 13.3% 0% 0%
them not easily
influenced by
negative behavior of
their instructors and
others cadets.
24 Cadets must have a 32 19 7 2 0 4.32
high level of self-
awareness in order to 53.3% 31.7% 11.7% 3.3% 0%
practice the moral and
Islamic values.
25 The matters
associated with 33 22 3 2 0 4.42
Islamic ethics should
be more emphasize 55% 36.7% 5% 3.3% 0%
during training.
26 The training base has 30 22 7 1 0 4.35
to increase the
numbers of Islamic 50% 36.7% 11.7% 1.7% 0%
and spiritual
1021
educational programs
during training.
27 The ethics of 30 25 4 1 0 4.38
intercommunication
between the male and 50% 41.7% 6.7% 1.7% 0%
female cadets should
be given a high
emphasis during
training.
28 Spiritual aspect 28 28 2 1 1 4.35
should be given an
equal emphasis same 46.7% 46.7% 3.3% 1.7% 1.7%
as the other aspects
such as military
aspects, physical,
mental and tactical
during training.
29 The training base 27 30 2 1 0 4.38
should consider each
matter (military 45% 50% 3.3% 1.7% 0%
aspects, physical,
mental and tactical)
before giving orders
to ensure that orders
will not against the
Islamic ethics.
30 The training base 27 25 8 0 0 4.25

should be practices all
of the Islamic work 45% 41.7% 13 0% 0%
ethics during training.
Total Mean 4.37
Based on the table 3 it shows the percentage and mean for items
of the ways to overcome the moral problem among cadets. The
highest mean was recorded is item 22 ‘cadets have to
understand the importance of Islamic morality’ which is 4.45.
It showed that most of respondents (94.7%) agreed that cadets
have to understand the importance of Islamic morality.
According to Abdurezak (2011) in Islam, having good morality
is seen as a reflection of religious faith, while lack of good
1022
morality is a sign of weak religious faith; hence proper

personality is a rudimentary part of faith in Islam. Besides,
Islamic morals are equivalent to human nature. It was
important to understand the Islamic morality because it
furnishes a force which enables a person to adopt the moral
conduct with earnestness and sincerity, with all the devotion of
heart and soul.
While the lowest mean was obtained in the data is 4.25
for item 30 ‘the training base should be practices all of the
Islamic work ethics during training’. Total mean for this item
is 4.37 which is the mean value is high, although it was the
lowest among the rest. It illustrated that 86% of respondents
were agreed with this item. Islamic work ethic is both material
and spiritual in its purpose and direction. The Islamic work
ethics also take care of the concept of halal and haram in the
work that Muslim do (Shukri an d Musa, 2012). It does ensures
that the men become good Muslim and performs the Islamic
practices and rituals and also makes the organization adhere to
Islamic culture, laws and practices when conducting its official
function (Ab Razak, 2004).
Recommendations
Recommendation for organization
i. The training base should give equal emphasis between

the spiritual aspects and other military aspects such as
mental, physical, and tactical during training in order
to develop a high spirit, high self-esteem and high self-
awareness among cadets.
ii. The strong bonding between the upper authority
(upper officer) and the subordinates should be develop
in order to obtain any problems among each members.
1023
Therefore, all the possible solutions could be made,

and all the problems could be solved.
iii. The training base should implement all the Islamic
ethics, value, and morality during training in order to
build cadets that able to practice the Islamic moral and
able to avoid themselves from do anything that
contradicts to Islamic morality.
iv. The training base should hire the instructors (officer
instructor/ assistants’ instructor) that truly practicing
the Islamic ethics in order to spread it among members
and cadets.
Recommendation for future research

i. The future researcher should use a wide population and
sampling or conduct a study on other organizations to
get the complete and exact information in a study about
the relationship between military leadership training
program and Islamic moral.
ii. In the next research, the researcher should widening the
focus towards other aspects or factors when study about
military leadership such as discipline, motivations, self-
ability and many more.
iii. Maybe the next authors can use any variations in data
collection methods, such as interview or observation
instead of using the questionnaire. Therefore, the
author can get in depth information from respondents.
Besides, it's also the way to prevent dishonesty among
respondents in answering the questionnaire.
Conclusion
ROTU is the one of the excellent training program that helps
students to be more valuable and marketable in the workforce
after their graduates. Overall, the study shows that ROTU
1024
actually did well in shaping Islamic moral among cadets.

Malaysian military institution as well as ROTU have adopted
Islamic culture and rituals at official functions and also
encourage individual Muslim to practice Islamic rituals (Ab
Razak, 2004). As confirmed by KS Nathan (2001) that there is
growing evidence of Islamization in the military such as
perform daily jamaah prayers in musolla and mosque while
wearing uniforms. Besides, military personnel are taught
proper religious rituals. For instance, the cadets are taught how
to pray during wars.
Research clearly show that training military leadership
training were not as the main factors in contributing moral
problems among cadets because if the problems, exist is just a
minority case. If the problem persists, it was absolutely does
not comes from the training given, however, it comes from
other factors outside of training and the individual itself, as
Mohamed (2001) said that, the manners of most of Territorial
Army were still at the same level as before they got joined the
Army. Hence, it means that the manners of cadets remain
unchanged before or after they being a member of ROTU
without involving the training itself to influence their attitudes.
However, the negative manners that exposed by others
members also were influenced cadets to behave negatively.
Hence, cadets should enhance their self-esteem to control and
prevent themselves from doing something bad.
Therefore, as a conclusion the training program that is
provided by ROTU base actually gives many benefits towards
cadets, which are helping them to build self-confident, more
responsible, high discipline, and independent. Furthermore, it
also helps cadets as students to upgrading their skills, motivate
themselves and increase their knowledge. This ROTU’s
program should be continuously implemented in USIM, in
1025
order to create more excellent and more quality graduates for

now and future.
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1030
T02_024: THE ROLE OF GREEN

INTELLECTUAL CAPITAL ON BUSINESS
SUSTAINABILITY
Yusmazida Mohd Yusoff
Sarminah Samad
Universiti Teknologi Mara
Yusliza Mohd Yusoff

ABSTRACT
The core function of doing business is to maximize profit. The business
greediness to achieve maximum profit has contributed to the environmental
problem such as global warming and the reduction of greenhouse gases.
Consequently, it brings negative impacts to the people and planet as well
as business sustainability. A business is sustainable when it can balance
between economy, social and environment aspect which can be called as
triple bottom line. Moreover, the strict regulations on environmental issues
become major factor for organisation to bring the change of managerial
agenda to sustain in the future. In order to do this, it is depends heavily on
knowledge to address environmental issues and promoting green
innovation. Capabilities to promoting green innovation as well as
environmental issues are generated from the management of green
intellectual capital on business sustainability. Most of previous researches
are focusing on intellectual capital and competitive advantage and
performance. Thus, this paper review is perhaps the first to suggest the role
of green intellectual capital on business sustainability.
Keywords: green intellectual capital, green human capital, green

relational capital, green structural capital, sustainability
1031
1. INTRODUCTION
Environmental sustainability in this knowledge driven economy era become

more important and also brought the changes of managerial agendas of the
organisation around the world [1]. Accordingly, environmental
sustainability becomes one of the societal priorities [2]. The main purpose
of sustainability is to balance between economic, social and environmental
aspect in business to remain competitive [2]. An organization is sustainable
when they can fulfills the products and services to the society while
considering its economic, social and environmental impacts on earth [3,4].
In today’s world, there are many factors influence business sustainability.

There includes tangible and intangible assets. Intangible assets can be
known as intellectual capital [5-6]. Intellectual capital to also refer as
organizational knowledge and it needs to be managed properly to make its
valuable assets [7]. Although tangible asset is needed in business, however,
current research showed that the knowledge and brainpower have more
important than tangible assets as the source of competitive advantage [8-
10]. This is due to in order to achieve long term sustainability, the
organization depends on their intellectual capital for renewal and
development [11].
However, the concept of sustainability is still new among Malaysian

organisation and many of them do not have a clear picture on the benefits
of sustainability in their business [13-14]. Past researchers in intellectual
capital study concluded that intellectual capital has positive impact on
organization’s performance [16-21].
The strict regulation on environmental issues become major factor for

organisation to brought the change of managerial agenda to sustain in the
future. In order to do this, it is depends heavily on knowledge to address
environmental issues and promoting green innovation. Capabilities to
promoting green innovation as well as environmental issues are generated
from the management of green intellectual capital on business
sustainability.
In response to business sustainability, it is necessary to understand the role

of green intellectual capital. However, no empirical research whether
intellectual capital in environmental management of green innovation has
1032
positive effect on competitive advantage of firms [22]. It is supported by

Akhtar (2015) argued that intellectual capital is important to achieve
sustainability [37]. Hence, this study wanted to fill this research gap to
examine the role of green relational capital on business sustainability.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Green Human Capital and Business Sustainability

Human capital comprises of skills, knowledge and experience of employees
that can add value to the organization [23]. All capabilities is belongs to
employees not organization [17]. Human capital is they main sources of
organization’s competitive advantage [24]. However, human capital is one
of ignored asset by the organization. Human can be asset or liability to the
organization [25]. The main purpose of the organization is to remain sustain
[28]. In addition, the organization needs to utilize their human capital to
remain competitive and success in the future [42]. Similar arguments by
previous researchers stated that the capabilities of employees nowadays
need to be maximized for business sustainability [34]. Furthermore,
employees’ skills, knowledge and competencies are the most important for
SMEs in order to survive in this knowledge economy era [15]. Recent
research stated that green aspect in managing intellectual capital is required
in order to achieve competitive advantage [22]. It is supported by Akhtar
(2015) argued that intellectual capital is important to achieve sustainability
[37]. Many previous studies are theoretical on the impact of human capital
to environmental management [29-31]. No integrated model has been
applied to green human capital and business sustainability. Thus, based on
discussion above, the proposed hypothesis is:
P1a: There is relationship between green human capital and business

sustainability
2.2. Green Structural Capital and Business Sustainability
Structural capital consists of explicit knowledge that embedded in systems,

databases and programs created by employees [16]. It is support the
productivity of employees [26-27]. A good structure of organization and
skilled employees can provide quality service and increase performance
[33]. Previous evidence suggested that human capital is one main source of
1033
intellectual capital but it also must be support by a good structural capital

[29, 32]. In addition, the size and structure of SMEs can increase
employees’ creativity [12]. Many previous studies had paid great attention
to explore structural capital, but there was no study exploring green
structural capital [22]. It is supported by Akhtar (2015) argued that
intellectual capital is important to achieve sustainability [37]. However, no
integrated model has been applied to green structural capital and business
sustainability. Thus, based on discussion above, the proposed hypothesis is:
P1b: There is relationship between green structural capital and business
sustainability.
3. The Proposed Research Model
Green Intellectual Capital
Green Human Capital
Business
Green Structural Capital Sustainability
Green Relational Capital
Figure 1. Proposed Research Model
3.1. Green Relational Capital and Business Sustainability
Relational capital refers to the customer preferences’ knowledge and

relationships with customers and suppliers [35]. Recent research
demonstrated that relational capital plays a significant role to overcome
financial lacking as well as social networks that can give impact on
community productivity [36]. In addition, relational together with human
capital can contribute positive impact on organization performance [38].
For SMEs, they need to forge their relationship with stakeholders as
compared to larger companies due to their limited financial resources in
order to get sustain in competitive business [12]. Recent research stated that
1034
the organizations that promoting green innovations and environmental

protection can reduce production waste and have high productivity, improve
corporate image and thus make positive impact on their competitive
advantage as well as sustain in their business [39-41]. However, very little
research done on exploring green relational capital [22]. It is supported by
Akhtar (2015) argued that intellectual capital is important to achieve
sustainability [37]. Thus, based on discussion above, the proposed
hypothesis is:
P1c: There is relationship between green relational capital and business

sustainability.
4. CONCLUSION
As a conclusion, with the increase of the awareness on environmental

management and sustainable development, green intellectual gained its
unique position in research. For this purpose, in this research, we have
proposed and delineated a research model to understand the role of green
intellectual capital on business sustainability. The future results from this
proposed research will provide valuable knowledge that can be used to
design and implement Green Intellectual Capital that promote the welfare
of both organizations and the globe.
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business strategy with intellectual capital. Journal of Intellectual
Capital, 1(1), 68 – 84.
[7] Ngah, R., & Ibrahim A.R. (2009). The Relationship of intellectual
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study in Malaysian SMEs. International Journal of Management
Innovation Systems, 1(1), 1-13.
[8] Hamzah N., & Ismail, M.N. (2008). The importance of intellectual
capital management in the knowledge-based economy. Contemporary
Management Research 4(3), 237-262.
[9] Youndt, M.A., & S.A. Snell, (2004). Human Resource Configurations,
Intellectual Capital and Organizational Performance. Journal of
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[10] Quinn, J.B., Anderson, P. & Finkelstein, S. (1996). Managing
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Review, March-April 71-80.
[11] Edvinsson, L. and M. S. Malone: 1997, Intellectual Capital: Realizing
Your Co.’s True Value by Finding Its Hidden Roots (Harper Collin
Publishers, USA).
[12] Ngah, R., & Ibrahim A.R. (2009). The Relationship of intellectual
capital, innovation and organizational performance: A preliminary
study in Malaysian SMEs. International Journal of Management
Innovation Systems, 1(1), 1-13.
[13] Goh, K. C., Seow, T. W., & Goh, H. H. (2013). Promoting Sustainable
Concept in Malaysian Housing Industry. Paper presented at the
Sustainable Built Environment for Now and the Future, Hanoi,
Vietnam, 26-27 March.
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Business and Economics Research Journal, 2(2),52-74.
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International Business and Economy, 13(1), 97-122.
[16] Edvinsson, L. and M. S. Malone: 1997, Intellectual Capital: Realizing
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learning capability. Technological Forecasting & Social Change, 76,
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1036
[18] Cohen, S., & Kaimenakis, N. (2007). Intellectual capital & corporate
performance in knowledge-intensive SMEs. The Learning
Organization, 14(3), 241-262.
[19] Bontis, N., Chua, C.K., & Richardson, S. (2000). Intellectual capital
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[20] Johnson, W. H. A.: (1999). An Integrative Taxonomy of Intellectual
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[21] Stewart, T. A. (1994). Your Company’s Most Valuable Asset:
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[22] Chen Y. (2008). The Positive Effect of Green Intellectual Capital on
Competitive Advantages of Firms. Journal of Business Ethics,
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[23] Choi, S., & Ng, A. (2011). Environmental and Economic Dimensions
of Sustainability and Price Effects on Consumer Responses. Journal
of Business Ethics, 104(2), 269-282.
[24] Leaniz, P. M. G. d., & Bosque, I. R. d. (2013). Intellectual Capital and
Relational Capital: The Role of Sustainability in Developing
Corporate Reputation. Intangible Capital, 9(1), 262-280.
[25] Sheth, J. N., Sethia, N. K., & Srinivas, S. (2011). Mindful
Consumption: A Customer-Centric Approach to Sustainability.
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[26] Mehralian, G., Rasekh, H. R., Akhavan, P., & Ghatari, A. R. (2013).
Prioritization of intellectual capital indicators in knowledge-based
industries: evidence from pharmaceutical industry. International
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[27] Bontis, N. (1998). Intellectual capital: an exploratory study that
develops measures and models. Management Decision, 36(2), 63-76.
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[29] Boiral, O. (2002) “Tacit Knowledge and Environmental Management”.
Long Range Planning, Vol. 35, pp.291–317.
[30] Claver-Cortés, E. et al. (2007) “Intellectual and environmental capital”,
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[31] Baharum, M.R. and Pitt, M. (2009) “Determining a conceptual
framework for green FM intellectual capital” Journal of Facilities
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1037
[32] Jardon, C.M., & Martos, M.S. (2010). Intellectual capital and
performance in wood industries of Argentina. Journal of Intellectual
Capital, 10(4), 600-616.
[33] Amrizah, K., & Nawal, K. (2013). The Relationship between Human
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[34] Bennet, A., & Bennet, D. (2004). Organizational Survival in the New
World: The Intelligent Complex Adaptive System. Burlington, MA:
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Sustainability Efforts. Journal of Management Research, 7(2).
[38] Ting, I.W.K., & Lean, H.H. (2009). Intellectual capital performance of
financial institutions in Malaysia. Journal of Intellectual Capital, 10
(4), 588 – 599.
[39] Berry, M. A. & D. A. Rondinelli (1998). Proactive Corporate
Environmental Management: A New Industrial. Academy of
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[40] Porter, M. E. and C. van der Linde (1995). Green and Competitive.
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781444301403
1038
T02_025: A SURVEY ON MATHEMATICS

ACHIEVEMENT GOALS ORIENTATION
AMONG MALAYSIAN STUDENTS
Mohd Rustam Mohd Rameli
Azlina Mohd Kosnin
Faculty of Education, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
ABSTRAK
Motivation is a fundamental learning construct that could trigger and boost
one’s achievement behaviour. Achievement goals orientation is one of the
motivational variables that focusing on learning aims in specific learning
situation. In the context of mathematics learning, the learning orientation
of the students is very important to be identified especially for the teacher
as many students perceived mathematics is a very tough subject. Moreover,
the assessment pressure experience by the students is also the significant
determinant of adopting specific achievement goals orientation in learning
mathematics. Align with that, this study aims to explore the type(s) of
achievement goals orientation adopt by the students in the Malaysian
settings. This survey study was conducted to 976 secondary schools students
which selected from three state in Malaysia. Achievement Goal
Questionnaire was adapt as the instrument tool. All the collected data were
analysed descriptively to identify the frequency and mean value for each
types of achievement goals orientation. Findings of result showed that the
goal orientation with the highest mean was mastery goal orientation and
followed by performance-approach goal orientation and performance-
avoidance goal orientation. This study implied that the adoption of mastery
goals orientation should be retain and not let external factors such as social
and exam pressure affects it.
Keywords: achievement goals orientations, mastery, performance-

approach, performance-avoidance.
Introduction
Student’s intellectual and emotional abilities is a significant self-potential

element which align with Malaysian National Education Philosophy. In the
1039
context of Malaysian education setting, teachers are always put an efforts

to enhance student’s intellectual intelligent which is perceived as the key
determinant of academic performance. This is due to the education scenario
which still emphasize the important of getting good grade in assessment.
Despite of the eagerness to develop student’s intellectual intelligent, the
element of emotional intelligent has also been given focus in the school
nowadays. Emotional intelligent is believed to has great implication
towards student’s academic performance.
Both intellectual and emotional intelligent are correlated with the
elements of personal growth, development, learning and achievement which
are related to self-motivation [1]. In the context of school setting, all kind
of behaviour showed by the students whether it is positive of negative action
are closely related to the elements of motivation. Elements of motivation
always been use to give an explanation to the behaviour showed not only
by the human but also animals [2]. Therefore, it is significant to consider
the elements of motivation in the learning environment as motivation is
referred to student’s willingness, needs and desire to engage and achieve
success in the learning process [3]. Hence, motivation is always been given
focus in the research related the process of teaching and learning.
Literature Review
There are a lots of existing study conducted to identify the relationship

between motivation with the students achievement in mathematics learning.
The dominated results were element of motivation show positive and
significant relationship with student’s mathematics performance [3-5]. The
findings could be best explain with the argument that motivation possess by
a student will affect student’s behaviour by guiding the student’s intention
and desire to execute related specific action [6]. Align with the learning
context, student who has great desire to achieve the best learning
performance will must put an efforts to achieve what has been targeted.
Elements of motivation are one of the important knowledge branch
to be mastered not only by the students but also by the parents and teachers
in school. This is essentials as the knowledge on student’s motivation could
encourage student’s engagement in learning activities, enhance student’s
potential and talent and also assist teacher to create effective classroom and
teaching environment which could support student’s learning needs [6].
Effective learning environment is very fundamental to provide students
with the environment that could fulfil their needs and eventually will make
them more develop and perceive great vitality [7]. By looking at smaller
1040
lens, a students will put less efforts to try and easily give up when the
classroom learning environment could not make them understand what is
being taught in particular subject. One of the elements of motivation
environment is achievement goals orientation which referred to the aims
and objective of individual competency in specific achievement situation
[8].
Element of motivation in learning is significant and serve as the
heart of learning process [9]. Elements of motivation are not only initiate
one’s behaviour but also strengthen it. Students who are motivated in
learning process consistently show interest, high spirit, highly engaged and
less depend on teacher. However, demotivated students will tend to not
show interest and avoid in the learning activities. Motivation is
multidimensional structure which related to learning and academic
motivation. Motivation towards academic achievement lead to the action
for learning and achievement such as executing a task in specific context
until succeed [10]. Specifically, achievement motivation that focus on
mastery orientation will make student to be more engage in class activities,
homework and manage time effectively [11]. In the Malaysian educational
context, there is declining of student’s performance for the last previous
year in terms of achievement in national examination result for Mathematics
subject [12]. This situation is not only happen to the primary school students
but also to the secondary school students as the transformation of education
focus shift to the higher-order thinking skills acquisition. As achievement
goal orientations could be served as predictor of students’ performance thus,
the exploration of adoption of specific achievement goals orientation is
significant.
The Learning is a dynamic process which each students will go
through development phase in the aspects of knowledge, learning method,
challenges etc. Therefore, motivation and self-development should go align
in education process so that the elements in the development phase could
be balanced. Atkinson and Rogner [13] in their article entitled “Personality,
Motivation and Achievement” stated that achievement motivation could be
divided into two main motives which are motive to achieve success and
motive to avoid failure. The usage of fear appeals elements by teachers in
facing assessment by stating the benefits for future education and career
prospectus will motivate lazy students [14]. According to Martin [15],
students will keep putting their efforts in learning and highly motivated
when their perceived a high value to the task or activities that their need to
complete. This situation clearly showed that achievement motivation adopt
by the students are determine by certain factors. Based on the above
1041
mentioned statement, this study aims to explore the achievement goals

orientation adopt by Malaysian students in mathematics leaning.
Aims of Study
Generally, this study aims to explore the adoption of students’ achievement

goals orientation. This study was domain specific which measure the
achievement goals orientation in mathematics learning. Specifically, this
study will address the research questions as follows:
i. What is the level of mastery goal orientation adoption among

students in learning mathematics?
ii. What is the level of performance-approach goal orientation

adoption among students in learning mathematics?
iii. What is the level of performance-avoidance goal orientation

adoption among students in learning mathematics?
This study was applied survey research design to gather information

regarding students’ achievement goals orientation in mathematics learning.
A total of 976 secondary school students from three state and 20 schools in
Malaysia were involved as the respondents of this study through cluster-
stratified sampling. Besides, all the students were form four students
(age=16 years old) who are study in daily national school.
Achievement Goal Questionnaire [16] was used as the measuring
tools. The questionnaire consists of 13items which measure student’s
achievement goals orientation in mathematics. The item from the original
version of the instruments has been specify in mathematics subject in order
to map the item with the research questions. Specifically, four item measure
mastery goals orientation (reliability coefficient=0.78) while four and five
items measure performance-approach (reliability coefficient=0.95) and
performance-avoidance (reliability coefficient=0.95) goals orientation
respectively.
All the collected data were analysed descriptively to find the mean
and standard deviation for each of the items. Based on the mean value, the
relative level of achievement goals orientation in mathematics were then
identified.
1042
Result
Mean analysis was conducted to get the mean and standard deviation value
for each of the three achievement goals orientation. The findings of the
analysis as sown in Table 1.
Table 1: Mean analysis on students achievement goals orientation
Achievement Item Mean

Goals
Orientation
(SD)
It is important for me to understand the content of mathmetics 3.66

subject as thoroughly as possible
(0.88)
In the mathematics, I prefer material that really challenges me 3.10

so I can learn new things
(0.92)
Mastery
My aims in mathematics learning is to enhance my mathematics 3.52

skills
(0.86)
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I desire to completely master the material presented in 3.52

mathematics class
(0.88)
Overall Mean 3.45
(0.61)
My goal in mathematics class is to get a better grade than most 3.25

of the students
(0.90)
I am motivated by the thought of outperforming my peers in the 3.29

mathematics class
(0.90)
Performance It is important to me to do better than the other students in 3.38

-Approach mathematics subject
(1.08)
1044
It is important to me to do well compared others in mathematics 3.39

subject
(0.90)
I want to do well in mathematics class to show my ability to 3.08

others
(0.92)
Overall Mean 3.28
(0.66)
My fear of performing poorly in mathematics class is often what 3.05

motivates me
(0.91)
I just want to avoid doing poorly in mathematics class 2.80

Performance
-Avoidance
(0.93)
1045
I worry about the possibility of getting a bad grade in 3.04

mathematics class
(0.90)
I am afraid that if I ask my teacher a “dumb” mathematics 2.43

question, he/she might not think I am very smart
(0.94)
Overall Mean 2.83
(0.58)
Results of analysis showed that the range of mean value for the
item measuring mastery, performance-approach and performance-
avoidance goal orientation were 3.10-3.66, 3.39-3.08 and 3.05-2.43
respectively. Besides. The adoption of mastery and performance-approach
goal orientation were relatively high with the overall mean value 3.45 and
3.28 (maximum score=4) respectively. Meanwhile, the overall mean for the
adoption of performance-avoidance goal orientation was 2.83 which was
moderately high.
Discussion
Findings of this study was align with the previous study which were also
found that students adopt more on mastery goal orientation as compared to
the other two goals orientation [17-22]. Study by Hamimah [23] which
conducted to the Malaysian students regarding adoption of goals orientation
in science subject was also showed that students have positive perception
towards the adoption on mastery and performance goals orientation while
1046
holding negative perception towards the adoption of performance-

avoidance goal orientation.
The high adoption of mastery and performance-approach goals
orientation imply that students are not only think of the importance to
master mathematics subject to the self but also think of the needs to fulfil
family hope and teacher expectation. Meaning that, students adopt mastery
goal orientation as the motivational source to keep engage in mathematics
learning an also to retain their interest on the subject [24]. This is supported
by the previous study findings which showed the positive effects of the
adoption of mastery goal orientation. Adoption of mastery goal orientation
encourage students to spend more time in executing learning activities and
willing to try difficult task [25-27]. The adoption of mastery goal
orientation also can be related to the teaching system practice in Malaysia
which emphasized the acquisition of mathematics skills. This is align with
mathematics curriculum that aims to develop mathematics competency
among students [28]. Students are not only targeted o master numeracy
skills but also have to develop a good higher-order thinking skills in
Mathematics [12]. Teacher are need to ensure all the students achieve each
of teaching objectives. Teachers need to play a vital role in supervise
student’s performance progress by always give immediate and supportive
feedback to support student’s learning [29]. Therefore, student’s learning
which oriented to mastery could be enhance.
However, examination system which is still being emphasized in
Malaysian education setting make the students to not spend their time and
putting efforts for their interest to the mathematics subject. At the same
time, the students tend to think of the standard assessment which is
normative in nature that need to be achieve. This situation make the students
feel motivated to get involve in the mathematics activities by having a
thought to pass the normative assessment or at least doing better than their
peers [11]. This is important for them to ensure they could further their
study in the upper level. As the respondents of this study are the group of
students who are compulsory to take the national examination, the adoption
of performance-approach is relevant as the result of the examination will be
the indicator to pursue their study in the next level.
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1050
T02_026: MOBILE LEARNING IN YEMEN

PUBLIC UNIVERSITIES: FACTORS
INFLUENCE STUDENT’S INTENTION TO
USE
Ibrahim Alrajawy ª, Norzaidi Mohd Daud ᵇ, Osama Isaac ͨ , Ahmed M.
Mutahar ͩ
a
Graduate Business School, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Selangor,
Malaysia (arajawy@yahoo.com)
b
Selangor, Malaysia ( zaidiuitm2000@yahoo.com)
ͨ Graduate Business School, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Selangor,
Malaysia (osama2isaac@gmail.com)
d
Selangor, Malaysia (ahmed4mutahar@gmail.com)
ABSTRACT
Mobile Learning has the proven ability to enhance an educational
system. Previous empirical studies have shown that the
implementation of Mobile Learning involves not only technological
factors, but a combination of many, including social and individual
factors. This study suggests that subjective norms and self-efficacy
play a key role in a student’s behavioural intention to use Mobile
Learning. This study investigates the impact of subjective norms and
self-efficacy on intention to use Mobile Learning among student in
Yemen’s public universities where the technology acceptance model
(TAM) is used as an underpinning theory. Quantitative analysis was
the method used to collect data. A questionnaire was distributed to 320
undergraduate students with varied educational backgrounds from
three public universities in the Republic of Yemen. The data obtained
was analysed using Analysis of Moment Structure (AMOS) version
21. Descriptive and structural equation model techniques were
employed to meet the objective and hypotheses of the study. The
results indicated the applicability of the TAM constructs in the context
of the republic of Yemen, showing that the students’ behavioural
intention to use Mobile Learning was significantly influenced by its
perceived usefulness and ease of use. Furthermore, the findings
1051
demonstrate the significant effect of subjective norms on perceived

ease of use more than perceived usefulness. Self-efficacy significantly
affects perceived ease of use.
Keywords: Mobile Learning, Subjective norms, Self-efficacy, TAM
1. Introduction
The aspiration of Mobile Learning is being examined worldwide
in the context of education and there are many researchers who
have explored its benefits and recognised its ability to promote teaching
and learning in higher education [1]–[4]. Several studies have found that
there is a positive relationship between technology usage and individual
performance and productivity [5], [6]. The spread of the cell phone usage
and the prestige of ownership among the young generation has excited and
attracted researchers attention to discover ways to deploy mobile phone
technology beyond its basic communication and entertainments function,
and effectively utilise it in the educational system [7]. Furthermore, Mobile
Learning uses gadgets like PDAs, tablets and touch screen mobile phones
as the main tools in the learning process, facilitating the learning task for
students by providing an opportunity for them to use their gadgets as
learning tools wherever and whenever it is required or needed without time
and place constraints. Thus Mobile Learning expands the boundaries of
classic ways of learning [8].
Most learners and lecturers are aware of the benefits of Mobile
Learning, which takes into account flexibility, portability and
approachability [3], [9]. In spite of the challenges faced by public
universities in Yemen in the possession and deployment of educational
technologies such as e-learning and distance learning, as well as Mobile
Learning [10], students at these universities are very positive about the use
of electronic learning and mobile learning in their learning process [11],
[12].
There have been many studies conducted on Mobile Learning in
which some researchers highlighted technical issues while others focused
on the pedagogical [13]. Most of these studies were carried out in western
countries, and little research available on Mobile Learning from the
perspective of Middle Eastern countries, including the Republic of Yemen.
There is a distinct contrast between the state of technology and the social
nature of western countries and those of the Middle East, and there is a lack
of studies investigating the impact of social and individual factors such as
subjective norms and self-efficacy on Mobile Learning in the latter. This
1052
research was conducted to address this research gap, and the outcomes of
this study are relevant to those interested enhancing the quality of
pedagogical tools available in the institutions of higher education in Yemen.
This study on Mobile Learning seeks to address the following research
objectives:
(1) To examine the effect of the subjective norms on perceived
usefulness.
(2) To examine the effect of the subjective norms on perceived
ease of use.
(3) To examine the effect of self-efficacy on perceived usefulness.
(4) To examine the effect of self-efficacy on perceived ease of use.
(5) To examine the effect of perceived ease of use on perceived
usefulness.
(6) To examine the effect of perceived usefulness on intention to
use mobile learning.
(7) To examine the effect of perceived ease of use on intention to
use mobile learning.
The main thrust of this research is to uncover any significant
relationships with the intention to use Mobile Learning, and derive from
this, suggestions as to how students could use Mobile Learning efficiently
and effectively.
2. Literature Review
2.1 Subjective Norms and Perceived Usefulness
Studies have shown the importance of the subjective norm to
predict the acceptance of a system. As defined by Fishbein and Ajzen [14],
the subjective norm is a person’s perception that most people who are
important to him think he should or should not perform a particular
behaviour. It is also definesd as the result of an individual's response to the
perceived expectations of his or her peer group and his belief that he must
comply with expectations [15]. The subjective norm comprises
interpersonal influence through family members, friends, colleagues, and
lecturers, and external influences that include ideas and opinions of experts,
and different kinds of media reports that the student consider important.
The influence of the subjective norm on perceived usefulness has
been introduced by many researchers. For instance, Park [16] examined
factors that affect the intention to use e-learning by university students in
Korea, and found that the subjective norm has a significant relationship with
perceived usefulness. Similar findings were revealed by Park, Nam, & Cha
[17] in a research they conducted to investigate the factors affecting Korean
students’ behavioural intention to use Mobile Learning at their university,
1053
which found the subjective norm had a significant relation to perceived

usefulness. In the same context, Al-Gahtani [18] investigated the intention
to use e-learning among the university students in Saudi Arabia and
observed that the subjective norm significantly affected perceived
usefulness. Hence, the following hypothesis is suggested: These
researchers therefore support the following hypothesis:
H1. The subjective norm has a positive effect on perceived usefulness.
2.2 Subjective Norms and Perceived Ease of Use

Other researchers, in their studies of subjective norms, have found
they are a strong predictor for perceived ease of use. For example, Bhatti
[19] investigated the factors that determine the user's intention to adopt
mobile commerce, and his findings showed there were significant effects of
subjective norm on perceived ease of use. Similar results were reported by
Tarcan, Varol and Toker [20] who investigated the intention of
academicians in Turkey to use IT. In their investigation of the factors
affecting the intention to use e-portfolios for learning purposes among
students in the United Kingdom, Abdullah, Ward and Ahmed [21] observed
significant effects of the subjective norm on perceived ease of use.
Therefore, the following hypothesis was suggested: These findings
substantiate the following hypothesis:
H2: The subjective norm has a significant effect on the perceived ease
of use.
2.3 Self-efficacy and Perceived Usefulness

There are also many studies which focus on the importance of self-
efficacy on technologies usage, where self-efficacy is defined as a person’s
judgment on his or her ability to form and perform courses of action
required to achieve designated types of performances [22]. The literature
contains many illustrations of the influence of self-efficacy on perceived
usefulness. For instance, Alalwan, Dwivedi, Rana and Simintiras [23]
investigated customer intention to adopt telebanking in Jordan, finding that,
self-efficacy has a direct effect on perceived usefulness. Moreover, The
same finding was reported by Alalwan, Dwivedi, Rana and Williams [24],
after studying the factors that affect customer intention to adopt mobile
learning in Jordan. As results, the following hypothesis was proposed:
These findings lend weight to the following hypothesis:
H3: Self-efficacy has a significant effect on perceived usefulness.
2.4 Self-efficacy and Perceived Ease of Use

1054
In a study of employees who use IT in the public sector in Yemen,

Al-Haderi [25] reported that self-efficacy has a significant effect on their
perceived ease of use. Ozturk [26] had a similar conclusion, reporting that
customers with a high level of self-efficacy experience the ease in using a
cashless payment system. Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis:
This leads to the hypothesis:
H4: Self-efficacy has a significant effect on perceived ease of use.
2.5 Perceived Usefulness and Perceived Ease of Use

Perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use are the core
structure of the individual factors developed in the Technology Acceptance
Model (TAM) where the intention to use the system leads to actual usage
[27]. Furthermore perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use mediates
the relationship between actual usage of IT and the external variables that
affect technology acceptance [28]. There are studies which have found a
significant impact of perceived ease of use on perceived usefulness and this
relationship was propounded in the original version of TAM. For example,
when Teo [29] investigated the acceptance of the technology by pre-service
teachers at a teacher training institute in Singapore, he found perceived ease
of use significantly affected perceived usefulness. A similar result was
reported by Jin [30] who studied the adoption of e-book among college
students and found that perceived ease of use had a significant impact on
perceived usefulness. When Phonthanukitithaworn, Sellitto, and Fong [31]
studied mobile payment services in Thailand, they found perceived ease of
use strongly affected perceived usefulness. This leads to a further
hypothesis:
H5: The perceived ease of use has a significant effect on the perceived
usefulness
2.6 Perceived Usefulness and Intention to Use

Perceived usefulness is describesd as the degree to which an
individual believes that using the system will help him or her to achieve
gains in job performance [28]. Many researchers have investigated the
relationship between perceived usefulness and intention to use and have
come to the same conclusion. For instance Daud, Kasim, Said and Noor
[27] who examined the intention of Malaysian bank customers to adopt
mobile banking, and found perceived usefulness had a significant effect on
intention to use. Furthermore, Sin, Nor, and Al-Agaga, [32], who examined
the intention of young Malaysian consumers to make online purchases
through social media, found that perceived usefulness was the most
1055
important factor that affectd the intention to use. In their study of the
intention of Jordanian customers to adopt telebanking, Alalwan, Dwivedi,
Rana, and Simintiras [23] found that perceived usefulness was a significant
factor in predicting behavioural intention to use. Hence, this leads to the
hypothesis that, if university students perceive Mobile learning to be useful,
this will enhance their intention to use it. The following hypothesis is
proposed:
H6: Perceived usefulness has a significant effect on the intention to use
Mobile Learning.
2.7 Perceived Ease of Use and Intention to Use

Perceived ease of use has been defined as, the degree to which
person believes the use of the system is free of efforts [28]. There are a
number of studies on the relationship between perceived ease of use and
intention to use which have found that perceived ease of use is more
important than the other factors. For example, Chuo, Tsai, Lan and Tsai [33]
reported that perceived ease of use had the most significant relationship with
usage intention of e-learning among employees at hospitals. Similar
findings were obtained by Chow, Herold, Choo and Chan [34] which
strongly support perceived ease of use as the most significant factor
affecting the intention to use a virtual environment for learning purposes.
To test such a relationship, the following hypothesis is proposed:
H7: Perceived ease of use has a positive effect on the intention to use
Mobile Learning.
3. Research Method
3.1 Development of the model, instrument & and data collection
procedure
This study further develops the research model based on TAM [35]
that simultaneously investigates factors that influence the intention to use
mobile learning within public universities students in Yemen. It goes
beyond TAM by adding subjective norms and self-efficacy into the model
as external variables which have been found to play a major role in the
context of technology as discussed previously.
A self-administered questionnaire was used to collect data from
the respondents. The original questionnaire in English was translated into
Arabic by the Centre of Translation in Sana’a University, the only centre
certified by the Ministry of Higher Education. The instrument is divided
into five divisions to specifically address the hypotheses that were proposed
for this study. The first division consists of five items capturing the
demographic characteristics of the respondents, such as gender, age, marital
1056
status, university name, mobile experience and income. The other divisions
included of six items on perceived usefulness [36], [37], six items on
perceived ease of use [36], [38], five items on subjective norms [39], four
items on self-efficacy [40], and six items measuring intention to use Mobile
Learning[17], [41]. All the items were measured using the seven-point
Likert scale where 1 represents strongly disagree and 7 represents strongly
agree. The respondents of this study were undergraduate students at three
public universities, namely Sana’a, Dhamar and Aden. Three hundred and
twenty usable questionnaires were received and analysed using Structural
Equation Modelling (SEM) via AMOS program.
4. Data analysis and Results
4.1 Descriptive Analysis
The mean and standard deviation of the constructs comprised in
this study were stated as follow: perceived usefulness (M= 4.32, SD= 1.60),
perceived ease of use (M= 4.71, SD= 1.47), subjective norms (M= 4.16,
SD= 1.45), self-efficacy (M= 4.79, SD= 1.45) and intention to use mobile
learning (M= 4.60, SD= 1.65). These results suggest that the respondents
have a level of satisfaction about the ease of use, usefulness, subjective
norms, and self-efficacy, as well as intention to use Mobile Learning.
4.2 Measurement Model

4.2.1 Model Fit Indicators
The overall model fit of this study, indicates that RAMSEA = .053,
CFA= .978, TLI = .974. Other indicators are acceptable [42] [43], GFI =
.915 and AGFI = .887 are also fit. The Absolute fit indices show that the
chi-square is not significant, but the model still fits because the Chi-Square
statistic nearly always rejects the model when large samples are used, as the
chi-square is sensitive to sample size >200 [44].
4.2.2 Construct Reliability, Indicator Reliability

Indicator reliability was measured by the loadings for all items
which have to exceed the recommended value of 0.5 [45]; [43]. Five items
were deleted (PU4, PU6, SN4, SN5, and INT1) since their loading was
below 0.50. Construct reliability was measured by Cronbach’s Alpha and
Composite Reliability (CR). The results showed that all the individual
Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of the five constructs ranged from 0.860 to
0.957, greater than the recommended level of 0.7 [46]. Additionally, all the
CR values ranged from 0.842 to 0.958, also higher than 0.7 [42]), and
indicating that the construct reliability and Indicator Reliability are
adequately and fulfilled (see table 4).
1057
4.2.3 Convergent Validity and Discriminant Validity

Convergent validity was tested via average variance extracted
(AVE), and indicated that all AVE values were higher than 0.50 (ranging
from 0.639 to 0.819). Convergent validity of the model was fulfilled and
adequate convergent validity was exhibited. Moreover, when the
discriminant validity of the measurement model was checked, where the
correlations between the factors, which ranged from 0.674 to 0.851, were
smaller than the square root of the average variance extracted estimates,
which ranged from 0.799 to 0.905. This indicated that the constructs were
more strongly related to their respective indicators than to other constructs
in the model [47], and thus had good discriminant validity.
4.3 STRUCTURAL MODEL ASSESSMENT
Key: PU: Perceived Usefulness, PEOU: Perceived Ease of Use, SN: Subjective Norms,
SE: Self-Efficacy, INT: Intention to Use
4.3.1 Hypotheses Tests

This study evaluated the structural model to test the hypotheses. As
shown in Figure 1 and Table 1, most of the seven hypotheses were
supported except H3. Subjective Norms and Self-
Efficacy  were all positively related to Perceived Ease
1058
of Use. Thus H2 and H4 were supported. Subjective Norms

and Perceived Ease of Use  were
also positively related to Perceived Usefulness. Thus H1 and H5 were
supported. Self-Efficacy  = .505
Perceived Usefulness which indicated that H3 wasn’t supported. Perceived
Usefulness  and Perceived Ease of Use
 were all positively related to Intention to Use. These
give support for H6 and H7 of this study. The variance explained for each
model is given in Figure 1. Subjective norms, self-efficacy and perceived
ease of use are able to explain 74% of the variance in perceived usefulness.
Moreover, Subjective norms and self-efficacy are able to explain 75% of
the variance in perceived ease of use. Finally, perceived usefulness and
perceived ease of use explains 74% of the variance in intention to use
Mobile Learning, according to [48] the three values of the Coefficient of
Determination R² which are substantial.
Table 1: Structural Path Analysis Result

Estimate
C.R
Depende Independe B
Hypothes (t- Decisio
nt nt (path S.E p
is valu n
variables variables coefficie
e)
nt)
< Support
.09 2.62
H1 PU -- SN .257 ** ed
8 3
-
< Support
.07 7.59
H2 PEOU -- SN .555 *** ed
3 8
-
< Not
.07 .50
H3 PU -- SE .048 .667 supporte
2 5
- d
< Support
.06 5.48
H4 PEOU -- SE .360 *** ed
6 8
-
< Support
.10 6.94
H5 PU -- PEOU .724 *** ed
4 8
-
< Support
.07 4.41
H6 INT -- PU .333 *** ed
6 7
-
< Support
.09 7.26
H7 INT -- PEOU .652 *** ed
0 7
-
1059
Key: PU: Perceived Usefulness, PEOU: Perceived Ease of Use, SN: Subjective Norms, SE:
Self-Efficacy, INT: Intention to Use
5. Discussion
Table 1 shows the results of the structural path analysis between
the variables. Subjective norms have a positive significant effect on
perceived usefulness; thus supporting hypothesis H1, where the impact of
the subjective norms on perceived usefulness is supported by the previous
studies [16]–[18]. Furthermore, the results also show the subjective norm
has a significant and positive effect on perceived ease of use; thus
supporting hypothesis H2, where the impact of the subjective norms on
perceived ease of use supported by the previous studies [19]–[21]. The
results suggests that, when the social climate, including family, friends,
classmates or anyone who is considered important to students, encourages
the use and promotes the benefits of Mobile Learning, students feel more
positive about using it.
The findings also shows that hypothesis H3 was not supported.
From Table 1, it is evident that self-efficacy has no effect on perceived
usefulness. This is inconsistent with empirical evidence provided by
Alalwan et al. [23] and Alalwan et al. [24], but it is similar to the finding
of Ozturk [26]. Moreover, the finding shows that self-efficacy has a
positive significant effect on perceived ease of use. Thus hypothesis H4 was
supported, consistent with the finding of the previous studies of Al-Haderi
[25] and Ozturk [26], who suggested that university students with a high
level of self-efficacy would perceive the ease of Mobile Learning.
The findings of the study indicated that perceived ease of use had a
positive impact on perceived usefulness and thus supported H5. This was
consistent with previous studies [29] and [30] confirmed that students find
Mobile Learning useful if they perceive it easy to use. The implication is
that if university students acknowledge the ease of Mobile Learning, this
will lead to perceiving the usefulness and then the likelihood of usage.
Both perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use are found to
have a positive relationship with intention to use, hence, supporting
hypotheses H6 and H7. This shows that among university students,
perceived ease of use has a stronger influence on intention to use than
perceived usefulness. This is consistent with previous studies [33], [34] [50]
[51] [52] whose empirical evidence shows that perceived usefulness and
ease of use have a positive and direct effect on intention to use.
6. Implication
The findings of this study have several implications for public
universities in the Republic of Yemen. The research provides additional
1060
evidence for the suitability of using the model TAM to measure different
dimensions such as subjective norms, where students show how they are
influenced by social connections to perceive the ease and the usefulness of
Mobile Learning. Moreover, the result shows that students with a high level
of self-efficacy perceive mobile learning to be easy to use. Therefore
universities should organise training sessions for students and provide them
with assistance when they need it, in order to improve the perception of and
capitalise on the ease of Mobile Learning.
The research also suggests that both perceived usefulness and
perceived ease of use are significant determiners of intention to use Mobile
Learning among students in Yemen universities. It is therefore believed that
students, who perceive that Mobile Learning reduces effort in their learning
process and appreciate the usefulness of the system, are more likely to use
Mobile Learning. This indicates the need for the university decision-makers
to consider the quality of the content as well as the user-friendliness of the
Mobile Learning system in order to encourage students to adopt it.
7. Conclusion
The findings suggest that the technology acceptance model (TAM)
is a valid model that can be used to predict intention to use Mobile Learning
among university students in a developing country like Yemen. This study
considered an extended TAM in which subjective norms and self-efficacy
were proposed to have a significant influence on the intention to use Mobile
Learning among university students in the Republic of Yemen.
This research has determined that there are significant effects of
subjective norms on both perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness,
while self-efficacy has an effect on perceived ease of use. In addition, the
findings support the notion that a system or technology that is perceived as
easy to use or learn would be viewed as more useful from the perspective
of the user. Furthermore, perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness
were found to be significant determinants of the intention to use Mobile
Learning.
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1065
T02_027: UNDERSTANDING THE

APPLICATION OF IMAGE REPAIR THEORY
TO THE IMAGE OF UNITED MALAYS
NATIONAL ORGANISATION (UMNO) AS
PROPOSED BY MALAYSIAN POLITICAL
SCHOLARS
Abuzar Abdul Halim
Dr. Mariah Muda
Associates Professor Dr Llias Md Salleh
Faculty Of Communication And Media Studies

UiTM Shah Alam
ABSTRACT
Malaysian politics have been dominated by the United Malay National
Organization (UMNO), which was formed to represent and protect the
rights of Malaysia’s indigenous Malay community. Together with its junior
coalition partners, MCA (the Malaysian Chinese Association) and MIC (the
Malaysian Indian Congress), UMNO-led coalitions, known as the Alliance
until 1973 and BN since then, have never held fewer than 60% of
parliamentary seats.
The image of UMNO had badly tarnished since 2008 during the result of
12th general election (GE12) on 8 March 2008 when the four states Penang,
Selangor, Kedah and Kelantan loses to the opposition and lost the two third
majority in the parliament[1],[2].
This drastic image tarnished continue increase in 13th General Election

(GE 13) on 5 May 2013 when UMNO,the core party of BN lost in popular
vote to the opposition parties. [3]. The results of the 13th general election
marked a political phenomenon which saw BN lead by UMNO "losing
victory" while the PR "won in defeat"[4].
This study aims to understand on the application of Image Repair Theory

to the image of UMNO as proposed by Malaysian political scholars.
1066
Keywords: Image Repair Theory, UMNO, Image tarnished, Malaysian

political scholars.
1. Background of The Study
The images of UMNO are influenced by issues and problems that they are
facing from time to time. Many factors contribute to the images of political
parties such as behaviour of their leaders, their mistakes, their contribution
to the society and others. Even UMNO win majority seat in places they
contest but their popularity was decreased. UMNO won in 78 out of the 99
rural Malay constituencies. Its performance in the urban areas was poor.
BN’s win in rural areas may also be attributed to the cash incentive in the
form of BR1M initiative [5].
In 13 General election result show that Barisan Nasional (National Front)

coalition experienced its worst showing since it began its reign after
independence in 1957, although it retained control of Parliament. The
Pakatan Rakyat (People’s Alliance) opposition coalition, comprising Parti
Keadilan Rakyat (People’s Justice Party), the Chinese-dominated
Democratic Action Party, and Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party (PAS), won
eighty-nine of 222 seats, up seven from the 2008 election. For the first time,
the PR also won a majority of the nationwide popular vote (50.87 percent
versus the BN’s 47.38 percent) following an unprecedented voter turnout of
84.84 percent[6]
2. Problem Statement
The image of UMNO had badly tarnished since 2008 during the result of
12th general election (GE12) on 8 March 2008 when the four states Penang,
Selangor, Kedah and Kelantan loses to the opposition and lost the two third
majority in the parliament[1],[2]. This drastic image tarnished continues
increase in 13th General Election (GE 13) on 5 May 2013 when UMNO,
the core party of BN lost in popular vote to the opposition parties. [3]. The
results of the 13th general election marked a political phenomenon which
saw BN lead by UMNO "losing victory" while the PR "won in defeat"[4].
1067
UMNO image was blemish when they faced unexpected defeats in 13th
general election (GE13). A good example is the Bukit Katil and Temerloh
parliamentary. In Bukit Katil seat contested by former Malacca chief
minister, Mohd Ali Rustam who was highly popular in the state suffered a
shock defeat. The PR candidate who beat him was Shamsul Iskandar, the
PKR youth leader, who won with a majority of 5447 votes. Again image of
UMNO was tarnished in Temerloh parliamentary seat where Saifuddin
Abdullah was the UMNO/BN candidate and Nasrudin Hassan was from
PAS/PR, Saifuddin Abdullah was known as leader and liberal and likable
by people of all races, still lost to the PAS youth leader who is known to be
a fundamentalist cleric [4]. This results shows the public’s is sending the
message of rejecting UMNO.
Image refers to how the individual or organization is perceived by its

publics or stakeholders [7]. Image has become an important asset both to
individuals and to organizations. When image is threatened, we are
compelled to do repair work to help us save face. Benoit has developed an
encompassing theory of image repair, guiding us through the different
options available to organizations and individuals involved in a crisis.
The image of UMNO also have been tarnished because public believe that
UMNO leaders involved in issues that might have tarnished the image of
Barisan National ( National Front) during the 13th general election (GE 13).
There are several factoris contribute to the image tarnished of UMNO such
as UMNO/BN leaders’ integrity, LYNAS project, the soaring house prices,
and lastly the Corporate National Feedlot (NFC) issue [8].
Therefore, this study will seek an understanding on the application of Image

Repair Theory coined by Benoit (1995) towards United Malays National
Organisation (UMNO) images as perceived by Malaysian political scholars
through several research questions as stated below:
RQ 1. How the strategies of denial can contribute to UMNO image repair

as perceived by Malaysian political scholars?
RQ 2. How the strategies of evade responsibility can contribute to UMNO

image repair as perceived Malaysian political scholars?
RQ 3. How the strategies of reduce offensiveness can contribute to UMNO

image repair as perceived by Malaysian political scholars?
1068
RQ4. How the strategies of corrective action can contribute to UMNO

image repair as perceived by Malaysian political scholars?
RQ 5. How the strategies of mortification can contribute to UMNO image

repair by Malaysian political scholars?
RQ6. How Malaysian political academicians suggest the new strategies

besides Image Repair Theory?
This study will focus on Image Repair Theory by Beniot’s towards UMNO
image tarnished as proposed by Malaysian political scholars. When UMNO
image been tarnished, it will create opportunity to the oppositions in
election. This research proposal focusing on UMNO because UMNO
became the lynchpin of the BN and, in practice, UMNO was BN and BN
was UMNO.
3. Research Design
Qualitative approach is use for this study because the researcher want
understand and explore how Image Repair Theory can restore UMNO
images from Malaysian political scholars perspectives. As mention by [9],
[10] qualitative researchers are interested in understanding the meaning
people have constructed, that is, how people make sense of their world and
the experiences they have in the world.
This arguments supported by (Creswell, 2013) mentioned that the few

reason why we use qualitative study because of the need to present a
detailed view of the topic and to study individuals in their natural setting.
This involves going out to the setting or field of study, gaining access, and
gathering material. If participants were remove from their setting, it leads
to contrived findings that are out of context.
(k) 4. The Study Setting
The study setting for this study will based on appointment and the place is
based on conducive to ensure positive outcome from both informant as the
respondent and the researcher. As for the venue and time of interview in
this study, it will be subject to consensus between the researcher and
informants.
1069
5. Informants Selection
The researcher use purpose sampling because the idea behind qualitative
research is to purposefully select participants or sites (or documents or
visual material) that will best help the researcher understand the problem
and the research question [11]
The informant for this study is Malaysian academicians (hereafter refers as

Malaysian political scholars) that are directly or indirectly involved in
Malaysian political scenario. The choice of purposive selection criteria is
influenced by a review of the aims of the study and the lines of enquiry
being pursued [11]. The academician was selected because they can
provide in-depth information in explaining Malaysian political scenario
based on their experiences and research that had been conducted. The
researcher believe that in qualitative research purposive sample is selected
precisely in order to understand the study in depth, not to find out what is
generally scenario[9].
Conclusion
This study will provide new theory building model for Malaysian political
parties and will enhance the knowledge in understanding the Image Repair
Theory in Malaysia political parties context.
References
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November 2011 ),” Int. J. Humanit. Soc. Sci., vol. 3, no. 10, pp.
147–153, 2013.
[8] A. Zaharim, A. A. Aziz, S. Hanani, and M. Yasin, “Voters ’
Preference Assessment in GE-13 With Rasch Model Analysis
Method : A Case Study In Selangor,” Malaysian J. Democr. Elect.
Stud., vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 52–67, 2014.
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Implementation Revised and Expanded from Qualitative Research
and Case Study Applications in Education. Jossey-Bass A Wiley
Imprint 989 Market Street, 2009.
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validity and reliability in qualitative research,” PAACE J. Lifelong
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1071
T02_028: KEY-DETERMINANTS OF
KNOWLEDGE SHARING CULTURE ON JOB
PERFORMANCE AND MODERATING ROLE
OF JOB POSITION: A STUDY IN SHAH ALAM
CITY COUNCIL (SACC)
Farah Wahida Mohamad Rafly, Prof Madya Dr. Ahmad Naqiyuddin Bakar
and Dr. Azma Asnawi Shah Abd Hakim
Master of Administrative Science, Faculty of Administrative Science and

Policy Studies,
*E-mail : farahwahida1204@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Currently, the practice of knowledge sharing has become a key factor in
gaining and producing better knowledge among most of the Malaysians
including public servants. Knowledge sharing culture is believed to be a very
important culture that needs to be developed and implemented in every
organization in public sector in Malaysia in order to achieve better job
performance. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to examine the
relationships of the key-determinants of knowledge sharing culture and job
performance in Shah Alam City Council (SACC). The researcher will be
used the cross-sectional design in order to answer the research problems in
this research. Cross-sectional design is a descriptive method of study which
the focus is to find the relationships between variables at one moment in time
(Paul, 2008). The researcher used proportionate stratified sampling method
for selecting the sample size. Thus, 197 employers and employees from 11
departments in SACC have been listed out by the researcher. Results of the
findings showed that all the key-determinants of knowledge sharing culture
were positively influencing the practice of knowledge sharing on job
performance.
Keywords: Key-determinants, Knowledge Sharing, Job Position, Job

Performance, Public Organization
1072
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Since the early 1990s, Malaysia took a bigger step in introducing and
implementing knowledge-based economy (k-economy) with continual effort
by the government in order to improve the performance of the public sector
(EPU, 2004; EPU, 2009). Various government organizations has been set up
with knowledge management practices such as National Institute of Public
Administration (INTAN),Malaysian Administrative Modernization and
Management Planning Unit (MAMPU), UniversitiTeknologi MARA
(UiTM), and even financial institutions like Commerce International
Merchant Bankers(CIMB) (Lee and Jayasingam, 2012).
According to Azarian et al., (2013), even though there are lots of

efforts made by the Government, there were no big difference in the practice
or the culture and also the performance and achievements of the public
organizations. Based on the previous researches, there are five key-
determinants of knowledge sharing culture that the researcher believes will
affect the job performance of every public organization which are trust, self-
efficacy, rewards and incentives, technology and leadership from the top
management. Disterer, (2002); Donnelly, (2008); Fathi et al., (2011);
Mohammad et al., (2013) believed and revealed in their findings that high
level of trust, self-efficacy, rewards and incentives and leadership in
knowledge sharing culture were positively influencing the job performance
in any organization. All these key-determinants will eventually become the
great barriers for the top management in implementing knowledge sharing
culture within the organization if they taking all these key-determinants for
granted (Fathi et al., 2011).
2.0 PROBLEM STATEMENT

There was concern and trust issue among the employees in sharing
their knowledge with one another to perform their work better. Wei et al.,
(2012) stated that the employees are having problem in trusting their co-
workers. They fear that by sharing the knowledge, it will lead to damage
their valued information and thus affecting their job performance. Based on
Fathi et al., (2013) statement, which saying that by having issues in trust
towards their co-workers, the employees themselves become reluctance to
share knowledge among them for the sake of their individual job
performance. Donnelly (2008) revealed in his findings that employee’s
efficacy or apathy will influence their action in sharing knowledge. Alam et
al., (2013) stated that employees resists and reluctance to share knowledge
with other co-workers as they are not clear and unaware on the objectives
1073
and the benefits of sharing the knowledge towards their job performance.
This issue was also mentioned by Hassan and Al-Hakim (2011). They agreed
that most employees in Malaysia have lack of awareness on benefits of
sharing knowledge towards their job performance. Mohammad et al., (2013)
revealed in their findings that there are lacks of awareness on benefits of
sharing knowledge towards the employees’ job performance due to lack of
commitment in leadership by the top management. Khatiravelu et al. (2013)
stated in their study that the top management must encouraging and
promoting knowledge sharing culture among the employees in order to
enhance the job performance of public sector organization. The issues
related to key-determinants of knowledge sharing culture seem to be
correlated with one another in affecting the job performance. Therefore, to
understand these issues, it was imperative that a case study be conducted on
the key-determinants of knowledge sharing (trust, self-efficacy, rewards and
incentives, technology) and what will be the effect from the key-
determinants towards the job performance in public organization in
Malaysia.
3.0 RESEARCH OBJECTIVE

Based on the purpose of the study, the author framed the main
objectives of this study is to study whether or not there is any positive
relationship for each one of the key-determinants of knowledge sharing
culture (trust, self-efficacy, rewards and incentives, technology, leadership)
towards job performance in SACC.
4.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

According to Bock and Kim (2002), knowledge sharing culture is a
very crucial element in knowledge management. In this research, the
researcher is more focusing on knowledge sharing culture of tacit knowledge
among the employees as the tacit knowledge is the most valuable knowledge
compared to explicit knowledge. Explicit or codified knowledge is a type of
knowledge that is less valuable compared to tacit knowledge which is more
valuable and subjective (Chen et al., 2008). According to Disterer, (2002);
Donnelly, (2008); Fathi et al., (2011); Mohammad et al., (2013), they
suggested and revealed that every organizations has to know the key-
determinants of knowledge sharing culture in order to implement it
effectively and efficiently. They revealed in their findings that trust, self-
efficacy, rewards and incentives and leadership from the top management
1074
were the most important key-determinants in ensuring the knowledge

sharing practice can be introduced and implemented as a culture in every
organization for better job performance. According to Chow and Chan
(2008), trust among employees is very important in ensuring the culture of
knowledge sharing could be done effectively and efficiently.
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework
Key-determinants Of Knowledge Sharing Culture On Job Performance

And Moderating Role Of Job Position: A Study In Shah Alam City Council
(SACC)
Lack of trust among the employees would influenced the self-efficacy of the
employees and affect the knowledge sharing adversely as knowledge is
considered as a powerful resource that could create advantage towards the
employees’ job performance (Mohammad et al., 2013). According to Bock
and Kim (2002), they believed the willingness in sharing the knowledge was
highly influenced by self-efficacy and they agreed that self-efficacy could
be the major factor that will influence the practice of knowledge sharing.
The problem to implement the practice of knowledge sharing is still exist if
the employee refused to share the knowledge with others even though the
organization apply the support of technology to encourage the practice of
knowledge sharing (Cheah et al., 2009). Fathi et al., (2011) revealed in their
findings that the presence of rewards and incentive system will promotes
higher motivation level towards the employees’ morale and willingness in
sharing the knowledge with other co-workers. According to Rusly et al.,
(2014), the knowledge sharing culture could be hard to implement without
1075
the support from technology infrastructure. According to Alavi and Leidner

(2001), technology applications and tools will allow the knowledge to be
transferred by the employees without any boundaries. Therefore, in this
research, the researcher added technology as one of the key-determinants of
knowledge sharing culture other than those four (trust, self-efficacy, rewards
and incentives and leadership) key-determinants of knowledge sharing
culture that has been suggested and approved by Disterer, (2002); Donnelly,
(2008); Fathi et al., (2011); Mohammad et al., (2013).
5.0 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

Research question in this study was whether or not there are positive
relationships between key-determinants of knowledge sharing culture with
job performance. Framework in this study consists of five independent
variables of key-determinants of knowledge sharing culture (trust, self-
efficacy, rewards & incentives, technology, leadership), a moderator variable
(job position) and a dependent variable (job performance). The researcher
using the descriptive study by utilizing the technique of survey in order to
specifically answer the research questions in this research. The researcher will
be used the cross-sectional design in order to answer the research problems in
this research. This design was often used to make inferences about possible
relationships or to gather preliminary data to support further research
(Trochim, 2006). Therefore, this design is significance and appropriate to be
used by the researcher in this research due to the objective of the study is to
examine the relationships between every key-determinants of knowledge
sharing culture towards the job performance of SACC. The sampling
technique used in this research is the proportionate stratified sampling
technique. This sampling technique was used in this research because with
this technique, the researcher will has a higher statistical precision compared
to simple random sampling (Trochim, 2006). This is because the variability
within the subgroups is lower compared to the variations when dealing with
the entire population Proportionate stratified sample is where the populations
of sampling units are divided into subgroups or strata, and sample selected
separately per stratum (Sekaran, 2003). Based on this sampling technique,
there were 197 respondents out of 500 employees and employers in SACC.
Researchers in the field of social psychology have used the concept of shared
mental models to explain knowledge sharing and decision making and what
makes individual willing to share their knowledge with others (Mohammed
and Dumville, 2001). Correlation method was used to answer the question of
the study. Correlation refers to any statistical relationship between
1076
two random variables or two sets of data (Bakirov, 2007). There are
several correlation coefficients, often denoted ρ or r, measuring the degree of
correlation. Thus, this method will measure the relationships between the key-
determinants of knowledge sharing culture and job performance.
6.0 FINDINGS
First objective is to identify the relationship between key-
determinants of knowledge sharing culture and job performance. In order to
identify this relationship, Correlation analysis was used to identify the
relationship between two variables which are key-determinants of
knowledge sharing culture and job performance. The independent variables
are the elements that influencing the practicing of knowledge sharing while
the dependant variable (DV) is job performance. The correlation coefficient
has a range of possible values from -1 to +1. The values indicates the strength
of the relationship, while the sign (- or +) indicates the direction.
Table 1: Correlation Analysis

VARIABLES MEAN SD 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 TRUST 3.89 0.36 (1) - - - - -
2
3 SELF- 3.91 0.33 .687 (1) - - - -
EFFICACY
4 REWARDS & 3.91 0.33 .618 .636 (1) - - -

INCENTIVES
5
6 TECHNOLOGY 3.92 0.36 .646 .608 .580 (1) - -
7
8 LEADERSHIP 3.92 0.34 .638 .629 .654 .614 (1) -
9 ZJOB 3.94 0.35 .760 .846 .820 .905 .851 (1)

PERFORMANCE
10
The research objective is to identify the relationships between all the key-
determinants of knowledge sharing culture towards job performance in
SACC. It shows that the Pearson Correlation of trust, self-efficacy, rewards
& incentives, technology and leadership with job performance was r =.760,
r =.846, r =.820, r =.905, r =.851, r =.879 respectively with p =.000. Thus,
all the key-determinants of knowledge sharing culture showed high
correlation with job performance except trust which marked as the degree of
1077
correlation with job performance as the correlation coefficient was r = .760.

Thus, this shows that all the key-determinants of the knowledge sharing
culture were strongly correlated with job performance. This was supported
by the Disterer, (2002); Donnelly, (2008); Fathi et al., (2011); Mohammad
et al., (2013) who also studied the relationships of all the followings key-
determinants of knowledge sharing culture (except technology) with job
performance which the results of their study showed that all of the key-
determinants strongly affecting the job performance but leadership from top
management has the strongest positive relationship with job performance.
As the technology showed the strongest relationship with job performance
in this study, it does supported the significance of this research as the
researcher suggested that technology might be the most important factor that
influencing the practice of knowledge sharing nowadays. Chen et al., (2012)
firmly argued that technology is the most important tool or element that will
improve the implementation of knowledge sharing and motivate the
employees to practice knowledge sharing culture in any organization for
better job performance.
7.0 CONCLUSION
The aim of this study is to reduce the gaps between knowledge
sharing culture and its implementation in the public organization in Malaysia
and also highlighting the effects of this culture towards the job performance
in the organization. Based on this study, all five key-determinants of
knowledge sharing culture are positively affecting the job performance
effectively and efficiently. Any organization that uses all these elements in
implementing knowledge sharing will definitely improve their job
performance as a whole. There were few limitations occurred in this study
such as the findings might be too specific as the sample size is less than 300
respondents and only focusing on public sector. Therefore, it would be great
if the future researcher using more than two organizations for better
comparison between implementation of knowledge sharing culture in public
and private sector. Besides, it was recommended that future researcher get
greater number of sample size so that the findings could be generalized to
those related subjects. It was also suggested that the future research could
focus on the specific technology such as a system that could enhance or boost
the practice of knowledge sharing culture.
8.0 REFERENCES
1078
[1] Akashah, E., Rizal, S., and Hafiz, M., (2011). Knowledge Sharing
Platform Framework using Case Based
Reasoning. International Conference on Information and Intelligent
Computing. (18).
[2] Alam, S., Abdullah, Z., Ishak, N., and Zain, Z., (2009). Assessing
Knowledge Sharing Behaviour among Employees in SMEs: An
Empirical Study. International Business Research. 2 (2).
[3] Andreeva, T. and Kianto, A. (2011), “Knowledge Processes,

Knowledge-Intensity and Innovation: A Moderated Mediation Analysis”,
Journal of Knowledge Management, 15(6), 1016-1034.
[4] Bock, G.W. and Kim, Y.G. (2002), Breaking the Myth of Rewards: An
Exploratory Study of Attitudes about Knowledge Sharing. Information
Resources Management Journal, 15(2), 14-21.
[5] Cheah, W. C., Ooi, K. B., Teh, P. L., Chong, A. Y. L. and Yong, C. C.
(2009), “Total Quality Management and Knowledge Sharing:
Comparing Malaysia’s Manufacturing and Service Organizations”, Journal
of Applied Science, 9(8), 1422-31.
[6] Fathi, N. M., Eze, U. C. and Goh, G. G. G. (2011), “Key Determinants

of Knowledge Sharing in Electronics Manufacturing Firm in
Malaysia”, Library Review, 60(1), 53-67.
[7] Jayasingam, S., Ansari, M. A., Ramayah, T. and Jantan, M. (2012).

“Knowledge Management Practices and Performance: Are they Truly
Linked," Knowledge Management Research & Practice, 34-45.
[8] Chow, W. S. and Chan, L.S. (2008), “Social Network, Social Trust and
Shared Goals in Organizational Knowledge Sharing”, Information &
Management, 45(7), 1-8.
[9] Mohammed, M. Y. B. (2007). 'Knowledge Content in Key Economic

Sectors in Malaysia,' A Speech by the Minister in the Prime Minister’s
Department at the Launch of the 2004 Report on Knowledge Content in
Key Economic Sectors in Malaysia.
1079
[10] Bordens, K. S. & Abbott, B. B. (2008). Research Design and Methods:

A Process Approach, 7, New York: McGraw Hill.
[11] Sekaran, U. (2003). Research Method for Business: A Skill Building

Approach, 4, John Wiley & Sons.
[12] Donnelly, R. (2008), “The Management of Consultancy Knowledge:

An Internationally Comparative Analysis”, Journal of Knowledge
Management, 12(3), 71-83.
[13] Rusly, F., Sun, P. Y. T., Corner, J. L. and Chase, R. (2014). The Impact
of Change Readiness on the Knowledge Sharing Process for
Professionals Service Firms. Journal of Knowledge Management, 18(4),
687-709.
[14] Mohammad, R. N. A., Taib, K. M., Hashim D. M., Noordin S. A., and
Yasin S. M. (2013). Knowledge Management Implementation in a
Government Research Institute in Selangor, Malaysia. Communications
of the IBIMA, 2013(2013), 1-12.
[15] Alavi, M., and Leidner D. E. (2001). Review: Knowledge Management

and Knowledge Management Systems: Conceptual Foundations and
Research Issues. MIS Quarterly, 25(1), 107-136.
1080
T02_029: FAMILY AS THE NEXUS IN

TRANSGENERATIONAL TOURISM
ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Mohd Alif Mohd Puzi
Ph. D Candidate, Department of Urban and Regional
Planning, Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor,
Malaysia
Hairul Nizam Ismail

Associate Professor, Centre for Innovative Planning
and Development (CIPD), Faculty of Built
Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310
Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
The tourism industry has a high growth rate and income that becomes one
of the main economic driver for developing countries. Tourism is the
primary economic activity for peripheral area such as an island because of
high tourist demand on beach attraction. Unfortunately, tourism has not
been acknowledged as a unique business by entrepreneurship scholars.
Furthermore, tourism studies focus on demand rather than supply
perspective excessively. This paper discusses the possibility of families as
the nexus of tourism business and their capabilities as the entrepreneurship
stimulation. Family business idiosyncratic characteristic creates a high
resilient business even though located in peripheral areas. Despite that,
there are some family businesses fail not only because of the business threat
but also from family conflicts. The success of the family business depends
on the family skills to manage internal conflicts across generations. The
family appears to be able to transmit entrepreneurship traits between
generations and continuously become the family business legacy. It is the
family that influence individual entrepreneurship to decide to create a new
venture or become an excellent successor. Transgenerational tourism
entrepreneurship conceptual idea is introduced to have a better
understanding of family businesses in the tourism industry.
1081
Keywords: Transgenerational Entrepreneurship, Family Business,

Tourism Business, Tourism Development Planning
Introduction
Nepotism is the first thing that comes to the mind when talk about family
businesses [1]. It is because hundred years ago business belonged to a
family and not to any corporate or public company [2] and that is the main
reason family business seem a traditional business organization. Because of
that, the family business credibility still in question as it is a traditional
business model. Surprisingly, 85 percent of all new businesses will fail and
30 percent from that survivors manage to pass on to the second generation
make family control a company for generations just a daydream [1].
Management inefficiencies and conflict of interest are the main issue
associated with family businesses failure [1, 3]. The key of family business
survivability is in the long term entrepreneurial spirit through generations
[4]. This paper will elaborate the fundamental theory of transgenerational
tourism entrepreneurship chronologically. The idea is emerging as tourism
becomes more acknowledge as a business from the supply perspective and
the existing of entrepreneurship theory.
Family Business To Transgenerational Entrepreneurship Theory

Aldrich and Cliff (2003) that investigate the family system which has been
changed since the mid 20th century and it is influenced individual to behave
or think as entrepreneur in order to seize opportunities [2]. Mid 20 th century
families usually a small two generational group with women rarely worked
outside and limited mobility creates a kinship group in the same
communities by geographically [2]. Recent family system consists of small
size of households, first marriage age increasing, divorce rates risen, low
birth rate, women's employment rate increasing, working both parents and
parents less directly involved in children's activities [2]. This situation
creates business opportunities because of the employment population
increased, independent individual as they have smaller financial resource
and low kinship involvement in the business start-up [2]. Figure 1 explains
the way of family characteristic influence individual entrepreneurship.
The idea of family influence on entrepreneurship help Habbershon et al.

(2010) create transgenerational entrepreneurship theory. The
transgenerational entrepreneurship definition is ‘the processes through
which a family uses and develops entrepreneurial mindsets and family
influenced capabilities to create new streams of entrepreneurial, financial
1082
and social value across generations’ [5]. This definition emphasizes that
family should be the level of analysis to identify the family capabilities and
not other types of organization [2, 5, 6]. Figure 2 depicts the characteristics
of transgenerational entrepreneurship theory.
Family System Characteristics
Transitions
Marriage
Divorce Venture Creation
Childbirth Process
Employment Opportunity
Retirement recognition New Venture
Death Outcomes
Launch decision
Survival
Resource
Objective
mobilisation
performance
Implementation of
founding strategies, Subjective success
processes, and
structures
Norms, Attitudes, and
Resources Values
Financial Norms regarding family
Human interaction
Social
Attitudes towards work and
Physical
Informational family
Time Instrumental and terminal
values
Figure 1: Family Embeddedness Perspective on New

Venture Creation.
Source: Aldrich and Cliff (2003).
Family life stage
Entrepreneurial Orientation
Family Autonomy
involvement Innovativeness
Risk Taking
Proactiveness
Aggressiveness
Performance
Entrepreneurial
Financial
Industry
Social
Familiness: Resources and
Capabilities
Financial capital
Human capital
Physical capital
Social capital Transgenerational
Knowledge capital Potential
Cultural capital
Community Intangible capital
culture
Environment
Figure 2: The Framework for European Successful
Transgenerational Entrepreneurship Practice.
Source: Habbershon et al. (2010).
1083
Family Business Family

•Sustainable family Entrepreneurship
business model •Entrepreneurial
(Stafford et al., families and family
1999) firm (Nordqvist &
•Family business Melin, 2010)
definition (Chua et •Family
al., 1999) entrepreneurial
•Pervasive effects of orientation
family on (Zellweger et al.,
entrepreneurship 2011)
(Aldrich & Cliff, •Entrepreneurial
Transgenerational Entrepreneurship
2003) orientation in
in Tourism
•Cultural variations family business
in family business (Zellweger &
(Gupta & Sieger, 2012)
Levenburg, 2010) •Entrepreneurial
Family Business in Transgenerational
legacy (Jaskiewics
•Socio-emotional
Tourism Entrepreneurship
wealth (Berrone et et al., 2015)
•Family business in
al., 2012) •Transgenerational
tourism
•The 12S (Getz
modeletfor entrepreneurship
al., 2004)
family firms (Poza (Habbershon et al.,
•The family farm
& Daugherty, 2014) 2008)
business (Wilson, •Intangible resource
2007) in
•Entrepreneurial transgenerational
orientation in entrepreneurship
tourism family (Sharma et al.,
firms (Peters & 2014)
Kallmuenzer, 2015)
Figure 3: Chronology of Transgenerational

Entrepreneurship in Tourism
Transgenerational entrepreneurship is not only focusing on business growth

and succession, but family capabilities to create a new stream of
entrepreneurship across generations [5, 7]. Maintaining a high
entrepreneurial trait in the family in many generations could become a
legacy. Entrepreneurial legacies in the family from founder generation is
maintained through young children involvement and storytelling [7].The
parent has an important role to create an entrepreneurial intention of their
children, even though young generation will mostly influence by outsider
1084
rather than the family itself [8]. It is different to the Classic family business
theory which discusses about the relationship and reaction between two
dimensions, family and business [9].
Transgenerational Tourism Entrepreneurship

Tourism is an amalgam field that touch variety of aspects of society [10,
11]. Tourism is all about related to tourist activity, but there is a low on
quantity in term of supply perspective [11]. Despite the negative view that
mentioned before, 80 to 98 percent of all businesses are controlled by
families [1]. There is an increasing interest in the entrepreneurs in the
tourism and hospitality industry [12]. Unfortunately, it seems family
business often becomes a second choice in the tourism and hospitality
interest [12, 13]. Figure 3 shows the chronology of dimension in
transgenerational tourism entrepreneurship.
Conclusion And Future Research

There is a huge gap to be explored for transgenerational entrepreneurship.
Research hand to hand with both tourism and entrepreneurship able to create
a new dimension that able to have a better understanding of both fields.
Besides that, Researchers need to have priority for the family as the level of
analysis as the family has huge influence on an individual. Furthermore,
Asian can be a suitable site to explore because most of the study focusing
on the western region.
Acknowledgement
This paper is supported in part by FRGS under grant no.
R.J130000.7821.4F774 and by UP under grant no. Q.J130000.2521.11H51.
References
[3] Poza E. J. and Daugherty M.S., Family Business, 4 th ed. (South-
Western, CENGAGE Learning, USA, 2014).
[4] Aldrich H.E. and Cliff J.E., “The Pervasive Effects of Family on
Entrepreneurship: Toward a Family Embeddedness Perspective,”
Journal of Business Venturing 18, 573-596 (2003).
[5] Gupta V. and Levenburg N., “A Thematic Analysis of Cultural
Variations in Family Businesses: The CASE Project,” Family Business
Review 23 (2), 155-169 (2010).
[6] Au K., Craig J.B. and Ramachandran K., Family Enterprise in Asia
1085
Pacific Exploring Transgenerational in Family Firms, (Edward Elgar,

Cheltenham, UK, 2011).
[7] Habbershon T.G., Nordqvist M. and Zellweger T.M. Transgenerational
Entrepreneurship: Exploring Growth and Performance in Family Firms
across Generations, (Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, UK, 2010).
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Firms toTransgenerational Entrepreneurship of Families: Introducing
Family Entrepreneurial Orientation,” Family Business Review 20 (10),
1-20 (2011).
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of HowSome Family Firms Nurture Transgenerational
Entrepreneurship,” Journal of Business Venturing 30, 29-49 (2015).
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of Sutainable Family Businsses,” Family Business Review 12 (3), 197-
208 (1999).
[11] Laspita S., Breugst N., Heblich S. and Patzelt H., “Intergenerational
Transmission of Entrepreneurial Intentions,” Journal of Business
Venturing 27, 414-435 (2012).
[12] Park J., Wu B., Morrison A.M., Shen Y., Cong L. and Li M., “The
Tourism System Research Categorizaton Framework,” Asia Pacific
Journal of Tourism Research, DOI: 10.1080/10941665.2015.1085885
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[13] Vanhove N., The Economics of Tourism Destinations, (Elsevier
Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, UK, 2005).
[14] Peters M. and Kallmuenzer A., “Entrepreneurial Orientation in Family
Firms: The Case of the Hospitality Industry, Current Issues in
Tourism,” DOI: 10.1080/13683500.2015.1053849 (2015).
[15] Getz D., Carlsen J. and Morrison A., The Family Business in Tourism
and Hospitality, (CABI Publishing, Oxfordshire, UK).
[16] Chua J., Chrisman J., and Sharma P., “Defining the Family Business
by Behavior,” Journal of Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice
Summer, 19-39 (1999).
[17] Berrone P., Cruz C., and Gomez-Mejia L., “Socioemotional Wealth in
Family Firms: Theoretical Dimensions, Assessment Approaches and
Agena for Future Research,” Family Business Review 25, 258-279
(2012).
[18] Nordqvist M. and Melin L., “Entrepreneurial Families and Family
Firms,” Entrepreneurship and Regional Development 22 (3), 211-239
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[19] Zellweger T. and Sieger P., Entrepreneurial Orientation in Long-Lived
1086
Family Firms,” Small Business Economics 38, 67-84 (2012)

[20] Wilson L., “The Family Farm Business? Nsights into Family, Business
and Ownership Dimensions of Open-Farms,” Leisure Studies 26 (3),
357-364 (2007).
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2014).
1087
T02_030: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

THE IMPACTS OF TELECOMMUTING
ENGAGEMENT AND EMPLOYEE
PERFORMANCE IN OIL AND GAS
INDUSTRY IN KUANTAN, PAHANG
Fatin Fazrida Peros Khan
Nor Hafizah Mohamed Harith
Nasrudin Mohammed
Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies, Universiti Teknologi

MARA
Email: fatin_rafflesia@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Telecommuting refers to the work option that enables telecommuters to
work regularly, but not exclusively at home and other alternative locations
such as from a hotel, client’s office, restaurant as well as while travelling.
It enables telecommuters to have a direct contact with those inside and
outside of the organization by using information and communication
technologies. Despite the continuous effort by Malaysia’s government, the
implementation and occurrence of telecommuting practice in Malaysia has
still not yet gained full support from local companies [5]. Consequently,
Malaysian workforce has suffered from low-level performance and poor
productivity due to the lack of flexibility in task accomplishment [25]. Thus,
this research intends to investigate the relationship between the impact of
telecommuting engagement and employee’s performance in the oil and gas
sector located in Kuantan, Pahang. Primarily, this study aims to investigate
whether telecommuting engagement affects job autonomy, work-family
balance, work productivity and level of occupational stress lead to better
employee’s performance. This study adopted a cross-sectional design in
which a total of 229 respondents were involved in this study. Data were
analyzed by using SPSS version 21. The findings of the study show that job
autonomy, work-family balance and occupational stress have a greater
degree of correlation with employee performance at r = .923, p < 0.05, r =
.734, p < 0.05 and r = .817, p < 0.05 respectively. On the other hand, work
productivity has a moderate positive relationship with the score of r = .408,
p < 005. Thus, the findings of this study revealed that job autonomy, work-
1088
family balance, work productivity and levels of occupational stress have a

positive relationship with employee’s performance. It indicates that the
telecommuters in oil and gas companies located in Kuantan, Pahang are
able to enjoy their freedom in determining the time, place and means to
complete the tasks, get to spend time with family, enjoy high productivity
and low level of occupational stress and these have contributed to greater
employee’s performance at work.
Keywords: Telecommuting, employee performance, oil and gas
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Telecommuting was introduced since three decades ago and meant to ensure
the task completion easy than before. Initially, telecommuting can be
defined as the work option that enables telecommuters to work regularly,
but not exclusively at home. In the first place, people have to develop the
relationship based on the technology and arranged the formal interactions
with the employer [22]. Basically, telecommuter refers to the people who
work outside of the office such as satellite offices, coffee shop, in a car or
airplane, and in a hotel room [12]. Moreover, the growth in the number of
telecommuters all over the world was caused by the rapid development in
technology information especially with the introduction of social media as
a medium to share the information, documents even to conduct video
conferencing with employers, clients, and colleagues via facebook, skype,
yahoo mail, just to name a few. With regards to the development of the
information and communication technology, people are easy to
communicates and share the information with each other. Thus, it
encourages the implementation of telecommuting practice in every work
areas. In Malaysia, SCOPE International Sdn. Bhd., which is a subsidiary
company of Standard Chartered Bank of UK operating in Malaysia, became
one of the local Information Technologies companies that have promoted a
telecommuting program as an official program to all of its staff with the aim
of encouraging work-life balance [5].
2.0 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Telecommuting is the work option that enable employees to perform the job
tasks that normally done at the workplace in another alternate locations, for
at least with some portion of their work schedule by using the electronic and
technological devices as a tools to interact with the people inside or outside
of the organization [13]. This practice recognized as one of the means to
fulfill the dream of Malaysia to became one fully developed country by the
year of 2020 and in order to achieved Malaysia achieve high-income status
1089
which is must be sustainable in economic, social and environmental terms

[24]. In addition, over than 100 countries in the world such as United States
and United Kingdom active in adapting in telecommuting practice [9].
However, telecommuting work arrangement still considered as a new idea
and still has not yet gained popularity in Malaysia [5]. Despite of great
endeavors from Malaysian government in an effort to implement and
promote telecommuting practice like an investment of RM 11.3 billion to
launch internet access speed project of 4 megabits per second which benefits
2.3 million premises particularly in urban area which collaborated with
private sector since the 9th Malaysia plan [10], and thrown “Connecting
1Malaysia” program as the promotion steps which aim to support
teleworking by integrating all the technology instruments such as voice,
video, messaging, multimedia sharing and many other technologies into a
single platform which allow them to work seamlessly from anywhere [30].
Still, there are lack of support and participation from Malaysian companies
in this program [31]. The low incidence of telecommuting practice in
Malaysia can be seen through the survey conducted by Malaysian
Employers Federation (MEF) in 2012, where the result showed that only
28.1 percent of 199 companies in Malaysia were promoting and
implementing work-life balance. Moreover, majority of the organizations
from 28.1 percent are multinational companies located in this country [3].
It proved that not many of the local companies in Malaysia interested and
active in practicing telecommuting practices.
Furthermore, there are several industries in Malaysia in which their work
natures are synonym with telecommuting concept like oil and gas industry,
banking industry, and education industry became among the least popular
industry that implement this type of flexible work arrangement [31]. This
unfavorable phenomenon occurs because most of the employers in
Malaysia have a skeptical view towards telecommuting practice. Malaysian
still argue about the significant benefits of telecommuting concept to the
employees as well as the employers [26]. Due to that reason, Malaysian
employers are reluctant and hesitate to implement telecommuting work
arrangement in their organization and allowed their employees to work
outside of the traditional office. The study found out that more than 60
percent of Malaysian workers face the problems of work overloads and they
are not spending enough time with family which then affects their
performance at work going down [14]. The ignorance of the employers
towards the good impacts derived by the telecommuting practice as one of
the flexibility work arrangements in the organization and concentrating on
the negative side effect of telecommuting’s implementation became the
1090
factor why the performance of the employees were declined [26]. Therefore,
this study investigated the actual impacts of telecommuting engagement on
employee’s performance in tasks accomplishment. It will examine whether
telecommuting provide the significant impact to the performance of the
employees in oil and gas industry.
3.0 RESEARCH OBJECTIVE

The objective of the research is to investigate whether the impacts of
telecommuting engagement (job autonomy, work-family balance, work
productivity, and level of occupational stress) leads to better employee’s
performance.

Telecommuting concept mentioned [19] provides an opportunity to improve
the employee performance. This is due to the greater schedule flexibility
experienced by employees when it enables the employees to work on task
based on their preferences. They can decide the time, methods and place to
perform the task assigned thereby improves their productivity.
Telecommuting promised numerous environmental, family, employee, and
business impacts. As a center of attention of this research, there are several
impacts of telecommuting experienced by the employees when they
engaged in telecommuting work arrangement. The telecommuting impacts
are likely related to the performance of the employee itself. It consists of
job autonomy, work – family balance, work productivity and levels of
occupational stress [1; 11; 13; 20]
Fantastically, the telecommuters are really experienced the autonomy in
their job [27]. They got the opportunity to determine the schedules and the
means used to achieve the task goals. Telecommuting enables the
telecommuters to own the control over their job task as they work without
the supervisor’s sight. Correspondingly, the previous researcher revealed
that job autonomy practiced in telecommuting capable to increase the
performance of the employees as the telecommuters reported high level of
job satisfaction, less motivation to leave the company, less stress, improved
work-family balance, and higher performance ratings by supervisors [13].
Other than that, employees who involved in telecommuting highly
experience the impacts of work – family balance [11]. As a result,
telecommuters reported less interference between work and family roles,
leading the researchers to conclude that teleworkers may be better able to
manage some key aspects of work-family conflict whenever they given the
flexibility in the task performed. Fascinatingly, the employees who
1091
experience the balance between work and family is related to the

performance improvement in organization [22].
In addition, telecommuting also affects the employee’s productivity as the
telecommuting’s norm led to the boost of the work outputs [22]. This is due
to the condition where telecommuters can saved the commuting time,
avoided unnecessary interruptions and inefficient meetings at the office.
Moreover, the opportunities granted to employees which enable them to
enjoy the autonomy in terms of time and places also contributed to the high
level of productivity in the task completion.
Since telecommuting is highly promotes the greater flexibility to employees
engaged in it, it also support the ability of an employee to cope with the
pressures in work. It has been proved that telecommuting as one of the
alternative work schedules can reduce work stress impact especially by
offering work flexibility to the employees [1]. This stress reduction may
cause by the decreased traffic headaches, a better work-life balance, more
personal control over time and environment, and consequently, an increase
in overall flexibility [2]. Uniquely, employees tend to feel calmer and less
stress that caused by the work pressure whenever they performed the work
tasks at other places instead of the traditional office.
Telecommuting enables the employee to boost up their performance and
productivity. Employees who work from home tend to work an average of
one hour more per day than those in office. In addition, the flexibility to
work the hour’s one prefers, whether early in the morning, late in the
evening or longer day with extended break, it provides employees with a
sharper focus on their work which helps to have a great quality and high
quantity in terms of tasks performance [34]. Past history showed that female
employees who work in Hewlett-Packard Company or HP is multinational
company which operated in Putrajaya, Malaysia reported that
telecommuting has enabled them to increase the number of hours they
works per week without decreasing the time with their children and this
highly contributed to their high work performance [21]. When working at
home, there is high potential for the employee to think out of the box and
this creativity will contribute to increasing their work performance. The
ability to generate new ideas with minimal assistance or interaction from
others could be beneficial when an employee is telecommuting due to their
decrease of social interaction with co-workers. It is because sometimes the
interaction and interruption by co-workers could be burdensome to the
employees [28].
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Figure 4.1: Conceptual framework of the study
5.0 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

Research design is a specification of methods and procedures to acquire the
information needed [15]. To answer the research objective which is to
investigate whether the impacts of telecommuting engagement (job
autonomy, work-family balance, work productivity, and level of
occupational stress) leads to better employee’s performance, the correlation
research design was used. This used to explore to what extent two or more
variables co-vary which means that if there was a change in one variable
that was reflected with changes in the other variable.
With regards to the scope of this study, it focused on the employees who
engaged in the telecommuting practice. The respondents were selected from
different oil and gas based companies which located in Kuantan, Pahang.
This is due to the work nature of some of the employees in Oil and Gas
industry uphold the telecommuting practice as they are working and
complete the job tasks outside of the workplace [6]. Oil and gas industry is
fully equipped with the modern technology to accompany the tasks
performance and communication between the employees in industry. Using
a quantitative research method, this study was conducted in 11 companies
of oil and gas and involved 229 employees engaged in telecommuting
practice in Kuantan, Pahang.
The respondents are derived based on the two types of sampling techniques
which consists of (1) purposive sampling and (2) census sampling
techniques. Purposive sampling is most effective sampling to be use when
one needs to examine the certain cultural domain with knowledgeable
experts within the environment of study [26]. It is a common sampling
technique where the respondents choose according to the preselected
criteria and relevant to answers the research questions. In this study, the
1093
respondents were chosen based on the criteria of they engaged in

telecommuting work arrangement. Their nature of work required and
allowed oil and gas’s employees to work outside of the normal workplace
which enable them to work at the alternate location such as their own house,
client’s office, hotel, and work site.
Meanwhile, census sampling means the total population been studied in the
research [4]. Census sampling technique can be used to increase the
probability of getting more accurate findings as the feedbacks are given by
population. Since the entire populations of this research is sufficiently small
which only 229 telecommuters in oil and gas companies in Kuantan,
Pahang. Therefore, it leads to the requirement to use the whole population
of the study as a sample. Significantly, it is possible to use the entire
populations as a sample in a research when the population for research study
is very small [7]. Thus, the census sampling technique was adapted to
complement the earlier sampling method.
Furthermore, to answer the research objective, the questionnaires involved
the items on the two variables which are independent variables (IV) and
dependent variable (DV) were developed. Questionnaire was divided into 3
parts which is Part A, B, and C and it consist of 45 items which are adapted
by the previous scholars. In addition, to measure the items, Likert scale of
1 to 5 (from the lowest value of 1 indicate to “strongly disagree” and the
largest value of 5 indicate to “strongly agree”) were used. Therefore, the
data were analyzed by using SPSS version 23. Significantly, the reliability
test that run to analyze the consistency of the data was fulfilled the
requirement as the results above that 0.6.
6.0 FINDINGS
Table 6.1: Correlation Analysis
VARIABLES MEAN SD 1 2 3 4 5
Job autonomy 4.2986 .36010 1 - - - -
Work-family balance 4.2424 .30359 .600** 1 - - -
Work productivity 4.0783 .43413 .564** .884** 1 - -
Levels of occupational 4.2829 .38734 .396** .665** .745** 1 -

stress
4.3166 .34548 .923** .734** .408** .817** 1
Employee performance
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The research objective is to identify the relationships between all the

impacts of telecommuting engagement towards the employee’s
performance in 11 oil and gas companies located in Kuantan, Pahang. The
table 6.1 showed that the Pearson Correlation of job autonomy, work –
family balance, work productivity and levels of occupational stress with
employee performance was r = .923, r = .734, r = .408, r = .817 respectively
with p < 0.05. Thus, all of the impacts of telecommuting engagement
experienced by the telecommuters showed the positive relationship with
employee performance. The finding was positively supported by the
previous scholar indicated that telecommuting work arrangement
significantly contributed to the better performance while working [1; 16;
27]. Job autonomy was the strongest impact of telecommuting that lead to
the better employee performance in this study. The study has shown that the
job autonomy has a positive relationship with employee performance
because this self-regulation option helps the employee to be more creative
in deciding the elements and methods used in tasks accomplishment since
others unable to obstruct their ideas as long as they follow the rules and
regulations, as well as the objectives of the work tasks assigned can be
accomplish [33].
7.0 DISCUSSION
Telecommuting is an approach of the government to support the work life
balance among Malaysian workers. It provides employees with greater
flexibility and helps to increase their level of performance while working.
Findings showed that job autonomy has a positive relationship with an
employee’s performance because this work option helps to improve
employee’s creativity especially in deciding the elements and methods used
in the tasks accomplishment. The ideas of employees were always
supported by the employer as long as they follow all rules and regulations,
and ensure the work objectives were achieved [33]. Moreover, this is the
opportunity for telecommuters to perform their duties as spouse, parent,
friend, sibling, and child, yet at the same time being an excellent worker if
they manage their work routines properly [23]. Based on the result,
employees who are engaged in telecommuting are able to increase their
level of job satisfaction.
In addition, telecommuting is able to enhance the level of productivity
among the employee in the oil and gas industry. This is because the
employee’s work output has increased and has time efficiency in
completing the work tasks [8]. A study conducted on oil and gas employee
involved in telecommuting method found out that the occupational stress
1095
has an effect on the employee’s performance. Through telecommuting

practice, they are capable to avoid and reduce the occupational stress as they
work outside the normal office, far away from colleagues, manager, and
negative elements at the office such as long working hours, rumors, and bad
relationship with people around them [30]. The great performance showed
by those involved in telecommuting provide the significant contribution to
the country’s development and helps Malaysia to achieve Vision 2020
which is to retain the expertise and high knowledge of workers in the
country.
8.0 CONCLUSION
The study aimed to investigate the relationship between the impacts of
telecommuting engagement experienced by the employees, in oil and gas
companies in Kuantan, Pahang, who work outside of the common
workplace and their performance. Based on the findings, the research
objective acknowledged that all of the telecommuting’s impacts which
consist of job autonomy, work-family balance, work productivity and levels
of occupational stress positively affected the employee’s performance.
Telecommuting enables the employee to boost up their performance and
productivity because the employees who work from home tend to work an
average of one hour more per day than those in the office.
In addition, the flexibility to work the hour one prefers, whether early in the
morning, late in the evening or long day with extended break, it provides
employees with a sharper focus on their work which helps to have a great
quality and high quantity in terms of task performance [34]. There are a few
limitations in the context of study such as the scope of study where it only
focused on one type of industry and the responses only derived on the
employee’s side. Therefore, it is suggested that the research should combine
the responses not only from the employees, but also the employers. In
addition, it is also recommended for future research to conduct study on
several different industries in Malaysia to gain more valid data that can be
generalized to all employees in Malaysia.
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T02_031: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

PERCEIVED ORGANIZATIONAL SUPPORT
WITH ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT
AMONG ACADEMIC STAFF
Agatha Lamentan Anak Muda-1
Chan Yuen Fook-2
Norsidah Mohd Noordin-3
Faculty of Education, Universiti Teknologi MARA

(UiTM), Puncak Alam Campus, Selangor Darul Ehsan,
Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Many previous studies revealed that exist significant and positive
relationship between perceived organizational support with organizational
commitment. In relation to this, this particular study was carried out to
examine the relationships exist between perceived organizational support
with the three components of organizational commitment:affective
commitment, continuance commitment and normative commitment. The
respondents of this study were the academic staff from one faculty of one
Public University in Sarawak, Malaysia. A set of cross-sectional survey
research questionnaire was used to collect data from the academic staff,
and a Statistical Package for the Social Sciences version 21 was used to
perform data analyses obtained from a total of fifty returned questionnaire.
Descriptive statistics were used to analyse data on demographic
characteristics, and to determine the level of perceived organizational
support and the three components of organizational commitment, and the
Pearson Product-Moment correlation was used to analyse relationships
exist between perceived organizational support with the three components
of organizational commitment. The results of analyses by the Pearson
Product-Moment correlation indicated that exist significant and positive
relationships between perceived organizational support with each
component of organizational commitment, and the strongest relationship
exist was between perceived organizational support with affective
commitment. The findings of this study had showed the significance role of
organizational support in ensuring high level of commitment among the
academic staff particularly in Malaysia’s Public University setting.
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Keywords: Organizational Commitment, Perceived Organizational

Support, Academic Staff of Public University in Malaysia
Introduction and Background of Study

Organizational commitment has been recognized by many past studies as
one of important concepts that has been associated with many forms of work
and non-work behaviour [1], and arguably have the possibility to affect the
effectiveness of the organization and also employee’s well-being [2].
Despite the many past studies that had ascertained the associations between
organizational commitment with various organizational factors and
outcomes within the past thirty years [3], still not many research study has
been done to study the concept of organizational commitment in the
educational setting [4]. Therefore the major purpose of this particular study
was to examine the relationships exist between perceived organizational
support with the three components of organizational commitments namely
affective, continuance and normative commitment among the academic
staff in Malaysia’s Higher Education setting. Based on the above stated
purpose of this study, three specific research objectives as follows were
formulated to guide this particular study: (i) To identify the level of
affective, continuance and normative commitment among the academic
staff in this study, (ii) To identify the level of perceived organizational
support among the academic staff in this study, (iii) To identify the
relationship exists between perceived organizational support with affective,
continuance and normative commitment among the academic staff in this
study. In the context of this particular study, organizational commitment
was referred to the Three-Component-Model (TCM) of commitment, which
comprises of the affective, continuance and normative commitment [5,6].
Based on these three approaches, commitment is perceived as a
psychological state that portrays the employee-organization’s relationship
that influences employee’s decision to continue or discontinue their
membership in the organization [5]. In particular, affective commitment
refers to an employee’s emotional attachment to, identification with, and
involvement in the organization, continuance commitment refers to an
employee’s awareness of the costs associated if they were to leave the
organization, and normative commitment refers to an employee’s belief on
their obligation to continue employment [5]. On the other hand, perceived
organizational support is employee’s belief on the extent to which the
organization is recognized their contribution and concerned of their well-
1101
being [7]. Aube’, Rousseau and Morin (2007) in their study indicated that
perceived organizational support was significantly and positively associated
with affective and normative commitment [8]. This study was supported by
a later study by Luxmi and Yadav in 2011 [9]. Colakoglu, Culha and Atay
(2010) in their study also presented a similar findings indicated that
perceived organizational support were significantly and positively related
to affective, continuance and normative component of organizational
commitment [10].
Methodology
This survey research study was spesifically carried out to examine the
relationships exist between perceived organizational support with affective
commitment, continuance commitment and normative commitment. A
correlational approach using the Pearson Product-Moment correlation was
utilized to analyse the relationships exist between the selected variables
under this study. Furthermore, the descriptive statistics using percentage,
means and standard deviations were used to analyse the data on
demographic characteristics of respondents, and also to determine the level
of perceived organizational support and the three components of
organizational commitment. The population of this study comprises all
academic staff from one faculty related to Social Science field of one Public
University in Sarawak, Malaysia. Permissions from the required authorities
were obtained before the data collection commenced. At the time of this
study, approximately sixty academic staff were eligible and the minimum
sample size for this number is 48 [11]. All academic staff were taken as the
respondents in this study. Nevertheless, from a total of sixty questionnaires
distributed, only fifty questionnaires were returned back and used for the
analyses. A cross-sectional survey questionnaire adapted from the past
studies was used to collect data for the study. The questionnaire had
different sections for: (i) demographic data (ii) organizational commitment
that included six items for each component of commitment, with eighteen
items in total [5,6], (iii) perceived organizational support, with sixteen items
in total [7]. All items on perceived organizational support and
organizational commitment were close-ended, in English and measured by
the five-point Likert scale ranging from “Strongly Disagree” (1) to
“Strongly Agree” (5). A pilot test was done prior to the actual study to
determine the reliability and validity of the research instrument. This
includes seeking comments from several expert panels on the suitability of
questionnaire’s items and also on the language. In addition the Cronbach’s
1102
coefficient alpha for perceived organizational support and organizational

commitment were 0.97 and 0.89, respectively.
Table 1: Academic Staff’s Organizational Commitment Scores

ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT MEAN STANDARD
DEVIATION
I would be very happy to spend the rest of my career with this university. 4.08 0.92
I really feel as if this university's problems are my own. 3.54 0.95
I feel a strong sense of “belonging” to this university. 4.04 0.73
I feel “emotionally attached” to this university. 3.92 0.75
I feel like “part of the family” at this university. 3.72 0.90
This university has a great deal of personal meaning for me. 3.76 0.72
Right now, staying with this university is a matter of necessity as much as 4.06 0.82
desire.
3.88 1.04
It would be very hard for me to leave this university right now, even if I
wanted to. 3.98 0.91
Too much of my life would be disrupted if I decided to leave this university
now. 3.6 1.01
I feel that I have too few options for consideration to leave this university. 3.12 1.1
If I had not already put so much of myself into this university, I might
consider working elsewhere. 3.4 1.05
One of the few negative consequences of leaving this university would be
the scarcity of available alternatives. 3.38 0.99
I feel it is my obligation to remain with this university. 3.56 1.15
Even if it were to my advantage, I do not feel it would be right for me to
leave this university now. 3.42 1.2
I would feel guilty if I left this university now. 3.7 0.93
This university deserves my loyalty. 3.64 1.03
I would not leave this university right now because I have a sense of
3.84 0.96
obligation to the people in it.
3.7 0.65
I owe a great deal to this university.
Overall
Findings, Discussions And Conclusion
This part discusses the findings of this study that presented in the forms of
descriptive and parametric inferential statistics. In terms of the demographic
data, majority of the academic staff in this study were female (68 percent)
and the largest group of age were in the range of 27 to 33 years old (42
percent). For academic qualification most of the academic staff in this study
hold a Master’s degree (62 percent), and with regards to academic position
many were in the lecturer’s position (62 percent). In addition, majority of
the academic staff in this study (60 percent) have been worked between six
to ten years with their university.
Table 1 presents the descriptive analyses on the academic staff’s
organizational commitment. The overall mean for their organizational
1103
commitment score was found to be quite high, that was in the range of
“Slightly Agree” and “Agree” (Mean: 3.7, Standard Deviation: 0.65). As
for the component of affective commitment, the item with the highest score
was “I would be very happy to spend the rest of my career with this
university” (Mean: 4.08, Standard Deviation: 0.92). While for continuance
commitment, almost all scores for this component were in the range of
“Slightly Agree” and “Agree”, and the highest score item was “Right now,
staying with this university is a matter of necessity as much as desire”
(Mean: 4.06, Standard Deviation: 0.82). Similarly, the scores for all items
for the normative commitment’s component were in the range of “Slightly
Agree” and “Agree”, and the item with the highest score was “I owe a great
deal to this university” (Mean: 3.84, Standard Deviation: 0.96). As
indicated by Table 1, no item for organizational commitment scored under
three. The findings gave evidence on how the academic staff felt, that was
in terms of their relationship with their university which effect the decision
on their membership in their respective university. From the scores depicted
in Table 1 below, the level of organizational commitment in overall and for
each component was quite high.
Table 2: Scores Of Academic Staff’s Perceived Organizational Support
PERCEIVED ORGANIZATIONAL SUPPORT MEAN STANDARD
DEVIATION
This university values my contribution to its well-being. 3.62 0.97
Even if this university could hire someone to replace me at a lower salary 3.06 1
it would not do so.
This university never fails to appreciate any extra effort from me. 3.44 0.91
This university strongly considers my goals and values. 3.52 0.91
This university would never ignore any complaint from me. 3.36 0.96
This university considers my best interests when it makes decisions that 3.48 0.91
affect me.
3.68 0.91
Help is available from this university when I have a problem.
3.52 0.95
This university really cares about my well-being. 3.42 0.95
This university would always notice when I am at my best. 3.54 0.89
This university is willing to help me when I need a special favour. 3.5 0.89
This university cares about my general satisfaction at work. 3.48 0.86
Even if given the opportunity, this university would not take advantage of
me. 3.34 0.96
This university shows a very high concern for me. 3.36 0.96
This university cares about my opinions. 3.58 0.81
This university takes pride in my accomplishments at work. 3.44 1.03
This university tries to make my job as interesting as possible. 3.46 0.79
Overall
Table 2 presents the scores on the academic staff’s perceived
organizational support. The overall mean for the academic staff’ perceived
1104
organizational support scores was in the range of “Slightly Agree” and

“Agree” (Mean: 3.46, Standard Deviation: 0.79). The item with the highest
score was “Help is available from this university when I have a problem”
(Mean: 3.68, Standard Deviation: 0.91). Nevertheless, no item scored four
and above. The findings indicated that in overall, the academic staff felt that
their university, that was in terms of recognizing their contributions and
caring about of their well-being, was at a moderate level.
Table 3: The Relationship between Perceived Organizational Support and

Three Components of Organizational Commitment
Variables Affective Continuance Normative
Commitment Commitment Commitment
Perceived Pearson Correlation: Pearson Correlation: Pearson Correlation:
Organizational 0.748** 0.643** 0.598**
Support Sig. (2-tailed): 0.000 Sig. (2-tailed): 0.000 Sig. (2-tailed): 0.000
N: 50 N: 50 N: 50
Table 3 shows a significant and positive relationships between

perceived organizational support with each component of organizational
commitment, with all r values were more than 0.5. The strongest
relationship was between perceived organizational support with affective
commitment (r = 0.748, p-value = 0.000), and the strength of relationships
(r value) between perceived organizational support with continuance and
normative commitment were more than 0.5. Thus, findings of this study
had supported the results of past studies by Aube’ et al. (2007), Luxmi and
Yadav (2011) and Colakoglu et al. (2010) [8,9,10].
In conclusion, this paper had contributed to the body of knowledge
regarding to organizational commitment particularly on the three
components model [5,6] by looking on its relationship with perceived
organizational support. Thus, generally the findings of this study hopefully
would benefits the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia and also the top
management of the Public University to better understanding on the
importance contribution of organizational support to the development of
higly committed academic staff.
References
[22] Allen, N. J. & Meyer, J. P. (1996). “Affective, continuance and normative commitment
to the organization: An examination of construct validity”. Journal of Vocational
Behavior, 49 (43), 252-276.
[23] Meyer, J.P. & Herscovitch, L. (2001). “Commitment in the workplace: Toward a general
Model”. Human Resource Management Review, 11, 299-326.
1105
[24] Choong, Y.O., Tan, C.E., Keh, C.G., Lim, Y.H. & Tan, Y.T. (2012). “How demographic
factors impact organizational commitment of academic staffs in Malaysian private
universities: A review and research agenda”. International Journal of Academic
Research, 4 (3), 72-76.
[25] Chughtai, A.A. & Zafar, S. (2006). “Antecedents and consequences of organizational
commitment among Pakistani university teachers”. Applied H.R.M. Research, 11 (1), 39-
64.
[26] Meyer, J. P. & Allen, N. J. (1991). “A three-component conceptualization of
organizational commitment”. Human Resource Management Review, 1, 61-89.
[27] Meyer, J. P. & Allen, N. J. (1997). Commitment in the workplace: Theory, research, and
application. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
[28] Eisenberger, R., Huntington, R., Hutchison, S. & Sowa, D. (1986). “Perceived
organizational support”. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71, 500-507.
[8] Aube’, C., Rousseau, V. & Morin, E.M. (2007). “Perceived organizational support and
organizational commitment: The moderating effect of locus of control and work
autonomy”.
Journal of Managerial Psychology, 2 ( 5), 479-495.
[9] Luxmi & Yadav, V. (2011). “Reciprocation effect of perceived organizational support on
organizational commitment: A Study of school teachers”. Management and Labour
Studies,
36 (2), 175-186. doi: 10.1177/0258042X1103600204
[10] Colakoglu,U., Culha, O. & Atay, H. (2010). “The effects of perceived organizational
support
on employees’ affective outcomes: Evidence from the hotel industry”. Tourism and
Hospitality Management, 16 (2), pp. 125-150.
[11] Luck, D. J., Taylor, W. G., & Robin, (1987). Marketing Research. Eaglewood: Prentice
Hall.
1106
T02_032: MANAGING HEALTH SYSTEM

GOVERNANCE: FRAMEWORKS,
STRATEGIES AND POLICES FOR
MAINSTREAMING GENDER BASED NEEDS
INTO PUBLIC HEALTH
Adeela Rehman* Dr. Saif-ur-Rehman Saif Abbasi** Dr. Nurazzura
Mohamad Diah***
*
PhD Student, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, KIRKHS,
International Islamic University Malaysia
Lecturer, Department of Gender Studies, Fatima Jinnah Women
University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan
**Professor, Chairperson Department of Sociology, International Islamic
University, Islamabad, Pakistan
***Associate Professor, Head of Department Sociology and
Anthropology, KIRKHS, International Islamic University Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Governance of health system is very important to be considered for the
equitable distribution of health care services to the population. Governance
of health system is based on equitable provision of resources, design
appropriate strategies to improve the health conditions and well being of
people, assured proper and adequate rules and procedural guidelines for
measuring its actions. This paper reflects the gender based analysis of
health policy and different governance frameworks designed by health
organization was analyzed to measure the health system. The governance
frameworks were adopted through the annual reports of International
health organizations and analyzed through gender lens. Although the
progress has been going on to improve the health status of women in
Pakistan, but there is still a long way to go to deliver gender sensitive health
care practices. For the gender balanced structure of governance in health
system of Pakistan, there is a need for integrating gender perspective at all
levels of health system from the policy level to its implementation.
Keywords: Health System, Governance, Frameworks, Gender Analysis
Introduction
Governance of health care system is defined as the work out of political,
economic and governmental authority to administer the health matters of a
1107
country. It is based on the complex strategy and procedure to manipulate

the interests and priorities of governments, citizens and other institutions to
use their legal rights and responsibilities. The governance of health care
system can be measured through the performance of health ministry and its
attached departments, formulation of health policy as well as stewardship
and leadership supremacy to govern the public health system (Siddiqui,
2007).
Governance in health system is based on the concerns of equitable, healthier
and proper health care at time which can be intended by social and
legislative measures (Fikree & Omrana, 2004). The role of government
asserted by the structure of governance to give power to local citizen and
civil society, and the private sector to play a part in health sector and create
links between government and other sectors of the society. The primary
responsibility to hold the governance of health system is on local
governments to plan and manage the health resources with the facilitation
of ministry of health. Due to mismanagement of consumption of financial
resources, corruption and low quality health services, the users of these
health services feel reluctant to use it (USAID, 2007).
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) also indicated that
beside the government responsibility to govern the state issues, political,
administrative and economic forces also play their active role in the process
of governance (Kaufman, et al, 2005). Due to this body, the governance of
health system also consults with different other institutions to plan and
regulate the functions of health system (North, 1990). Health policy is one
of the important indicators to assess the governance in health system. It is
necessary to understand the relative underline factors such as political,
socio-economic and demographic of country which influence the process
and formulation of health policies (Phillips, et al 1998).
Governance of Health System

The application of governance to health system is obliged to measure within
the particular framework of country. To regulate the structure of
governance, it is the government who is responsible to assure proper
prerequisite of health services both in the public and private sector (Abdual,
et al 2009).
The governance of health system based on the complex process in which
other marker forces play a very pivotal role as it is influenced by the
multiple public and private funding sources for health, and external forces
that force to address health needs while framing the policy. For enabling
universal coverage to all, directions for service delivery arrangements have
1108
to be articulated which is acceptable for both public private partners of

health system. Besides that, the mechanisms and means of health financing
need to be clearly affirmed. Other considerations of governance are
decentralization of health system, mechanisms of social protection, and
interventions of market forces as well as assessment of health services.
Another major concern of governance is to formulate effective health
policies keeping in the mind the effects of globalization, disease security
and health risks existing within country.
Resources allocation and utilization is very important in efficient use of
health service deliveries. In most countries, the government’s spending on
health promotion is low per its needs (McGinnis, et al 2002). Even in the
developed countries like USA, there are imbalance practices between the
allocation of resources to the medical care services and its effective
utilization (Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, 2000). In Canada
too, the budget allocation does not meet the needs of health promotional
activities.
A research conducted by Chaudhry et al (2006) indicated that health care
management is the crucial factor to continue the good governance structure
in health system. Lack of or poor health care management cannot produce
the needed and potential outcomes particularly in government sector. The
study defined that the comprehensive health care system is based upon the
complex issues like finance, performance and specific standards to measure
its outcomes. It is necessary to build code of ethics and standards to
exchange information with national and international health care
organizations to achieve better results in health care promotion. Another
research also indicated that the factors influencing health information
system must be evaluated in particular context in which it has been
implemented, it reflects the success or failure of health care system. The
evaluation methods addressed the functional, organizational, behavioral,
cultural, management, technical and strategic factors to evaluate the health
information system. These factors help to successfully measure the
performance and characteristics of health information system for planning,
development and implementation (Brender, 2008).
Approaches of Gender and Health

There is an obvious dichotomy of public-private health care system in
Pakistan. The finance of public sector is borne by the state and private sector
is working independently for profit. Government of Pakistan spends on
health care to improve the poor health indicators by establishing new
programs such as immunization, knowledge of family planning and
1109
awareness about the health problems as well as where to access for health
seeking. However, the low level of basic health facilities with no
accessibility to people makes its difficult to achieve the targets. The
problems may flourish due to lack of availability of trained health
professional especially females (Sheik, 2007).
Maternal and child health issues are moderately prevalent and most of them
are unaddressed due to mismanagement and poor administration of health
system. Shortage of competent female health providers increases the
women’s health problems to seek proper care. It is indicated that more than
80% of deliveries in Pakistan are still performed by untrained traditional
birth attendants (Hatcher & Sheikh, 2008).
The efficient delivery of health care services is based on the effective and
sound policies which also reflect the governance of health system. In
developing countries women are using lesser health services than men
because they are economically weak and they cannot afford health services.
A research conducted by Denton & Walters (1999) measured the health
status which indicated that gender based health inequalities are also the
outcome of social support, physical activities, different health needs of
women and men and structure of social economic condition. Health varies
at different levels of socio-economic status. Hunt, (1997) argued gender
differences in health is also influenced by employment, psychological
demands and social support. Less attention is paid on public sector in which
women are engaged. Women's unpaid work and isolation within the home
is associated with poorer health status though it is a full time work at home.
Currently two main approaches are in focus to conduct research on gender

and health:
1. Gender Equity Approach
2. Women’s Health Needs Approach
Gender equity means that fulfilling desires according to their requirements.

In gender equality all resources are equally divided between both sexes
while in gender equity resources are divided according to the needs of men
and women as both have their specific needs and encounter different types
of barriers to access their needs. Gender equality approach is useful to
address the issues of gender relation with each other. The approach
highlights the circumstances which promotes inequality between men and
women in relation to access and utilization of health care services. Women
always depend upon their male family members as well as face social
barriers to use the health services (Hedderich, 2004).
1110
.
Women health need’s approach indicates stresses due to women’s reproductive role
as their health needs are specific and different from men. They are at disadvantage
in society for their reproductive circle. According to the researches, this includes
control of women’s fertility as well as provision of resource necessary to ensure
healthy pregnancy and child birth. Therefore, reproductive health care is a means to
offer a compensation of women’s helplessness in order to undertake equity among
men and women (Hedderich, 2004).
The World health organization WHO has developed a framework for
assessing health system governance. This analytical framework is based on the
principles of: strategic vision, participation, rule of law, transparency,
responsiveness, equity, efficiency, accountability, information and ethics. Nine
countries in the world have applied this framework to assess the governance of its
health system. The countries include Afghanistan, Egypt, Islamic Republic of Iran,
Jordan, Lebanon, Pakistan, Sudan, Syrian Arab Republic and Tunisia.
Health system governance is important to see in national context for the
development of nation. There is no single model of governance but the model must
respond to national and local concerns of any country. The World Bank has also
developed health system governance framework which is based on three clusters and
six basic concepts of governance. First, process by which authorities are selected or
replaced that is based on voice & accountability and political instability. Second is
the ability of the government to formulate and implement sound policies that reflects
the government effectiveness and regulatory burden. Thirdly, respect of citizens and
the state which includes rule of law and control of corruption. United Nation
Development Programmes (UNDP) has also formulated five principles of good
governance that are: Legitimacy and voice: participation & consensus orientation,
Direction: strategic vision, Performance: responsiveness & effectiveness,
Accountability: decision making & transparency, Fairness: equity & rule of law
(WHO, 2007).
As the policy making is a complex and dynamic process, there are numerous
models provide the conceptual and analytical frameworks to analyze the health
policy. Walt, (1996) describe four stages for policymaking process which are:
problem identification, policy formulation, policy implementation and policy
evolution. Barker, (1996) relate these stages to planning process and explained the
following steps presented in following figure that are involved in the policy process:
1111
Issue Definition
Setting Objectives
Priority setting
Defining Options
Options Appraisal
Implementation
Evaluation
Figure 1: Stages in policymaking process (Braker, 1996 pp-28)
Methodology
Objective
In view of the importance of governance of health system the study has been
planned with the following specific objectives:
 To identify health system governance frameworks.

 To explore structural disparity in managing governance of health
system in Pakistan
 To find out gap between the document of health policy and its practical
implementation articulate the state of governance
1112
Research Design
By using qualitative research paradigm, content analysis of governance
frameworks was conducted. Gender based analysis of health policy and
different frameworks and designed by health organization was analyzed to
measure the health system. The governance frameworks were adopted
through the annual reports of International health organizations such as
WHO, UNICEF & UNDP. Gender analysis frameworks were used to
analyze the frameworks and policies.
Results
Structural functionalist perspective defines the indictors which relate to the
structure of health system. Following model describe how governance is
measured:
Theme 1: Gender Analysis Frameworks

To assess the gender disparities and the policy analysis based gender need,
different models and formworks were reviewed for the study. Gender
analysis is consider as a as a tool to clarify the links between the existing
gender relations in a particular society and development problems it needs
addressed. The gender analysis helps to identify the types of gender
differences and inequalities exited in the society such as how men and
women have different access to and control over resources, carry out
different social roles, and face different constraints and receive different
benefits (Miller & Razavi, 1998). Here is the description of some of the
important gender analysis framework in which one has been chosen to
analyses the present study.
1. The Harvard Analytical Framework

The Harvard Analytical Framework also referred to as the “Gender Roles
Framework” or the “Gender Analysis Framework” was developed by
researchers at the Harvard Institute of International Development (HIID) in
collaboration with USAID. It is based on to look over the position that
allocating resources to women as well as men in development efforts. Under
this framework data collection has been made at the individual and
household level based on men’s and women’s activities which are identified
as either “reproductive” or “productive” role. It helps to access that how
these activities reflect access to and control over income and resources. This
analysis framework helps to understand the work of men and women and
useful ways of documenting the information gathered in the field (Rao,
Mary & Catherine,1991).
1113
2. The Moser Gender Planning Framework

The framework, developed by Caroline Moser, examines the women’s roles
in the larger development planning process. The framework focuses
women’s three roles in production, reproduction, and community
management encompasses both the technical and political aspects of gender
integration into development. It also focuses on the practical and strategic
needs of both men and women and their access to and control over resources
(Moser, 1993).
3. The Gender Analysis Matrix (GAM)

The gender analysis matrix was developed by A. Rani Parker recognize that
how a rigorous development intrusion will affect women and men. It
follows the community based technique to bring forth gender differences
prevailing in community. The ideology of the Gender Analysis Matrix is to
gain all necessary knowledge for gender analysis exists among the people
whose lives are the subject of the analysis. It focuses four level of society:
women, men, household and community to find out the impact of
development on men’s and women’s labor, time, resources, and other socio-
cultural factors (Parker, 1993).
4. The Women’s Empowerment Framework (WEP)

The Women’s Empowerment Framework was developed by Sara Hlupekile
Longwe, a gender expert from Lusaka, Zambia. The model is arguing that
women’s poverty is the consequence of oppression and exploitation and that
to reduce poverty women must be empowered. The framework propose five
increasingly levels of equality that can be achieved defined here as from the
highest to lowest level. That is control, participation conscientisation,
access and welfare. The framework is projected to help out planners to
categorize what women’s equality and empowerment would mean in
practice, and to determine to what extent a development intervention
supports greater empowerment.
5. The Social Relations Approach

The social relations framework was developed by Naila Kabeer at the
Institute of Development Studies in Sussex, UK. She presented the Social
Relations approach to demonstrate how gender and other inequalities are
created and reproduced within structural and institutional factors, and then
to design policies that can enable women to work to change those factors
that constrain them. The focus of this framework is to analysis of key
1114
institutions (state, marker, community and family) which plays major role
in producing and maintaining social inequalities, including gender
inequalities (Kabeer, 1994).
6. Oxfam Gender Analysis Frameworks

Oxfam conceptual gender analysis framework was developed by Candida
March, Ines Smyth, and Maitrayee Mukhopadhyay, in 1999. it is a guide to
gender analysis and evualting policies and programmes for women.
Theme 2: Sociological Perspective on Governance of health care

System
Medical sociologists have contributed a lot to develop the understanding of
health care system. The sociology of health services focuses on three core
aspects: distribution and contribution to health inequalities, social
institution that reproduce health inequalities, and the structure and dynamics
of health care organizations shape the quality, effectiveness, and outcomes
of health services for different groups and communities. (Wholey & Burns,
2000).
In contribution to gender disparities in health system, many researchers
conducted by sociologist have documented significant gender differences
in health seeking. Women are more seeks to health services for both
physical and mental health and more regularly visit to the health care
providers but receive less better treatment than men (Courtenay, 2000 and
Murphy 1997).
The persistent health inequalities across social groups and communities
documented by medical sociologists raise serious doubts about the capacity
of our current health system to improve the health of our nation’s
population. Some have argued that the key to better outcomes in these
countries is the strong role of central government in regulating the delivery
of health services (Quadagno 2004). Expanding government’s regulatory
role in the delivery of health services must necessarily be accompanied by
a better understanding of research and policy. In recent years, policy makers
have called for more “comparative effectiveness” research, specialized
research that compares the cost and clinical efficacy of treatments for
particular conditions. In this regard, sociological research is important
because it underscores that quality care is determined not only by what
services are provided, but also how they are delivered, by whom, and to
whom (Perry & Wright, 2010).
1115
Theme 3: Gender based Analysis of Governance of health care system

by using Governance Framework
1. National level:
The expenditures spending on heath especially for women are not
appropriate according to the maternal health needs. As it is also proven by
the research studies that the allocated budget is not fulfilling the demand of
the health and no specific budget has been allocated for women’s health.
There is lack of gender balanced participation of decision makers at national
level for taking decisions regarding the health policies.
Most health researches in the past have been conducted for men, by men.
The results may then were applied for women, leading to inappropriate or
ineffective interventions, as Ucsnik notes:
Historically, the discipline of women’s health tended to focus on
health problems specific to women because of their
biological/sexual make up, such as maternity related problems,
and those, which relate to their child care role, such as maternal
and child health. Gender analysis seeks to recognize the ways in
which gender roles; resources and perceptions impact upon
women and men’s health (Ucsnik, 2006, p.12).
In past, the issue of health governance was the responsibility of national
government only but with the increasing demands and overlapping system,
it has been distributed to regional or district levels as well.
2. Policy Formulation Level:

Although the policies focus the women’s health needs in its top priority
areas, but no detail guidelines have been described to achieve these goals
and targets. The resource allocation for particular health needs was not
mentioned in the policy due to which no specific human and financial
resources have been separately utilized for women’s health.
3. Policy Implementation Level:

There is gap between the formulation and implantation of health policies
with respect to women’s health. The monitoring and evaluation of
utilization of resources and the performance of staff is not used effectively.
Programs exist but are underfunded for most priorities identified in national
health policy due to lack of health system reforms programs to address
workforce, management and financing issues.
Although health is the issue of both men and women but due to reproductive
function of women’s health it needs more attention by the health care
1116
providers and policy makers. Health care services must analyze by the needs
of men and women and policies ay designed in a way to improve the status
of women. For efficient provision of health services, there must be
developing some guidelines for the health care providers to meet the
standard of quality of health services. Health professionals must be
accountable for their actions and decisions (Shiwani, 2006).
Theme 4: Principles of Health system governance

For in-depth study of governance of health care system and provision for
women’s health, a framework on governance of health system designed by
UNDP has also been used to elaborate the study. The framework is based
on following five principles:
1. Participation and Consensus Orientation:

Stakeholders’ participation is very crucial in formulating any policy, plan
or program. According to Alma Ata Deceleration (1976), stakeholder’s
participations are an important dimension to analyze the governance of
health care system. The WHO Harare Declaration (1987) also emphasized
that consumers of health care system both men and women must be
involved in developing health care system programs and plans. But the
findings of this study indicated that there was no participation of civil
society or health professionals in the decision making process of
formulation and implementation of health policies. The health ministry have
lack of expertise to engage different stakeholders such as civil society,
health professional etc, in decision making process
2. Strategic Vision:
Both National health policies 2001 and 2009 of Pakistan focus on the
strategic vision of health care system. The policies emphasize on
developing deliberate health system which meets the health needs of all
human beings as health is their basic right which has to execute by the
government. But the challenge remains to meet this vision as there is still a
gap between the documentation of health policy and its implications.
3. Performance (Responsiveness, Effectiveness and Efficiency):

The strategies designed in the policy level are not working properly because
of weak implementation and monitoring strategies. There is no proper
mechanism to measure the performances of health care providers and to
maintain the check and balance of the utilization of resources. The skills of
1117
health professional are not upgraded rapidly by providing trainings due to

which their performance may not as much efficient as required.
4. Accountability:
The structure of governance reflects well if there is accountability of its
system. Unfortunately the process of planning and financing of health care
services lacks accountability in health system of Pakistan. The matters of
developing programs and its implementation always remain very
confidential to the higher level only and the actions taken are not transparent
to other stakeholders. The allocation of resources also lacks proper
utilization with respects to gender needs of health care as well. The
inefficient utilization of budgets by the hospitals was also noticed while
conducting this study.
5. Fairness (Rule of Law)

The health care system of Pakistan has efficient policies and laws but lack
implantation due to lack of legal expertise. The legal procedure of access
and utilization of health services by the masses are not defined to them
properly. And if there is procedure, the consumers of survives do not want
to follow the rules and ethics and violated. Most of the times if the patients
wanted to avail this right, no action took place by the authorities.
Conclusion
Although the progress has been going on to improve the health status of
women in Pakistan, but there is still a long way to go to deliver gender
sensitive health care practices. To promote gender equality in health care
system, other sectors should work with the government for making effective
and sound health policies and programs. The public sector’s capacity of
managing and utilizing the available resources may improve by providing
the better facilities to health care provides as they are key stakeholders who
works to promote the standard of health system.
For the gender balanced structure of governance in health system of
Pakistan, there is a need for integrating gender perspective at all levels of
health system from the policy level to its implementation. The health care
providers also need to aware about the gender specific health needs and its
impact on health system. It can be achieved by providing gender sensitive
trainings to medical students and professionals to deal with gender sensitive
issues of health in a proper way.
1118
T02_ 033: THE APPLICATION OF CONTENT

ANALYSIS METHOD IN STUDYING
LINGUISTIC POETRY STYLE OF IMAM AL-
SHAFIE
Nik Murshidah Binti Nik Dina
Najihah Binti Abdul Wahidb
Rahimah Embongc
Nik Muniyati Binti Nik Dind
a
PhD candidate,University Sultan Zainal Abidin.
b
Supervisor,Senior lecturer, INSPIRE, University Sultan Zainal Abidin.
c
Senior lecturer, INSPIRE, University Sultan Zainal Abidin.
d
Lecturer,University Technology Mara(UiTM,Kota Bharu Campus)
ABSTRACT
The application of research methodology is an important element in any
research. Good data could be collected from the research that is thoroughly
planned based on appropriate design and method used in the process of
collecting data. This paper aims to identify the proper meaning of al-tawkid
in linguistic poetry style of Imam al- Shafie based on content analysis
method. This is because the right selection of the method used in research
is very essential in order to ensure that the research objectives are
successfully achieved. This paper presents the description of the research
design and method used in this research namely content analysis, to meet
the outlined objective. The justification for the selected method to achieve
the objectives of the study is also discussed.
Keywords: Qualitatives Methode,Content analysis,stylistic theory,data
analysis, al-tawkid style.
Introduction
A good research is a study that uses specific method which is appropriate
for achieving the objectives outlined. Accuracy in the selection of research
method comprising the process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting
data is very important for data obtained in line with the needs and
requirements of the study. However, some consideration in advance before
determining on the most appropriate research methods.
In this research, epistemological and ontological aspects have been
considered. epistemological aspect is to discuss aspects of the real state of
1119
a situation and the factors that influenced the perception, experience and
knowledge. While ontological aspect also is emphasizing aspects of the
process of seeking clarification of the relationship between researchers and
subjects examined and to see the real situation in the real world.
This study focuses on the structure of al-tawkīd style and aesthetic values
that exist in an anthology of poems Imam al-Shafie, then a qualitative study
using content analysis design was considered a highly relevant and
extremely appropriate to be applied. The application of qualitative
approaches is appropriate to various fields and it does not cease to a specific
areas only as indicated by (Che Lai Ching). This paper will discuss the
research methodology applied by researchers aimed to view and analyze
data related to the poetry of Imam al-Shafi'i , starting from the process of
collecting and classify texts or poems that use al-tawkīd, up to the final
stages of analyzing and interpreting data research.
Research Design
To ensure the success of the study, an accurate research designs is needed
because the design is the basis of a study. framework of the study
is constructed and applied by a study to collect the data and analyze it. It
can also be regarded as a well-organized strategy before the analysis is
performed. In this study the researchers chose to use a qualitative approach
to the content analysis as research designs.
A qualitative approach is one of the findings of the study that produced not
through statistical procedures and other form calculations. This approach is
based on the philosophy of interpretive and naturalistic approach to get a
clear idea of the problem and the phenomenon as reviewed. Content
analysis is a research designs that is often used in a qualitative study. It
refers to the process of measuring and evaluating structures such as
illustrations, format, contents such as titles, themes and issues, oral and
written sources.
According to Kimberly (2002: 1) content analysis can be defined as a
quantitatively analyzing process the message and aims to make a systematic
study of human interaction; potrayals analysis of the character in the
television, film and the novel. This definition is very similar to the definition
which was taken by Berelson (1952: 18) which stated that content analysis
is the technique of study done systematically and objectively towards
content of the message in communication. Both definitions are more
focused on the communication field where there is some difference in terms
of the content analysis. While the definitions brought by Morris (1994) is
more focused on the material in the form of a written document, he stated
1120
that content analysis is a qualitative approach to identify the content of a

message contained in a text( limited to printed materials only and ignored
other material or electronic medium).
This definition is inline with what has been stated by Zawawi (2011) which
said that the speech is spontaneous, natural and open-ended idea, so it is
difficult to fully predict verbal material. Against this argument, researchers
are more likely to accept the definition of content analysis described by
Morris as expressed through writing sentences which include prose and
poetry is more suitable for analysis than electronic materials.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Content Analysis

Content analysis has its own advantages and disadvantages. Bryman & Bell
(2007) and Bryman (2008) have identified several advantages and
disadvantages in the design of content analysis which are the following:
Table 1: Advantage and disadvantage of content analysis.

Advantage Disadvantage
The document content analysis Require consideration include the validity,
allows researchers to analyze and credibility and representativeness of the document
detect any value that can be obtained analyzed to ensure that the findings are valid.
in one document
The document content analysis It is very difficult to formulate a code manually
allows carried out the research without involving the interpretation by the coder.
values or patterns or to change
anything that occur in an extended
period of time.
The document content analysis is a Certain problems may occur when implicit(latent)
transparent assessment method for approach is considered instead of real content
sampling procedure and can be (manifest).
clearly defined. Thus the review and
further research can be done in the
future.
The document content analysis of The difficulty occurs in determining the exact
secondary data is useful when answer to the question "why?" in this analysis.
analyzing a sensitive issue because a
document is written without
realizing that the document content
analysis will be done in the future.
The document content analysis is a The document content analysis is sometimes
flexible method because it can be considered as atheoretical. It is easy to notice why
applied to various types of the approach atheoretical might happen. The
unstructured documents. emphasis on measurement or searching for content
analysis is sometimes lead to something measured
theoretically more important and significant.
1121
The document content analysis

allows an information produced
from data analized connect with the
group or situation that is difficult to
achieve.
source: Bryman(2008)
Based on the advantages found in the content analysis especially its

sensitivity in analizing the text content, flexibility, replication abilty of the
content analysis make this approach appropriaate for the purpose of
analyzing the content. identify the function of the strengthening of the
meaning of each of al-tawkīd in poetry as targeted in this study.
Sampling material for content analysis

In this study, al-tawkīd component extracted from the poems stated in
anthology of Imam al-Shafie will be analyzed. The text will be interpreted
and analyzed based on al-tawkīd applications and functions that provide a
variety of different interpretation.
The 32 text of poetry by Imam al-Shafie consered as a subject research. The
validity of the text expression will also be studied, the term of which exist
are geared to the application of affirmation style classified into several
forms of application prescribed by Abbas Hassan (t.thn: 4: 318-320), the
affirmation of clause nominee and clause work. To understand more deeply
the poem, textual analysis of poetry will see the explaination of theme and
issues arrised.
Obviously, the content analysis will show the data that gives meaning and
can be read and interpreted by the mind after analyzing the meaning of a
whole (Kimberly A.Neuendorf (2002: xiii). There are four issues that must
be addressed in this rule, namely:
1. Data are analyzed? (Which data are analyzed?)

2. How will the data be introduced? (How are they defined?)
3. What are the limitations of the analysis? (What are the boundaries of the
analysis?)
In this study, the expression contained in the poetic anthology of Imam al-
Shafi'i is the content to be studied and analyzed. This is based on the
justification that to his leadership qualities. Imam al-Shafie was a reformer
and founder of the sect al-Shafie, jurists and usul-fiqh, also the greatest
scholars and a reference point about the rulings of Islam ever since the
1122
arrival of Islam in the region, at the beginning of the first century of hijra or
7th century AD this until now (Mahmood Zuhdi & basil, 1987: 36). His
stature in Arabic also unbeatable so much that he named Imam al-lughah in
Egypt. The style of language used in his poetic expressions easily
understood and language used is very accurate.
Data collection
In addition, data collection sources is also an important element to
strengthen the research. To make sure the successful of this research, the
researcher has selected the sources of data collection in the two sources of
data, primary and secondary data. Both of them gained through criticall and
analytical literiture review.
The literature review is a process of utilizing library resources to obtain
research data. Literature review in this study involved only academic books,
journals, seminars, press reports, encyclopedias and research results without
involving field studies as expressed by Mestika Zaid (2008: 12). Primary
data in this study refers to the poetry anthology Imam al-Shafie collected by
the students of Imam al-Shafie from various backgrounds.
In fact, the poems of Imam al-Shafie has been collected by many researchers
from various sources, but the effort to check it validity is very limited. As a
result, many of the poems available in the anthology of poetry al-Shafie is
inpure. Based on these factors, the researchers in this study examined the
approach taken from fifteen anthologies of poetry Imam al-Shafie and found
only six anthologies of poetry was collected, edited and went through the
verification process and a careful annotation. The study business is
conducted by Mustafa Bahjat Mujahid, Muhammad Ibrahim Salim,
Muhammad Afaf al-Sulaiman, Muhammad al-Mahmud Biqi'i and Rabi ',
Muhammad Abdul Moneim Khafaji.
The rest of anthologies were found to have doubts because their narrator is
not very careful in narrating something about Imam al-Shafie. Thus that
poems their anthologies is not to be taken due to inaccuracies in many
aspects also to avoid mixing and confusion between verses of poetry that
really belongs to Imam al-Shafie or simply poems attributed to him. Six
versions have been based on several factors that listed by Najihah Abdul
Wahid(2014): -
i. Anthology of poetry compilation by Muhammad Ibrahim Salim,

Muhammad Afaf al-Sulaiman, Muhammad al-Mahmud Biqi'i and Rabi 'was
1123
among the earliest poetry anthology referring to the statement by Mujahid

Mustaffa Bahjat
ii. The compilation of poetry anthologies by Muhammad Abd

Moneim Khafaji was among the authoritative poetry anthology from Egypt,
He was Mujahid Mustaffa Bahjat’s lecturer and supervisor for his
dissertation takhrij poetry Imam al-Shafie r.h.m.
iii. The compilation of poetry anthologies by Mujahid Mustaffa

Bahjat was a the most valid poetry anthology directly to Imam al-Shafie
r.h.m. or his students closest to him, such as al-Muzanni and Rabi 'bin
Sulayman. Authoritative anthology which is considered within the
discipline of Arabic poetry is his research dissertation in education for
doctorate in 1992.
The six anthologies of poetry is poetry accommodate almost all Imam al-
Shafie poetic word. Therefore, any poem attributed to Imam al-Shafie r.h.m.
should come from one or any of these six anthologies of poetry. Any poetry
does not exist in his poetry anthology considered invalid from Imam al-
Shafie (Mujahid Musataffa Najihah Bahjat in 2014). Most of the poems
found in the poetry anthology is taken from makhtutat (manuscripts) from
the Manaqib (biography) Imam al-Shafie r.h.m before printed in a book
form.
In this study, six versions of the poetry anthology Imam al-Shafie r.h.m. is
the main source of data. Other data to be the source of the study consisted
of scientific data related to Imam al-Shafie r.h.m. printed materials and
contemporary literature references about him and his credibility in
linguistics. Data on al-tawkīd also collected for complete information about
al-tawkīd and function of each form of al-tawkīd. Researchers are also
focusing on classic works by scholars after the demise of Imam al-Shafie
r.h.m. about his literary writing, the scope of the previous research related
to Imam al-Shafie r.h.m. and his literary stature. These Islamic leaders view
also analyzed based on the requirements of the Quran and Hadith.
The overall number of poetry text is not more than 167 texts. While 122
texts poetry are poetry that have taken by Mujahid Mustafa Bahjat with
clear annotation. The six anthologies of poetry above will be examined by
the researchers before collecting all the 32 poems of text containing al-
tawkīd which is the subject of the research. In reviewing the six anthologies
of poetry above, researchers will set aside the poems that have fourteen al-
1124
tawkīd particle function. Poems that have been collected will be listed in
chapter 4 before classified into three main divisions, namely the assertion
of work clause and nominal clause structure and the assertion of work
andand nominal clause. analyzed the meaning of each nominee before the
al-tawkīd in the next chapter.
Secondary data mean to support the important information contained in
primary data. Secondary data in this research came from articles, journals,
literature and contemporary literature related to the subject. All 32 texts will
be analyzed is the set of text containing 14 al-tawkīd after having an
observation of al-Shafie poetry anthology. This 32 text contains almost all
of the 14 al-tawkīd as set out in Table 3.3 however initial observations have
found only one particle of al-tawkid (al-qasam) is not mentioned in poetic
expressions Imam al-Shafie. This may be ue to Imam al-Shafie himself who
rarely oath in any circumstances whatsoever.
Data Analysis
Qualitative studies require special coding system to analize the data in
accordance with the objectives of the study. According to Sharif Mohamed
Mustaffa (2005: 3), the system will be useful to researchers as a guide and
a foundation in determine the direction and the next objective. In this study,
a total of 32 text poetry will be analyzed subsequently codified by
procedures to focus the use of al-tawkīd (See Table 3.2)
Table 3.2: procedures of coding forms of al-tawkid

No Category Al-tawkid code Functional meaning
1 Verb Clause Inna/anna
In/an
Lam al-ibtida’
Al-qasam
Lakinna
Ka anna
Amma
2 Noun Clause
Alla al-
istiftahiyyah
1125
Nun al-tawkid
Sin /sawfa
Lan
Lam al-juhud
Qad
Lam al-jawab
Stylistic Theory
Stylistic theory is the study conducted on high quality of literature texts that
analyze aspects of language style using the linguistic argument in assessing
the credibility of an author dealing with language properly (Toolan, Michael
(1998), Short (1996) Wales. As a consequence, stylistic seems to appear as
a linguistic or literary criticism. According Zulkifly Hamid (2006: 165),
stylistic can be defined as a field of study that analyzes aspects of language
style in writing. It attempts to identify the characteristics that are
contributing to outputs of writings that could be considered as effective
writing endeavours.
In a broader sense, stylistic is research alternative that limits the research to
the text from the linguistic aspects where it goes through the process of
analyzing and synthesizing the question of language style in the works and
it is closely related to linguistics (Leech & Short, 1993: 31). According
Fadzeli, linguistic and stylistic analysis can integrate linguistic information
with the meaning of the text to help the reader understand the contents of
the text accurately and clearly.
In this study, the text refers to text of 32 Imam al-Shafie’s poems. The text
will be analyzed in terms of the use of al-tawkīd which is a style that has
assertive message. The style of assertion might affect the reader or listener
in the form of denying or eliminating doubt. Thus, this study has the strength
to make stylistic theory as a theory that underlies this study in order to help
students as well as teachers understand the concept and function of al-
tawkīd.
Conclusion
1126
This study aims to recommend an appropriate method to analyze the

meaning of al-tawkīd in Imam al-Shafie’s poetry anthologies. This study
uses qualitative method that is content analysis research design. This is an
appropriate method and the most important element to ensure that the
intended objectives could be achieved. Besides, the implementation of
literature as a first step followed by content analysis in the next stage, the
selection methodology of implementation of this research capability to
identify the forms and meanings of each al-tawkīd as aimed by this study.
Implementation of quality control and data validity is also taken into
account to ensure the reliability and validity of the raw data collected.
References
[1] A.Bryman, Social research methods, fourth edition, Oxford
[2] Bambang Muhammad Rafadi Yusoff & Saini Ag Damit (2016)
Gaya Bahasa Al-Tawkid Daripada Perspektif Nahu Dan Balaghah Arab.
Manu Bil. 23, 161-186, 2016 Issn 1511-1989.
[3] Fadhil Hassan Abbas (2009) Al-Balaghah Fununiha Wa
Afnaniha: Ilmu Al-Maani,Dar An-Nufasa’,
[4] Ghazali Darussalam,Sufean Hussin (2016) Metodologi
Penyelidikan Dalam Pendidikan,Penerbit Universiti Malaya.
[5] J.W. Creswell, Research Design: qualitative & quantitative
approaches, SAGE Publication Thousand Oaks,CA,1994.
[6] K. Krippendorff, Content analysis. An Introduction to Its
methodology, third ed, SAGE Publication, 2013.
[7] Lai Che Ching @ Abd. Latif, 2005. Memetakan Kaedah Analisis
Kandungan: Satu Tinjauan Awal. Accepted for Publication in Jurnal
Kinabalu, vol. 11- in press, - Journal
[8] Leech ,GN & Short, M.H. 1993 Gaya dalam cereka. Umar
Junus(Penterjemah), Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
[9] Mahmud Rabi’ (2005)Antologi puisi Al- Imam Al-Shafi’i ,
Amman: Dar Al-Isra’
[10] Mujahid Mustafa Bahjat (1986) Shicr Al-Shéficê. Maws ̣il: Jémiñat
Al-Mawîil
[11] _______________________ (2003) Antologi puisi Al-Shafie.
Baghdad: Dar Al-ilm
[12] N.Idris, Penyelidikan dalam Pendidikan. Mc Graw Hill
Education, 2010.
1127
[13] Najihah Abdul Wahid (2014) Pemikiran Imam Al-Shafie r.h.m

r.h.m r.h.m Dalam Puisi-Puisi Aqidah Dan Tasawwuf .Tesis
Phd.Universiti Malaysia Terengganu.
[14] Othman Lebar(2012) Penyelidikan Kualitatif Pengenalan Kepada
Teori Dan Metod,Tanjung malim: Penerbit universiti Pendidikan Sultan
Idris.
[15] Saini Ag. Damit & Bambang Muhamad Rafadi Yusoff (2014) Al-
Tawkīd: Satu Kajian Fungsi Pengukuhan Makna Ayat.Manu Bil. 20, 145-
164, 2014 Issn 1511-1989.
1128
T02_034: EFFECTS OF OUTDOOR

EDUCATION CAMPS ON LIFE
EFFECTIVENESS SKILLS AMONG TWO
PUBLIC UNIVERSITIES STUDENTS IN
MALAYSIA
Muhammad Wafi Bin A. Rahman
Nelfianty Binti Mohd Rasyid
Ahmad Bin Hashim
Md Amin Bin Md Taff
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Perak, Malaysia
Mohd Helme bin Basal

Universiti Teknologi MARA Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
The objective of this study was to examine the effects of life
effectiveness factors in outdoor education camps among public
universities students in Malaysia. Pre and post quasi experimental with
control group design was selected to answer the research questions.
Life Effectiveness Questionnaire (LEQ- H) was administrated among
256 participants and chosen as a sample by using random sampling.
Data analyses using paired sample t-test. This study found that only
five out of eight life effectiveness dimension had recorded significant
changes after completion of the camp which was time management,
social competence, intellectual flexibility, task leadership and
emotional control. The implication of the findings provides evidence
the importance of the intervention of outdoor education camps to the
improvement of participants’ life effectiveness. This study provides
useful inputs for Ministry of Higher Education, universities and
outdoor education practitioners. This study also provides an empirical
data for future study in this field.
Keywords: Life effectiveness factors, Outdoor education, Life

effectiveness, Outdoor education camp.
1129
Introduction
Life effectiveness
Life effectiveness is the capacity of a person’s to adapt survive and thrive
and it refers to how well that person able to overcome the demands of life
(Neill, 2008). In order to become a successful student they need life
effectiveness skills as guideline for them to be success. According Sibthorp
and Arthur- Banning (2004), life effectiveness is a dimension for people to
trust themselves to success in life. In line with the definition, Culhane
(2004) states that both personal and professional components are the aspects
that involved in life effectiveness. Johnson (2012) also describes that life
effectiveness outcome is greater than other parallel construct for instance
self-esteem or self-concept. Life effectiveness is a useful tool that has been
used as measurable outcome in a number of studies to examine the process
of experience based program (Sibthorp & Banning, 2004).
Outdoor Education
Outdoor education was highlighted education for, in and about the outdoors,
which take place primarily through the exposure in both natural settings and
human made environments (Rowley, 2010). Outdoor education also
involves the experiential learning process which composed of four
elements: active student involvement in meaningful and challenging
experience, reflection to the experience, develops new knowledge and,
appliance of this knowledge to new setting (Rowley, 2010). Outdoor
education approach can be applied into formal and informal curriculum
which relate between learner, subject and the environment. The aims of
outdoor education are to improve one’s social and personal, outdoor
adventure and environmental commitment skills (Md Taff, 2010).
Based on National Education Philosophy in Malaysia, education system
should developing the potential of individuals who are intellectually,
spiritually, emotionally, and physically balance and harmonious. However
the issues on this objective of education system have been query due to
education system nowadays are more focus on academic (Shahaliza, 2011).
There are also several parties give a negative reaction towards outdoor
education by assume that outdoor education as non-academic subject
(Shahrifuddin, 2002). Even though, outdoor education has good values on
interpersonal growth, developed on environmental education and outdoor
1130
pursuit but as consequently this subject is become less important hierarchy

especially among institute of higher education (Md Taff, Aziz and Zakaria,
2011).
Furthermore, there are several issues related to the development of outdoor
education in the university level. The main issues are outdoor education
program budget is highly cost, incident of accident during the outdoor
education program, negative perception by several parties towards outdoor
education program and less exposure on the effectiveness of outdoor
education program in Malaysia (Md Taff, Aziz & Zakaria, 2011). This
scenario is exacerbated by some of society considered that, program of
outdoor education as no positive impact and the activity is useless toward
students (Shahrifuddin, 2002).
Moreover, some researchers claimed that outdoor education program is not
really effective in enhancing student’s life effectiveness skills (Mazze,
2006). These researchers found that instead of life effectiveness skills
improvements, outdoor education at the university level are more effective
in enhancing student’s outdoor man ship skills, environmental awareness
and communication skills (McLeod, & Allen Craig, 2005). They claimed
that outdoor education is effective in enhancing students life effectiveness
skills which an integral characteristic of great leadership. In addition,
participation in these programs may help youths increase their life
effectiveness, as well as their intellectual flexibility, self-confidence,
leadership skills and achievement motivation. These life effectiveness
factors could help youths adapt to and deal with challenging social
environments and make them to do well in life and work. (Chua, Shazia &
Getrude, 2016)
However, the effectiveness of outdoor education in creating better future
leader is debated by several parties (Dack, 2008; Neill, 2008). Some argued
the validity of outdoor education program in developing future leaders as it
was not backed up by proper research evidence. Plus the number of research
concerning these issues is almost non-existence in Malaysia (Md Taff, Aziz
& Zakaria, 2011). As a result, the effectiveness of outdoor education in
generating potential a future leader is at stake. In order to focus on this issue,
a thorough examination is needed to examine the effectiveness of Malaysian
university outdoor education programs in enhancing life effectiveness skills
among potential future leaders. The outcomes of the study will provide
useful inputs for Ministry of Education, universities and outdoor education
practitioners.
The Dimension of Life Effectiveness
1131
The following section highlights the dimension of life effectiveness. Based

on literature, life effectiveness has widely discussed and yet a better
understanding towards life effectiveness dimension is needed. According to
Neill (2008), life effectiveness consists of eight dimensions which are (1)
Time Management; (2) Social Competence; (3) Self Confidence; (4) Task
Leadership; (5) Emotional Control; (6) Active Initiative; (7) Intellectual
Flexibility; and (8) Achievement Motivation which are presented in Table
1.
Table 1 Dimensions of Life Effectiveness (Neill, 2008)
Dimension Description
Achievement Motivation Encouraged to succeed excellence and put the
necessary determination into achievement to
attain it.
Active Initiative Starts action in new circumstances. Likes to be
active,
Emotional Control Keep cool in new, changeable or hectic
circumstances.
Intellectual Flexibility Adjusts thoughtful and put up dissimilar
viewpoints when presented with greater
thoughts.
Self Confidence Uses individual capabilities with great
expectation of achievement in personals’ actions.
Social Competence Efficient in connections with people
surrounding.
Task Leadership Be a leader and encourages other person
efficiently when a job needs to be completed.
Time Management Creates best, effective usage of time.
Methods
In order to answer the research question, this study utilized a quasi-
experimental pre and post-tests with control group design. The experimental
groups were comprised from two different universities (n= 105 UPSI; n=
151 UiTM). The groups are among first semester students and participated
in outdoor education camp. The experimental group participated with
different length of final camp which are UPSI (10 days) and UiTM (5 days)
and tested for pre and post-test. The control group did not participate in
outdoor recreation final camp. They were among first semester students of
UPSI and UiTM. Similar to experimental group they were tested for pre and
post-test at the university settings.
1132
Research instruments
The instrument used was adapted from the Life Effectiveness Questionnaire
(LEQ H). LEQ consist of 8 dimensions which are (1.) active initiative, (2.)
time management, (3.) task leadership (4.) intellectual flexibility, (5.) social
competence, (6.) self-confidence (7.) emotional control, and (8.)
achievement motivation (Neill et al., 2003). Respondents were also required
to provide some background information such as gender, education
background, current university and experiences in outdoor education so that
the information obtained can be compared, but still maintain the
confidentiality of the respondents.
Research design
The researcher utilized quasi experimental design with control group for the
study (see Figure 3.2). This quasi experimental design involved a control
group that has a similar characteristic to the experimental group such as in
terms of developmental, history, age and professional background. The
control group was expected to experience sudden changes similar to those
of the experimental group (Grimshaw, Campbell, Eccles & Steen, 2000).
This design utilized exactly the same method for pre and post-test in
collecting data for experimental and control group. The data collected was
analysed as to compare the life effectiveness scores between the
experimental and control group after participated in final camp.
The study involved the administration of pre and post-test. In order to

answer the research questions, this study will conduct a pre-test followed
by a treatment and then post-test for both groups. The pre and post design
was selected because it measured the effects on life effectiveness through
the pre and post test scores comparison Thomas, Nelson & Silverman
(2011). Additionally, any observed differences based on the analysed data
are assumed to be due to intervention (Grimshaw et al., 2000). Therefore,
this study utilized pre- and post-test to see the effects of outdoor education
camp on particpants’ life effectiveness.
Research procedure
Life Effectiveness Questionnaires (LEQ-H) were administered twice during
the study; in the pre-test and post-test. In the pre-test, respondents were
given questionnaires to answer one day before outdoor education camp in
the class settings. The researcher will explain the objective and goal of this
study. Once respondents completed the outdoor education program, they
1133
were given the post test.A post-test will be conducted in the class setting
one day after completion the outdoor education camp. The respondents will
once again tell of the importance of this study. Then all respondents will be
requested to answer the question honesty from their point of view. All of
the questionnaires will be collected by the researcher and keep securely. In
addition, the researcher also participated as a lecturer helper in the camp.
The researchers will also intent to survey the respondent reaction during
participating in this camp activity as a support data of the research findings.
The Statistical Package of Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20 with a
significance level of p < .05 was used to analyze the data collected from this
study. Descriptive analysis statistics and independent sample t test tests
were utilized to answer the research questions.
Data analysis
Data were analyzed using inferential statistics. The inferential analyses used
were the t tests. The t test was used to determine the differences between
the control and experimental groups as well as to determine the differences
of psychological factors of life effectiveness.
Result
Data of the study was collected from 362 students which were divided into
two groups experimental (n= 256) and control (n= 106). Paired sample t-
test analyses were conducted as to compares the overall life effectiveness
pre and post-test scores for experimental and control group. Table 2 displays
the results of this analysis.
Table 2 Results of Paired sample t-test comparing overall of life

effectiveness pre-test and post-test scores of experimental and control
group
N Mean Sd t P
Experimental Pre 256 6.04 .990 -3.71 .000

Post 256 6.33 .764
Control Pre 106 3.57 .406 1.62 .107
Post 106 3.49 .362
*T-test significant is at .05(2-tailed)
1134
Table 3 Result of Paired Sample t-test comparing Life Effectiveness

Questionnaire pre-test and post-test scores based on eight psychological factors
N Mean Sd t P
Time Management Pre 256 5.56 1.29 -6.245 .000*

Post 256 6.20 1.16
Social Competence Pre 256 5.76 1.13 -3.732 .000*
Post 256 6.10 .892
Achievement Motivation Pre 256 6.61 1.03 -.767 .444
Post 256 6.68 .788
Intellectual Flexibility Pre 256 6.26 1.10 -3.105 .002*
Post 256 6.53 .936
Task Leadership Pre 256 5.62 1.25 -3.912 .000*
Post 256 6.03 1.15
Emotional Control Pre 256 5.65 1.33 -3.299 .001*
Post 256 5.99 .970
Active Initiative Pre 256 6.44 1.21 -1.700 .090
Post 256 6.62 1.01
Self Confidence Pre 256 6.43 1.10 -1.186 .237
Post 256 6.54 .819
*T-test significant is at .05(2-tailed)
A paired-samples t-test was conducted to compare the overall life

effectiveness pre and post-test scores for experimental and control group.
There was a statistically significant increase in experimental group scores
from pre-test (M=6.04, SD=.990) to post-test (M= 6.33, SD=.764, t (255) =-
3.71, p<0.05). In addition, there were not significant differences in control
group scores from pre-test (M=3.57, SD=.406) to post-test (M= 3.49,
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SD=.362, t (255) =1.624, p>0.05). According to mean score of control

group findings, there was decrease on life effectiveness skill from pre-test
(M= 3.57) to post test (M= 3.49).
Effects of Life effectiveness factors in outdoor education camp

Paired sample t-test analyses were conducted as to compares eight
psychological factors life effectiveness scores for pre and post-test. Table 3
displays the results of this analysis
Paired sample t-test analyses were conducted as to compares eight
psychological factors life effectiveness scores for pre and post-test. The
psychological factors that indicated significant changes were (1) Time
Management mean scores from pre-test (M = 5.56, SD = 1.29) to post- test
(M = 6.20, SD = 1.16), t (255) = -6.245, p = .000; (2) Social competence
mean scores also shows statistically significant increase (M= 5.76, SD =
1.13) to post- test (M= 6.10, SD .892), t (255) = -3.732, p = .000. (3)
Intellectual flexibility mean scores shows statistically significant increase
(M = 6.26, SD = 1.10) to post-test (M = 6.53, SD = .936), t (255) = -3.105,
p = 002; (4) task leadership mean scores from pre-test (M= 5.62, SD = 1.25)
to post- test (M= 6.03, SD= 1.15), t (255) = -3.912, p = 000; (5) Emotional
control mean scores shows statistically significant increase (M = 5.65, SD
= 1.33) to post-test (M = 5.99, SD= .970), t (255) = -3.299, p = .001.
In contrast, another three psychology factors did not record significant
differences after the camp. The psychology factors were: (1) Achievement
motivation shows statistically no significant, however the mean scores
shows slightly increase from pre-test (M= 6.61, SD= 1.03) to post-test
(M=6.68, SD= .788), t (255) = -.767, p = .444; (2) active initiative shows
statistically no significant and the mean scores shows slightly increase from
pre-test (M= 6.44, SD = 1.21) to post-test (M= 6.62, SD = 1.01), t (255) = -
1.700, p = .090; and (3) Self-confidence shows statistically no significant
but the mean scores shows slightly increase from pre-test (M = 6.43, SD =
1.10) to post-test (M = 6.54, SD = .819), t (255) = -1.186, p = .237.
Discussion
Early observation indicated that the experimental group had significant
increase on life effectiveness than the control group. This is believed to be
caused by the influence of their experience in outdoor education camps. The
experimental group consisted of students who are involved in outdoor
education camp and outdoor recreational activities. In contrast, the control
group consisted of students who are not involved with outdoor education
camp and which their educational activities are more focused indoors.
1136
These differences might to a certain degree have an effect on both groups’

life effectiveness. Similarly, these outcomes were in line with McLeod and
Allen Craig (2005) found that significant differences between outdoor
education group and non- outdoor education group. The findings showed
that outdoor education group had a greater improvement compare to non-
outdoor education group. Moreover, Cooper (2004) found that outdoor
education program has possible outcomes of teamwork, self-confidence,
cooperation skills, self-esteem and encourages personal responsibility. In
another study, Bennetts (2011) believe that outdoor education is one
effective method for getting more students by appealing to more of the
variety of multiple intelligences including verbal-linguistic, logical-
mathematical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical-rhythmic,
interpersonal, and intrapersonal and the naturalist.
Next the researcher conducted a further examination on the eight
psychological factors of life effectiveness for experimental group. It was
found that the dimension that indicated significant changes were time
management, social competence, intellectual flexibility, task leadership,
and emotional control. In order to further discuss these findings, the
researcher elaborated each dimension separately. There were several
possible reasons for the improvement of five dimensions. Time
management seems to be improved through participating outdoor education
activities during the camp, this is due to the several outdoor education
activities which very packed and causing student had to manage their time
very well. Neill et al (2003), defined that time management is the capability
of person to manage and use time efficiently for achievement in both
individual and professional life. Similarly, several outdoor education
studies found the positive effects on time management (Neill et al., 2003;
Allen Craig and Miller, 2007).
Furthermore, the researcher noted the camp had influenced on the
improvement of social competence among participants. According to Neill
et al., (2003) social competence refers to the capability of person to blend
efficiently in social conditions and incorporates skills in problem solving
decision making and communication. In focus to the camp, participants
were exposed with the activities that required them to mingle around to each
other. Through the implementation of the activities, each of participants
indirectly will exposed with the skills of communication, social skills and
interpersonal competence and ability to form and keep healthy
relationships. These skills are needed for adolescence to maintain the
relationship with people around them. This study also found intellectual
flexibility indicated significant differences. Neill et al (2003), defined
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intellectual flexibility refers to the capability of an individual to properly

modify his or her view to accommodate and act on the ideas of others.
During the camp, participants will expose to the stage of debriefing or
reflection. This stage offers time for participants to expressed opinions,
observations or queries. Through reflection it’s encourage participants to
examine the experience of doing the activity, search for individual meaning,
and develop an abstract meaning that can be symbolically transferred into
real life experiences. Similarly, several outdoor education studies also
found the positive effects on intellectual flexibility (Mosse, 2007; Burrows,
2007).
This study also found improvement on task leadership. According to
Stenberg (2007), task leadership refers a capability of person as a leader
such as the flexibility of leadership style, communication, problem solving,
vision, courage and wisdom. In focus to the study, the researcher defined
task leadership as the ability of a person to lead and encourage people
around them in order to achieve the desired goals. Throughout the camp
participants took part in camp activities and there have been told to
cooperate and work as a team. They need one leader that can lead and give
order to group members. In order to accomplished the mission, participants
needed a person that have flexible leadership style, good in communication
skills and problem solving despite a person that don’t have leadership style.
Therefore the researcher assumes these processes had affected positively
towards participants’ task leadership. Similarly, several studies on life
effectiveness also mentioned task leadership as an element of life
effectiveness development (Beamish et al., 2009; Neill et al., 2003).
Emotional control also indicated significant differences. According to Neill
et al. (2003), emotional control is the ability of person to deal with their
emotions under stressful conditions. Throughout the camp, participants
were exposed to the high level of physical and mental pressure. Thus
participants need to control the emotion under this stressful condition.
Likewise, several previous studies in the outdoor education program were
also found to contribute towards participants’ emotional control (Tan, 2005;
Nail, 2007).
Summary
This study confirmed that outdoor education camp is effective in enhancing
life effectiveness skills. The natural setting surroundings, implementation
of experiential learning process and outdoor recreation activities that
enhance factors of life effectiveness skills may have significantly
influenced this finding. Bennetts (2011) also points out that outdoor
1138
education is one effective method for getting more students by appealing to

more of the variety of multiple intelligences including verbal-linguistic,
logical-mathematical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical-rhythmic,
interpersonal, and intrapersonal and the naturalist. Based on the immediate
effect of the outdoor education program, this study does provide support for
their claim. After the completion of outdoor education camp, the findings
of paired sample t test analysis suggests that only five out of eight life
effectiveness dimension had recorded significant changes after completion
of the camp which was time management, social competence, intellectual
flexibility, task leadership, and emotional control. The outcomes of the
findings consistent with the other researchers such as Ho Choon Mei, 2003;
Neill et al., 2003 and Allen Craig & Miller, 2007; Frauman and Waryold,
2009; Mosse, 2007; Burrows, 2007; Beamish et al., 2009; Chua et al., 2016.
To conclude the researcher proposed that outdoor education camps is

among the most influential medium in enhancing participants’ life
effectiveness skills. This study also promote that a natural setting of the
program is suitable to enhance life effectiveness skills since the participants
involved with environmentally and back to basic lifestyle with less
technologies influence. What is the important is how the outdoor educators
used the creativity to educate and apply the outdoor education camp concept
into participants’ daily life. Outdoor recreation activities such as kayak,
camp craft, jungle trekking and orienteering which promote healthy lifestyle
and enhance factors of life effectiveness skills (time management, social
competence, intellectual flexibility, task leadership, and emotional control)
should be reinforce by the outdoor educators in order to relate and enhance
the participants daily life. In doing so, outdoor educators and administrator
will ensure the continuity of life effectiveness skills in outdoor education
camps outcomes into students’ lifestyle as highlighted by Neill (2008).
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Unpublished manuscript, University of Western Sydney, Sydney, NSW,
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T02_035: CUSTOMERS’ INTENTION TO

REPURCHASE HALAL PERSONAL CARE
PRODUCTS: AN INVESTIGATION OF THE
DRIVERS AND MODERATING VARIABLE
Sulaiman Bin Nawawi1, Rosmimah Bt. Mohd. Roslin2,
1
universiti Teknologi Mara, Shah Alam, Malaysia
Abangleman12345@Gmail.Com
2
universiti Teknologi Mara, Shah Alam, Malaysia
rosmimah@salam.uitm.edu.my
ABSTRACT
Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to examine the factors that may
influence the customers’ intention to repurchase halal personal care
products using Decomposed Theory of Planned Behaviour (DTPB). In
addition, it also aims to test the moderating effect of spiritual intelligence
on the relationship between attitude and repurchase intention.
Design/methodology/approach - A comprehensive review of customers’
purchase intention on halal products is undertaken with a particular focus
on halal personal care products.
Findings - The review found that the intention to repurchase halal personal
care products was influenced by attitude, subjective norm, and perceived
behavioural control. In addition, it was found that the antecedents such as
knowledge, safety and health concern, media exposure, interpersonal
influences, self-efficacy, and resource facilitating conditions have a
significant positive impact on attitude, subjective norm, and perceived
behavioural control. On top of that, it was further discovered that spiritual
intelligence moderates the relationship between attitude and repurchase
intention.
Originality/value - None of the purchase intention studies on halal
products, in general, and halal personal care product, in particular, has
utilized Decomposed Theory of Planned Behaviour (DTPB) as the
theoretical framework of their research. In addition, this is the first study
utilizing this particular model in examining the moderating effect of
spiritual intelligence on the relationship between attitude and repurchase
intention in the context of halal personal care products.
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Keywords - Halal personal care products, attitude, subjective norm,

perceived behavioural control
Paper type - Conceptual paper
Introduction
Halal personal care products industry has turned out to be one of the most
tremendous and fastest growing industry (GIFR, 2015). For instance, in
2013 alone, Muslim customers consumed US$46 billion on halal personal
care products which is 6.78% of the global expenditure, and this figure is
predicted to increase to US$73 billion by 2019, making up over 8.2% of
global expenditure (State of Global Islamic Economy Report, 2014). In the
same year, top countries with halal personal care products customers were
United Arab Emirates ($4.9 billion), Turkey ($4.4 billion), and Indonesia
($3.4 billion) (GIFR, 2015). This growing halal personal care products
industry is deemed by analysts as the next in line for growth after the
profitable halal food and Islamic financial services (Rahim, Shafii, &
Shahwan, 2015) In the local scene, halal personal
care products contribute 10 per cent to 20 per cent of the local cosmetic
market (GIFR, 2015). As of third quarter of 2015, Malaysia’s export value
for halal personal care products stood at RM1.7 billion, reflecting 5.5 per
cent of the total halal exports which is valued at RM31.1 billion (MITI,
2015a). In addition, Malaysia’s halal personal care products industry
recorded sales of approximately RM3 billion in 2013 with the growth rate
of 13 per cent annually (Rahman, Asrarhaghighi, & Rahman, 2015).
However, in a world that is becoming more spiritually conscious, the
acceptance and awareness level of halal personal care products is still low
within the Muslim community (Hunter, 2012). For instance, in the Middle
East, a survey conducted by KasehDia Consulting (2012) showed that
customers’ awareness toward halal personal care products in Saudi Arabia
and United Arab Emirates (UAE) was relatively low in comparison with
their counterparts in Europe and Asia. Another report by WHF (2011) also
revealed that the customers’ level of awareness towards halal personal care
products in these two countries was comparatively low at 18-30 per cent
as compared to halal meat and meat-based products and halal food which
was estimated at 94-98 per cent and 40-64 per cent respectively. According
to KasehDia Consulting this scenario happened due to the customers’
misconceptions that the halal concept is only meant for meat and food-
related products and that it has nothing to do with non-food products
segments such as personal care products (Hajipour, Gharache,
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Hamidizadeh, & Mohammadian, 2015).

In the local front, a research by KasehDia Consulting (2012) also
found that the customers’ acceptance and awareness towards halal personal
care products in Malaysia was comparatively low. For instance, both
Muslim and non-Muslims in Malaysia are familiar and aware with the
concept of halal foods products but the term halal personal care products
are relatively new even for Muslim consumers (Rahim, Shafii, & Shahwan,
2013). Additionally, not all Muslims look for the halal certifications when
they purchase personal care products (Teng & Wan Jamaliah, 2013) and
majority of them will purchase these products without the halal
certifications when there were no alternatives (Hunter, 2012).
Another report by HDC (2014b) further revealed that Muslim
customers’ response towards conventional and imported brands is,
however, still overwhelmingly encouraging. In other words, Muslim
customers in Malaysia are still prioritising conventional and imported
brands whose halal status and safety issues are questionable and doubtful
(Mokhtar, Nooreha, & Nik Mustapha, 2012). According to EuroMonitor’s
Trade Sources and National Statistics 2012, only 0.5 percent of the Muslim
customers in Malaysia are using Safi, the leading halal local brand for
personal care products (Ramlee, 2013). The brand carries a comprehensive
range of personal care products aimed at catering and meeting the needs of
both Muslim men and women (Hashim & Musa, 2014). It seems that the
local halal personal care products have yet to become a “household brand”
for Muslim customers in Malaysia (Mohd Hashim & Musa, 2013).
Therefore, it is essential to explore and identify what are the factors
that may actually influence the customers’ behavioural intention to
purchase halal personal care products. Currently, an abundance of halal
personal care products are widely available in the market. These include
Qu Puteh, D’Herbs Terlajak Laris, Zaitun, Shurah, Jamu Mak Dara, Dinas
Lutox, Safi Rania, Mukmin, Syahirah, TanaMerra, and SimplySiti, to
name a few (MITI, 2015a). Hence, it is questionable as to why Muslims’
purchasing behaviour nowadays are still not inclined towards this halal
personal care products whose ingredients have been proven to be halal and
safe. This raises the issue of examining what factors that may actually
affect their behavioural intention to purchase these halal products.
Intention-Behaviour Theories In Halal-Related Studies

A great deal of research has been conducted to determine factors that may
influence the customers’ behavioural intention toward halal products. Due
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to a lack of grounded theory in the marketing field, researchers have turned

to models that have been established in other areas as a foundation for their
research. For example, in the case of predicting an individual’s intention
to purchase halal-related products, marketing researchers have borrowed
intention-behaviour theories from social psychology such as the theory
reasoned action (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) and the theory of planned
behaviour (Ajzen, 1991) as the theoretical foundation for their studies.
Theory of reasoned action (TRA) looks at beliefs within the
individual to predict adoption behaviour (Morris & Dillon, 1997). The
TRA hypothesizes that both attitude and subjective norm will influence
intention, which in turn influences behaviour (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980).
Basically, intention indicates the probability of a person acting in a certain
way (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). TRA has been rigorously used to predict
the customers’ behavioural intention to select an extensive variety of
products and services such as organic food purchasing behaviour (Sparks
& Shepherd, 1992), eco-friendly products buying intention (Kalafatis,
Pollard, East, & Tsogas, 1999) and online purchasing behaviour
(Bhattacherjee, 2000; Khalifa & Limayem, 2003).
However, the applicability of TRA was found inadequate in
predicting the customers’ behaviour to choose something at his own free-
will (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980; Ajzen & Madden, 1986). In other words, the
theory did not take into consideration the conditions where an individual
has full or complete control against their own behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). To
overcome this, Ajzen (1991) has introduced the perceived behavioural
control into the model and this new model was later known as the theory
of planned behaviour (TPB). Hence, the theory assumes three independent
determinants of intention: attitude towards behaviour, subjective norm, and
perceived behavioural control (Ajzen, 1991).
TPB has been extensively used to predict the customers’ behavioural
intention to select an extensive variety of products and services such as
food choice and healthy eating behaviour (Chan & Tsang, 2011; Jas, 1988),
technology adoption behaviour (Aboelmaged, 2009; Gentry & Calantone,
2002), internet purchasing behaviour (George, 2002; Gopi & Ramayah,
2007), entrepreneurial behaviour (Engle, Dimittriadi, Gavidia, Schlaegel,
Delanoe, Alvarado, He, Buame, & Wolff, 2010; Iakovleva, Kolvereid, &
Stephan, 2011) and even behavioural misconduct (Bailey, 2006).
Although these two theories are considered as a universal model in
customer behaviour research, both models have been criticised for not
proposing operational determinants of behavioural attitudes, subjective
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norm, and to some extent, behavioural control (Taylor & Todd, 1995a). To
meet this criticism, Taylor & Todd (1995a) has extended the original
theory of planned behaviour (TPB) into specific antecedents or
determinants. This new theory was later known as the decomposed theory
of planned behaviour (DTPB).
The DTPB has been applied in various information system researches
(Bhattacherjee, 2000; Shih & Fang, 2004; Taylor & Todd, 1995a, 1995b;
Zolait & Sulaiman, 2009) and halal financial services i.e. family takaful
scheme (Husin & Rahman, 2013; Husin, Ismail, & Rahman, 2016), but has
yet to be employed in research of other natures including halal personal
care products. Even though DTPB was specifically tailored to understand
the adoption of information technology (IT), causal factors such as
interpersonal influences (i.e. friends’ influence and family members’
influences), self-efficacy (i.e. self-confidence), and resource-facilitating
conditions (i.e. time, money, and information) can still be applied in
research of other natures including halal personal care products.
Development Of Research Framework And Hypotheses

The main structure of the framework is adopted from DTPB by Taylor &
Todd (1995a), a powerful research model in the information system
settings. Although DTPB is specifically tailored to understand the adoption
of information technology (IT), antecedents such as interpersonal referents
(i.e. friends, family members, and colleagues), self-efficacy (i.e. self-
confidence), and resource-facilitating conditions (i.e. time, money, and
information) can still be applied in research of other natures including halal
personal care products. DTPB framework describes that behavioural
intention to purchase halal personal care products is determined by the
individual’s attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioural control
(Taylor & Todd (1995a). Originally, DTPB identified three
latent dimensions of a person’s attitude which are perceived usefulness,
perceived ease of use, and compatibility. However, since the nature of this
study is to understand the consumer behaviour in the context of halal
personal care products, adapting all the three causal factors of attitudes,
namely perceived usefulness, ease of use, and compatibility is
inappropriate. Therefore, the proposed determinants of attitudes which are
knowledge, safety and health concern, and media exposure is more
relevant in the context of this study. In fact, proposing these antecedents
seems justified because it is reasonably rationale to anticipate that
individual who are knowledgeable about halal products, concerned about
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safety and health, and highly exposed to halal products will perceive that
they have the positive attitude towards the products.
In addition, the original DTPB also decomposed the subjective norm
into two latent determinants namely “peer influence” and “superior
influence” (Taylor & Todd, 1995a). Taylor & Todd's (1995a) initiative to
decompose the subjective norm into peer influence and superior influence
seems justified in an organizational settings because it is rationale to
presume that one’s purchase behaviour is most likely influenced by their
peers and superiors in the workplace. However, since the nature of the
study is more focused on marketing approaches, the authors propose that
the two determinants in the original DTPB were to be replaced with the
element of “word-of-mouth referents” or better known as “interpersonal
referents”. These interpersonal referents include friends’ influence and
family members’ influence (Husin & Rahman, 2013; Khalid & John, 2008;
Limayem, Khalifa, & Frini, 2000; Parthasarathy & Bhattacherjee, 1998)
The logic here is that one may believe that his interpersonal referents such
as friends and family members may encourage him to purchase halal
personal care products or else he may believe that his colleagues in the
office would also encourage him to purchase the products.
Furthermore, the original DTPB also identified three latent
determinants of perceived behavioural control which are self-efficacy,
resource facilitating condition and technology facilitating condition
(Taylor & Todd, 1995a). Again, due to different nature of the study, only
two of the determinants namely self-efficacy (self-confidence) and
resource facilitating condition are adopted in the study. The technology
facilitating condition was deemed inappropriate since the main purpose of
the study is to predict the behavioural intention towards halal consumer
products and it has nothing to do with technology. In the context of this
study, it is reasonably rationale to presume that individuals who have high
self-confidence (i.e. self-efficacy) towards halal personal care products
will perceive that they have the ability (i.e. high perceived behavioural
control) to purchase and use them. Similarly, it seems justified to anticipate
that individuals who believe that they have the resources such as time,
money, and information (i.e. high resource facilitating conditions) will
perceive that they have the ability (i.e. high perceived behavioural
controls) to purchase halal personal care products.
In this study, the authors also identify one controlling variable that is
believed to moderate the relationship between attitudes and repurchase
intention. The main reasons to consider this moderating variable is to
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enhance the predictive nature of DTPB and facilitate its application in the
context of halal personal care products. Additionally, the authors believe
that factors that may influence the intention to repurchase halal personal
care products are likely to vary among customers. Therefore, in the context
of halal personal care products, an additional explanatory factor is needed
beyond attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioural control.
Research framework
Figure 1 Research Framework: Ajzen (1991), Taylor &

Todd (1995a)
Hypotheses
There are eleven (11) hypotheses in this study and each of them will be
discussed in the following section.
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Attitude
The effect of attitude on the intention to purchase and consume halal

product has been theorized and validated by numerous studies (e.g. Lada,
Tanakinjal, & Amin, 2009; Rahman et al., 2015). For example, a study by
Rahman et al. (2015) on the effect of knowledge and religiosity on
customers’ attitude towards halal cosmetic and halal food revealed that
there was a significant positive relationship between attitude and
behavioural intention. Meanwhile, using TRA, Lada et al. (2009) found
that attitude towards halal products positively affected a customer’s
intention to purchase them. Hence, the first hypothesis is proposed as
follows:
Hypothesis 1: There is a positive relationship between attitude and
intention to repurchase halal personal care products.
Subjective norm
Numerous studies have documented the significant relationship between

subjective norm and behavioural intention toward halal products (e.g.
Haque, Sarwar, Farzana, Tarofder, & Hossain, 2015; Hashim & Musa,
2014). Explained in more details, based on theory of planned behaviour
(TPB), Hashim & Musa (2014) revealed that subjective norm has a positive
effects on young adult urban Muslim women towards halal cosmetics.
Consistent with the above studies, Haque et al. (2015) also revealed the
significant effect of subjective norm on the non-Muslim customers’
intention to purchase halal food products in Malaysia. Therefore, the
subsequent hypotheses is proposed as follows:
Hypothesis 2: There is a positive relationship between subjective norm and
intention to repurchase halal personal care products.
Perceived behavioural control

The relationship between perceived behavioural control and behavioural
intention has received supports from several empirical studies related to
halal products (e.g. Alam & Sayuti, 2011; Khan & Azam, 2016). For
example, in a study applying theory of reasoned actions (TRA) to predict
halal food purchasing behaviour in Malaysia, Alam & Sayuti (2011) found
that perceived behavioural control was a significant determinant of
behavioural intention. Meanwhile, Khan & Azam (2016) also found that
there was a significant positive relationships between perceived
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behavioural control and customers’ purchase intention toward halal-

certified products in India. These lead the authors to the next hypothesis:
Hypothesis 3: There is a positive relationship between perceived
behavioural control and intention to repurchase halal personal care
products.
Knowledge
The link between knowledge and attitude has been supported by numerous
studies related to halal products (e.g. Abdul Aziz & Chok, 2013; Ayyub,
2015). To elaborate, Abdul Aziz & Chok's (2013) study on halal purchase
intention among non-Muslims in Malaysia revealed that knowledge has a
significant positive impact on attitude toward halal products. Similarly,
Ayyub (2015) also revealed that knowledge was one of the determinants
of the non-Muslim’s attitude towards halal food in United Kingdom.
Hence, adopting the knowledge construct in this study seems justified and
the following hypothesis is proposed as follows:
Hypothesis 4: Knowledge influences the customers’ attitude toward halal
personal care products.
Safety and health concern
Several studies have suggested the link between safety and health concern
and attitude toward halal products (e.g. Ambali & Bakar, 2014; Hussain,
Rahman, Zaheer, & Saleem, 2016). Explained in more details, Ambali &
Bakar's (2014) study on people attitude and awareness on halal products in
Malaysia revealed that the attitude towards halal products was positively
influenced by their level of safety and health concern. Meanwhile, a survey
by Hussain et al. (2016) who were investigating the integrating factors
influencing consumers’ halal product purchase in Pakistan also found
safety and health concern has a significant positive impact on attitude
towards halal products. This leads the authors to the fifth hypothesis:
Hypothesis 5: Safety and health concern affects the customers’ attitude
toward halal personal care products.
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Media exposure
The impacts of media exposure on attitude has been supported by

numerous studies related to halal products (e.g. Kamarulzaman, Veeck,
Abdul Muhmin, Luqmani, & Qureashi, 2015; Rahim et al., 2013) To
elaborate, in a study exploring the effect of electronic media on Muslim
minority in Britain, Kamarulzaman et al. (2015) found that electronic
media exposure played a significant role in influencing British Muslim’s
attitude towards halal food products. On the same notes, in a research
investigating the awareness and perception of Muslim consumers on halal
non-food products in Malaysia, Rahim et al. (2013) also discovered that
individuals who were more exposed to media would show a positive
attitude toward halal non-food products. Therefore, adopting the media
exposure construct in this study seems justified and the next hypothesis is
proposed as follows:
Hypothesis 6: Media exposure influences the customers’ attitude toward
halal personal care products.
Friends’ influences and family members’ influences
Several studies related to Islamic financial services and information

technology have recognized the significant relationship between
interpersonal referents (i.e. friends, family members, and colleagues) and
subjective norm (Husin & Rahman, 2013; Husin et al., 2016). Explained
in more details, in a conceptual paper to investigate the factors influencing
the customers’ intention to participate in family takaful scheme, Husin &
Rahman (2013) postulated that interpersonal referents such as friends,
family members, and colleagues were significant antecedents who may
exert social pressure on individuals’ intention to participate in family
takaful scheme. Similarly, applying DTPB in a study to investigate the
roles of mass media, word-of-mouth, and subjective norm in family takaful
purchase intention, Husin et al. (2016) found that subjective norm was
significantly influenced by word-of-mouth referents. Although the
influence of interpersonal referents have yet to be empirically tested in the
studies related to halal consumer products, the relevancy of these three
determinants should not be overlooked. Therefore, the authors strongly
believe that these three determinants of subjective norm should be included
in the framework, thus, the subsequent hypotheses are proposed as follows:
Hypothesis 7: Friends’ influence affects subjective norm
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Hypothesis 8: Family members’ influence affects subjective norm
Resource facilitating conditions
The effect of self-efficacy and resource facilitating conditions on perceived

behavioural control has been supported by a number of studies related to
Islamic financial services and information technology (e.g. Bhattacherjee,
2000; Husin & Rahman, 2013). For example, in a conceptual paper to
investigate the factors influencing the customers’ intention to participate
in family takaful scheme, Husin & Rahman (2013) postulated that self-
efficacy (i.e. self-confidence) and resource facilitating conditions were
significant antecedents of perceived behavioural control. Similarly,
Bhattacherjee's (2000) study on individuals’ underlying motivation to
accept electronic brokerage technology among e-brokerage users showed
that perceived behavioural control was significantly affected by one’s self-
confidence in skills to perform the intended behaviour (i.e. self-efficacy)
and beliefs about availability of resources to facilitate the behaviour (i.e.
resource facilitating conditions). Again, even though the effect of self-
efficacy (i.e. self-confidence) and resource facilitating conditions have yet
to be empirically tested in the studies related to halal consumer products,
the relevancy of these two determinants cannot be ignored. Therefore, the
authors are of the opinion that these two determinants of perceived
behavioural control should be included in the framework, thus, the
subsequent hypotheses are proposed as follows:
Hypothesis 9: Self-efficacy (i.e. self-confidence) influences perceived
behavioural control
Hypothesis 10: Resource facilitating conditions influence perceived
behavioural control
Spiritual Intelligence
Soebyakto & Ming (2012) defined intelligence as “an ability of someone

to find out the solutions of troubles”. Meanwhile, spirituality can be
defined “as the innate human need to be connected to someone larger than
ourselves whom we consider to be divine or of exceptional nobility”
(Wigglesworth, 2012). Previous studies on psychology have combined
these two concepts (i.e. spirituality and intelligence) into a construct called
spiritual intelligence (Amram, 2007).
Wigglesworth (2012) defined spiritual intelligence as “the ability to
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behave with wisdom and compassion, while maintaining inner and outer
peace regardless of the situation”. According to Zohar & Marshall (2001),
individuals with high spiritual intelligence would appear to have a rationale
and proper behaviour. On the other hand, individuals with low spiritual
intelligence would seem to have a problematic and challenging behaviour.
The concept of spiritual intelligence is different from that of the concept of
religion. Wigglesworth (2012) defines religion as “a specific set of beliefs
and practices, usually based on sacred text, and represented by a
community of people”.
In fact, spiritual intelligence makes religion possible but spiritual
intelligence does not depend upon religion. For example, some individuals
may be high on spiritual intelligence by following a religious teachings and
practices but others may be high on spiritual intelligence but not practising
any religion (i.e. an atheist) (Singh & Sinha, 2013). In addition, it was
found that a highly religious person is not always the most spiritually
intelligent. In other words, although religious, he or she might be having
low spiritual intelligence (Draper, 2009).
The impact of spiritual intelligence in the organization and workplace
has received a lot of attentions from previous studies (Mohd Hashim &
Musa, 2013). The result of those studies have revealed that spiritual
intelligence has a significant positive impact on people’s quality of life
(Singh & Sinha, 2013), organizational performances (Malik & Tariq,
2016), leadership (Hyson, 2013), mental health (Emmons, 2000), and
personality traits (Amrai, Farahani, Ebrahimi, & Bagherian, 2011). In
addition, previous research have also found the moderating effect of
spiritual intelligence on the relationship between abusive supervision and
workplace deviance (Abdul Hamid, Juhdi, Ismail, & Abdullah, 2016) and
between organizational commitment and organizational citizenship
(Yazdani & Parsa, 2014).
However, most of the above organization and workplace-related
studies were conducted within the western perspective. Therefore, this
study attempts to close this theoretical gap by incorporating the concept of
spiritual intelligence in DTPB model as a new approach in explaining the
customers’ behaviour form the Islamic perspective. Specifically, this study
attempts to investigate the moderating role of spiritual intelligence on the
relationship between attitude and intention to repurchase halal personal
care products.
In fact, various halal-related studies have revealed that the strength of
relationship between attitude and behavioural intention would be stronger
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when the moderating variable was introduced into the framework. Among
the variables that have been found to strengthen the relationship between
attitude and behavioural intention include religiosity (Al-Nahdi, 2008),
acculturation and self-identity (Bonne, Vermeir, Bergeaud-Blackler, &
Verbeke, 2007), and age and education (Golnaz, Zainalabidin, Mad Nasir,
& Eddie Chiew, 2010; Rezai, Mohamed, Shamsudin, & Eddie Chiew,
2009).
In Islam, one’s level of spiritual intelligence can be improved by
reading religious books and attending religious talks and classes (Mohd
Hashim & Musa, 2013). As a result of this improved spiritual intelligence,
individual may develop a rationale and good behaviour, thus enabling them
to differentiate between what is “right” and what is “wrong” in a given
circumstances and situations. Based on the above
justifications, the authors strongly believe that when compared to Muslims
with lower level of spiritual intelligence, Muslims with higher level of
spiritual intelligence are usually having stronger intention to repurchase
halal personal care products, thus, resulting in their positive response to
continuously consume them. Therefore, the authors propose that one’s
level of spiritual intelligence strengthens or alters the relationships between
attitude and intention to repurchase the products. This leads the authors to
the final hypothesis:
Hypothesis 11: Spiritual intelligence moderates the relationship between
attitude and intention to repurchase halal personal care products such that
the relationship between attitude and repurchase intention is stronger for
those customers with high levels of spiritual intelligence than for those
customers with low levels of spiritual intelligence
Implications Of The Study
Theoretical implications
This study extends the purchase intention research on halal personal care
products by applying the Decomposed Theory of Planned Behaviour
(DTPB) as the underpinning theory of the study. By decomposing the
attitudinal, normative, and perceived control beliefs into relevant
multidimensional constructs, the authors expect to have a higher
explanatory power and a more precise understandings of the antecedents
or causal factors of behaviour. .
Most of the purchase intention studies on halal personal care products
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emphasize on the main construct of TPB as the main factors that will affect
one’s purchase intention and they seemed to ignore the importance of the
determinants or causal factors of attitude, subjective norm, and perceived
behavioural control in predicting the customers’ behavioural intention.
Therefore, this study attempts to close this theoretical gap by incorporating
the relevant antecedents or determinants of attitude, subjective norm, and
perceived behavioural control in DTPB model as a new approach in
predicting customers’ behavioural intention in the context of halal personal
care products.
On top of that, this study further extends DTPB by integrating the
moderating role of spiritual intelligence on the relationship between
attitude and repurchase intention. According to Mohd Hashim & Musa
(2013), the strength of individuals’ spiritual intelligence affects certain
aspects of the their psychological and physical wellbeing. In addition,
although customers’ behaviour are usually influenced by their religious
environments, the strength of influence may vary according to their level
of spiritual intelligence (Singh & Sinha, 2013). Thus, the authors suggest
that one’s level of spiritual intelligence strengthens or alters the
relationships between attitude and intention to repurchase the products.
Practical implications
In this study, the authors decomposed the attitudinal, normative, and

perceived control beliefs into relevant multidimensional constructs in order
to provide a more precise understandings of the antecedent of the
customers’ purchase intention towards halal personal care products. Better
understandings of specific determinants of attitude, subjective norm, and
perceived behavioural could help marketers and product managers
formulate and pursue relevant marketing strategies that could significantly
affect individual’s behavioural intention, thus, enhancing the
organization’s competitiveness in the market. In addition, by focusing on
specific beliefs, the model will become more relevant to practitioners who
are interested in examining a more complete set of determinants or causal
factors that could better predict the customers’ behavioural intention
towards the products.
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Limitations Of The Study

Although this research has been able to fill both the conceptual and
theoretical gaps, it has a number of limitations. Firstly, this study
concentrates mainly on the quantitative methods. However, other methods
of data collection such as mail surveys or a combination of qualitative (in-
depth interviews, focus groups, etc.) and quantitative methods can be
considered in the future. Secondly, this DTPB model is only tested on halal
non-food sector (i.e. halal personal care products). Therefore, future
studies could extend the model to include other halal products and service
sectors such as food, financial, and pharmaceutical segments. It will be
interesting to learn whether this model can also be applied into other halal-
related studies. Finally, due to limited publication, only a limited number
of halal-related studies utilizing DTPB are discussed in this study.
Notwithstanding of the above limitations, this study contributes towards a
better understanding of the factors that may influence customers’ intention
to repurchase halal personal care products.
Conclusion
In this study, the authors adapted Decomposed Theory of Planned
Behaviour (DTPB) in predicting the customers’ intention to purchase halal
personal care products. Based on the extensive literature search, the
authors identified relevant determinants and causal factors of attitude,
subjective norm, and perceived behavioural control. Although DTPB is
specifically tailored to understand the adoption of information technology
(IT), antecedents such as interpersonal referents (i.e. friends’ influence and
family members’ influence), self-efficacy (i.e. self-confidence), and
resource-facilitating conditions (i.e. time, money, and information) can
still be applied in research of other natures including halal personal care
products. In addition,
through this literature search, the authors also discovered the moderating
effect of spiritual intelligence on the relationship between attitude and
repurchase intention. To the best of the researchers’ knowledge, none of
the purchase intention studies on halal products, in general, and halal
personal care product, in particular, has utilized DTPB as the theoretical
framework of their research. On top of that, this is the first study utilizing
this particular model in examining the moderating effect of spiritual
intelligence on the relationship between attitude and repurchase intention.
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1 December 2016
T02_036: AN EFFECTIVE APPROACH OF

PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT TOOL
FOR CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS: REVIEW
OF LITERATURE
Nor Suzila Lop-1
Centre of Postgraduate Studies, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Seri
Iskandar Campus, Seri Iskandar, 32610, Perak Malaysia.
Dr Kharizam Ismail-2
Dr Haryati Mohd Isa-3
Faculty of Architecture Planning and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi
MARA, Seri Iskandar Campus, Seri Iskandar, 32610, Perak, Malaysia.
ABSTRACT
Performance measurement refers to indicators used to assess the
performance of an organization or projects. A proper performance
measurement is necessary to help the organisation in measuring
performance of a project in order to achieve value for money (VfM).
However, ineffective performance measurement has been identified as one
of the contributing factors associated with poor project performance.
Obviously, the absence of an effective performance measurement in the
construction projects acts as a trigger for not producing an optimal service
quality and performance in the construction projects. Therefore, the aim of
this paper is to review the literature of performance measurement model
with a special focus on the construction sector. Besides, it also attempts to
investigate an effective measurement tool to be adopted for measuring
performance in construction projects. The strengths and weaknesses of
previous established measurement models, specific techniques and
indicators are explored. The results will be benefited to develop a
comprehensive approach of performance measurement tool for the
construction sector’s implementation.
Keywords: Performance, Performance Measurement, Construction

Project.
1164
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the time of globalization with an increasingly competitive environment,

measuring performance has become critical to business success.
Specifically, business success refers to an effective management that
depends on the effective measurement of performance and results.
However, performance measurement traditionally only focuses on the
reasons that explain success or failure from an historical perspective. Even
though performance measurement has long been used in many industries, it
has received more criticism and attention in order to improve and monitor
the performance [1]. Recently, the performance measurement has been
realised and implemented in one of the industries that is in construction
industry. However, it has long been criticised for its underperformance [2,
3, 4]. It is due to the nature, complexity and uniqueness, and involves
multiple stakeholders. Thus, many researchers place strong emphasis on the
importance of adopting the performance measurement methods to improve
the current performance of the construction industry [5, 6]. Therefore, it is
essential to monitor the performance of these projects to ensure value for
money is achieved. Simultaneously, an effective performance measurement
tool is required to determine the performance level of the organizations or
projects whether it is successful or not.
Hence, this paper aims to review the literature of performance
measurement model particularly the one that is implemented in the
construction industry. One objective is established in aligning with this aim
which is to investigate the effective measurement tool to be implemented
for measuring performance in the construction projects. It is to provide
valuable insights on ways or methods to develop an effective performance
measurement tool for a specific project in the construction industry.
2.0 PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
2.1 Definition of Performance Measurement System (PMS)
According to [7], performance measurement system (PMS) is defined as a

process or a set of metrics used to quantify and report the effectiveness and
efficiency of the action performed towards organisations’ objectives. While
[8] mentioned that PMS provides information that helps a firm to align its
management processes, such as target setting, decision-making and
performance evaluation, with the achievement of chosen strategic
1165
objectives. It contradicts with [9] that PMS is the system implemented by

construction organisations for their internal management purposes but not
the evaluation by clients and stakeholders. However [10] highlights that an
effective business PMS should enable a construction company to evaluate
and establish its position with respect to the business environment,
indicating the principal role of PMS within a construction organisation.
2.2 Previous studies on Performance Measurement System
The earliest implementation of the performance measurement was started

from Business Intelligent in achieving business success [11]. The evolution
of the performance measurement has spread to various industries, including
construction industry. The implementation of a systematic way for
measuring this performance can influence many construction companies,
general government, public and private clients and other project
stakeholders. PMS in construction is mostly focuses on project-based,
specifically the productivity issue in project management [12] and criteria
and factors for the success of the projects [13, 14].
According to [15] PMS is a diverse research field in construction,
and the literature can be generalized into three main purposes namely;
industry purpose, business purpose and project purpose. Industry purpose is
functioned as to assess the performance of the industry, both nationally and
internationally [15]. While, business purpose is functioned as to measure
the performance of the construction organisation, including both one-time
evaluation and continuous measurement [9, 2, 10, 16]. Lastly, project
purpose is functioned as to evaluate the performance and success of
construction projects [13, 17].
2.3 Performance Measurement Model
According to [18], the process of measuring performance is usually

determined by the metric of a number of indicators, which includes both
financial and non-financial indicators. The use of the performance
measurement is to judge their projects’ performances, both financial and
non-financial aspects and to compare the performances with others, in order
to improve programme efficiency and effectiveness of their organizations
or projects.
Research on performance measurement particularly in construction
industry had been initiated since 1989. There are nine types of performance
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measurement models used to measure performance as shown in Table 1.

Among them, five models that were implemented in the construction
industry namely; the Balance Scorecard (BSC), the European Foundation
Quality Management (EFQM), the Performance PRISM, the Key
Performance Indicators (KPIs) and the Malcolm Baldridge for Performance
Excellence (MBNQA).
Table 1:Review on Level of Measurement for Different Types of

Performance Measurement Model.
Authors Types of Level of Objective

Performance measurem
Measurement ent
Model
Alsulamy et al., Balance Score Organizati Design a conceptual
(2012); Card (BSC) onal framework for
Bassioni et al., Projects construction firms
(2004);
Kaplan & Norton
(1992)
Alsulamy et al., European Organizati Design a holistic and
(2012); Foundation onal conceptual
Bassioni et al., Quality Projects framework for
(2004); Management construction firms
Watson & Seng, (EFQM)
(2001);
EFQM (2003)
Keegan et al. The Organizati Able to integrate
(1989); Performance onal different dimensions
Striteska & Measurement of performance and
Spickova (2012) Matrix employs generic
terms such as
internal, external,
cost and non-cos
Lynch and Cross Smart Organizati Able to connect
(1991); Performance onal through
Striteska & Pyramid organisation's
Spickova (2012) strategy with its
operations by
1167
translating objectives
from the top down
Neely & Adam The Projects Comprehensive
(2001); Performance Stakeholde system that views
Neely & Adam PRISM rs from different
(2002); stakeholders
Striteska &
Spickova (2012)
Kanji (2002); Kanji Organizati KBEMS is intended
Striteska & Business onal for the measurement
Spickova (2012) Excellence of performance from
Measurement the internal
System stakeholders' point of
(KBEMS) view,
Goldratt (1990); Theory Of Organizati Primarily concerned
Striteska & Constraint onal with managing
Spickova (2012) (TOC) change.
Alsulamy et al., Key Organizati Review key facets of
(2012); Performance onal PMS to design a new
Haponava & Al- Indicators Projects one
jibouri (2012); (KPIs) Stakeholde
Eagan (1998) rs
Alsulamy et al., Malcolm Organizati Develop a tool to
(2012) Baldridge For onal measure the firm
Performance Projects service quality
Excellence
(MBNQA)
Table 1 explained the performance measurement models which are

focused mainly on three levels of measurement such as project level,
organizational level and stakeholder level. The highlighted ones are types
of performance measurement models commonly used in the construction
industry. In construction, performance measurement was initially conducted
within the project level. Nevertheless, the research focus has been shifted
from the project level to the organizational level [9]. [19] suggested that
performance measurement at the organizational level must answer three key
questions: ‘how well is an organization performed? Is the organization
achieving its objectives? How much has the organization improved from the
last period?
1168
Majority of the models tend to measure performance at the

organizational level except for The Performance PRISM. Whilst, KPIs and
The Performance PRISM measure performance at the stakeholders level. It
shows that the relationship between different contracting parties in the
construction industry is complicated as it involves many projects’
stakeholders. In addition, these systems view that the involvement of
multiple stakeholders will be contributed to the performance of an
organization or a project. Hence, the selection of an appropriate
performance measurement system as a tool is important to measure the
performance of various projects’ stakeholders. However, there are lack of
researches conducted on this level compared to project and organizational
levels.
3.0 Research Methodology

This study is purely based on literature review. It reviews the theoretical
aspect of the research work on performance measurement system focussing
on the construction industry. Based on the numerous types of models, the
results of an effective performance measurement will be benefited to be
adopted for the various types of projects. A further study was planned to be
conducted by investigating whether the identified effective performance
measurement is appropriate for the projects or not depending on the
characteristics and the nature compared to the traditional approach.
4.0 Synthesis of Construction Key Performance Measurement

Models
A literature review on the existing performance measurement models in
Table 2 is adopted from various types of performance measurement mostly
implemented in the construction industry. There are Balance Score Card
(BSC), European Foundation Quality Management (EFQM), Malcolm
Baldridge for Performance Excellence (MBNQA), The Performance
PRISM, and Key Performance Indicators (KPIs). A comparative study of
various models was conducted based on five identified variables namely;
levels of measurement, who is being measured, measures/indicators,
strengths and weaknesses. They will be discussed in section 4.1 to 4.4.
4.1 Balance Score Card (BSC)

BSC was developed in the early 1990s by [20] and had been applied to
almost all industries including construction industry either public or private
sector [21]. This system is used to describe, implement and manage
1169
strategies at all levels in an organization. BSC focuses on four performance

metrics or indicators such as financial, customer, internal process as well as
learning and growth metrics. The project manager can track the progress of
work execution and also identify tasks that are behind schedule [22]. It
provides a more comprehensive overview of the project compared to the
traditional system. However, there is an absence of interest among
stakeholders to apply BSC model in measuring the performance [22]. It
happened due to the deficiency of long-term commitment and leadership in
management. [22] added that BSC is only a conceptual model and it is very
difficult to be implemented without previous thorough practical experience.
1170
Table 2: Review of Performance Measurement Models in the Construction Industry
Sources: Alsulamy et al., (2012); Bassioni et al., (2004); Kaplan & Norton (1992); Watson & Seng, (2001); EFQM (2003).
1171
Table 2: Review of Performance Measurement Models in the Construction Industry (Cont’d)
Sources: Alsulamy et al., (2012); Striteska & Spickova (2012); Neely & Adam (2001, 2002); Kanji (2002); Haponava & Al-jibouri (2012); Eagan (1998).
1172
4.2 European Foundation for Quality Management (EFQM) and

Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award (MBNQA).
European Foundation for Quality Management (EFQM) and Malcolm
Baldrige National Quality Award (MBNQA) are the most utilized models
in the United States and Japan. These models are developed with similar
characteristic which is based on quality-based performance excellence
models [23, 12, 24, 25]. The EFQM Excellence model is a non-prescriptive
system, proposed to help organizations to assess their progress to excellence
and continuous improvement [25]. Meanwhile, MBNQA is developed to
improve organizational competitiveness which focuses on the outcomes of
customers’ satisfactions and organization’s performance [23].
The EFQM Excellence Model is a non-prescriptive framework that
measures nine fundamental concepts of excellence to assess an
organisation’s progress towards excellence. This model proves that there
are many approaches that can be done to achieve sustainable excellence in
all aspects of performance. Therefore, the key strength of this model is
mainly to focus on the sense of quality where it can be assessed using self-
assessment approach. However, there are few limitations reported on this
model such as there is no relation among indicators, therefore it is not fit for
a strategic implementation.
In contrast to EFQM, MBNQA mainly focuses on the outcomes of
the customers’ satisfactions and organization’s performance in six
indicators [23]. However higher weighting is given to the business results
and customers’ satisfactions, human resources, and process management
factors. Despite having strength on the customers’ satisfactions and
organisation’s performance, however it still lacking on certain factors. High
cost in time and money with financial measures was identified as a factor to
be improved.
4.3 The Performance PRISM

It is a more comprehensive measurement system that addresses the business
issues of organizations. The Performance PRISM is a more comprehensive
system that considered views from different stakeholders (e.g. investors,
customers, employees, regulators and suppliers). This model was developed
by [7] to measure the performance namely; stakeholders’ satisfactions,
strategies, processes, capabilities, and stakeholders’ contributions. It also
considers the stakeholders’ contributions towards performance. By
considering this dimension, the Performance PRISM can completely
capture the satisfactory level of the stakeholders for the success of the
1173
projects. However, there is lacking of info on how to implement this model

and some of the dimensions are not effective in practice [26, 27, 7].
4.4 Key Performance Indicators (KPIs)

Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) was established and introduced as one
of the performance measurement tool and it has become the most popular
performance measurement metric in the construction sector particularly
after “Rethinking Construction” [8]. KPIs assess the performance of
activities deemed as critical success factor to gain desired organizational
goals. Among indicators used to assess project performance are
construction cost, construction time, predictability-cost, predictability-time,
defects, client satisfaction-product, and client satisfaction services [23, 28,
5]. Adding into these KPIs does not only score the organisational or project
performance, it also detects changed conditions, perceives potential
problems and designates a change from preliminary strategy of particular
project or organizational. Thus, it can be considered as a useful tool in
achieving value for money.
The strengths of utilising KPIs in measuring projects performance
are competent in highlighting organizational and projects’ weaknesses,
easily to understand and implement by multiple stakeholders. Thus, KPIs
are proven as the most reliable tool in monitoring and measuring
performance. An important benefit of adopting KPIs is the ability to identify
strength and weakness of projects’ partnership. Despite this, KPIs also have
several limitations such as they did not give an insight into the means of
improving performance, limited use for internal management decision
making and not compartmentalized along project phases [23, 28, 5].
5.0 Summary and Discussion of the Performance Measurement

Models.
As explained in section 4.1 to 4.4, most of the performance models
approaches focused on the project level, organisation level and
stakeholders’ level. To identify an effective performance measurement
model that can fulfill the characteristics and nature of the different types of
projects is very challenging. There are several factors that need to be
considered in determining an effective measurement system mainly
involving different types of projects. It is refers to the nature, characteristics
and complexity of each project. For instance; traditional projects; public,
private and partnership (PPP); and privatisation and turnkey projects. All of
these projects have their own characteristic and uniqueness, therefore, for
1174
measuring the performance of the projects is becomes more challenging. It

is supported by the Bassioni (2004) that, performance measurement models
in general indicate that they have one or more of the following
shortcomings, for instance; determination of performance criteria,
determination of relations between the performance criteria, lack of a
systematic measurement design, lack of implementation guidelines for the
performance measurement systems in practice and adaptation of the
framework according to the changing environment in the long-term.
Among the models that have been discussed before, KPIs by Eagan
(1998) appears to be more applicable and effective to be adopted and used
in construction industry especially involving several types of contracts. It is
due to fact that, KPIs have a strength to be one of the effective measurement
tools that can be applied for most of the projects. It also can be functioning
in monitoring the performance particularly at different projects’ phases and
most importantly is KPIs can be applied to identify the strength and
weakness in projects’ partnership in achieving best value for money.
Therefore, KPIs in this study offer an effective approach towards
completing successful project at different levels and phases particularly for
performance monitoring and evaluation.
6.0 Conclusion
This paper anticipates to review and synthesize various established
performance measurement models for the effective use in the construction
industry. It also intends to investigate the strengths and weaknesses of
previous established measurement models, specific techniques and
indicators. It can be concluded that all models have their own strengths and
weaknesses. However, KPIs is identified as a more useful model to be
implemented due to its uniqueness. Furthermore, it can be tailored for
various types of projects which involved multiple stakeholders.
The research presented in this paper is initially and part of an
ongoing PhD research at the Faculty of Architecture, Planning and
Surveying, UiTM to develop a performance measurement tool for
measuring PFI projects performance in Malaysia. The result of the study
would provide an insight into Malaysian construction projects’
development and form the basis of a valuable guideline, especially to public
and private sectors in Malaysia.
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1175
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1177
T02_037: SWOT ANALYSIS TOWARDS

FLOOD MITIGATION MEASURE
STRATEGIES:
A CASE STUDY
Norzanah Abd Rahman
Department of Mathematics. Faculty of Computer and
Mathematical Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA
Shah Alam, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
Zamali Tarmudi
Munirah Rossdy
Fatihah Anas Muhiddin
Department of Mathematics. Faculty of Computer and mathematical
Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA Sabah, Locked Bag 71, 88997 Kota
ABSTRACT
The selection of suitable flood mitigation measures to be implemented is
important to lessen the impact of future flood disaster. However, this
requires investigation of the available significant criteria and sub-critria
that will increase the accuracy in the selection process. The objective of this
paper is to determine the significant criteria and sub-criteria of flood
mitigation measures for Sabah by utilizing the SWOT analysis. Then, based
on these significant sub-criteria, we proposed a strategic framework for the
execution of flood mitigation measures. The result showed that this analysis
tool is reliable in analyzing the significant criteria as well as in planning a
strategic framework for flood mitigation measures that suitable to the local
context.
Keywords: Flood mitigation measures, SWOT analysis
INTRODUCTION
One of the government efforts to diminish the effect of flood disaster

is by executing the flood mitigation measures using structural and
non-structural mechanisms, which both play an important role in the
1178
flood risk reduction. Therefore, to decide the most suitable measures

that should be implemented based on a wide range of conflicting
criteria is a vital issue.
In the previous studies, many researchers have shown their
interest in both quantitative and qualitative techniques to analyze the
historical flood data. Most of them focused on multi-criteria decision
making (MCDM) approach, such as Measuring Attractiveness by a
Categorical Based Evaluation Technique (MACBETH), Analytic
Hierarchy Process (AHP) [2], and ELECTRE-II [3] in choosing the
flood mitigation measures. The qualitative analysis is useful as a
complement to the quantitative analysis in order to identify which
criteria that are important enough to be considered in the decision
making process.
The positive characteristics of SWOT (strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities, and threats) analysis, such as easy to perform, provides
a brief but complete summary of the operation, and time-effective [4],
has made it become one of the famous qualitative analysis tools [5],
and a very important component in a strategy formation process [6].
SWOT analysis provide a brief investigation on both internal
(strengths and weaknesses) and external (opportunities and threats)
environment [7]. This method has also proven to be useful as a
supporting tool in quantitative approach for natural disaster risk
management and urban management approach [8, 9], construction
enterprises [10], watershed management [11], strategic environment
planning [12], as well as team and organizational [13].
Thus, the main purpose of this paper is to determine the significant
criteria and sub-criteria of flood mitigation measures in Sabah using
the SWOT analysis. At the end of this paper, we propose a strategic
framework based on the significant sub-criteria of flood mitigation
measures. To achieve the above objective, the remainder of this paper
is presented as follows: After a brief introduction in the first section,
we presented the methodology which discussed the study area and the
SWOT analysis technique. Then, followed by the application and
results, as well as the conclusion.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Study area
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The Padas River Basin is located at the south-west interior division of

Sabah, Malaysia. It is the largest watershed in the western side with
approximately 155,000 hectares of land area. The deforestation [14, 15],
and urbanization [16] along this river basin area has triggered the
devastating impact of flood disasters to five districts which are Tambunan,
Keningau, Tenom, Sipitang and Beaufort in these recent years. Thus, the
essential analysis of existing flood mitigation measures needs to be
performed by the local government to reduce the flood impacts.
SWOT analysis
According to Harrison, [17], SWOT analysis is performed in four steps as

illustrated in the Figure 1 below:
Collection and Analysis of The development of a Integration of the SWOT

evaluation of key data SWOT matrix for analysis into decision-
key data each alternatives making process
Figure 27: The methodology of SWOT analysis
APPLICATION AND RESULTS
Based on the methodology in Figure 1, we performed the SWOT analysis

for flood mitigation measures in the selected study area. This analysis is
done with the assistance of the Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID)
experts since they have direct authority in the implementation of flood
mitigation measures.
Step 1: The key data was collected through library-based studies, and
personal interview survey with DID experts. The significant criteria
identified are Technical (T), Administrative (A), Economic (E), Legal (L),
Political (P), Social (Sc), and Environmental (Ev).
Step 2: These seven criteria were evaluated through a personal interview

based questionnaire based on Step 1 to identify the significant sub-criteria.
The significant sub-criteria of flood mitigation measures identified is as
illustrated in the Table 1.
Table 1: The analysis of key data

Criteria Sub-criteria
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T Lifetime, adaptability, complexity, flexibility, level of

protection, and technological capability.
A Skilled human resources, training programs, teamwork,
understanding, and information sharing and cooperation
E Relative cost, operational and maintenance cost, project
benefit, and external cost
L Existing policies, inter-disciplinary cooperation,
mechanism to produce regulation, mechanism to monitor
regulation, guideline to mobilize community
contribution, and national policy
P Political will
Sc Demographic change, community participation, social
acceptability, community awareness
Ev Water quality, nature conservation, soil condition,
landscape, sanitary condition, and climate change and
other natural hazard
Step 3: Here, the significant sub-criteria were classified into SWOT
components; strengths (S), weaknesses (W), opportunities (O), and threats
(T) by the expert according to the analysis in Step 2 (see Table 2).
Table 2: The SWOT criteria for Flood mitigation Measures.

SWOT Criteria Sub-criteria Abbreviation
S Sc Community participation S1
E Project Benefit S2
W E Relative cost W1
E Operational and maintenance W2
cost
O L Existing policies O1
Sc Social acceptability O2
T Sc Community awareness T1
P Political competition T2
Step 4: The strategic framework (See Table 3) is proposed based on the

development of SWOT matrix in the step 3.
Table 3: The strategic Framework for flood mitigation measures.

S: S1 and S2 W: W1 and W2
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O: O1 and O2  Empowering the benefit of  Making a complete financial

the mitigation structure by budget for every flood
strengthening the existing mitigation measures in an
policies. accurate manner.
 Providing the knowledge on  Informing the community
the advantage of the about the risk of flood
mitigation structure to the mitigation measures failure or
community. limitation in future.
 Involving the community in  Repairing the flood mitigation
the decision making process structures periodically.
for flood mitigation measures
implementation through the
existing policies.
 Adopting the flood mitigation  Increasing the community
T: T1 and T2
structure that has long-term awareness by adopting self-

protection for the community. resilience to the flood disaster
 Engaging the political body to risk.
increase the knowledge about  Exploiting political
the benefit of flood mitigation competition to discuss the
measures. allocation budget to improve
 Strengthening the the existing mitigation
coordination between the measures.
community and government.
 Involving the community
participation to change the
bad influence of political
competition.
CONCLUSION
In this paper, twelve (12) strategic frameworks of flood mitigation measures

for Sabah was proposed using the SWOT analysis (i.e. Strengths
Weaknesses ~SO, Weaknesses Opportunities ~WO, Strengths Threats ~ST,
and Weaknesses Threats ~WT strategies). These proposed frameworks
employing the advantage of opportunities to fortify the strength (SO),
overcoming the weaknesses using the opportunities (WO), utilizing the
strengths to avoid the threats (ST), and eliminating the weaknesses and
prevent the threats (WT). From the results, it showed that the SWOT
analysis can be used by the experts in identifying the significant criteria/sub-
1182
criteria of flood mitigation measures, in this case study, seven (7) significant
criteria and eight (8) significant sub-crieteria are identified (see Table 1 and
Table 2). This could increase the accuracy of the information gathered and
also meets the local context. In conclusion, SWOT analysis is recommended
to be integrated with the MCDM method, so that a more in-depth analysis
could be conducted, in order to increase the accuracy of the decision making
process.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was supported by Grant from Malaysian of Higher Education

(MOHE) for “Bifuzzy Set Refinement” code: 600-RMI/RAGS 5/3
(148/2014).
REFERENCE
[1] Department of Irrigation and Drainage Malaysia. (2009). DID Manual

(Volume 1 – Flood Management). Department of Irrigation and
Drainage, Malaysia, 1.
[2] Zamri, N., Abdullah, L., Hitam, M. S., Maizura, N., Noor, M., &
Jusoh, A. (2013). A type-2 multi-criteria decision making approach
for flood control project selection. Australian Journal of Basic and
Applied Sciences, 7(10), 180–191.
[3] Banihabib, M. E., & Laghabdoost, A. A. (2014). Multicriteria
decision-making for flood management based on sustainable
development criteria. International Environment Modelling and
Software Society.
[4] Bennet, Blake, Stan, B., Rob, B., & Brenda, D. (2003). SWOT
analysis. Department of Ag Economic, Texas Cooperative Extension,
Texas A & M University, 2-28.
[5] Madsen, D. O. (2016). SWOT analysis: A management fashion
perspective. International Journal of Business Research, 16(1), pp.
39-56.
[6] Abdi, A., Ashouri, M., Jamalpour, G., & Sandoosi, S. M. (2013).
Overview SWOT analysis method and its application in organizations.
Singaporean Journal of Business Economics, and Management
Studies, 1(12), 69–74.
[7] Houben, G., Lenie, K., & Vanhoof, K. (1999). A knowledge-based
SWOT-analysis system as an instrument for strategic planning in
1183
small and medium sized enterprises. Decision Support Systems,

26(1999), pp. 125-135.
[8] Anjasni, B. (2013). SWOT assesment of the community potency to
determine the strategic planning for volcano eruption disaster
management (Case study in Cangkringan , Yogyakarta province (The
3rd International Conference on Sustainable Future for Human
Security Sustain 2012). Procedia Environmental Sciences, 17, 337–
343. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.proenv.2013.02.046
[9] Singh, N. (2010). Swot Analysis – A Useful Tool For Community
Vision A concept paper of central Himalayan village, 2(1), 16–18.
[10] Zavadskas, E. K., & Turskis, Z. (2011). Multiple criteria decision
making (MCDM) methods in economics: an overview. Technological
and Economic Development of Economy, 17(2), 397–427.
http://doi.org/10.3846/20294913.2011.593291.
[11] Yavuz, F., & Baycan, T. (2013). Use of SWOT and analytic hierarchy
process integration as a participatory decision making tool in
watershed management. Procedia Technology, 8(Haicta), 134–143.
[12] Khalifipour, H., Soffianaian, A., & Fakheran, S. (2012). Application
of swot analysis in strategic environmental planning: A case study of
Isfahan/Iran. Intenational Conference on Applied Life Sciences
(ICALS2012), September 10-12, Turkey.
[13] Jackson, S. E., Joshi, A., & Erhardt, N. L. (2003). Recent research on
team and organizational diversity: SWOT analysis and implications.
Journal of Management, 29(6), pp. 801-830.
[14] Dinor, J., Zakaria, N. A., Abdullah, R., & Ab Ghani, A. (2007).
Deforestation effect to the runoff hydrograph at Sungai Padas
Catchment. 2nd International Conference on Managing Rivers in the
21st Century: Solution towards Sustainable River Basins, June 6-8, pp.
351-359, Riverside Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia.
[15] Ministry of Culture, Environment and Tourism. (n.d.). Identification
of Potential Protected Areas Ulu Padas - Final Report.Retrieved from
http://ww2.sabah.gov.my/jpas/programs/biodiversity/ulupadas.pdf
[16] Mohd Yatim, A. N., Keniin, D., Adnan, F. A. F., & Payus, C. M.
(2013). An analysis of land use/land cover changes using remote
sensing data and its impacts towards sediment loading in Padas river
sub-catchment. Borneo Science, 33, 1-8.
[17] Harrison, J. P. (2010). Strategic Planning And Swot Analysis, pp. 91–
97.
1184
T02_038: SUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION

SAFETY COST FOR RAIL
INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECT IN
ACHIEVING QUALITY OF LIFE – A
LITERATURE REVIEW
Izatul Farrita Mohd Kamar1
Asmalia Che Ahmad2
Nik Nur Khairunnisa Nik Mohd Ainul Azman3
1Centre of Postgraduate Studies, Faculty of Architecture, Planning and

Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Seri Iskandar Campus, Seri
Iskandar, 32610, Perak, Malaysia.
2,3 Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Architecture, Planning
and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Seri Iskandar Campus,Seri
Iskandar, 32610, Perak, Malaysia.
ABSTRACT
Construction sector faced various safety issues, accidents and risky task
that increase construction cost as well as reduces the quality of life of
construction stakeholders. In Malaysia, Construction Industry
Development Board (CIDB) has been introduced Safety and Health
Assessment System in Construction (SHASSIC) with the main objective to
assess and evaluate safety and health performance in construction projects.
Nevertheless, the SHASSIC function is limited to safety performance
assessment and lack on evaluation of cost related to safety. Thus,
construction requires an efficient cost control tool within the safety
management systems to achieve sustainable quality of life for construction
stakeholders. This paper is a literature review on the sustainable
construction safety cost towards improvement for better quality of life. A
mixed method research will used in this research. Semi structured interview
and questionnaire survey will be used as a main tool for the data collection
to the stakeholders. The scope of this research is to study the safety cost
items involved for the construction of rail infrastructure projects, that will
have a high impact on the cost of accident and the highest risk project in
Malaysia. Moreover, this research relates to the government agenda
towards achieving better quality of living.
1185
Keywords: Sustainable, Construction, Safety Cost, Quality of life.
1. Introduction
The safety and health of construction worker continues to be a major

problem for the construction industry. In the United State, the construction
industry has historically employed about five percent of the workforce, yet
has accounted for a disproportionate number of occupationally related fatal
and non-fatal injuries and illnesses [1]. In construction sector consistently
experiences higher fatality and injury or illness rates than other industries
[2]. Regarding the situation in Malaysia in this respect, the Department of
Occupational Safety and Health (DOSH), reported that among the total of
112 numbers of fatal injuries in September 2015, 42 numbers of death
occurred in construction sector. These statistics show that the construction
industry is among the most hazardous industries in Malaysia.
All this accident in the industry imposes a significant economic
burden. First of all, at least right after the accident happened, the victims
faced huge personal difficulties, and required large amount of funds to deal
with the consequences of an accident. [3] it is stated that accident would be
increase cost and affect the reputation of the contractors’ when the delays
in the completion of a project incurred. The costs associated with these
accidents are both human (not directly measurable) and financial for
companies and for society as a whole (sick leave, medical treatment, etc.).
According to [4], other costs such as project implementation delays,
company image impairment or market loss would also occur.
On the other hand, the industry must also bear a huge part of the
cost. In 2011, RM 1.7 billion was paid to 378,377 beneficiaries of Social
Security Organisation (SOCSO) including to the construction workers [5].
One of the ways for the construction industry to address the economic
burdens caused by accident is to take steps to reduce construction accidents.
By correctly measuring the cost of accident and providing the most specific
variables that really needed to be in the calculations as detailed as possible,
it might greatly increase the awareness of accident costs on the construction
project and, in turn, decreases the number of accident.
2. Problem and Issues

1186
In Malaysia, the construction of high-speed rail or also known as rail

infrastructure project was started operations since 2002 for Light Rapid
Transport (LRT) and Kuala Lumpur (KL) Monorail services. This
construction has been managed by Syarikat Prasarana Negara Berhad,
which focuses on major public transport infrastructure projects in Malaysia.
This project is expanding all over the time to enhance and integrate the
urban public transportation services; one of the National Key Result Areas,
which is a priority under the Government Transformation Program.
Through the rapid construction of this project, serious injuries and damages
to properties of this project sites have occurred every year.
These issues have also been concern by the Institution of Engineers
Malaysia (IEM) through the press statement on 1 st July 2014. In view of
these incidents, IEM considers it important to highlight the need to observe
strict safety procedures in construction work especially in on-going
construction sites located adjacent to public access areas.
Not only are the construction injuries caused a great humanitarian
concern, but also high cost associated with injury or death is a motivation
for a more sustaining safety performance in the construction industry.
Minimal research and knowledge exist on applying the concept of
sustainability to construction safety and health. Occupational safety and
health issues are a part of the social dimension in sustainability agendas. No
entity that presides over avoidable workplace deaths, injuries or illnesses
can ever claim to be sustainable [6].
In Malaysia, SHASSIC was developed by a Technical Committee
comprises of industry stakeholders and only focused on safety performance
assessment but disregard the evaluation of cost in the safety elements. The
concept of sustainability to construction is not concerned with improving
the environment only but it should be covered in social and economy
development in construction industry as well as to increase the quality of
life for construction stakeholders. Hence, this study is an attempt to fill the
gap by developing a tool for safety costing to balance safety performance
and cost requirement. New sustainable safety cost model in construction
project will be developed in order to improve the existence calculation
models for better quality of life in construction project.
3. Sustainable Safety and Health in Construction Industry
In construction sector, the concept of sustainable development is considered

the foundation upon which future business initiatives should be built. As a
1187
key sector from an economic standpoint, the construction sector should

therefore lead these transformations [7] in all areas that are considered
critical. In its early days, sustainable development was related to
environmental aspects. Currently, sustainable development requires the
simultaneous development of four interrelated dimensions [8, 9, 10], which
are economy, social, environment and technology.
Figure 1: Principals of sustainable construction [13].
A construction project is considered to be sustainable only when

all the basic principles of sustainability are compatible with each other [11].
[12] during the First International Conference on Sustainable Construction
held in Florida, USA, have defined sustainable construction as “creating a
healthy built environment using resource-efficient, ecologically based
1188
principles”. Sustainable construction is still too often equated with “green

building.” However, sustainability principal is based not only on the pillar
of environmental but also on economic and social pillars (Figure 1). A
valuable sustainable construction project requires extra work, extra
expense, and extra costs. It requires decision makers to be more flexible and
willing to modify their approaches to achieve sustainable construction.
The safety and health of construction workers play a major role in
achieving sustainable socioeconomic development of the workers in the
industry. The sustainable safety and health concept, which consider the
social and economic well-being of the construction workers, is a new
approach to boosting the safety and health performance of construction
workers. The sustainable safety and health concepts aims to sustain the
construction workers’ safety and health from the beginning until the
completion of a project; for each future project the workers involved in and
during remaining life time after retirement [6].
4. Safety Cost Significance in Construction Project
Based on the review of several researches on the types of safety costs, a set
of items of safety costs in the construction project was identified. Table 1
shows the summary of safety cost items which is divided into three types:
direct costs, indirect costs and extraordinary costs. All these cost items,
which also take into account the client’s budget, are required in the
construction project. The variables related to the direct cost will be used for
preventive costs in safety management and the company will also ensure
the indirect costs, will be taken into account during the construction phase.
Although many studies have shown that the indirect accident costs are
significant, there is no generally accepted ratio between direct and indirect
costs of accidents.
There are a few different definitions exist for indirect cost (uninsured cost),
but in general they are regarded as consisting of all the cost items that are
not covered by the worker’s compensation insurance. The uninsured costs
of accidents comprise the several components such as loss due to injured
person/worker, loss due to the inefficiency of the worker who just recovered
from injury upon resuming work, loss due to medical expenses, loss due to
fines and legal expenses, loss of productivity of other employees, loss due
to damaged equipment or plant, loss due to damaged material or finished
work and loss due to idle machinery or equipment. While for extraordinary
cost, only one researcher mentioned about this cost that involved in the
1189
construction industry. Although this cost is rarely happened, but the

allocation for this item is significant to minimize the financial losses
incurred by contractors.
Table 1: Summary of safety cost items

Safety Cost Item
Study Extraordinary
Direct Cost Indirect Cost
Cost
Incurred to ensure health and  Tangible costs – cost associated Also known as
[14] safety at the workplace. with the occurrence of accidents uncontrollable
Divided into two: which can be estimated costs – natural
 Prevention costs  Intangible costs – costs are not disasters
 Evaluation and measurable (impaired company
monitoring costs image, low worker morale, labour
disputes or loss of market).
Insurance costs Accident costs -
[15]  Insurance contribution  Time lost by the injured worker
payments  Time lost by other workers because
Prevention costs of the accident
 Individual protection  Costs of materials
elements  Hospital transfer expenses
 Collective protection (ambulance or other vehicle)
elements  Accident management
 Safety and control systems  Investigation of the accident
for machinery and  Recovery of production
equipment costs  Substitution of injured worker
 Company medical service  Loss of business
and first aid supplies  Loss of commercial image
 Prevention service (of the  Labor conflicts
company itself or another
 service provider)
Recovery costs
 Recovery of insurance
contribution payments
-  Lost productivity due to the injured -
[16] worker
 Lost productivity due to crew of
injured worker
 Lost productivity due to other
workers in vicinity of accidents
 Losses due to replacement of the
injured worker
 Lost productivity due to
investigation or inspections as a
result of the injury
 Cost of supervisory or staff effort
1190
 Losses due to damaged equipment

or plant, property, material or
finished work due to the accident
 Cost of transporting injured worker
 Consumption of first-aid materials
in this accident
 Additional work required as a
result of the accident (e.g.
cleaning, additional barriers and so
on)
 Fines and legal expenses
 Losses due to Stop Work Orders
(SWO) issued to the project
(disruption of schedules)
 Additional benefits to the injured
worker beyond the Work
Compensation Act (WCA)
5. Methodology
Based on literature review, instruments with a qualitative approach are used

to identify sustainable safety elements and safety cost items. Variables for
safety elements and safety cost items are validated through semi-structured
interview technique, which conducted with safety and health officer. The
need of inputs from safety and health officer is to obtain suitability of the
variables for sustainable safety elements and safety cost items. The
transcription and interpretation from the interview findings is carry out
using Atlas.ti, the qualitative software as an aid for findings discussion. As
the interview for this research is currently still ongoing, hence, this paper
discusses the findings of literature.
6. Conclusion
This paper anticipates reviewing of sustainable safety in construction

industry. The sustainable safety adds up to basic environment, social and
economy in achieving better living. This paper also synthesizes the types of
safety cost items involved in construction project which is divided into
three; direct costs, indirect costs and extraordinary costs. A significant
development of Sustainable Construction Safety Cost Model (SuCSCost) is
an essential aspect in creating positive impact on safety and accident cost
issues. The proposed model could improve the implementations of the
1191
safety and accident cost calculation in gearing towards enhancing quality of

life in construction industry.
7. Acknowledgement
The authors gratefully acknowledge the Centre of Postgraduate Studies,

Universiti Teknologi MARA, Seri Iskandar Campus, Seri Iskandar to
support this research study. The research study described in this paper is
also supported by Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS) under the
Malaysian Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE). Project code:
FRGS/1/2016/SSI11/UITM/03/1. Special gratitude is also given to those
industrial practitioners for their kind cooperation and generous
contributions for the development of this research.
References
[1] United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Census of fatal and non-fatal
injuries,” Washington, DC: US Census Bureau, (2015).
[2] J. A. Gambatese, S. Rajendran and M. G. Behm, “Building Toward
Sustainable Safety and Health,”.
[3] N. Abd Rahman and Z. M. J., InCIEC 2014 International Civil and
Infrastructure Engineering Conference 28 Sept-1 Oct 2014, Kota
Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia, (2014).
[4] R. Jallon, R. Imbeau, D. and N. De Marcellis-Warin, “Development
of an indirect-cost calculation model suitable for workplace use,”
Journal of Safety Research 42 (3), 149 – 164 (2011).
[5] DOSH, “DOSH Report: Cost of Accident in Construction Industry
(OSH Calculator)”, Retrieved from http://www.oshacc.dosh.gov.my
(2015).
[6] S. Rajendran and J. A. Gambatese, “Development and Initial
Validation of Sustainable Construction Safety and Health Rating
System,” Journal of Construction Engineering and Management 135
(10), 1067-1075 (2009).
[7] R. C. Hill and P. Bowen, “Sustainable construction: principles and a
framework for attainment”, Construction Management and
Economics 15 (3), 223–239 (1997).
[8] O. Pons and A. Aguado, “Integrated value model for sustainable
assessment applied to technologies used to build schools in Catalonia,
Spain,” Building and Environment 53, 49–58 (2012).
1192
[9] O. Teriö and K. Kähkönen, “Developing and implementing

environmental management systems for small and medium-sized
construction enterprises,” Construction Management and Economics
29 (12), 1183–1195 (2011).
[10] U. G. Y. Abeysundara and S. Babel, “A quest for sustainable materials
for building elements in Sri Lanka: foundations,” Environmental
Progress and Sustainable Energy 29 (3), 370–381 (2010).
[11] Mateus, Ricardo, Bragança and Luís, “Sustainability assessment and
rating of buildings: Developing the methodology SBToolPTeH,”
Building and Environment 46, 1962-1971 (2011).
[12] C. J. Kibert, Final session of first international conference of CIB TG
16 on sustainable construction. In Book final session of first
international conference of CIB TG 16 on sustainable construction,
(1994).
[13] J. M. Hussin, I. A. Rahman and A. H. Memon, “The Way Forward in
Sustainable Construction: Issues and Challenges,” International
Journal of Advances in Applied Sciences 2 (1), 15-24 (2013).
[14] M. López-Alonso, et al., “The impact of health and safety investment
on construction company costs,” Safety Science 60, 151–159 (2013).
[15] E. Pellicer, et al., “A method to estimate occupational health and
safety costs in construction projects,” KSCE Journal of Civil
Engineering 18 (7), 1955–1965 (2014).
[16] Y. Feng, S. Zhang and P. Wu, “Factors influencing workplace accident
costs of building projects,” Safety Science 72, 97–104 (2015).
1193
T02_039: PROFITABILITY, MARKET

INCENTIVE AND AUDIT QUALITY OF
FINANCIAL MISSTATEMENTS: EVIDENCE
FROM MALAYSIAN PUBLIC LISTED
COMPANIES (PLCS)
Alfiatul Rohmah Mohamed Hussaina*, Suhaily Hasnanb
and Zuraidah Mohd Sanusic
a
PhD candidate, Faculty of Accountancy, Universiti
Teknologi MARA (UiTM)
b
Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Accountancy, UiTM
c
Fellow of Accounting Research Institute (ARI), UiTM
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study is to examine whether there is mean difference in
profitability (Profit), market incentive (EPrice) and audit quality (AudQ)
variables between restatement and non-restatement firms in Malaysia. The
sample comprises of 285 public listed companies on the Main Board of
Bursa Malaysia for the years between 2005 and 2013. A descriptive
statistics analysis is performed to differentiate the characteristics of
restatement and non-restatement firms. The study finds significant
difference between restatement and non-restatement firms in the
profitability and market incentive variables. The results show that
restatement firms reported higher profit than non-restatement firms in the
year prior to the restatement year. And, restatement firms have higher
earnings-to-price ratio (proxy for market incentive) relative to the non-
restatement firms that are matched by total assets, but lower than non-
restatement firms which not matched by total assets. This indicates that
restatement firms are able to maintain high growth expectations embedded
in the firm’s share price. The study finds no significant difference in audit
quality between misstatement and non-misstatement firms. The comparable
audit fees between restatement and non-restatement firms indicate that the
external auditors of restatement firms failed to appropriately assess the
audit risk of these firms.
Keywords: Profitability; Market Incentives; Audit Quality; Financial
Misstatements; Financial Restatements.
Introduction
1194
The International Federation of Accountants (IFAC) provides a formal

definition for “misstatement”, which refer as “A difference between the
amount, classification, presentation or disclosure of a reported financial
statement item and the amount, classification, presentation or disclosure
that is required for the item to be in accordance with the applicable
financial reporting framework” (IFAC, December 2009: 370). Ettredge,
Scholz, Smith, & Sun (2010) and Dechow, Ge, Larson, & Sloan (2011)
viewed misstatement as the manipulation or falsification of financial
statements disclosure, which have been conducted beyond the established
accounting framework.
The terms “misstatement” and “restatement” are used
interchangeably in the research of accounting issues (i.e. Palmrose,
Richardson, & Scholz, 2004; Abdullah, Yusof, & Nor, 2010; Rotenstein,
2011). This is because, subsequent to the detection of financial
misstatements, firms need to prepare financial restatements in order to
revise the misstated financial statements. This is consistent with the
statement by Richardson, Tuna & Wu (2003), who emphasize that “…it is
reasonable to assume that earnings restatement firms can be characterized
as firms who knowingly and intentionally engage in earnings
manipulation”. Generally, scholars view financial restatement as the
process of altering the misstatements, both error and irregularity, in the
previously issued financial statement (Palmrose et al., 2004; Abdullah et al.,
2010).
The issue of financial misstatement has been debated for decades,
but still remains as a global concern to date. In the United States (U.S.), the
cumulative totals of financial restatement in year 2011 increased to 6,436
cases compared to 1,390 cases in the year 2005. Further, the 6,436
restatement cases were reported by only 4,536 firms (GAO, 2013), which
indicates that there are firms who restate their financial statement more than
once. Thus, financial misstatement is seen as imminent threat in the
financial reporting process. And, this issues has raised questions about the
credibility of accounting practices and the quality of corporate financial
disclosure and oversight, in protecting the reliability of financial statements
from misstatements (Abdullah et al., 2010).
In Malaysia, although the scale is small compared to other global
cases, the corporate landscape is scattered with several bad accounting
scandals (i.e. Transmile Group Berhad, Megan Media Holdings Berhad,
MEMS Technology Bhd.). According to Rotenstein (2011), although
fraudulent activity could lead to the need for restatement, financial
restatements do not necessarily involve fraud and thus represent a broader
1195
scope of firms. However, non-fraud misstatement is often an indicator for a

more severe type of financial misstatements, called as fraudulent financial
reporting. This is further supported by Hasnan, Rahman, & Mahenthiran
(2013), who found that prior violations that are not necessarily involved
fraud, is indeed, a strong predictor of fraudulent financial reporting in
Malaysia. Thus, it is important to investigate the root cause for such failure
to occur. This motivates current study to look on the issue of financial
misstatements, proxy by the occurrence of financial restatement, in
Malaysia.
Although there are cases of understatement of financial statement,
such as tax-related restatements, prior studies reveal that most financial
restatement involved overstatement, which intended to maintain investors’
expectation and analysts’ prediction, and to maintain or increase firm’s
share price (Abdul Hamid, Shafie, Othman, Wan Hussin, & Fadzil, 2013).
In order to meet such objectives, firms overstate income by overstating
revenues, assets and profits, or, understating expenses, liabilities and losses
(Dechow et al., 2011; Dalnial, Kamaluddin, Sanusi, & Khairuddin, 2014).
And, poor monitoring from the external force provide greater opportunity
for financial misstatement to take place (Abdullah et al., 2010; Hasnan et
al., 2013). Thus, this study attempt to examine whether there is a significant
difference in mean for profitability, market incentive and audit quality
variables between restatement and non-restatement firms.
The organization of the paper is as follows. Section 2 describes
hypotheses development, followed by Section 3 which discusses the
research methodology in the study. The subsequent section discusses the
results of the study, and the paper is concluded in Section 5.
Hypotheses Development
Firm Profitability and Financial Statement Restatements

Kinney & McDaniel (1989) found that less profitable firms with slower
growth are more likely to misstate their financial statements. Such argument
is further supported by Desai, Hogan, & Wilkins (2006), who found poor
financial performance as the main cause for corporate offences in the U.S.
The rationale behind this argument is that, higher pressure has forced the
poorly perform firms to misstate financial statement in order to improve the
appearance of the firm’s financial condition (Spathis, 2002).
However, Richardson et al. (2003) and Dechow et al. (2011) posit
that misstatements are commonly engaged by large and high growth firms
which motivated to conceal their actual downturn. As profitability normally
1196
referred to make economic decision, firms tend to manipulate their financial

statement so as to achieve particular earnings targets, which lead to higher
financial misstatements.
Although there are conflicting argument on the profitability level
of restatement firms, generally, scholars agree that firm profitability is an
indicator of erroneous financial statements. Highly focus on firm
profitability can create pressure that lead firms to manipulate financial
statements in order to achieve the targeted profits or to conceal the downturn
financial performance. Thus, the study hypothesized that:
H1: There is significant difference in mean value of profit between
restatement and non-restatement firms.
Market Incentive and Financial Statement Restatements

Besides the profitability, focusing on maintaining or increasing firm’s share
price is also found to be an indicator of financial misstatements. Trueman
& Titman (1988), Chi & Gupta (2009) and Weske (2013) provide evidence
that higher share price is associated with financial misstatements and
fraudulent financial reporting.
And, according to Weske (2013), firms tend to manipulate
financial statements to avoid negative consequences from the decreases of
the share price. Thus, the efficient market hypothesis suggests that public
and private corporate information are included in their share price. The
share price is predicted to reflect the occurrence of fraud, prior to its
announcement. Hence, abnormal share price changes are expected to trigger
the management motives to manipulate financial statements.
Further, Chi & Gupta (2009) found that abnormally higher share
price is induced by income increasing earnings management. This indicates
that financial statement is inflated for the purpose of increasing firm’s share
price.
And, Dechow et al. (2011) added that misstating firms are in the
need for financing in the year prior to misstatement and tend to make equity
issuance in the manipulation year. This strengthens the view that firms
misstate financial statements for the purpose of obtaining external financing
at the favorable price. Thus, firms are under greatest pressure to misstate
financial statements. It is hypothesized that:
H2: There is significant difference in mean value of market incentive, proxy
by earnings-to-price ratio, between restatement and non-restatement firms.
Audit Quality and Financial Statement Restatements

1197
The agency theory recognizes auditing as one of the main governance to

regulate conflict of interest and as a means of reducing agency costs
(Adeyemi & Fagbemi, 2010). Only high audit quality can discover
misstatements in financial reporting. Thus, prior studies agree that the audit
of financial statement is a mechanism that assists in reducing information
asymmetry and also to protect the interest of stakeholders, especially the
shareholders, by providing reasonable assurance that the financial
statements prepared by management are free from material misstatements
(Watts & Zimmerman, 1990; Adeyemi & Fagbemi, 2010).
Che Haat, Rahman, & Mahenthiran (2008) and Hasnan et al.
(2013) stated that, amongst others, the use of audit fees provide more robust
result compared to the use of a dummy variable to measure audit quality. It
is argued that audit fees reflect the magnitude of audit effort, and higher
audit fees are expected to indicate more audit work, which contributes to
higher audit quality. Keune & Johnstone (2012) put forward that auditors
are less likely to let managers waive qualitative and quantitative material
misstatements as audit fees increase.
However, merely expecting lower audit fees for restatement firms
is inappropriate since these firms may also incur higher audit fees as a result
of greater audit efforts and audit works due to high audit risks. Hence,
current study hypothesized that:
H3: There is significant difference in mean value of audit quality, measured
using ratio of audit fees to total assets, between restatement and non-
restatement firms.
Sample Formation
The sample comprises of the public listed companies on the Main Board of
Bursa Malaysia for the years between 2005 and 2013. The objective of
sample formation is to construct a comprehensive database of financial
misstatements in Malaysia. In this study, financial restatement is used as a
proxy for the financial misstatement.
Following prior research that studied financial restatement (i.e.
Abdullah et al., 2010), the sample in this study was selected based on the
GAO financial restatement category description. A total of 97 restatement
firms that meet the selection criteria included in the study. The selection
criteria is based on the step introduced by Abdullah et al. (2010), in which
the keywords of "restate", "restated", "restatements" and "prior adjustment"
are searched in each of the annual reports to find the incidents of financial
1198
restatements. The final sample for this study is 285 companies that consist
of 97 restatement firms 97 non-restatement firms which matched by total
assets and 91 non-restatement firms which not matched by total assets.
According to Abdullah et al. (2010), “Companies from a certain
industry may be more prone to restate their accounts.”, and in their study,
they found that almost half of the Malaysian PLCs restatements were
classified under trading and services. Hence, industry effects are controlled
for, by matching the control firms with the experimental firms based on the
type of industry. Table 1 provides the classification of sample firms. The
categorization of firms is based on Bursa Malaysia industrial sector
classification which includes industrial product, consumer product,
plantation, property, construction, trading and services, hotel and
technology. Consistent with Abdullah et al. (2010), trading and services is
found to be the highest contributor for financial restatements, followed by
industrial products and consumer products.
Table 1: The Breakdown of 285 Sample Firms according to Bursa Malaysia’s

Industrial Sector Classification
Sector Restatement Non- Total Percentage
Restatement
Industrial Products 20 40 60 21.05
Consumer Products 18 32 50 17.54
Plantation 5 10 15 5.26
Property 12 24 36 12.63
Construction 10 21 31 10.88
Trading & Services 30 57 87 30.53
Hotel 1 2 3 1.05
Technology 1 2 3 1.05
Total 97 188 285 100
Variable Measurement
With regard to the profitability variable, the study uses the firm’s net income
for the year prior to the restatement year. Such measurement is consistent
with Kinney & McDaniel (1989) who examine the characteristics of
restatement firms in the U.S. They posit that net income can directly reflect
the financial characteristics of sample firms relative to their industries.
Following Dechow et al. (2011), current study measure market
incentive variable using earnings-to-price ratio which represent managers
optimistic expectations that embedded in their stock price. The equation for
earnings-to-price ratio is as follows:
1199
Earnings-to-Price = Earnings
(OSC x MP)
Where:
OSC : Ordinary Share Capital Outstanding
MP : Market Price per Share
Since current study predict that stock price of restatement firms are
higher as compared to the non-restatement firms, lower earnings-to-price
ratio is expected for restatement firms than non-restatement firms.
With respect of the audit quality variable, Blankley, Hurtt, &
MacGregor (2012), Keune & Johnstone (2012) and Lobo & Zhao (2013)
agree that audit fees reflect the magnitude of audit effort, in which, higher
audit fees are expected to indicate greater audit work that contribute to
better audit quality. And, consistent with Che Haat et al. (2008) and Hasnan
et al. (2013), the study measure audit quality by the ratio of audit fees to
total assets. Che Haat et al. (2008) and Hasnan et al. (2013) state that the
use of audit fees provide more robust result compared to the use of dummy
variable for audit firm size and Big4 vs non-Big4 firms. It is argued that
audit fees reflect the magnitude of audit effort, and higher audit fees are
expected to indicate more audit work, which contributes to higher audit
quality.
Empirical Evidence and Discussions

Table 2 illustrates the descriptive statistics analysis of restatement and non-
restatement firms (both matched and not matched by total assets) for
profitability, market incentive and audit quality variables in the year prior
to the restatement year. Since the variables are all continuous data, the study
provide t-test of differences between restatement and non-restatement
firms.
As reported in Table 2, it appears that on average, the profit of
restatement firms is significantly higher than non-restatement firms, both
matched and not matched by total assets, thus, supporting hypothesis H1.
The significant level of t-test is much higher between restatement and non-
restatement that are matched by total assets, which is significant at five per
cent level of significance compared to 10 per cent level of significance
between restatement and non-restatement firms not matched by total assets.
The results is consistent with Richardson et al. (2003) and Dechow et al.
(2011), who posit that restatement firms have higher profit than non-
restatement firms, probably due to the aggressive earnings management,
which aim to report higher than expectations.
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Table 2 also depicts significant difference in terms of market

incentive, measured using earnings-to-price ratio, between restatement and
non-restatement firms matched by total assets as well as between
restatement and non-restatement not matched by total assets. Thus,
hypothesis H2 is supported.
Interestingly, the mean variance is not consistent between non-
restatement firms matched by total assets and non-restatement firms not
matched by total assets. Restatement firms reported significantly higher and
positive earnings-to-price as compared to the non-restatement firms
matched by total assets (at 10 per cent level of significance), but,
statistically significant lower earnings-to-price than non-restatement firms
not matched by total assets (at 10 per cent level of significance).
As earnings-to-price is calculated by dividing earnings to the
market price of ordinary share outstanding, the positive and higher
earnings-to-price reported by restatement firms indicate that earnings of
restatement firms is higher relative to the market price, particularly within
the similar size firms. This is further supported by the mean difference for
profit variable between restatement and non-restatement firms matched by
total assets, which is significant at five per cent level. However,
significantly lower earnings-to-price ratio reported by restatement firms
seems not to support such argument. The contradict findings is however,
consistent with Dechow et al. (2011), which found that restatement firms
have extremely lower earnings-to-price ratio as compared to the non-
restatement firms. And, the inconsistent results between non-restatement
firms matched by total assets and non-restatement firms not matched by
total assets could be due the circumstances that earnings of restatement
firms are inflated by aggressive earnings management in the year prior to
the restatement year and embedded in the firm’s share price (Dechow et al.,
2011). Thus, results higher (lower) earnings-to-price ratio as compared to
non-restatement firms within the similar (different) size
With regards to the audit quality variable, measured by ratio of
audit fees to total assets, no statistical difference is found between
restatement and non-restatement firms, both matched and not matched by
total assets. This suggests that the audit fee for restatement firms is almost
equivalent to that incurred by the non-restatement firms. Thus, there is no
support for hypothesis H3. As depicted in Table 2, the mean value of audit
fees of restatement firms is comparable to the non-restatement firms,
suggesting that the external auditor of restatement firms failed to properly
assess the audit risk associated with these firms, which could be one of the
reasons for the financial restatement to occur.
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Table 2: Descriptive Statistics Comparing Mean Value of Restatement and Non-

Restatement Firms
Restatement Non-Restatement matched Non-Restatement not
by Total Assets matched by Total Assets
Mean Mean T-test Mean T-test
Profit 2.285b 38.508m 1.000** 47.430m 0.997*
EPrice 0.0021 -0.0026 0.023* 0.0581 -0.273*
AudQ 0.000482 0.000482 0.000 0.000436 0.730
* and ** denote significance at 10 percent and 5 percent levels respectively.
Conclusions
The study identify the significant difference between restatement and non-
restatement firms of Malaysian PLCs between 2005 and 2013 on
profitability, market incentive and audit quality. With regards to the
objective and hypotheses of the study, independent t-test analysis found that
there is statistical significant difference in mean for profitability variable
between restatement and non-restatement firms, both matched and not
matched by total assets. Consistent with Richardson et al. (2003) and
Dechow et al. (2011), finding indicates that most misstatement are
committed by large firms. Such finding suggests that restatement firms
reported higher profit than their counterpart. Hence, the study concludes
that these firms involve in misstatement to report favorable figures so as to
avoid from the negative effect of reporting their actual downturn. The ever
increasing market expectation creates pressure to these firms to improve or
at least maintain their performance.
In addition, the study also find significant difference in mean value
for market incentive variable, measured by earnings-to-price ratio, between
restatement and non-restatement firms matched by total assets as well as
non-restatement firms not matched by total assets. The study expects lower
earnings-to-price ratio for restatement firms than non-restatement firms.
Consistent with the expectation, the mean value of earnings-to-price ratio
of restatement firms is significantly lower as compared to the non-
restatement firms. Interestingly, restatement firms reported a significantly
lower and more positive mean value as compared to the non-restatement
firms. Such finding suggests that restatement firms reported significantly
higher earnings and share price than non-restatement firms. The negative
mean value reported by non-restatement firms matched by total assets
indicates that these firms have lower earnings as compared to non-
restatement firms. And, the positive and higher mean value reported by non-
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restatement firms not matched by total assets specifies that these firms have
lower share price than restatement firms.
However, there is no statistically significant difference in mean for
audit quality variable, measured by ratio of audit fees to total assets,
between restatement and both non-restatement firms matched by total assets
and not matched by total assets. As restatement firms usually require
tougher audit work, the study predicts significant difference in the mean
value of audit fees between restatement and non-restatement firms.
Nonetheless, the finding suggests that audit fees of restatement firms are
slightly similar to the non-restatement firms. Such finding suggests that the
audit quality of restatement firms is lower than it should be. And, this
circumstance could be one of the reasons for the misstatement to occur.
Thus, hypotheses H1 and H2 are accepted and hypothesis H3 is
rejected. Overall, the findings of the study help to establish a starting point
to empirically explore the issue of financial misstatements in Malaysia. This
study provides a useful insight that may be beneficial to the users of
financial statements, particularly investors, to assess financial
misstatements through available information. In addition, the findings may
be used to explain the possible manipulation activities of financial statement
(i.e. market incentive). The findings also offer opportunities for future
studies to explore other potential factors that can add value to the financial
restatements research. Indeed, the findings could be useful for the external
auditor to objectively perform audit procedures and appropriately assess
audit risk of each firm in order to mitigate the occurrence of financial
misstatements.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by MyPhD provided by the Ministry of Higher
Education (MOHE) of Malaysia. The authors also would like to thank
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam Campus, Selangor, Malaysia for
providing this opportunity.
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and Social Science, 4(13), 179–186.
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T02_040: THE CONCEPTUAL STUDY ON THE

UNDERSTANDING OF ENVIRONMENT
SUSTAINABLE PRACTICE IN MODERN ZOO
1
Izanorashakila Yusof and 2Nor Hanisah Mohd Hashim
1
Institute of Graduate Studies,
2
Centre of Studies for Park and Amenity Management,
ABSTRACT
Sustainability has become a national issue locally and globally it’s facing
the danger of climate change and loss of biodiversity. Therefore
sustainability practices are increasingly important as the need to
correspond to the impact of development as localized and regionalized as
zoos. Zoo is a place whereby animal that are rarely found in the wild are
contained and conserved in a specific and guarded area. Thus, the aim of
this research is to enhance and improve environmental sustainability
practices in Malaysia Zoos besides to explore the gap of the sustainable
practice and implementation in the zoo. The objectives of this research are
to identify level of awareness and understanding of sustainable practice, to
determine the level of implementation of sustainability in current practice
and to evaluate the best sustainable practice at zoo that can beneficial in
terms of expenses, environmental impact, and effort of implementation.
Thus, the finding will be able to find out the existing gaps and illustrate the
strategies in developing awareness and understanding as well as benefit of
implementation in Malaysia zoos. Additionally, this research gives
understandings into questions of the level of awareness among zoos
operator regarding the sustainability practices.
Keywords: sustainability, environment, awareness, Malaysia zoo
operator, environmental impacts
Introduction
World Commission on Environment and Development defined
sustainability as a meeting the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Sustainability is
about seeing and recognizing the dynamic, cyclical and interdependent
1206
nature of all the parts and pieces of life on earth, from the soil under our feet
to the whole planet we call home, from the interactions of humans with their
habitats and each other to the invisible chemical cycles that have been
redistributing water, oxygen, carbon and nitrogen for million years [1].
Future's Sustainable Wealth London project [2] stated that the
essence of sustainable development is about five key principles, (1) quality
of life, (2) fairness and equity, (3) participation and partnership, (4) care for
our environment and (5) respect for ecological constraints, recognising
there are 'environmental limits' and thought for the future and the
precautionary principle. In built environment, there is a strong tie between
sustainability practices and physical developments inevitably are key
factors in achieving sustainability goals. The connection is a key factor in
minimising the negative impact of development. However, participation by
government and private sector is really important to achieve and generate
the sustainable development. In order to provide manageable scope to the
research described in this paper, zoos were chosen as a focus as these will
provide leadership for others in sustainable practice. Zoos can set an
example to the community by influencing the way forward to enhance the
sustainable development agenda through their role as education, research,
conservation and recreation centre.
According to the World Association of Zoos and Aquariums
(WAZA) [3], zoos as conservation institutions should react to omnipresent
destruction of habitat and the reduction of biodiversity of flora and fauna.
Zoos are predestined to communicate to a large number of people because
of its egalitarian appeal and by educating the visitors, zoos are able to
inspire as well as encourage them to take action and to integrate
sustainability into their lifestyles, making a serious contribution to a
sustainable future [4] and to act exemplarily by integrating sustainability
into their policies, strategies and management.
In 2005 WAZA published the World Zoo and Aquarium
Conservation Strategy [5] (WZACS) which comprises of definition of
standards and policies to achieve the conservation goals, including a chapter
on sustainability which seeks to stimulate zoos and aquarium member
worldwide to work towards sustainability, for instance, by reducing their
environmental footprint, using green practices or demonstrating methods
for visitors to adopt sustainable lifestyles.
The United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development
(UNSD) which took place in Brazil celebrated its 20 th Anniversary of 1992
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de
Janeiro and 10th Anniversary of 2002 world Summit of Sustainable
1207
Development in Johannesburg. All countries leader gathered here to

formulate measures in reducing poverty and discuss means to operationalize
sustainable development. The preparations for Rio+20 have highlighted
seven areas which need priority attention; these include decent jobs, energy,
sustainable cities, food security and sustainable agriculture, water, oceans
and disaster readiness. Twenty years after the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio,
where countries adopted Agenda 21 - a blueprint to rethink economic
growth, advance social equity and ensure environmental protection - the UN
is again bringing together governments, international institutions and major
groups to agree on a range of smart measures that can reduce poverty while
promoting decent jobs, clean energy and a more sustainable and fair use of
resources. It is also an historic opportunity to define pathways to a safer,
more equitable, cleaner, greener and more prosperous world for all. [6].
In 2015,The 2030 Agenda calls for ambitious, universal and
transformative action over the next fifteen years, focusing on our shared
planet, its people, and their prosperity, peace and partnership. They
particularly welcome the pledge made by Member States that no one will
be left behind, by realizing the human rights and sustainable development
of all and achieving gender equality. This Agenda is a plan of action for
people, planet and prosperity. It also seeks to strengthen universal peace in
larger freedom, The Agenda 2030 recognize that eradicating poverty in all
its forms and dimensions including extreme poverty are the greatest global
challenge and an indispensable requirement for sustainable development.
[7]
Whilst in Malaysia, the sustainable development has always been
given special consideration in Malaysia’s National Development Policies.
The commitment towards sustainable development is clearly put in its
Second Outline Plan (1991-2000) [8]. Malaysia also incorporated the
principal of Agenda 2030 as one of the important sustainable
development documents in its planning process. Malaysia such as many
other developing countries faces conflict between economic growth and
conservation of environment .
However, it has recognized the concept of sustainable
development and has embedded this concept in its policies, vision, mission,
and plans. Malaysia also promotes the sustainable initiatives for the
development. Eleventh Malaysia Plan is a planning blueprint of Malaysia,
which approves by the Malaysia government from the year 2015 to 2020.
As stated in Eleventh Malaysia Plan [9], 4th strategy thrust pursuing green
growth for sustainability and resilience which focusing on:
i. Strengthening the enabling environment for green growth
1208
ii. Adopting the sustainability consumption and production

concept
iii. Conserving natural resources for present and future
generations
iv. Strengthening resilience against climate change and
natural disaster
Therefore, a reinforced commitment to green growth will ensure

that Malaysia’s precious environment and natural endowment are conserved
and protected for present and future generations. Malaysia’s wealth of
natural resources has been indispensable to its economic growth, but this
growth has come at significant human and environmental cost. Even though
the Southeast Asian nation met all eight of the UN’s Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) before the 2015 deadline, Prime Minister
Dato’ Seri Mohd. Najib Tun Abdul Razak admitted that the MDGs “fell
short” of achieving truly sustainable development. With the arrival of the
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), comprising 17 environmental,
economic, and social objectives, Malaysia has made several official
commitments to sustainable development. It has pledged a 40 percent
reduction in carbon emissions per unit of gross domestic product by 2020,
while reiterating its commitment at the Rio Summit in 1992 to keep at least
50 percent of the nation’s landmass under forest cover. Building on its
reputation as an exporter of solar products, Malaysia also aspires to become
the hub of green technology in Southeast Asia. It is leading the
manufacturing and marketing of electric vehicles in the region [10].
Developing countries like Malaysia faces difficulty between two
conflicting objectives. One on hand, it aims to achieve the status of
developed country and on the other hand, Malaysia has the bigger role in
conserving its natural resources to mitigate the global warming effects as
well as to ensure sustainable development. To date Malaysia has
developed a series of policies with sustainability strategies like the
National Urbanization Policy; and introduced concept like Integrated
Water Resources Management (IWRM) or Integrated Solid Waste
Management (ISWM). In the coming decades, there will be an emphasis on
the whole earth ecosystem, zoo will be in a position to inform, encourage
and work with governments and legislators in this broad context.
Zoo and Sustainability

As stated [11] more than 700 million visited 1300 registered zoos and
aquariums each year in worldwide. According to World Association of
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Zoos and Aquariums [12] zoos are seen as unique places to educate people
with different background on conservation and other related issues on
environment.
Sustainability has become an essential public issue where the
concern on climate change and loss of biodiversity are tantamount. Zoos as
an environmental organisations and leaders in conservation have a
sustainable responsibility and could contribute to stem climate change and
the exploitation of resources by reducing their environmental impact. Like
many organizations and business, zoo also facing the changing of economy,
increased the sensitivity to environmental conditions where it comes to the
need of providing a stable working environment and retaining good
employees without jeopardizing the value of product and services to its
customers. Thus, economic sustainability is the thrust promoting natural
adventures and conservation.
‘Sustainable zoo’ is about educating the people on conservation,
education and sustainability stewardship [13]. A few years ago, the zoo
recognized the emerging trend towards sustainability and could foresee
what benefits it offered for the new zoo. Preservation of animal species,
their environmental role and habits are inherent goal of many zoos. Having
the two throng functions of preserving the animals natural habitat as well as
withstand the conventional function as entertainment place, with the
assistance of WAZA Conservation and Sustainability Strategy most of
modern zoos demonstrate sustainability by adopting sustainable lifestyles.
However, due to financial and under staffing the aim in achieving
sustainable modern zoos are to no avail.
Zoos are recognized as a role model and play a vital part in the
development of societies. Previous researches show that there are about 1
million wild animals live in the 10,000-12,000 zoos worldwide. These
include zoological parks, biological parks, safari parks, public aquariums,
bird parks, reptile parks and insectariums. Zoo could attract visitors from
near and far especially for tourists’ attraction. Zoo management also
involves in many aspects from capturing animals from the wild to
exchanging them with other zoos. Research shows that zoos have faced
criticism throughout their history. Public pressure has caused them to
develop towards more naturalistic enclosures. There has been an increase in
news related to poor animal welfare in zoos as well as poor facility
maintenance. Increase in misconduct of animals’ welfare triggered the
interest from the NGOs and other government agencies to involve actively
in the welfare of the animals.
1210
Zoos in Malaysia were built to fulfil people interest in animal

habitat and behaviour. This is the place where people spent time with their
family. Most of the visitors’ claimed that zoo as an ideal place for family
recreation. In conclusion, zoo is one of the favourite places for family to
enjoy quality time together.
Barriers to Implement Sustainable Initiative

Previous studies show that capabilities, knowledge and organizational
issues as barriers that can inhibit sustainability implementation. Financial
problem is also one of the main issues in implementing sustainability
practice as the initial cost is very high. According to [14] , capabilities issues
in achieving sustainability in facilities management including the lack of
professional capability, capabilities discrepancies and skills and capabilities
magnitude have been emphasized in several studies as being crucial
challenges that need to be addressed in an effort to promote sustainability.
In addition, issues such as the lack of sustainability knowledge, knowledge
chasm and challenges faced in the knowledge transfer process have been
highlighted by [15].
Furthermore, some organization and their facility management
personnel adopting new routines to implement sustainability in their
business whereby contribute to main problem. [16] highlighted that the
issue of capabilities in achieving sustainability goals as being a challenge
that requires remedying. Thus, organizations and their facilities
management personnel need to improve their skills in order to conduct the
task efficiently.
Benefit of Sustainability
[14] had summarized the benefits of sustainability is through reducing the
consumption of resources (such as water and energy) thus lead to a much
better building design. It can also reduce greenhouse gas emissions, expand
the value of investment, minimize operating and maintenance costs,
increase health and safety, lowering the incidence of ‘sick building
syndrome’, and can increase the comfort of occupants.
It can be concluded that with sustainable practice, the
organizational costs can be reduced in relation with the increasing of
productivity. [14] stated that there are three related costs that involved in
managing an organization namely labour cost (more than 92%), operation
and maintenance workforce cost of the facilities (6% and the design- and-
build cost of facilities (2%). Nevertheless, despite the growing awareness
of sustainability in facilities management, there are still very few facility
1211
managers and building owners implement them in their operations. This is

due to the early stage of the sustainable development concept in facilities
management practices, leading to a lack of the understanding and skill
required to put into action [15]. According to Justin and Christin [17] the
benefit of sustainable facilities and operations in terms of small-scale
projects can be characterized by:
• Low cost/expenses
• Less complexity to install/implement
• Positive environmental impact /saving potential
• Profitability to a certain level
• Possible sponsoring/subsidy (depending on country and region)
Conclusion
At present, it is the time for zoos and other leading nature attractions to go
further and address urgent global sustainability challenges head-on. Zoos
could play an important role in helping to forge a new societal consensus
on the best ways forward. Zoos are particularly well placed to attract large
numbers of visitor, engage with a broad socio-economic cross-section of
society, represent the highest standards of zoo practice and inspire strong
emotional connections with the public.
In order to carry out this proposed social transformation role
effectively, zoos need to adopt a new sustainable vision which embraces
their potential to act as agents of cultural change and as educators for
sustainable development.
References
[1] Robertson M , Sustainable Principles and Practice, New York:
Routledge, pp.24 -40, 2014.
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1212
( UNSD)".
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1213
T02_041: WHEN MOTHERS KILL THEIR

BABIES: REGULATING INFANTICIDE IN
MALAYSIA
Collin Babat 1
Zaiton Hamin 2
1
Faculty of Law, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450, Shah Alam,
Selangor
2
Faculty of Law, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450, Shah Alam,
Selangor
ABSTRACT
Since the early civilization, infanticide which refers to the killing of an
infant by his parents and specifically by his biological mother has been an
appalling phenomenon within many cultures, including Malaysia. That such
crime is connected to the physiological changes in women associated with
childbirth, lactation, and mental illness has been well documented.
However, most of the literature is mostly concerned with either the crime
or the law alone leaving a gap in the Malaysian literature. Hence, this paper
aims at incorporating both the conceptual aspect of infanticide and the legal
perspective regulating such crime. This article which is drawn from an
ongoing research seeks to examine the theoretical dimension of the offence
from a variety of perspectives and the existing laws regulating such crime
in Malaysia. This paper adopts a doctrinal legal analysis and the secondary
data, of which the Penal Code and the Child Act 2001are the primary
sources. The secondary sources include case law, journal articles, books and
online databases. The authors contend that the laws in many jurisdictions,
including Malaysia, have criminalized infanticide. However, the offenders
of such crime are being treated differently than murderers in homicide
cases. The rationale for such a lenient approach is that the level of mental
disturbances arising from childbirth bears considerably on the moral
culpability of such mothers, leading to the adoption by the criminal courts
of the treatment model as opposed to the punitive one.
Keywords: Baby Dumping, Female Crime, Homicide, Infanticide, Right to

Life
1214
Introduction
Murder, as the word suggest, is the taking of human life or in the

killing of a person with malice aforethought, either express or implied
(McBain, 2015). The murders of children by their parents are known as
infanticide is one of the appalling events in human history. In the early
civilizations such as Mesopotamia, Greece, and Rome, Arabian, and
Chinese such acts have been condoned (Palermo, 2002). Within the global
context, the literature indicates that the social phenomenon such as child
abuse and the murder of children have occurred across many cultures and
social levels throughout history (Sonia, Joan, & Alvaro, 2013). For instance,
in Japan, as early as 800 A.D, child abuse, neglect and the killing of children
were reported and such acts were closely related to the efforts to decrease
family size. Early literature in Japan shows that children in Japan were
disposed of through infanticide, desertion, child trafficking and adoption
(Akihisa & Charles, 1995). In China, female children were believed to be a
burden and were often drowned, a practice that continues to the present day
(Jones, 1998). Culturally, in some parts of the world such as Ghana, it is
believed that when a mother has a series of stillbirths, it is the same child
returning. Due to such belief, infants were mutilated with razor blades to
enable their identification if the “same” children were to come back in
subsequent pregnancies. The spirit of such children is called chichuru or
kinkiriko, as the child that was not meant for this world (Pascale & Daniel,
2001; Aaron, Philip, Nicole & Abraham, 2010). In some communities in
Nigeria, twins were perceived as evil and a bad omen for the family and
were often killed at birth. Similarly, in Sudan, twins were described as spirit
children, believed to be birds, and they were left in baskets on the treetops
to assist their fight. In ancient Egypt, to appease the gods, children were
often used in ritual and were entombed with their dead parents to provide
comfort and companionship (Peter, 2004). In Egypt too, children were
killed as a means of gender-balance, or as a form of birth control when too
many children were born too quickly (Barnett, 2006).
The literature on the law relating to infanticide suggests that such
crime has always been treated differently to other murders. In many
European jurisdictions, the legislations were stringent, and the mandatory
death penalty is being applied to the killing of children if the full offence
was proven. Despite this, many women escaped punishment as the juries
were reluctant to convict on infanticide cases, and the courts would often
return a verdict of not guilty despite overwhelming evidence to the contrary
(Lambie, 2001). In England and Wales, the Infanticide Act (1938) codifies
1215
the concept of diminished responsibility when a woman kills a child aged

less than 12 months. The offence may be regarded as a manslaughter if, at
the time, the balance of her mind was disturbed by reason of not having
fully recovered from childbirth, or by reason of lactation (Kumar & Marks,
1993) Thus, the English law seems to recognize a link between the
biological changes in women associated with childbirth, lactation and
mental illness (Kumar & Marks, 1993). In New Zealand, the law on
infanticide is significantly different from other jurisdictions that have
infanticide as a statutory offence. Despite being a statutory offence in the
Crime Act 1961, the majority of New Zealand women when charged with
murder, infanticide becomes a defense to such a charge (Peter, 2004). In the
United States, a person accused of the crime of killing an infant is
prosecuted under the homicide law where the killing took place. No
distinction is made between killing an infant or child and a non-infant or
child, nor do the courts use the terms infanticide or neonaticide (Christine,
2002).
In Malaysia, the literature on the conceptual aspect of murder is
rather scarce. The limited academic research on abortion may be due to its
ambiguous interpretation and application. Some early local literature
examines the medico-legal implications of prenatal dental age in cases of
criminal abortion, infanticide and child murder (Nambiar, et al., 2000).
However, recent literature tends to focus merely on the legal protection
against child maltreatment or child abuse under the Child Act 2001
(Fatimah and Ahmad, 2012) or those legal measures to curb the problem of
baby dumping and infanticide under the Penal Code (Anita et al., 2012).
Other recent literature has also focused on the comparative study of the
punishment and preventive methods of baby dumping (Termizi et al., 2014)
and on the comparative analysis of the Malaysian and Nigerian Law as well
as the Islamic perspective in preventing a crime of baby dumping (Azizah
& Alhaji, 2015). The prevalence and the characteristics of “baby dumping”
and infant abandonment in Malaysia have also been documented (Salmi et
al., 2014). Despite the interest aroused by this topic, there appears to be the
lacuna in the literature given that most of the literature is mostly concerned
with either the crime or the law alone. Hence, to fill in such gap in the
Malaysian literature, this paper seeks to incorporate both the conceptual
aspect and the law regulating such crime. It is within this context that the
objective of this article is to examine the theoretical framework and the legal
dimension of infanticide in Malaysia. The paper commences with the
conceptualization of the crime before examining the legal framework
regulating infanticide in the second part. The third section concludes the
1216
article by contending that the understanding of such crime may be mediated

through various perspectives including criminological, medico-legal,
constitutional law and Islamic belief. Despite the public concern of such
crime and the myriad of legal instruments at the international and national
levels that regulate such crime, the criminal courts may treat the women
killers with leniency compared to homicide offenders.
Conceptualizing Infanticide
Infanticide means the killing of a child less than twelve months by
its mother. Such term was originated from the Latin word infanticidium;
the term infanticide was incorporated into English law by the 17th century.
The said term was initially used to describe the practice of abandoning or
killing children shortly after birth (Jackson, 2006). However, the literature
on the meaning of infanticide indicates that there are two types of killing of
children by their parents, Firstly, neonaticide, which is killing an infant
within 24 hours of delivery (Nesca and Dalby, 2011). Secondly, infanticide
referring to the killing of a child up to a-year-old (Craig, 2004; Friedman,
Resnick & Horwitz, 2012) or the practice of intentional destruction of
human newborns (Weir, 2004). The latter type of killing is frequently
reported as filicide or killing of children whose ages range from 1 to 18
(Palermo, 2002, Resnick, 1969, 1970).
The literature also suggests that the term infanticide is the death of
a child or infant soon after birth (after it is born and after it has breathed).
In this context, it is assumed that it is “born” when it has separated from the
body of the mother (Gradwohl, 1954; Frank, 1905). A distinction between
infanticide and feticide, abortion, intentionally killing fetuses and felicide
must be made clear (Bouillon & Larso, 2004). Early literature defined such
phenomenon as a subcategory of child abuse and under “battered child
syndrome” (Henry, 1960). Hence, commentators tend to take for granted
the inclusion of children from the newly born up to eight years old or even
older so long it is within the circle of the term infanticide (Liena, 2010).
The conceptualisation of infanticide from the medico-legal
perspective shows a demarcation between, infanticide and homicide. For
instance, Kramar & Watson (2006) contend that infanticide is the death of
a newly born child and the killing must take place during a limited period,
whereas if the murder takes later than immediately after birth, the crime in
question is the homicide as the punishment differs between both. On a
broader interpretation, if the fetus dies before actual birth and occurs during
certain types of delivery or even before the delivery has started, those cases
were not included in the term of infanticide (Kramar & Watson, 2006).
Besides, infanticide is viewed as a religious duty and also an established
1217
custom in many early societies (Fatimah, Ahmad, 2012). From the Islamic
perspective, the Qur'an (6:151) explicitly prohibited the practice of
infanticide and regarded it as a grave sin. "Do not kill your children for fear
of poverty; we give them sustenance and yourselves too; surely to kill them
is a great wrong." In 81:7-10, it says," And when the infant girl who was
buried alive is asked:" For what crime was she killed?"
The extant literature indicates that infanticide is a woman or
female crime (Gurevich, 2010) and that such crime has long been socially
and legally construed as an offence committed specifically by mothers
(Anne, 2008, Simone, 2010, Sarah, 2013). The previous research has
indicated that these women tend to be a relatively young mother, involved
in the unstable relationship, financial constraint, a lack of social support and
suffering from mental health such as chronic mental illness or postpartum
mental disorders (Marks, 1996, 2008; Oberman, 1996).
Regulating Infanticide in Malaysia

The offence of infanticide is governed under section 309A of the
Penal Code (Act 574) which states that: “when any woman by any willful
act or omission causes the death of her newly-born child, but at the time of
the act or omission she had not fully recovered from the effect of giving
birth to such child, and by reason thereof the balance of her mind was then
disturbed, she shall, notwithstanding that the circumstances were such that
but for this section the offence would have amounted to murder, be guilty
of the crime of infanticide”. At first sight, such offence that is deemed to be
murder but now it is to be regarded as infanticide (Anita et al., 2012). The
punishment for infanticide is explained under section 309B of the same Act
which states that “whoever commits the offence of infanticide shall be
punished at the discretion of the Court, with imprisonment for a term which
may extend to twenty years, and shall be liable to fine.”
This provision seems to echo the spirit of "post-partum disorders,"
the symptoms of which may include sadness, low energy changes in
sleeping and eating patterns, anxiety, crying episodes, and irritability.
Oberman (1996, 2003) suggests that to understand the crime better is by
analyzing the allegations and sentencing of women accused of infanticide
and by examining the charges brought against them. She found that in cases
of infanticide, usually there is no premeditation involved; rather, the killers
react with panic and impulsiveness. She notes that there was a tendency
toward more severe charges if the newborn was mutilated in any way and
suggests that, preventing infanticide requires that society somehow reduces
1218
the vulnerability that is felt by women who commit this act of desperation
(Oberman, 1996, 2003).
On closer scrutiny of the application and the wording of section
309A, such provision appears to be rather loose and ambiguous. The
question is: To what extent does the court determine “the balance of mind
was disturbed because of the effect of giving birth” and what is the
benchmarking for judges in sentencing such offenders? Does the court
consider other circumstances consequent upon giving birth to the child?
(Anita et al., 2012). It must be pointed that if the child dies as a result of
dumping and such act is done by the mother immediately after the child’s
birth, she might have receive lesser punishment provided she could
establish her mind was disturbed because of the effect of giving birth. The
scenario and circumstances surrounding infanticide will largely determine
the nature of the mens rea (intention) and the actus reus (action), depending
on the manner in causing the death of the babies (Anita et al., 2012).
Such a situation is illustrated by the case of PP v Zamihiyah [1987]
2 MLJ 649. The defendant who suffered an illness named puerperal
psychosis, a disease associated with childbirth, threw her baby aged two
months out of moving a car. Initially, the charge was framed for murder but
since the law in Malaysia at that point of time recognized such illness, the
defendant was charged under section 309A and punishable under section
309B. She was sentenced to an imprisonment for three years two months.
Zamihiyah’s case suggests that the offence is only applicable to the mother.
Secondly, the phrase in section 309A only applies if she causes the death of
her new own child. Likewise, if the murder is created by anyone else, then
the charge will be murder or culpable homicide depending on the intention.
The Penal Code does not reflect the definition of newly-born child. Thus it
is critically open for debate. Fourthly, the law requires that the balance of
the mother’s mind is disturbed because of the effect of giving birth. If the
balance of her mind is not disturbed, the charge will be murder. Further,
section 309A and 309B will not apply if the child is killed by someone other
than a mother.
In another recent case, an Indonesian maid pleaded guilty and was
sentenced to eight years’ jail by the Session Court for killing her newborn
by stabbing her son using a pair of scissors until he died in 2014. She then
wrapped the body in a garbage plastic bag and hid it under her bed. The
judge described her action as brutal and inhuman. As the defendant pleaded
guilty to the charge, the question as to whether she suffered mental illness
or mental disturbance associated after childbirth remained uncertain.
1219
The concealment of birth by secret disposal of the dead body may

also amount to the act of dumping a newly born baby in Malaysia. Section
318 of the Act provides that: “Whoever by secretly burying or otherwise
disposing of the dead body of a child, whether such child die or before or
after or during its birth, intentionally conceals or endeavours to conceal the
birth of such child shall be punished with imprisonment for a term which
may extend to two years, or with fine, or both. On the surface, such a
wording may suggest that if the intention could be established, then the
crime would be completed.
Another relevant provision is found in section 317 of the Act,
which provides for the exposure and abandonment of a child less than
twelve years old by parent or person having the care of it. It is argued that
if the baby was abandoned somewhere, the probability in all situation is that
she will die. Therefore the perpetrator may have committed culpable
homicide under section 299 which states that: “Whoever causes the death
by doing an act with the intention of causing bodily injury as likely to cause
death, or with the knowledge that he is likely by such act to cause death,
commits the offence of culpable homicide and punishable under section
300. Nevertheless, where the law of baby dumping is committed, and death
is unlikely, it would be unreasonable to charge the offender under section
304 which provides for culpable homicide not amounting to murder.
The constitutional basis of the legal protection for infants under
the infanticide law is the right to life, which commences at the moment of
conception. However, it is universally recognized that the legal state of life
is measured from the quickening in the womb, or from birth. To deny this
right would mean a denial of the existence of such fundamental rights that
governs all other existing rights. At the broader international context, the
United Nation’s Convention on the Right of the Child (1989) (CRC), for
which Malaysia is a signatory, justifies that every child has the right to know
and to be cared for by his parents (Article 7 of the CRC). This primary focus
of the CRC is the “best interests of the child.” In its broad interpretation, the
right to life for children means that the right not to be killed. On the one
hand, this right implies that the State will not subject children to the death
penalty and protect the lives of children by taking appropriate measure to
deal with the crime of infanticide. It is rightly contended that the unethical
manner of baby dumping, the concealment of birth by secret disposal of
dead body, irresponsible parents or person for not taking care of a child
under the age of 12 years and those who exposed and abandoned their
children are contravening the right to survival (Article 6 of the CRC) and
the right to dignity (Article 19 of the CRC) (Azizah & Alhaji, 2015).
1220
Within the local context in Malaysia, the Federal Constitution,

which is the supreme law of the land, regards the fundamental liberties on
the notion of “life” including Article 5 and Article 8 rather highly. Article
5(1) provides that: No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty,
save by law. Article 8(1) states that: All persons are equal before the law
and entitled to the equal protection of the law. Das (2002) contends that
felonious crime such as infanticide contravenes the spirit of Article 5 and
Article 8 of the Constitution. G Sri Ram JCA, in Tan Teck Seng v
Suruhanjaya Perkhidmatan Pendidikan & Another [1996] 1 MLJ 261, for
the Court of Appeal, opined that ‘life’ under Article 5 meant more than mere
existence. Given a broad and literal meaning, life incorporates all those
facets that are an integral part of life itself and those matters which go to
form the quality of life. Another legal protection afforded to children are
those under the Child Act (Act 611), including the neglect and abuse of
children, especially those leading to death, need to be dealt with
accordingly. The act of baby dumping or abandonment is provided under
section 3(1) of the Child Act 200, which is an offence punishable by a fine
not exceeding twenty thousand ringgit to imprisonment for a term not
exceeding ten years, or both (Azizah & Alhaji, 2015).
Conclusion
This paper identified some significant conceptual issues in understanding
the crime of infanticide within the Malaysian criminal justice system. The
understanding of the etiology of the offence and its contributing factors are
crucial in the Malaysian government’s efforts to curb such crime.
Significantly, the legal protection afforded to children and infants through
the infanticide law goes hand in hand with the international standards and
convention, which have been adapted by Malaysia to a certain extent. The
laws in many jurisdictions, including Malaysia, have criminalized
infanticide, albeit a different approach is taken in comparison with the
murderers in homicide cases. Similar to the legalistic approach in Australia
and the United Kingdom, the Malaysian courts have been rather lenient in
dealing with female killers who killed their infants. Such a benign approach
may be justified because the moral culpability of such mothers is impacted
by the level of mental disturbances arising from childbirth. Hence, the
courts may be of the view that the situations of those female offenders
demand a therapeutic intervention rather than punishment. The questions
remain as to whether the law should continue along this treatment model
path and at what price for the infant victim.
1221
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1224
T02_042: THE EFFECTS OF GST

KNOWLEDGE TOWARDS STUDENTS’
SPENDING PATTERN
Nurul Mardhiah Harun1, Nadiah Abd Hamid2
12
UITM Puncak Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
nadiah_hamid@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
The implementation of GST in Malaysia as of 1st April 2015, which
replaced the current Sales and Service Tax (SST) is viewed as a more
efficient tax to manage and to generate greater revenue collection for the
government. This multi-tiered tax rate of 6 percent is finally borne by the
end users who consumed the goods and services regardless of their income
levels. As a result, even non-income earners such as students are inevitably
bearing the rising price of their consumed goods and services. This study
aimed to investigate the level of GST knowledge among the final year
students in the Faculty of Accountancy, UiTM Puncak Alam. The students’
knowledge and perception on issues related to GST implementation were
found to have certain impacts on their spending pattern. Evidently, the
findings revealed that students who have much information about GST
implementation and in cases where they perceived that GST is an unfair and
unequitable tax system, both situations are highly likely to have significant
effects on their spending trend.
Keywords: GST, students’ knowledge, spending pattern, equitable, tax

system.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In Malaysia, the intention to introduce Goods and Services Tax
(GST) was mooted since Budget 2005 when the government first
announced that GST would be replacing Sales Tax and Services Tax (SST).
However, on 22 February 2006, the implementation of this proposed tax
was postponed to give sufficient time for traders to prepare their business
for the implementation of the new tax, adopt suitable software for the
business and provide adequate training to staff involved in GST
1225
transactions. Finally, on 1st April 2015, GST was fully implemented by the
Malaysian government (RMCD, 2015), with the aim to reduce the
continuous budget deficit and to prepare the nation in times of economic
uncertainty.
The newly implemented GST is not completely free from any
problems and past literature have discussed several issues and problems
related to GST implementation (Ling et al., 2016; Kadir, Yusor & Hassan,
2015; Shaari, Ali & Ismail, 2015; Palil & Ibrahim, 2011; Csontos, Kornai
& Torth, 1998). Currently, the escalating inflationary pressure in Malaysia
is due to the recent cutback of petrol subsidies (Ling et al., 2016). The
relatively high cost of living particularly in big cities like Kuala Lumpur,
Penang and Johor Bahru has persistently stimulated the inflation and
consequently, the significant general price increased due to GST has further
worsen the situation (Palil & Ibrahim, 2011). As a result of the increase in
prices of several products in the market, it has affected the consumers’
consumptions behaviour where people are more prudent and selective in
their purchasing (Palil & Ibrahim, 2011). One of this low income group is
the student are also affected with the implementation of GST since they are
no different from any other consumers who consumed goods and services
(Shaari et al., 2015). The type of spending made by students includes
toiletries and cosmetics, entertainment, books and magazines, fast food,
clothing and footwear and others. All these goods are GST chargeable at
standard rated. According to Ministry of Higher Education, there are
1,134134 students enrolled in Malaysia higher education institutions
(MOHE, 2015). Therefore, the sizeable populations of higher education
students who are non-income earners are also affected with the GST
implementation
It is essential that future generation, particularly, students from
higher institutions are fully aware of taxation issues which will affect their
daily lives and to be well informed with any information connected to their
roles as the nation’s future labour force. A study on the introduction of new
tax reform in Malaysia by Abdul Mansor & Illias (2013) emphasized the
needs to prepare higher education students and graduates with adequate and
wider knowledge so as to guarantee the success of GST’s implementation.
Shaari, Ali & Ismail (2015) in their latest study focus mainly on GST
awareness among higher education students prove that although students
were conscious of the government’s proposal to implement GST, they still
have limited knowledge pertaining to the matter. Extending the issue from
previous empirical evidence, therefore, this study is vital to fill the gap and
add knowledge to the GST literature. This is done by examining the final
1226
semester degree students’ level of knowledge on GST implementation and

the effect of GST on the students’ spending pattern.

2.1 Level of Knowledge of GST Implementation among Students’
GST was implemented on 1st April 2015 and it is relatively a new
tax system in Malaysia. since it is new tax system implemented in Malaysia,
there are lack of awareness and understanding from people towards GST
implementation. One of the earliest studies on GST conception and
readiness in Malaysia discussed general public awareness towards GST.
The study shows significant relationship between tax knowledge and tax
awareness of Malaysian which implies that it is easier for them to study and
comply with the tax rules if they possess knowledge about it (Tayib, 1998
& Mohani, 2003). In another study by Tan and Chin (2000), they emphasize
on the government’s failure to deliver GST information to the public, and
their finding concludes that the Malaysians understanding and knowledge
of GST are still at the introductory level. Obviously, in one of the study by
Saira, Zariyawati and Lokey-May (2010), they highlighted the initial public
resistance and uncertainty on the imposition of new regulation such as GST
due to lack of familiarity with the new system. As a result of the poor
dissemination of information, people are discouraged to accept GST
implementation since they are engulfed by the assumption of price increase
and inflation (Palil & Ibrahim, 2010).
2.2 Effect of GST towards Student Spending Pattern
Palil & Ibrahim (2011) found that lack of knowledge among
Malaysian raise a distress among the citizens, especially those from the low
and middle income group who are worried on the impact of GST on their
purchasing power ability. As a consequence, people tend to perceive that
GST will cause the goods and services to be more expensive and hence
increase their daily expenses. Due to this reason, people tend to be more
selective and cautious in their spending behaviour. Another study on
Malaysian groups of employees and employers found that most of the
working people believed that they have to change their daily routine and
lifestyle since the implementation of GST. Students in higher learning
institutions are mostly depending on loans or scholarship from public and
private sponsors. For example, based on The National Higher Education
Fund Corporation (PTPTN) (as cited by studymalaysia.com), maximum
educational loan offered to undergraduate student in public universities is
about RM6, 500 per year before the deduction of tuition fee payable to the
universities. According to Secretary General of Ministry of Higher
1227
Education, Datuk Seri Zaini Ujang, tuition fee for higher education in
Malaysia is considered among the cheapest in the world, about RM 2,000
per annum for students studying at Universiti Malaya (UM) and Universiti
Sains Malaysia (USM) (Sinar Online, Oct 31, 2015). Hence, on average, the
net allowance received by student is only about RM4, 500 per year (RM6,
500 – 2,000) which is approximately RM 375 per month. It is expected that
students are likely to face greater impact of GST alongside with the other
low income groups in relation to their spending level. In fact, Hong, Teh,
Soh & Ong (2015) state that GST will reduce consumers’ spending power
which in turn will reduce the domestic consumption. Given the lack of
empirical evidence on the effect of GST implementation on students
spending pattern, we are motivated to investigate this issue. Specifically,
this study is conducted to investigate the level of GST knowledge among
the final year degree students in Accountancy at UiTM Puncak Alam and
how GST impacted their spending pattern.
3.0 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Conceptual Framework
When individuals especially students have knowledge related to
the new tax systems such as GST, they are more willing to respect the tax
system, thus, increasing their awareness and compliance. Furthermore, with
the implementation of GST often it will increase the price of the products,
therefore affecting most individuals spending pattern. This is supported by
the findings of past study where they found that GST did affect the private
spending patterns (Carvalho & Lian, 2010). In their study, the term private
spending patterns was inclusive of students since they are also the final
consumers who will be charged with GST. Hence, student’s knowledge of
GST is important in educating them to have positive perception that the
newly introduced tax is fair and equitable. This leads to the following
hypothesis:
H1: There is a positive relationship between student’s level of
knowledge on GST implementation and their spending pattern.
Fair and Equitable

Spending
Governments’ Revenue Pattern
Collection
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework

1228
3.2 Population and Sample

The population of the study consists of the final year students of
Bachelor in Accountancy, UiTM Puncak Alam, Selangor. Basically, there
are about 8 classes in total with almost 240 students. A set of 240
questionnaires were distributed from class to class and was directly
collected from them after they have completed a survey. However, there
were 40 students (three classes) who were unable to participate in this
survey due to other commitment. As a result, only 200 questionnaires were
distributed, and only 183 of the questionnaires are valid and useable.
3.3 Research Instrument

For the data collection, a set of questionnaires was designed to gain
primary data from the respondents about their awareness and knowledge on
the implementation of GST in Malaysia and its effect on the spending
pattern. There are 3 sections in the questionnaires. Section A consists of
demographic information about gender, monthly spending amount,
financial source, family background and main source of GST knowledge
and information. For Section B, it is consist of Likert- type questions from
1 (strongly agree) to 5 (strongly disagree) measure students’ awareness
about GST. Section C also consist of Likert- type questions from 1 (strongly
increase) to 5 (strongly decrease) measure GST effects towards students
spending pattern.
3.4 Data Analysis

Data on the demographic factors were analyzed using the
descriptive statistic. The level of knowledge of the students towards GST
implementation was used as the independent variable and two constructs
were used as proxies for students’ level of knowledge. These constructs are
fairness and equitable and government revenue collection. The mean scores
were used to determine the scores of the attributes. Reliability and validity
tests were also conducted on the variables, while the Cronbach Alpha was
employed to test the reliability of the instrument. For the dependent variable
(students’ spending pattern), eleven constructs were used as proxies and
these constructs were toiletries and cosmetics, hairdressers and beauticians,
entertainment, fast food, clothing and footwear, computer
equipment/software, internet/ broadband connection, recreational and
sporting equipment, vehicle maintenance and stationery. The validity of the
instrument was ascertained based on the factor analysis.
1229
4.0 FINDINGS
4.1 Students’ Level of Knowledge on Fairness and Equitable of GST
Implementation
The mean scores of all items under the construct “GST Fairness and
Equitable” and the result shows an overall mean of 3.25 which indicates
that the respondents generally does not agree with the items in the construct,
given that the score of 1 represents ‘strongly agree’ while the score of 5
represents ‘strongly disagree’ in this particular construct. It shows that
students think that GST is not fair and equitable to society (Ishak, Othman
and Omar, 2015) because the new tax regime is deemed regressive. It means
they have to pay for the consumption tax even though they did not generate
any income. Students show their disagreement with the statement, ‘GST
protects the interests of low income earners including students’ with a mean
of 3.84. Furthermore, they also disagree with the statement that ‘GST will
not burden people’ which scored 3.78.
4.2 Students’ Level of Knowledge about Government Revenue
Collection towards GST Implementation
The findings showed that overall mean of 2.47 indicate that
students generally agree with the statements in this construct. In other
words, students feel that GST implementation do make a vital contribution
towards government revenue collection which can be utilized for the benefit
of the society and country’s economic development. The students are still
uncertain if the new tax regime (GST implementation) is actually a good
tax system for the nation (mean score 2.93). They also agree (mean score
equal to 2.15) that the GST implementation would result in rising price of
goods and services products.
4.3 The Effect of GST Implementation towards Students’
Spending Pattern
In this construct the lowest score, 1 represents the student’s
spending pattern that ‘significantly increase’ as a respond to the
implementation of GST, while the maximum score of 5 represents that the
students’ spending pattern ‘significantly decrease’. There are eleven types
of common and typical student expenses labeled as “toiletries and
cosmetics”, “hairdressers and beauticians”, “entertainment”, “books,
newspapers and magazines”, “fast food”, “clothing and footwear”,
“computer equipment/software”, “internet/broadband connection”,
“recreational and sporting equipment”, “vehicle maintenance” and
“stationery”. The overall mean for the effect of GST towards student
spending pattern is 3.97 which imply that the students will moderately
decrease their spending pattern. This finding indicates that, when the
1230
students have the knowledge that GST implementation is fair and equitable,
they do not blame the government on the rising price of the products they
consumed, thus, their spending habits remained unchanged. Meanwhile,
knowledge about government revenue collection is not significantly
influencing the student spending pattern. Both predictors which are
knowledge on fairness and equitability of GST and knowledge about
government revenue collection have positive coefficients which depict the
positive relationships between the predictors and the dependent variable.
4.4 Multiple Regressions
As shown in Table 1, the R Square value for this model is 35.9%
of the variation in the dependent variable (student spending pattern) which
mean that about 35.9 % of the variation in the students spending pattern is
explained by the students’ level of knowledge about GST implementation.
Meanwhile, the remaining 64.1% of the dependent variable (student
spending pattern) is explained by other factors which are not included in the
model of this study.
Table 2 (ANOVA) provides a report on the overall significance of
the model. Table 5 further indicates the p value of .015 is less than .05,
which explains that there is sufficient evidence that at least one of the factors
affects the student spending pattern (Pallant, 2007). Therefore, it can be
concluded that the combination of the GST fairness and equitable and
government revenue collection significantly predicts the dependent variable
(student spending pattern) (F=4.327; p < 0.05).
Table 1: Model Summary of the Multiple Regression Analysis

Std. Error
Adjusted R of the
Model R R Square Square Estimate
1 .214a .359 .253 .75774
a. Predictors: (Constant), Overall means for fairness and equitable:
government revenue collection, Overall means for fairness and
equitable: government revenue collection
Table 2: ANOVAb
Model Sum of df Mean F (p) Sig.
Square Square
Regression 4.969 2 2.485 4.327 .015a
Residual 103.352 180 .574
Total 108.321 182
1231
a. Predictors: (Constant), Overall means for fairness and equitable: financial contribu
fairness and equitable: financial contribution
b. Dependent Variable: Overall means for spending pattern
Table 3: Coefficientsa
Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients (p)
Model t
Std. Sig.
B Beta
error
(Constant) 3.172 .333 9.521 .000
Overall
means for:
knowledge
on fairness .229 .078 .214 2.937 .004
and
equitability
of GST
Overall
means for:
knowledge
about
.022 .081 .020 .276 .783
government
revenue
collection of
GST
a. Dependent Variable: Overall means for spending pattern
Table 3 shows the value of the coefficients in equation (1) below.

Besides that, the t and p values will indicate whether there is significant
evidence that both knowledge on fairness and equitable of GST and
knowledge about government revenue collection will influence the
students’ spending pattern. According to the results, only knowledge on the
fairness and equitability of GST is significantly affecting the students’
spending pattern (p = .004). This finding indicates that, when the students
have the knowledge that GST implementation is fair and equitable, they do
not blame the government on the rising price of the products they consumed,
thus, their spending habits remained unchanged. Meanwhile, knowledge
about government revenue collection is not significantly influencing the
1232
student spending pattern. Based on this result, the linear regression model
for predicting the student spending pattern can be written as follow:
Student Spending Pattern = 3.172 + 0.229 (knowledge on the fairness
and equitable of GST) + 0.22 (knowledge about government revenue
collection) Equation (1)
As shown in the results, both predictors which are knowledge on
fairness and equitability of GST and knowledge about government revenue
collection have positive coefficients which depict the positive relationships
between the predictors and the dependent variable. Government implements
many development projects and take care of civil servants' welfare. The pay
rise for civil servants and the increase in minimum wage will still be
implemented this July. MRT and The Pan Borneo Highway, which costs
RM16 billion for Sarawak and RM12 billion for Sabah, would be built. GST
has proven to have benefitted the people including the RM500 special
financial assistance for 1.6 million civil servants in view of Aidilfitri, was
given on June 13, 2016. The request by the Congress of Unions of
Employees in the Public and Civil Services to pay a special bonus for Hari
Raya manages to be fulfilled (The Star, 2016).
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
The result of this study is parallel to a study on introduction of new tax
reforms in Malaysia by Mansor & Illias (2013) who found that higher
education students and graduates should be prepared with adequate and
wider knowledge of GST to ensure positive receptions of GST
implementation. Furthermore, in another study by Shaari, Ali & Ismail
(2015) which also focused on GST awareness among higher education
students, and they found that although students were conscious of the
decision by the government to implement GST, still they have limited
knowledge pertaining to this matter. Most students, although they have been
taught about the technical aspect of GST in their curriculum, they are still
unsure of the GST implementation and its effect towards the final
consumers. One of the earliest studies on GST conception and readiness in
Malaysia discusses general public awareness towards GST. This study
shows significant relationship between tax knowledge and tax awareness of
Malaysian which make it easier for them to study and comply with the tax
rules if they possess the knowledge about it (Tayib, 1998, Mohani, 2003).
On the knowledge about government revenue collection, the mean
is 2.47, which indicates majority of the respondents have a moderate level
of knowledge on government revenue collection. The findings in this study
show that, there is no significant relationship between knowledge of the
1233
government revenue collection and students’ spending pattern. In other

words, the students perceive that the government’s revenue collection is
irrelevant in influencing their spending pattern. Overall, the results of this
study showed that the students are still uncertain of the fact on the fairness
and equitability of GST and they are more likely to think of GST as
reasonably unfair and unequitable. It is recommended that the government
must put serious efforts to make the Malaysians especially students
understand about the fairness and equitability of GST as well as the
contribution of GST to the country. This is important as these young citizens
will become an income earners and tax payers in the future. Thus, proper
awareness and knowledge about GST during their tertiary education age is
vital to seed a positive perception about GST and to inculcate sincerity in
paying tax as part of their contribution towards the nation.
REFERENCES
[1] Hong, Yong Hoe, et al. "Consumer Purchase Intention and Cross-
Border
Shopping:Implementation of Goods and Services Tax (GST)."
International Journal of Business and Management 10.8 (2015):
198.
[2] Ishak, N. I. B., Othman, M. H. Bin, & Fuzi, O. M. (2015). Students
Perception towards the Newly Implemented Goods and Services
Tax ( GST ) in Malaysia. International Journal of Contemporary
Applied Sciences, 2(6), 80–99.
[3] Ismail, N. A. (2015). Comparison Between The Effect Of Goods
And Services Tax And Wealth Tax On Low Income Households :
A Theoretical Study, 3(2), 32–39.
[4] Kooreman, P. (2007). Time, money, peers, and parents; some data
and theories on teenage behavior. Journal of Population
Economics, 20(1), 9-33. MA, Z. (2010). An exploratory study of
goods and services tax awareness in Malaysia.
[5] Mansor, N. H. A., & Ilias, A. (2013). Goods and Services Tax
(GST): A New Tax Reform in Malaysia. International Journal of
Economics Business and Management Studies, 2(1), 12-19.
[6] Mei Tan, L., & Chin-Fatt, C. (2000). The impact of tax knowledge
on the perceptions of tax fairness and attitudes towards
compliance. Asian review of accounting, 8(1), 44-58.
[7] Mohani, A. (2003). Income tax non-compliance in Malaysia.
1234
[8] Palil, M. R., & Ibrahim, M. A. (2011). The impacts of goods and
services tax (GST) on middle income earners in Malaysia. World
Review of Business Research, 1(3), 192-206.
[9] Palil, M. R., Akir, M. R., & Ahmad, W. F. B. A. (2013). The
Perception of Tax Payers on Tax Knowledge and Tax Education
with Level of Tax Compliance: A Study the Influences of
Religiosity. ASEAN Journal of Economics, Management and
Accounting 1 (1): 118, 129.
1235
T02_043: EXPLORING METACOGNITION

AND CREATIVE AND CRITICAL THINKING
SKILLS OF POSTGRADUATE STUDENTS IN
A PUBLIC UNIVERSITY
Ainil Sofia Sarpan 1
Chan Yuen Fook 2
Leele Susana Jamian
Faculty of Education, Universiti Teknologi MARA
42300 Bandar Puncak Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Living in the world of knowledge-based economy, higher education plays
an important role in sustaining the educational terms in which skills are as
important as knowledge among graduates. It is no longer sufficient for a
graduate to be only knowledgeable but they are expected to be equipped
with the twenty first century skills. It has become an essential life-skill for
graduates to have the ability to think critically and many literature reveals
that with the right strategy and practice it can improve students’
performance and then develop the necessary skills to compete globally. The
purpose of this study was to identify the relationship of creative and critical
thinking and metacognition among students in a public university in
Malaysia. Data was collected using a survey questionnaire and distributed
to a total of 40 randomly selected tertiary students. Data was analysed with
both descriptive and inferential statistics. The findings indicated a
moderate, positive and a very significant relationship between
metacognition and creative and critical thinking. The findings of the study
suggested that there is a relationship between metacognition and creative
and critical thinking among postgraduate students in a Malaysian public
university. Enhancement of both skills are deemed important for
postgraduate students.
Keywords: creative, critical thinking, metacognition, students, higher
education
Introduction
As a result of the rapid changes and development in this new age, there has
been a continuous demand among employers for higher education to
prepare and ensure graduates to possess the thinking power and being
1236
flexible in adapting to future job markets. In line with the transformation in

education system globally, this has demanded schools, institutions and
higher education to create an environment where the students can build a
set of skills that can ensure success in a competitive world. This includes
“skills such as creativity, innovation, problem solving, communication,
collaboration, teamwork, and critical thinking, as well as media and
technology literacy, financial literacy, health literacy and global literacy”
[1]. Despite the fact that metacognitive skills are valuable to students and
they foster critical thinking, in a study by [2] was found that the teachers
may not know how to include metacognitive skills in the lesson. Therefore,
it can be said that study of metacognition and creative and critical thinking
is important. Hence, this study aims to describe the relationship of
metacognition and creative and critical thinking skills among postgraduate
students in a Malaysian public university.
Literature Review
Metacognition
Metacognition is defined as “one’s knowledge concerning one’s own
cognitive processes or anything related to them” [6]. It refers to one’s ability
to control own thinking and into solving problem [7]. Both knowledge and
skills are involved in the process and are deliberately used in situations such
as solving problem. Generally, it is how an individual monitors and controls
his or her own thinking [6], [7]. In a later study by [8] described
metacognition “a higher order, executive process that monitors and
coordinates other cognitive activities in learning”.
Creative and critical thinking skills

Among the challenges faced by educators is the need to increase the level
of creative and critical thinking skills among students. The most widely
accepted definition of creativity in most literature adopts [2] that is
“interaction among aptitude, process, and environment by which an
individual or group produces a perceptible product that is both novel and
useful as defined within a social context” (as cited in [3]). In short,
creativity can be described as the production of originality, high quality and
appropriate to the task [4] while critical thinking refers to the ability to
analyze and evaluate information [5]. Consequently, in order to compete
globally, this calls for the students to challenge themselves to be individuals
who thinks critically but also to evaluate, question and sort information in
an effective, efficient and creative manner.
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Relationship of metacognition and creative and critical thinking

In an early study by [9], she explained that the relationship between critical
thinking and metacognition as “a successful pedagogy serve as a basis for
the enhancement of thinking will have to incorporate ideas about the way
in which learners organize knowledge and internally represent it and the
way these representations change and resist change when new information
is encountered” (p.87). This notion was also agreed by [10] in the study that
showed metacognition serves as an important predictors of critical thinking.
Accordingly, this can also be achieved through creative thinking. Students
learn to upgrade their own knowledge on new ideas, concepts, facts,
processes and procedures [11]. Therefore, with metacognitive knowledge,
students learn to react on demands of learning tasks and adapt appropriate
strategies to solve the tasks. Students with high metacognitive skills get to
differentiate things they know and do not know compared to those who
lacked in metacognition awareness [12] [13]. Students with metacognition
skills are more successful as they are capable in understanding of what they
are doing and learn in the classroom. Henceforth, metacognition provides
an incentive for the learner to develop and facilitate one’s critical thinking
[14] [15].
Research Method
This study employed a descriptive and correlation research design. The
study was conducted at the Faculty of Education in a public university in
Selangor, Malaysia. The analysis indicated that a total of 40 postgraduate
respondents were involved in the pilot study. Data were collected using a
survey questionnaire referred to and adapted from [17] study. The
questionnaires were distributed and collected back in a semester. A 5-point
Likert-scale was used in the questionnaire to gauge the use of students’
metacognition as well as critical and creative thinking skills in higher
education. Metacognition were represented by six items whilst creative and
critical thinking consists of 12 items. Generally, a Cronbach’s Alpha
reliability test was conducted to analyse the reliability for each variable. The
Cronbach’s Alpha result for each variable has been identified at high level
as shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Reliability Analysis
No. Variable Cronbach’s No of
Alpha Items
a. Critical and Creative Thinking Skills 0.929 12
b. Metacognition 0.930 6
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Findings
A total of 40 postgraduate students from the selected faculty have
participated and completed the questionnaires. Table 2 showed that 20.0%
were males while 80.0% were females. In terms of ethnicity, 95.0% were
Malays, 2.5% was Dusun and the other 2.5% was Iban, Majority of the
respondents were in the age of <25 years old (57.5%), followed by 30.0%
of 26-30 years old, 10.0% of 31-35 years old and only 2.5% of 36-40 years
old.
Table 2. Distribution of Respondents Based on Gender, Ethnicity and

Age
Gender Frequency Percent
Male 8 20.0
Female 32 80.0
Total 40 100.0
Ethnic Frequency Percent
Malay 38 95.0
Dusun 1 2.5
Iban 1 2.5
Total 40 100.0
Age Frequency Percent
<25 16 55.0
26 - 30 10 32.5
31 - 35 3 10.0
36 - 40 1 2.5
Total 30 100.0
In this study, CGPA refers to collective average pointer obtained by

students throughout their study in the university. The current mean CGPA
of the 33 respondents out of 40 respondents was 3.45 while the standard
deviation was .26.
Table 3 presents the metacognition skills acquired by the students in

the classroom. The students almost agreed they possess “knowledge and
beliefs about nature of human beings as cognitive process” with the highest
mean of 3.83 and standard deviation of .68, comparatively followed by
they “aware and can manage own thoughts” (m=3.80, SD=.94), and
“monitor and control own thoughts” (m=3.73, SD=.91). On the other hand,
1239
the results also showed a moderate mean of 3.68 that they have
“knowledge and control of own thinking processes” (SD=.66),
“knowledge about type of strategies to complete a task” (m=3.63, SD=.77)
and slightly lower mean in students’ “knowledge of the demands of
specific tasks” (m=3.53, SD=.85) in their learning.
Table 3. Descriptive Statistics of Metacognition (N=40)

Metacognition Mean Std.
Deviation
knowledge and beliefs about nature of
3.83 .68
human beings as cognitive processes.
aware and can manage own thoughts. 3.80 .94
monitor and control own thoughts. 3.73 .91
knowledge and control of own thinking
3.68 .66
processes.
knowledge about type of strategies to
3.63 .77
complete a task.
knowledge of the demands of specific
3.53 .85
tasks.
*Scale 1= Strongly Disagree, 2=Disagree, 3=Almost Disagree, 4= Agree,
5=Strongly Agree
Table 4 shows the mean score obtain are considerably high with 3.80
for items “ask and answer questions for clarification” and “making
decision, judgments and evaluations” (SD=.88) and (SD=.85) respectively.
Followed by “practice brainstorming techniques and create new ideas” and
“generate ideas by thinking divergently” (m=3.70, SD=.88). The findings
also indicate a moderate mean for the items “demonstrate originality”
(m=3.53, SD=.91) and “identify between assumptions and problems”
(m=3.50, SD=.85). Consequently, the results show the lowest mean of 3.35
when students did not agree on the items that they were capable in
“defining terms and concepts” (SD=.83) and “make inferences using
inductive and deductive reasoning” (SD= .70) in the classroom.
Table 4. Descriptive Statistics of Critical and Creative Thinking Skills

(N=40)
Critical and Creative Thinking Skills Mean Std.
Deviation
ask and answer questions for clarifications. 3.80 .88
1240
make decisions, judgments and evaluations. 3.80 .85

practise brainstorming techniques and create
3.70 .88
new ideas.
generate ideas by thinking divergently. 3.70 .88
reason and make logical conclusions. 3.68 .76
analyse arguments claims and evidence 3.63 .84
demonstrate originality. 3.55 .99
refine and evaluate ideas. 3.53 .91
identify between assumptions and problems. 3.50 .85
interpret, explain and make predictions. 3.43 .87
define terms and concepts 3.35 .83
make inferences using inductive and
3.35 .70
deductive reasoning.
*Scale 1= Strongly Disagree, 2=Disagree, 3=Almost Disagree, 4= Agree,
5=Strongly Agree
The Pearson Product Moment Correlation results in Table 5 showed
that there was a moderate, positive and a very significant relationship
between metacognition and creative and critical thinking (r=.61, p <.01).
Table 5. Correlation between Metacognition and Creative and

Critical Thinking
Variables Creative and Metacognition

Critical
Thinking
Creative and Pearson 1 .610**
Critical Correlation
Thinking Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 40 40
Metacognition Pearson .610** 1
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 40 4
0
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Table 6. Multiple Regression

Model Summaryb
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Model R R Square Adjusted R Std. Error

Square of the
Estimate
1 .610a .373 .356 .372
a. Predictors: (Constant), Metacognition
b. Dependent Variable: Creative and Critical Thinking
Anovaa
Model Sum of Df Mean F Sig
Squares Squar
e
1 Regression 3.130 1 3.130 22.574 .000b
Residual 5.270 38 .149
Total 8.400 39
a. Dependent Variable: Creative and Critical Thinking
b. Predictors: (Constant), Metacognition
Model Unstandardiz Standardi t Sig. Collinearity
ed zed Statistics
Coefficients Coefficien
Std. ts Toler
B Error ance VIF
1 (Constant) 1.26 4.1
.308 .000
5 12
Metacogniti 4.7
.522 .110 .610 .000 1.000 1.000
on 51
a. Dependent Variable: Creative and Critical Thinking
The relationship between the variables in multiple regression analysis

for the study as shown in Table 6 was proposed as:
y = 1.265 + .610
y = creative and critical thinking
x1= metacognition
R-Square (R2) is the proportion of variance in the dependent variable
which can be predicted from the independent variable. From the table, the
R2 value of .373 implies that 37% of the variance in the “creative and critical
thinking” can be predicted from the “metacognition”. The ANOVA result
(F=22.574, p <.01) further confirmed that the significant contribution of
“metacognition” among postgraduate students in public university. Overall,
1242
the multiple regression analysis indicated that metacognition has a beta

coefficient value of .610 towards creative and critical thinking skills.
Discussion
The present study intended to identify the relationship between
metacognitive and creative and critical thinking. From the findings
obtained, there was a positive, moderate and very significant relationship
between metacognition and creative and critical thinking. The findings are
in line with other studies by [17] [18] [19] which studied on the relationship
of metacognition and critical thinking. Good critical thinkers are likely to
engaged themselves in more metacognitive activities especially higher
order planning and evaluating strategies [20]. Hence, the metacognitive
knowledge is equally important as a supporting factor. Students learning in
the university requires students to work, interact and utilize their thinking
power. Since there are many aspects of metacognition, it may be useful to
explore the associations of how students interact with others and sustaining
creativity and being critical in working in different situations.
Conclusion
The study pointed to the fact that the postgraduate students in Faculty of
Education in a public university have practiced some sorts of twenty skills
century namely metacognition and creative and critical thinking. One
limitation of the current study is the sample size. A larger sample size may
further clarify the correlation of variables and thus increase the validity of
the findings. Hence, future studies should consider the issue to obtain more
findings in a larger sample size. In addition, future studies should also be
conducted in finding the correlation of more variables than just focus on
creativity and metacognition. Obviously, it is vital for higher education to
infuse creative and critical thinking with metacognition in the teaching and
learning with a hope that graduates become critical and creative thinkers
thus becoming a confident future world citizen and leaders.
References
[1] Senechal, D. “The most daring education reform act of all”. American
Educator, 34(1), 4-16. Retrieved from
http://www.aft.org/newspubs/periodicals/ae/issues.cfm. (2010), p.5.
[2] Pellegrino, A. M. (2007). The Manifestation of Critical Thinking and
Metacognition in Secondary American History Students through the
Implementation of Lesson Plans and Activities Consistent With
1243
Historical Thinking Skills. Thesis of Doctor of Philosophy (P.152).

Full Text.(Publication No. AAT 3282653).
[3] Plucker, J. A., Beghetto, R. A., & Dow, G. “Why isn’t creativity more
important to educational psychologists? Potential, pitfalls, and future
directions in creativity research.” Educational Psychologist, 39,
(2004),p.90.
[4] Partnership for 21st Century Skills. “What we know about creativity:
Part of the 4Cs research series”.
http://www.p21.org/storage/documents/docs/Research/P21_4Cs_Rese
arch_Brief_Series_-_Creativity.pdf. (2010).
[5] Kaufman, J. C., & Sternberg, R. J. (Eds.) “The Cambridge handbook
of creativity.” New York: Cambridge University Press. (2010).
[6] Duron, R., Limbach, B., & Waugh, W. “Critical thinking framework
for any discipline.”International Journal of Teaching and Learning in
Higher Education, 17(2), (2006),pp.160-166.
[7] Flavell, J. H. “Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of
cognitive-developmental inquiry”. American Psychologist, 34(10),
(1979), p.232.
[8] Young, A., & Fry, J. D. “Metacognitive awareness and academic
achievement in college students.” Journal of the Scholarship of
Teaching and Learning, 8(2), (2008), pp. 1-10.
[9] Tobias, S., & Everson, H. T. “The importance of knowing what you
know: A knowledge monitoring framework for studying metacognition
in education”. In D. L. Hacker, J. Dunlosky, & A. Graesser (Eds.),
Handbook of metacognition in education (2009), (pp. 108). New York,
NY: Routledge, Taylor, and Francis.
[10] Schoen, D. “The reflective practitioner”. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
(1983).
[11] Ingle, C. “Predictors of critical thinking ability among college
students.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Kentucky, United States --
Kentucky. Retrieved from Dissertations & Theses: Full
Text.(Publication No. AAT 3263681). (2007).
[12] Everson, H. T., & Tobias, S. “The ability to estimate knowledge and
performance in college: A metacognitive analysis.” Instructional
Science, 26, 65-79. Retrieved from
http://www.springerlink.com/content/0020-4277/26/1-2/ (1998).
[13] Tobias, S., & Everson, H. “Knowing what you know and what you
don't: Further research on metacognitive knowledge monitoring”
(College Board Report No. 2002-3). Retrieved from
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http://professionals.collegeboard.com/profdownload/pdf/071623RDC
BRpt02-3.pdf 108 (2002).
[14] Tempelaar, D. T. The role of metacognition in business education.
Industry and Higher Education, 291-297.
doi:10.5367/000000006778702292 (2006).
[15] Corliss, S. B. “The effects of reflective prompts and collaborative
learning in hypermedia problem-based learning environments on
problem solving and metacognitive skills.” Ph.D. dissertation, The
University of Texas at Austin, United States -- Texas. Retrieved from
Dissertations & Theses @ University of Texas - Austin.(Publication
No. AAT 3187842). (2005).
[16] Davison, J. E., & Sternberg, R. J. “Smart problem solving: How
metacognition helps.” In D. J. Hacker, J. Dunlosky & A. C. Grasser
(Eds.), Metacognition in educational theory and practice (1998),(pp.
47-68). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
[17] Fong, L.L , Kaur G., & Chan, C.F. “Exploring 21st century skills among
postgraduates in Malaysia”. Procedia-Social and Behavioural Sciences
123, 130-138. Doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.1406 (2014).
[18] Kuhn, D. (1999). A developmental model of critical thinking.
Educational Researcher, 28(2), 16-46.
[19] Willingham, D. (2008). Critical thinking: Why is it so hard to teach.
Arts Education Policy Review, 109(4), 21- 29.
[20] Orion, N., & Kali, Y. (2005). The effect of an earth-science learning
program on students’ scientific thinking skills. Journal of GeoScience
Education, 53(4), 387-393
[21] Ku, K. Y. L., & Ho, I. T. (2010). Dispositional factors predicting
Chinese students’ critical thinking performance. Personality and
Individual Differences, 48, 54–58.
1245
T02_044: PRINCIPAL’S CHANGE

LEADERSHIP FOR EFFECTIVE SCHOOL
Siti Mariam Binti Hamid1
Chan Yuen Fook (Prof. Dr.)2
Izaham Shah Ismail (Assoc. Prof. Dr.)3
1-3
UiTM Puncak Alam
ABSTRACT
School leaders are the main change agent and responsible for the
effectiveness of schools. The success or failure of the organizations is
associated with one critical factor, the leadership. Hence, this study
attempted to examine the relationship between principal’s change
leadership and school effectiveness. This study employed a quantitative
method and a 6-point Likert scale survey questionnaires were used to gauge
the response from 42 teachers at two secondary public schools in Selangor.
Half of teacher respondents rated almost agree that they perceived change
leadership has been practised by the principals. Besides that, most of
teacher respondents rated less agree their schools were effective. However,
a moderate, positive and very significant relationship between principal’s
change leadership and school effectiveness has been discovered. This
implied that the principals should strengthen their change leadership skills
to enhance the effectiveness of school.
Keywords: Principal’s change leadership, school effectiveness
Introduction and Background of Study
School systems and individual schools are progressively searching for new
approaches for management to run schools in ways that are right for 21 st
century. In order to face the global demands and changes, especially in
educational context, principals must change their role to adapt with current
situations [1]. Inducing change, influence others to change and maintenance
of change are the essence to leadership [2] to effectively manage and govern
an organization. Existing studies have showed that the capability to
implement changes, initiating school improvement and bringing success
into school depends on the ability of principal leadership[3][4][5].
Therefore, facilitating changes at school need a strong leadership [6].
1246
Moreover, to ensure the successful implementation of educational initiative

changes, only principals can turn ineffective schools to effective schools
[5]. Specifically for school administrators, it is importance to identify
effective leadership in managing change to revitalise school organizations
and facilitate adaptation in this era. Thus, school administrators are urged
to enhance the “effectiveness” in the aspects of school management, as well
as in teaching and learning in the schools [3].
The findings from [7] has found that principals must have credibility and
competencies to effectively manage schools and produce students with
knowledge and skills. This is persistent with [8] and [9] who urged for
effective change leadership as a key to school change. However, the real
dilemma to transform education system towards effective schools in
Malaysia is the principal ability to lead changes [10]. In addition, [11]
reports that few principals are not motivated and productive to make
changes. They are too demanding on self and family commitments; stressful
of unrelenting changes; cannot function as change agent, lonely and
isolated; lack of support and conflicting expectation, mandates and
accountability [12]. As a result, a possible declining in quality of principals,
except for the principals in “non-challenging environment” [12]. Similarly,
[13] reported that school principals are having dilemma to focus upon their
roles not only in maintaining and consolidating what they have achieved,
but also in managing the challenges associated with moving individual
forward. Consistently, these school principals have little time to convene
people to plan, organize and follow through [14].
Reviewing at these scenarios, there a need to achieve a greater balance

in the aspects of constant change and continuity [15][16]. However, not
many studies have been conducted by associating these two constructs in
Malaysia education context. In relation to principals as change agent and
change implementer, there are still insufficient studies in the aspect of
school effectiveness [10][17]. In addition, the research of change leadership
is considered relatively new in education setting in Malaysia, specifically in
relation to school effectiveness. Thus, this study was intended to bridge the
gap by investigating principal’s change leadership and school effectiveness
as perceived by the teachers at secondary schools. Besides that, this study
was aimed at identifying the contributing factors for effectiveness of school
Literature Review
1247
Principal’s Change Leadership

Revolution in leadership study begins when organisations cognizant the
importance of change attribute. Recently, [18] and [19] have suggested
change leadership due to its capacity to navigate changes by unite leaders
and all organizational members to set common mindset and beliefs, as well
as to cultivate the practises and behaviours that adaptive to change.
Therefore, change leadership is considered inside-out element of meeting
the change challenge. In other word, it is concerned for people and keeping
their commitment throughout. Hence, [18] signify that effective change
leadership helps organizations to overcome the pitfalls of failed change
efforts and drive towards a stronger, more effective and more excellent
future. According to [20] and [21], change leadership consists of visioning,
enlisting, empowering, monitoring and helping individual adaptation. There
are two characters of change leadership [21].
(a) Leaders’ change selling behaviour – This action to promote the
change and convince the needs for change
(b) Leaders change implementing behaviour – This action to push a
change forward and consolidate success throughout the
implementation.
On that note, [22] emphasizes the importance of change leadership in

manners that leaders (a) paint a clear picture of the reason for change, (b)
lead the impacted staff towards a new vision, and (c) anchor the new reality
in the organizational culture. Clearly, change leadership is dealing with
people in ways to make things work, instil visions and empowering them
[23]. Navigating change is possible when the people understand the needs
to change and initiate dialogue to direct the change [24][25]. In Malaysian
setting, [10] has studied change leadership in facilitating change in high-
performing schools. Findings from her study suggest that principals’ change
leadership is necessary to tackle the changes in schools and increase student
achievement. Likewise, effectiveness of school will be enhanced as the
student achievement is the indicator for effectiveness of school [26].
Effective School
The concept of effectiveness has always been the main element of
organization building. In relation to effectiveness concept, it is difficult to
achieve congruent on definition as school seldom have quantitatively
displayed goals or tangible end-products [27]. However, attempts are made
to give meaning to school effectiveness. Traditional views defined school
1248
effectiveness as the extent how the goals have been achieved [26][28]. On
the other hand, [29] refers school effectiveness as “the extent to which a
school attains its educational goals in the aspects of administrative
management, teaching and learning, student outcomes and the support from
parents and communities”. Briefly, the researcher defines school
effectiveness as a process in school intended to enhance conditions of
schooling and output measures. Mostly, school effectiveness it measured by
student achievement (cognitive outcomes). However, previous studies
[30][31] have related the effectiveness of schools with affecting outcomes
such as principal leadership. Various withstand and underlying challenges
have forced the administrators to develop a coherent and sustainable
perspective on effectiveness. Inevitably, the challenges require school
administrators to set upon dynamic and movable effectiveness target.
Relationship between Change Leadership and Effective Schools

Existing studies (for examples [5][32][33][34]) have showed a significant
relationship between school effectiveness and leadership, but there was
limited studies on change leadership. Pertaining to this, [34] has found that
70%-80% of variation in student performance could be explained from the
school characteristics such as quality of school leadership. Thus, [33] have
made inference that school did make a different in student achievement, but
it depends on several factors. One of the factors had been identified was
leadership showed by the principal. The findings have reported that student
outcomes in secondary schools are improved when the principal displayed
firm leadership and teacher involvement, rather than any one alone [33].
[5] highlighted that one of five factors was correlated to school

effectiveness, namely the “purposeful and focused leadership from the
principal”. Findings from a longitudinal study of primary school, known as
School Matter, [35] had advocated 11 factors associated to effective
schools. However, among the factors, “professional leadership” and “shared
vision and goals” are closely related to the leadership exhibited by the
principals. By the professionalism, the principals practise leadership
purposefully set goals to cater the schools need, engage actively with the
schools and share the power with the staff. Power sharing does not limit the
principal leadership, but it happened when the principals are not fully
exercising control but rather been consulted widely. Recently, a study
conducted in 25 primary schools in Cyprus has found a positive and
significant effect of principal leadership on student achievement [36].
1249
Obviously, principal leadership has affected on student achievement. As

noted by [26], the student achievement is the indicator of effective school.
The study utilized a descriptive-correlational research design between
independent variable of principal’s change leadership and dependent
variable of school effectiveness. Multi-level random sampling was chosen
to determine the sample of population which finally made up of 42 teachers
from two secondary public schools in Selangor. The data was distributed
and collected in the period of two weeks using a survey questionnaire. The
questionnaires consist of change leadership and school effectiveness.
Change leadership variable contained four constructs namely goal framing
(5 items), capacity building (5 items), change execution (5 items) and
institutionalizing (5 items). The Cronbach’s alpha of each dimension was
.930 (goal framing), .952 (capacity building), .920 (change execution) and
.938 (institutionalising). The overall Cronbach’s alpha for change
leadership was .974. On the hand, the school effectiveness comprised of 8
items and it measures the teachers’ dimension such as the quality of
teaching and learning, accept & adjust the changes, problem challenges and
efficient use of resources. The Cronbach’s alpha for school effectiveness
instrument was .929. A high Cronbach’s alpha indicated that both
measuring items were highly consistent and ready to be used in the study.
As pointed out by [37], the higher the score (near 1), the reliable the
generated scale is. A 6-point Likert scale was incorporated to gauge the
perception of teachers towards the two variables. Figure 1 shows the
relationship between the independent and dependent variables of the study.
The researcher assumed that the independent variable, principal’s change
leadership has the effect on dependent variable, school effectiveness.
Independent Variable
Dependent Variable
Principal’s Change
Leadership [10]
School Effectiveness [30]
 Goal Framing  Teacher product and
 Capacity Building service
 Change Execution
 Institutionalizing
Figure 1: The conceptual framework of current study

1250
Both descriptive and inferential statistics were meant for data analysis.
Frequency and percentage were applied to examine the principal’s change
leadership and school effectiveness. Pearson Product Moment Correlation
was run to investigate the relationship between the constructs of change
leadership and school effectiveness. Besides that, multiple regressions were
employed to identify the contributing factors for the effectiveness of schools
among teachers in secondary schools.
Findings
Demographic Profiles
Out of 42 of total respondents, females were the majority (n=30, 71.4%)
and only 28.6% were male (n=12). In terms of age, respondents aged
between 31-40 were the majority (n=17, 40.5%), followed by 21-30 (n=14,
33.3%), 41-50 (n=10, 23.8%) and the least was age between 51-60 (n=1,
2.4%). In terms of marriage status, 83.3% was married (n=35), while 11.9%
was single (n=5) and only 4.8% was divorce (n=2). In terms of race, Malay
was the highest participants (n=39, 92.9%) compared to Chinese, Indian and
other races which formed 2.4% respectively. In terms of academic
achievement, majority was belong to degree holders (n=37, 88.1%)
followed by master’s degree (n=5, 11.9%). In terms of years of current post,
majority of the respondents (n=14, 33.3%) was holding 6-10 years
experiences, followed by 11-15 years (n=8, 19%), less than one year (n=7,
16.7%), 16-20 (n=6, 14.3%), 1-5 (n=5, 11.9%), and the least was over than
20 years (n=2, 4.8%). The last criteria was years of service to current school,
where the majority (n=13, 31%) was among 6-10 years, followed by 1-5
(n=12, 28.6%), less than one year and 11-15 years shared the same number
of response yielded 16.7% (n=7) respectively, more than 20 years (n=2,
4.8%) and the least was between 16-20 years (n=1, 2.4%).
Principal’s change leadership as perceived by the secondary school

teachers
Table 1 shows that 50% (n=21) of the respondents rated almost agree to
change leadership exhibited by the principals while only 4.8% of
respondents rated agree on principal’s change leadership. On the other hand,
35.7% (n=15) of respondents were rated less agree and 9.5% of respondents
were rated disagree on change leadership as practised by the principals.
1251
Table 1: Principal’s Change Leadership As Perceived By The Teacher

Respondents
Indicators Frequency
2 4
Change Leadership 3 15
4 21
5 2
Total 42
1=Strongly disagree 2=Disagree 3=Less agree 4=Almost agree 5=Agree 6=Strongly agree
School effectiveness as perceived by the secondary school teachers

Table 2 shows that most of respondents (66.7% ) were rated less agree on
school effectiveness. In meantime, 16.7% of respondents rated disagree and
2.4% of respondents were rated strongly disagree that their school was
effective. However, 14.2% of respondents were rated almost agree on
effectiveness of school.
Table 2: School effectiveness as perceived by the secondary school

teachers
Indicators Frequency Percentage
1 1 2.4
School 2
7 16.7
Effectiveness
3 28 66.7
4 6 14.2
Total 42 100.0
1=Strongly disagree 2=Disagree 3=Less agree 4=Almost agree 5=Agree 6=Strongly agree
Relationship between principal’s change leadership and effectiveness

of school
Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient was employed to test the relationship
among the variables. Table 3 shows that the relationship between
principal’s change leadership and effectiveness of school was positive,
moderate and very significant (r=.403, p<.01). This correlation analysis has
uncovered that change leadership was associated with effectiveness of
school.
1252
Table 3: Pearson’s correlation coefficient analysis of change leadership and sch

School Effectiveness C
Pearson Correlation 1 .4
School Effectiveness Sig. (2-tailed) .0
N 42 4
Pearson Correlation .403** 1
Change Leadership Sig. (2-tailed) .008
N 42 4
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
Predictors of change leadership, gender, years of service for current

post and years of service for current schools; for school effectiveness
Further analysis using multiple regressions was employed to identify any
predicting independent variables towards the variance to the effectiveness
of schools.
Table 4: Multiple regressions to identify predicting factors for the

effectiveness of schools
Model Summaryb
Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate
1 .473a .224 .140 .38515
a. Predictors: (Constant), Gender, years of service for current post, years of service
Leadership
b. Dependent Variable: School Effectiveness

ANOVAa
Model Sum of Squares Df Mean Square
Regression 1.583 4 .396
1 Residual 5.488 37 .148
Total 7.071 41
a. Dependent Variable: School Effectiveness
b. Predictors: (Constant), Gender, years of service for current post, years of service for current school, Change Leadership
Coefficientsa
1253
Model Unstandardized Standardized t Sig. 95.0%

Coefficients Coefficients Confide
Interval f
B Std. Beta Lower U
Error Bound B
(Constant) 1.969 .393 5.013 .000 1.173
Change Leadership .396 .133 .446 2.972 .005 .126
Gender -.182 .137 -.200 -1.327 .193 -.460
1 Years of service for
-.057 .071 -.192 -.797 .430 -.200
current post
Years of service for
.089 .079 .271 1.121 .270 -.072
current school
a. Dependent Variable: School Effectiveness
Table 4 shows that only change leadership (t=2.972, p=.005) has been
identified as significant predictor towards the variance of school
effectiveness. The other independent predictors were found no significant
contributed to the variance of school effectiveness. Hence, the final
estimated multiple regression model to estimate the variance of school
effectiveness was presented as following:
Y = 1.969 + .446Change Leadership + e (random error)
Also, Table 4 has indicated that R2 was .224 and adjusted R2 was .140
respectively. These values indicated that only 22.4% or more accurately
14.0% of the total variances of school effectiveness can be predicted from
change leadership. The contribution of this predictor variable towards the
variance of school effectiveness was reported based on the adjusted R2 value
due to its value could give a better estimation of the true population. Hence,
Discussion
Overall, half of the secondary school teachers in this study rated almost
agree that their principals had demonstrated change leadership. They
viewed the principals as able to set school goals and could relate the rational
of goals setting to the needs of change. In addition, the teachers in this study
also perceived that their principals have provided necessary coaching and
mentoring as preparation towards change and new educative innovations.
1254
The teachers also perceived that their principals have taken necessary
actions to reduce conflicts during change and plan to sustain change
implementation. According to [23], change leaders have a sense of urgency,
inspire belief, creating vision and empower people to challenge the change.
These activities of leaders are important to revitalise organisation. Change
leaders have the capacity to navigate changes and set common mindset and
belief among the followers [18][29]. Thus, principals who exhibited change
leadership have positive tendency to influence teachers of the needs and
beliefs to change [10]. Moreover, principal with change leadership could
envisage the change and educational initiatives in schools, hence, proper
planning and discussion with teachers will be held to tackle the change
challenges [10].
Surprisingly, more than half of teachers rated less agree on the

effectiveness of their schools. In the other word, they perceived their
schools as ineffective. The teachers perceived that they were unable to do a
good job coping with emergencies and disruptions, accept and adjust to
change, accept and adjust to change implementation quickly and use
available school resources effectively. These findings were contradictory to
studies by [28] and [32] who emphasized that the efficiency, flexibility,
adaptability and innovative describe effective schooling. Supported by [38],
the quality, quantity and efficiency are the indicators for effective schools.
Hence, this study did not support [38]’s key concept of school effectiveness
as the findings discovered that the teachers felt that quality and quantity of
school products and services had not met certain standard.
Despite of the different findings in these two variables, however, change

leadership and school effectiveness have found to be much correlated to
each other. Change leadership was found to be accounted for the variance
of school effectiveness. [5] has highlighted that the “purposeful and focused
leadership from the principals” have facilitated the effectiveness of schools.
This study supported [35] who posited that professional leadership and
shared vision and goals are the criteria of school effectiveness [35].
Conclusion
Many of existing studies have examined the relatedness of principal

leadership and school effectiveness, but still there is not much information
pertaining to the change leadership. Therefore, this current study provides
meaningful findings towards the effectiveness of school. The significant
1255
relationship between principal’s change leadership and school effectiveness

warrant the new invention of educational leadership in moving forward the
school organisations particularly elevating the student outcomes. Perhaps,
the Ministry of Education can consider to use the findings to find new
methods or strategies to improve school management in Malaysia context.
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change: A leader’s role. (Center for Creative Leadership, United States,
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1258
T02_045: OBSTACLES AND CHALLENGES IN

APPLYING AND IMPLEMENTING SHARED
PARENTING PRINCIPLE IN MALAYSIA
Suzana Binti Ali
Asst. Prof. Dr. Roslina Bt Che Soh @ Yusoff
Assoc. Prof. Najibah Mohd Zain
Ahmad Ibrahim Kuliyyah of Laws
International Islamic University Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Malaysian legislations for child custody emphasize that the welfare of a
child shall be the paramount consideration. However, these legislations do
not have any provision toward shared parenting principles nor do they have
explicit guidelines on its implementation and application. Amendment was
made to the laws to include a provision of equal parental rights, but it does
not directly relate to the principle of shared parenting which emphasizes on
parental responsibilities. The vagueness of the laws as well as the absence
of proper guidelines in relation to shared parenting, opens doors for courts
to make inconsistent decisions in determining custodial rights and often
decide in favour of sole custody. The absence of specific laws on shared
parenting has also caused difficulties for parents to cooperate for the sake
of the children. They always stress on their conflicts and fighting for their
rights rather than focus on the welfare of the children as they have limited
knowledge on the significance of shared parenting. This paper seeks to
discuss the obstacles and challenges in implementing and applying shared
parenting after marital separation in the context of Malaysia. A very brief
comparative overview on the application of shared parenting in Australia
is explained to examine how they go about with this concept. As Malaysia
practises dual legal systems, this paper examines the suitability of the
shared parenting principle to be applied in both systems. Analysis of cases
from the Civil and Shariah courts will be made to identify the extent of the
courts’ effort in applying the principle. Finally, the paper lays down gaps
on why it is difficult for this principle to be applied in Malaysia.
Keywords: Child Custody, Welfare of the Child, Shared Parenting,

Malaysian Laws
1259
INTRODUCTION
The term “shared parenting”is often associated with other terms, as

different countries may apply a particular term with their own interpretation
that suits their societies and norms. However, the terms used do not have
great dissimilarities, and significantly overlap.
The term “co-parenting” is often used in reference to joint custody

arrangements, as it is best to refer to parental responsibilities [4]. The
concepts of joint custody and shared parenting are assumed to ensure that
the children feel they are growing up in a family environment, even though
their parents are separated [5]. The mother and father should retain a strong
positive parenting role by having active involvement in their children’s
lives, as well as in the decision-making of what is best for the children [2].
The concepts are basically similar. Therefore, shared parenting is

considered a kind of arrangement made by the parents. This is sometimes
referred to as joint physical custody, joint legal custody, time sharing and
shared residence [8].. As long as it is beneficial for the children, and reflects
the importance of protecting the welfare of the children after parental
divorce, the terms may be used interchangeably.
A child refers to a person under the age of eighteen [9]. As long as the
person is under this purview, his or her welfare shall be protected as stated
under the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Children
(UNCRC). The welfare of the child is paramount, as the court needs to
access factors that may affect the child's welfare. 'Welfare' is defined by the
Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary, 2nd edition as 'the physical and
mental health and happiness, especially of a person'. It is clear that the court
must consider the physical and mental health, and happiness, of the children
in these situations [12].
Therefore, in deciding on custody matters, the court will place the welfare
of the child as the primary consideration and this encompasses many aspects
including age, gender, religion, custom, background, culture and parents’
behaviour. Other than that, factors of education, health and internal changes
following their growth also need to be taken into account. Emphasis is
given that if the children’s rights are taken away by the parents, this may
1260
destroy their process of growth, as this process requires love and affection
by the parents and not constant conflict [14].
SHARED PARENTING IN AUSTRALIA
The Shared Parenting concept has been practised in many countries, as

many people acknowledge that this concept benefit the children, and trains
the parents to be in a good relationship for the sake of their children.
Australia among the countries that acknowledge the shared parenting

concept in the statute, i.e. the Family Law Amendment (Shared Parental
Responsibility) Act 2006 which has replaced the old version called the
Family Law Act 1975. The new Act encourages separated parents, if safe
to do so, to become involved and play an important role in the children’s
lives. The parents in this case cooperatively agree on parenting
arrangements outside the legal system with the purpose of protecting the
welfare of the child [3].
However, the presumption of shared parenting may be rebutted if the court
finds that the child’s welfare is hardly protected e.g., constant conflict by
the parents, domestic violence, or child abuse [2]. In these situations, the
court will not opt for shared parenting but alternatively award sole custody
to the parent the court thinks fit to win the custody.
Before the court orders for equal time arrangement, it must consider
whether the arrangement is reasonably practicable and in the best interest
of the child. Reasonably practicable is defined in section 65 DAA of the
Family Law Amendment (Shared Parental Responsibility) Act 2006 as the
child spending equal time or substantial and significant time with each
parent in certain circumstances where it requires that the child spend both
some time on weekends and holidays and some time on other days. It must
also include time in their daily routine and allow the parents to participate
in events that are significant to the child [3].
Australia has placed great effort to ensure that the welfare of the child can
be protected. One particular effort is the introduction of an alternative
arrangement called “shared parenting”. Although shared parenting seems to
be the best arrangement, the court will not hesitate to refuse granting this
order if it does not benefit the child at all as in all custody disputes, the main
concern of the court is the child’s interest to be well protected.
1261
MALAYSIAN LEGAL SYSTEM ON FAMILY LAWS
Malaysia practises a dual legal system that involvesthe civil legal system
and the Shariah legal system. As for family matters, civil laws govern non-
muslims, while Shariah generally governs Muslims.
In the Federal Constitution, the civil court, i.e. the high court, has no
jurisdiction over the Shariah court and vice-versa. They both have their
own exclusive jurisdictions [1]. List II of the State List6 explains that the
Shariah court has jurisdiction over persons professing the religion of
Islam. Since Shariah matters are the state subject, every state has
its own Shariah laws which are in conformity with the federal Shariah law.
Basically, guardianship and custody of children for non-Muslims

are governed by the Guardianship of Infant Act 1961 (GIA 1976) and the
Law Reform (Marriage & Divorce) Act 1976 (LRA 1976) [8]. Apart of
these laws, it is common for the court to refer to common law
6Except with respect to the Federal Territories of Kuala Lumpur,

Labuan and Putrajaya,
Islamic law and personal and family law of persons professing the religion of Isla
m, including the Islamic law relating to succession, testate and intestate, betrothal,
marriage, divorce, dower, maintenance, adoption, legitimacy, guardianship, gifts, p
artitions
and non-
charitable trusts; Wakafs and the definition and regulation of charitable and religio
us trusts, the appointment of trustees and the incorporation of persons in respect of
Islamic religious and charitable endowments, institutions, trusts, charities and chari
table institutions operating wholly within the State; Malay customs; Zakat,
Fitrah and Baitulmal
or similar Islamic religious revenue; mosques or any Islamic public places of wors
hip, creation and punishment of offences by persons professing the religion of Isla
m against precepts of that religion, except in regard to matters included in the Fede
ral List; theconstitution, organization and procedure of Syariah courts, which shall
have jurisdiction only over persons professing the religionof Islam and in respect o
nly of any of the matters included in this paragraph,
but shall not have jurisdiction in respect of offences except in so far as conferred b
y federal law; the control of propagating doctrines and beliefs among persons profe
ssing the religion of Islam; the determination of matters of Islamic law and doctrin
e and Malay customs.
1262
cases whenever necessary [6]. The laws that govern Muslims are the
Islamic Family Law Enactments of the States [8] and the Islamic Family
Law (Federal Territories) Act 1984 (IFLA) [6].
MALAYSIAN CIVIL LAWS
Before the amendment was made to the GIA 1961 [10], only the
father was recognised as the guardian of the children who would be
authorized to manage the children’s property. This situation put the mother
at a disadvantage position as she needs to obtain the father’s authorization
in all matters concerning the children in the case custody were to be given
to the mother [3]. This complication resulted to the amendment of Section
5 of the Guardianship of Infant Act 1961 after the demand by several NGO
to change it. The section has been amended on 1st October 1999 to include
a provision which provides equal parental rights to the child’s custody,
upbringing and the administration property [13]. However, the lacking part
is that it only talks about ‘parental rights’ and there is no provision that
explains ‘parental responsibility’ in sufficient detail.
In Gan Koo Kea v Gan Shiow Li ([2003] 4 CLJ 545), the court held that
Section 5 of the GIA 1961 only provides the rights of the parents over the
children. However, for the physical custody, care and control is governed
by the provision of the LRA 1976.
It is clearly shown that the amendment of Section 5 of the GIA 1961 does
not touch on shared parenting or parental responsibility but rather discusses
more on parental rights over the children. Indeed, the interests of the
children are in the hands of the parents to decide; but do the parents decide
for them accordingly and under the umbrella of their responsibility as
parents? This question is open for debate.
Other than the GIA, the Law Reform (Marriage & Divorce) Act 1976 (LRA
1976) also plays a critical role in protecting the welfare of the child
as Section 87 of the Act mentions that the court will decide to give custody
to either the father or the mother depending who can ensure that the welfare
of the child can be safeguarded. However, there is a rebuttable presumption
that custody for a child under seven years of age shall be given to the
mother. If the court finds that the child’s life is very much affected by the
changes of custody, then the court will re-assess the condition. The court is
1263
not obliged to reward custody of the children only to one single parent.
Instead, the court would assess the welfare and needs of each case
independently.
In Manimagalai a/p Gowindasamy v Indran a/l Sadasivam ([2011] MLJU

954), under s.88 (3) of the Law Reform Act 1976, for the good of the child
who is under seven years of age, he should be with his mother but this is a
rebuttable presumption. In this case, the mother was alleged to commit child
abuse towards the child. However, since the child was 3 years 7 months old
at the time of the hearing and with no medical reports on that matter, the
court in considering the child tender age and the rebuttable presumption of
s.88 (3) LRA, ordered that care and control of the child on a daily basis was
given to the mother. The court encouraged the parents to opt for joint
custody in order to prevent any possibility of child abuse in the future, but
as of how to apply and arrange that joint custody has not been prescribed or
guided by the court.
In certain cases, it is hard for the divorced parties to commit for 50/50 or
equal custody because this kind of application may not truly benefit the
children. In Murli a/l Naraindas v Sajni Bai a/p Bulchand ([2012] 9 MLJ
10), the court has made its decision according to the mutual agreement by
the parents whereby the husband requested for joint custody and also liberal
visitation rights to the children with overnight stay since only the father was
working, and not the mother. Therefore, the mother will look after the
children while the father will work out on the necessary settlements to be
given to the children. Although joint physical custody cannot be achieved,
consideration exists when both play their parts as parents well in order to
ensure the children’s welfare is protected.
MALAYSIAN SHARIAH LAWS
As for the Muslims, IFLA 1984 and Islamic Family Law Enactments of the
States do not have any provisions on shared parenting. The laws retain the
traditional pattern of granting a sole custody order in which the mother is
assumed to be the best person entitled to the custody of the child,
particularly if the child is still an infant [8].
If the parents have not voiced out to opt for joint custody or shared
parenting, the court will simply decide for sole custody. A good example is
the case of Noor Azleha Bt Bakar v Mohd Zaidi Bin Daud (Case no.
1264
14600-028-0859-2011, 23 October 2011, Unreported). The court after

taking into consideration the parents’ argument, agree to give sole
custody, although the father knows that he will not get to see the children
more often. The custody was given to the mother, while the
father only obtained limited visitation rights.
During the hearing, if one of the parties does not attend or does not
cooperate in the custody, the court will straight away opt for sole custody
as the court perceives that the absent party is not interested to obtain
custody. A good example is the case
of Tengku Asra Juzailah Binti Tengku Azlan v Raden Mohamad
Iman Kusumo Martoredjo (Case no. 14700-028-0006-2012,
1 March 2012, Unreported), whereby the father did not attend the court
hearing and as a consequence the court awarded his right to visit the children
at any time which may be reasonable.
Indeed, Shariah Family Laws in Malaysia do not suggest shared parenting
and the court is comfortable to decide on sole custody especially to the
mother because as it is seen that the mother is the best child taker [11].
Thus, none of the provisions in the statutes touch on equal parental
responsibility. However, according to surah At-Talaq verse 6, Allah says
“Take mutual counsel together, according to what is just and reasonable”.
Islam therefore advises parents to cooperate and come to a mutual
agreement on what is best for their children.In addition, in surah Al-Baqarah
verse 233, Allah advises the husband and wife to consult each other in a fair
manner regarding their children's future, post-divorce. This means that
Allah is so merciful and emphasizes on the importance of parents to be
responsible towards their children in all matters.
Nowadays, people have become open to many different views. Moreover,

the decisions of the court in certain cases has also varied and is not bound
strictly to the existing laws whereby the court would consider to grant joint
custody for the parents especially upon request of the parents. However,
this kind of judgment remains low in percentage. In some past cases, some
judges construe the words joint custody or shared parenting as equal in time
which means the attachment between the child and the parents must be a
50-50 basis. A good example is the case of Jamilah binti Ismail
v Kamaru Lizham bin Ahmad (Case no. 14100-017-0190-2006 and 14100-
017-0191-2006, 18 July 2006, Unreported). The court ordered for joint
physical custody whereby equal division shall be applied on the custody of
the child be it during school time or school holidays. The school time
1265
and holidays will be accumulated and divided equally between the

parents. In the case of Muzzalman Shah
Ismail Muzani v Nornisamsila binti Osman (14100-028-0323-2008, 30
November 2010, Unreported), the parents agreed to be with the child on a
weekly basis, while in the case of Azizul bin Ariffin v Hasniza binti Hussin
(Case no. 14200-028-0116-2008, 4 December 2008, Unreported), the
parents agreed to be with the child on a monthly basis as they lived in close
proximity and were confident they could monitor their child more closely
and have better attachment with the child.
Basically, joint custody or shared parenting is given to cases where the

parents are cooperative and are able to have an agreement for the benefit of
the children. The court is pleased to give reasonable judgment if the parties
involved give full cooperation to the court. A good example is the case
of Faradilla binti Ab Rahman v Nik Abd Halim bin Mohamad (14100-028-
0760-2012, 17 December 2012, Unreported) and Siti Nabilla binti Ismail
v Mohd Faisal Bin Wahid @ Mohamad (Case no. 14200-028-0326-2012,
23 April 2012, Unreported) in which the Court did not hesitate to agree
upon granting a joint custody as both parents were in mutual agreement as
to the arrangement of the children’s lives since the parents were not in a
high-conflict relationship and understand that the ultimate purpose is to
protect the welfare of the children.
CONCLUSION
All the cases mentioned and discussed above demonstrate the inconsistency
of decisions due to the absence of proper laws and guidelines on joint
custody or shared parenting. The lack of uniformity in practice by the courts
in dealing with family and children matters as well as the lack of a detailed
explanation on joint custody in some cases may potentially affect the
children in custody disputes.
Civil and Shariah courts in Malaysia normally prefer sole custody

arrangements instead of joint custody arrangements in most cases. Thus,
under the sole custody arrangement, the court normally awards the
residence of the child, parental responsibility and care for the child after
divorce to the mother while granting visitation rights to the father.
Furthermore, both civil and Shariah laws indicate that the party awarded
with the residence will have the final say on the education and upbringing
1266
of the child. It is reported that this common decision made by the court or
the effect of having sole custody will lead to problems such as reducing
contact between the child and the non-custodial parent, non-fulfilment of
child support obligations and denial of contact between the child and the
non- custodial parent [12].
It is true that the laws have placed welfare or the best interest of the child
principle as the central theme of child custody arrangement [6]. However,
the laws are silent on the concept of equal shared parenting or shared
parental responsibility and generally retain the traditional pattern of
granting sole custody order whereby the parent who is considered better and
fit in the upbringing of the child will be awarded with the custody of the
child [8]. Due to this, the court will have many different judgments on
similar matters or problems as there remain no guidelines to be followed
but only a discretionary power to decide the necessary.
Shared parenting is also not a very common concept in Malaysia and people
do not possess in depth knowledge and ideas on the benefits shared
parenting after divorce. Thus, cultural sensitivity is believed to be one
of the reasons for the difficulty to solve problems related to the best interest
of the child [7] and for the implementation of shared parenting since most
people are comfortable living in the zone set by their forefathers and are
afraid to step out, take risks and make changes for the sake of their children.
REFERENCES
[1] Article 121 (1A) of the Federal Constitution of Malaysia.

[2] Bagshaw D. (2008). Shared Parental Responsibility, Family
Violence and the ‘Best Interests’ of Children in Family Law. Paper
presented at the Family Relationship Services National Conference,
Australia.
[3] Fehlberg, B., Millward, C., & Campo, M. (2009). Shared post-
separation parenting in 2009: An empirical snapshot. Australian
Journal of Family Law, 3, 247–275.
[4] Heather Hayes & Graham Hunt, “Are Shared Custody Arrangements
made in the Best interests of the Child?”, paper presented at
the Second Family Court of Australia National Conference,
Enhancing Access to Justice, 20 – 23 September 1995, 20-23
September, Sydney, New South Wales Australia, p. 31-42, at 31.
1267
[5] Jaclyn Kee (Women’s Aid Organization). Retrieved from http://ww

w.wao.org.my/Guardianship+Act_81_76_1.hton March 8, 2016.
[6] Karpf, M., &Shatz, I. (2005). The divorce is over—What About the
Kids. American Journal of Family Law,  19 (1), 7-11.
[7] Lavadera, A. L., Caravelli, L., & Togliatti, M. M. (2011). Joint
custody and shared parenting: Analysis of practices in the Civil
Court of Rome. Padova University Press.
[8] Normi Abdul Malek (2013). Welfare of The Child as The Paramou
nt Consideration in Custody Cases:
A Comparative Study of Civil and Islamic Laws in
Malaysia. CLJ Law, 1(LNS), 1-37.
[9] Rojanah Kahar and Najibah Mohd Zin (2011). Child Related Policy
and Legislative Reforms in Malaysia. International Journal of
Social Policy and Society, 8, 6-36.
Roslina Che Soh (2010).Shared Parenting as an Interpretation of the Best
Interests of the Child in Custody Disputes: What Malaysia May
Learn from Australian Experience. Retrieved
from http://irep.iium.edu.my/5663/.
[10] Section 2 of the Child Act 2001.
[11] Section 5 of the Guardianship of Infant Act 1961.
[12] Section 81 of the Islamic Family Law (Federal Territory) Act 1984.
[13] “Share Parenting After The Divorce” (15 March 2011) The Star.
[14] Skelton G. (2012). Shared Parenting After Divorce: Lessons From
Australia. Retrieved from
http://www.halsburyslawexchange.co.uk/shared-parenting-after-
divorce-lessons-from-australia/
[15] Tay Chuen Siang v Wang Chiao Wen [2009] 9 CLJ 84.
[16] Teoh Hock Soon v. Chan Peng Yee (Originating Summons No. 24-
173-11/2011).
[17] “Usah Rampas Fitrah Ibu, Anak” (18 May 2011) Harian Metro.
1268
T02_046: “THE DEVELOPING EIGHT

ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION (D-8): THE
STRATEGIC DEVELOPMENT AND
FORMULATION OF FOREIGN TRADE
POLICY
Madzli Harun
Khatijah Omar
School Of Business And Maritime Management, Universiti Malaysia
Terengganu
Roslina Ismail
School Of Socio Economic, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu
ABSTRACT
Generally, this paper will be discussing towards Developing Eight
Economic Co-operation (D-8) for Foreign Trade Policy (FTPs) formulation
and implementation process. Contents for this chapter related to the
formulation and implementation process of D-8 FTPs and it compliances
by member states. Hence, there are several issues could behind these
agreement which need to explore such as the need for special arrangement
by certain country in Developing Eight (D-8) as well as the awareness to
ratify FTPs by the member states. Although, the Developing Eight (D-8)
faces several of problem and obstacles for formulate and implement of its
rules by National Regulatory Authorities (NRAs), which it includes Trade
Commission, National Assembly or House of Parliament , Government
Agency and national grass roots. Hereby, Trade Agreement on Common
Trade Rules at the Community level does not necessarily translate into
commitment to apply those rules coherently and effectively. This study
argues that effective trade policy application and enforcement depends on
institutions that are empowered, sufficiently independent and fully
accountable. Excessive political control is counter-productive. Recent
legislation and Commission agreement have aimed, on the one hand, to
tighten D-8 trade legislation and define more obligations for national trade
the authorities, and on the other hand to decentralise enforcement and at the
same time confer more monitoring powers to the each National Trade
Commission. Although these are moves in the right direction, they may
actually make heavier the workload of the national state of Trade
1269
Commission. This study warns that too much control by the national state
of Trade Commission may result in implement regulatory homogeneity.
Well, to avoid these particular risks, it needs to propose an alternative
approach based on the fundamentals of effective trade policy
implementation that also may highlight the “Principle-Agent” relation.
Hence, the approach puts accountability instruments in their owned
position. They also widened in order to identify best practices and National
Regulatory Authority method problems solving. In this way, especially
FTPs in the future member states will learn from each other’s states
Commissions and experiences. This learning is indispensable to counter
balance the decision-making independence of national FTPs.
Keywords: Principal-Agent Theory, Delegation, Formulation, Developing
Eight Economic Cooperation (D-8), Foreign Trade Policy.
Introduction
The Challenges for Formulation, and Establishment Of D-8 Foreign

Trade Policy
Market liberalisation in the D-8 over the past decade has accompanied by
the establishment of D-8 Foreign Trade Policy (D-8 FTPs). This
“institutionally enhancement” approach differs markedly from market
opening in the early stages of the D-8 community. Generally, the important
for this chapter is based on threefold7:
 First, it reviews how the D-8 member states of Commissions
monitor the formulation performance of the D-8 FTPs and ensure
that how the process has assigned to them;
 Second, it considers how they should monitor and control the D-8
regulations after all the regulations and legislation process; and
 Finally, it examines the consequences of the ratifications of the D-
8 FTPs on these monitoring and controlling functions. Policy and
regulations implementation and ratification are not an exact
science.
Policy formulation, implementation, and enforcement are not very

exact science. The establishment of D-8 Trade Policy represents such a
7
Interviewed with D-8, Director, D-8 Headquarters, Istanbul, Turkey, August 2009 ;and an
interview with D-8, Economist via video conference SKYPE (Antwerp- Istanbul); December
2009.
1270
move from one imperfect state of the economy to another systematic Trade
and Custom Rules and Regulatory to measures facilitate market entry,
expansion or trade activity beyond national limit, prevent distortions to
completion and protect local producers and domestic market as well as
SMEs, but regulations itself not costly or difficulties 8.
Dilemma and Inconsistency of D-8 FTPs Formulation

Hence, this raises the questions how the D-8 Secretariat, Council,
Commission as well as High Level of Trade Officer could have delegated
power to newly established agreements and policies such as D-8 FTPs,
Rules of Origin, and Visa Fee Mobility for Businesses Agreement and
Custom Regulations. How do they ensure that the D-8 FTPs will be meet
the target set for them? In addition, do existing member states such Malaysia
and Republic Islam of Iran have enough experience so that potential
candidates countries could learn useful lessons? Hence, through this paper
presented both similarities and differences in the national trade regulatory
and policy structures as well as monitoring instruments that have been
established amongst D-8 member states after signing the FTPs on 2006,
before it will be fully ratifying and enforcement in upcoming event.
Generally, any delegation of task faces several of risks and difficulties
especially in national level, means from Trade Commissions as a Principal
in national level into national grass roots (Agents). The risks are greater, the
wider the negotiation, decision making neither in national, or Government
to Government level and ratification and enforcement discretion of the D-
8 FTPs, RoO and Custom Regulations. Again, this research needs to ask
how the member states (Council and Trade Commission) have delegated
that particular task and in particular, how to determine whether the D-8
FTPs perform their duties as they meant too. It is even more important for
candidate’s countries to ask the same questions because their efforts to build
capacity for effective formulation, implementation, and enforcement of the
D-8 trade regulations such Rules of Origin and Custom Regulation are
precondition for their accession to the D-8 FTPs. Whereby, the candidates
member states are under the scrutiny of the D-8 Secretariat and Council;
and would naturally to know how the Secretariat and Council will assess
their (National Trade Commission) capacity and whether their efforts will
be deemed by the D-8 to be successful or vice versus until recent the
Secretariat and Council has focussed most of its attention to the relatively
8Interviewed with Deputy Director, Programme Co-ordination, and SMEs Corp. Negotiator,
SME Corp. Kuala Lumpur. July 2010 (via Yahoo Messenger).
1271
simple, but not easy, issue of whether the candidate countries (National
Commission) have created institutions with the pre-requisite legal trade
power and sufficient knowledge and resources (e.g. managing D-8 trade
resources, with proper trade and custom standards). For this purpose, this
research has an intention to deliver an idea and an approach based on the
Principal Agent Theory. Then, it allows identifying the significant features
in the institutional structure of the D-8 FTPs and the obligations imposed
on them by their Principals (i.e. the member states-Commission). Even, it
may examine whether such obligations constrain sufficiently the room for
manoeuvre of the FTPs so that they would prevented from exploiting any
discretion they may have in carrying out their assigned tasks. However
depriving FTPs from any discretion is not necessarily a solution to the
problem of delegation. In fact, theory suggests that over restraining FTPs
creates problems of its own. The reason is that the D-8 has sought to
liberalise and integrate trade by entrusting National Authorities
(Commission or respective Department), with certain regulatory task is
precisely because incumbent operators have to prevent from abusing their
dominance and obstructing the entry of potential candidates.
The definition of that task is in itself very difficult. Hence, in this
paper argue that national and D-8 wide accountability instrument provide a
solution to the problem of regulatory discretion. These questions will
become more significant in view of the prospective enlargement of the D-8
FTP membership. Hence, this paper will be addresses the challenges posed
by the enlargement of the D-8 FTPs member states in four respects such as:-
i. To examines whether and how the countries that have applied for
membership of the D-8 FTPs have created viable systems for
monitoring the formulation and implementation of their FTPs in
national level;
ii. To asks whether the new D-8 FTP member states would have the
same strength or weaknesses incentives than existing member
states to implement and enforce of D-8 Trade Policy neither in
neither D-8 level nor national level;
iii. To considers the consequences of the expansion on the ability of
the D-8 Secretariat and National Commission to monitor the
formulation and implementation process performance of the
member states and their D-8 FTPs and;
iv. Aims to provide insight into the evolution of D-8 FTPs system for
ensuring compliance amongst member states.
1272
Although this insight is useful to existing member states, it will be

even more relevant to the potential states potential candidates because they
are on the outside and have little influence on evaluation of D-8 trade
regulations and institutions. By anticipating this institutional evolution,
they can build administrative structures that will fit better into the future
framework of the D-8. For instance, there a marked but recent trend towards
peer reviews in appraising the application of D-8 regulations in diverse
fields such as in Priority List of Areas of Cooperation. They will be
strengthening for monitoring of the FTPs process at their national level
before hand end (finalise proceeding) to D-8 Council and Commission
level. Hence, it will give them valuable experience in term of negotiation
process and implementation process at national level within actor and
player at that level such as SMEs sector, Chamber of Commerce or
Business Council, Government Agency or Department and Ministerial
which that will be useful when they will be join the D-8 FTPs in part of
policy process. On the other hand, most of the existing countries and the
candidate’s countries has receive large of technical assistance to establish;
and or to improve their knowledge and administrative as well as regulatory
capacity from D-8 Secretariat initiative or programme related to FTPs, RoO
and Custom Regulations . Hence, be more realistic D-8 Secretariat through
their an initiative, the D-8 RoO programme has been organised
successfully which it has received great and full assistance from
Association of Southeast Asian Nation (ASEAN) representative and World
Trade Òrganisation (WTO) representative where is embarked for trade
and custom technical assistance and regulations in connection to institution
building9.
Indeed the D-8 is deeply concerned about the ability and integrity
of the public administrative of the candidates towards FTPs formulation and
implementation process status. Most trade diplomatic officer, negotiator,
researcher, economist and higher level communities in D-8 observes of the
expansion process express the same concerns about the trade administration
working process of the candidate’s countries level. According to Foreign
Affairs Minister of Malaysia, Dato Seri Anifah Aman, member states
Commissioners must listed trade as the top priority for D-8 cooperation.
Whereby, it is vital importance that all member countries could complete
the signing and ratification of the Foreign Trade Policy, Agreement on
9
Interviewed with D-8, Economist via video conference SKYPE (Antwerp-Istanbul), and
December 2009.
1273
Customs Co-operation, and Agreement on Simplification of Visa for D-8

Businessmen. Even, Anifah say,
“I believe that we should exert more effort on improving the pecuniary

advantages of countries by introducing and implementing practical
economic programmes on an incremental basis to boost trade and
economic development”10.
Anifah Aman
Foreign Affairs Ministry of Malaysia
Malaysian Council to D-8
Hereby, this particular chapter pursues a different line of analysis.

Instead of assuming that they have a capacity problem this paper may ask
whether they have a FTPs incentives problem and product or commodity
will be offer to the member states in line with demand. This is question not
highlight before. Most of the actor/players believe that the candidates are
eager to enter the D-8 Trade Group; therefore, they infer that they would do
their best to comply and apply D-8 FTP. However before that they should
convince their national House of Parliament or Congress to ratifying FTPs
at their own country. Well, capacity is one thing; willingness to enforce D-
8 trade policy after accession is another. This paper examine whether indeed
they will be eager to apply FTPs policy, which have been assessing by
others.
However, irrespective of their willingness, without the necessary
institutional and administrative reforms and improvements, those particular
countries will be unable to apply the acquis properly, let alone effectively.
Even worse, incomplete, or defective implementation of the acquis in the
prospective new member states will impose D-8 FTPs and other member
states and may delay the credibility of the whole D-8 system. This system
is base several criteria’s such as on mutual trust, sharing understanding and
commitment among the member states. Therefore, they trust that each
applies common rules, regulations faithfully and uniformly. Through some
observation for these institutions and regulations the D-8 has succinctly put
the problem as follows. (Refer to Figure 1.) Generally, there is an
institutional vacuum between D-8 legislators; and the formulation and
implementation of the D-8 FTPs by National Authorities at member states
10
Report of the 12th Session of the D-8 Council of Ministers, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 2
November 2009
1274
level, the absence of adequate features of conflict resolution and an

unequal expertise and independence of the national regulators further
undermines the efficiency of the D-8 FTPs system. The lack of D-8
administration institution and networking previously makes cooperation
between the national administrations essentially depend on their mutual
trust; bilateral activity and loyalty created the trade agreement co-operation
will delay for ten years since 1997 - 2007. In the perspective of enlargement
of trade integration, this situation becomes clearly insufficiently to assure
the credibility and legitimacy of the D-8 rule making process. It is appearing
that, in addition to its other deficits, the D-8 may also have a strategic policy
implementation deficit. Admission of new members with weak institution
will worsen that deficit.
Figure 1: Past and Current Process of D-8 FTPs by the D- 8 Institutions (D-8)
Hence, that is why the Jakarta Summit Declaration in 2006 and
Kuala Lumpur Summit on August 2008 as well as Council Meeting in Kuala
Lumpur on 2nd November 2009 requested the candidate’s countries need
to re-manage or adjusting their administrative structures to be more
practical when dealing with negotiation and decision making process. In
addition to finding solutions to the negotiating issues, whereby, progress in
the negotiations depends on the incorporation by the potential candidate
states and existing member states of the acquis in their national FTPs,
Custom Legislation, also amended product offer list on Rules of Origin
(RoO) and especially on their capacity to effectively implement and enforce
it. Hereby, the researcher argue that the only way to be reasonably assured,
the candidates, or existing member states, have the capability, capacity and
inclination for effective implementation of the acquis, at present and in the
future. The reason is that to examine whether they have set up institutions
1275
with strong trade performance incentives, product, and commodity offer on

RoO and sufficient customs tariff to maintain and improve their trade policy
report. Only the right institutional like Developing Eight (D-8) design will
be induce implementing institutions to maintain strict implementation and
enforcement of D-8 trade rules and custom regulations in the face of
changing international trade climate, market conditions, expansion
commodity demand and business strategies amongst private sector. Even
though there is hardly for any national institution or Ministry that is not
affect by D-8 trade policy to be pursue. The researher lists the potential of
D-8 sectors to the D-8 Priority list of Area Cooperation in five sectors such
as Trade, Agriculture and Food Security, Industrial Cooperation and SMEs,
Transportation, Energy and Minerals. (Please refer Figure 2).
Sources: The researcher observation

Figure 2: Relations D-8 FTPs and Sectors
An above figure views for the relationship between D-8 FTPs and the
potential sector. That observation sectors as a main stream for D-8 FTPs as
well as D-8 Ten Years Road Maps.
1276
Hence, the main research question through this research ,are how
the D-8 and the member states will be monitor the progression of FTPs and
how the enlargement of the D-8 FTP amongst the member states on
potential monitoring process system. Generally, the main stage by placing
the research in the context for implementation of D-8 trade policy. Hereby,
to ensure this research significance, researcher reviews the main strands of
the Principal Agent Theory (P-A Theory). In the meantime, the researcher
also refines and adapts it for D-8 research purposes. In line with this, it will
be developing a new an idea and model that allows examining D-8 FTPs in
the context of trade integration on organisation approach. Which, this is
more significant to the D-8 FTPs. To ensure this research in systematic,
idealistic and practical, the author might be use theoretical insights the
author derived earlier to evaluate the performance requirement imposed by
both Developing Eight (D-8) and national trade policy. On the other hand,
this research also present the results of an interview on the issues of FTPs,
even will be carried out in both the D-8 and the member states views as
well. These results supplement the information the researcher have obtained
from several sources. Hopefully, it allows reaching a more comprehensive
assessment of policy performance criteria and institutional structures.
Finally, this research consider how does existing institutional structures,
procedures and legal requirement may be amendment. So that, they create
stronger incentives for D-8 FTPs to carry out their tasks in the best interest
of an enlarged D-8 FTPs as a whole.
The Significances Of Delegation Approach On Principal - Agent

Theory Within The Formulation And Implementation Startegy Process
For D-8 FTP
This section explained further how far this chapter in line with the current
discussion on delegation, D-8 Secretariat role and the implementation of the
D-8 trade policy. Research study regarding delegation from Dehousse
(2001); Lenaerts (1993); Majone (1996, 1999) and Pollack (1997, 2002),
from their point of view, most of the literatures on the organisation that they
examined the issue of delegation has looked at it from the perspective of the
member states which instability power or inconsistently some of their
power to the Principal of organisation. The main questions in this
voluminous literature are, whether or why member states voluntarily give
up part of their sovereignty to the Principal? and how they prevent the D-8
Secretariat and national grass roots from staying beyond powers which are
explicitly conferred to it and, lately, whether such delegation of powers is
democratically legitimate which at the end it delay for trade policy
1277
decision as happen today. (Please refer to Figure 3). Currently, have several
national Commission and related trade department prepared to ratifying D-
8 FTPs at their national level before proceeding at D-8 levels caught the
interest of scholar. This paper concerned neither about the motives, nor
about the methods of endowing the D-8 with reaction to act on its own or
together with the member states. In the first stage on 2006 (all member
states countries has signed) the D-8 adopts the FTPs policy [mostly in the
form of directives] whose application requires formulating or drafted of
trade measures by the member states. In general, the researcher also
questions the democratic legitimacy of neither the Community and National
Institution or Ministry that make those decisions or the acts they ratified.
These are important issues in the D-8 context, they in the scope of this
research study. Nevertheless, when refer to delegation process, the mean the
preceding of regulatory tasks by the member states to National Authorities
(grass roots agencies or actors) enforcing within their boundaries. Besides
that, according to the term delegation, most of other literatures by Dehousse,
Lenaerts, Majone, and Pollack also referred it to the obligations imposed on
the member states as by community acts. Strictly speaking, this situation
cannot be proving at D-8 community recently. Why it happen? Since the
D-8 member states is hardly has any regulatory powers of its own and at
any rate has only those powers defined by primary (Principal and not at all
to and secondary (Agent), it does not have anything to delegate to the
member states before member states to define new trade rules. Besides that,
literatures by Dehousse (2001); Lenaerts (1993); Majone (1996, 1999) and
Pollack (1997, 2002), examined the purpose and conditions for
establishment of organisation such as Developing Eight (D-8) for this case
study.
The Secretariat aims, to regulate certain aspect of the internal
market, and to monitor developments of common interest, or to facilitate
trade cooperation or to function as executive bodies on behalf of the D-8
member states. The main objective for this chapter also is to study the role
of Secretariat that is under the responsibility and control of the member
states. Another variation in the theme of delegation is the granting of certain
powers by Secretariat institutions to Commissions or bodies to act on their
behalf. Hereby, the principle that deals with these instances of delegation
stipulates that Community institutions may not transfer to other bodies their
responsibilities and may not grant to them powers that they do not hold
because it would alter the balance of powers defined by the Trade Treaties
of D-8. Based to the literature from legal scholars (Vervaele, 1999) and
political scientist (Talberg, 2002) which both of them highlighted three
1278
major questions in European laws, also might be it in line or valuable for

D-8 to learn as well, such as Vervaele (1999) and Talberg (2002) ;
i. ‘The common of the enforcement standards defined by the
respective institution and which have to meet by the member
states.’ Hence, in these case, D-8 Secretariat through D-8
Commission should play their role to ensure D-8 FTP will be
achieve and ratify by the other D-8 member states as well;
ii. ‘Enhancing the liability and obligations of member states and
respective national trade and commerce the authorities for the
provision or policy’, defined in the D-8 trade policy or D-8 FTPs;
and
iii. The obligation of the D-8 Commissions as guardian of the D-8
FTPs and the ‘instruments it’s choosing to enforce compliances
and enforcement’.
(Dehousse (2001); Lenaerts (1993); Majone (1996, 1999) and Pollack

(1997, 2002)
Figure 3: Understanding Basic principles of Principal-Agent Theory

in Developing Eight (D-8)
According to the above statements and explanations, the main interest

is in the institutional formulating regulatory systems which it managed and
monitored by D-8 Secretariat and in which D-8 Secretariat themselves are
under certain obligations and certain limitation. Requirements imposed on
D-8 FTPs are in National Offer List of Goods as per agreed in National
House of Parliaments or Congress. For instance, in the past, the failure of
D-8 FTPs to explain in detail, and it decision may be actionable by the
1279
respective national Commission. While its failure to submit and negotiate

thorough specific national trade policy, such as National Custom
Regulations or Offer of Goods List to the respective Ministry (Ministry),
House of Parliament is not normally an infringement for which the D-8 FTP
in question may be delayed and lacked by respective National Trade
Commission. Meanwhile, previously it is ineffective negotiation and
consensus decisions by D-8 Commission and HLTO towards trade policy
integration. In past situation, it does not generates issues which dealt by the
trade policy, unless there is a references for preliminary ruling by the
National Parliament or the Commission, which it initiates proceedings
against the member states concerned. The researcher will not dwell on the
findings of the literature concerning incorrect transposition and non-
formulation and implementation of D-8 Foreign Trade Policy (D-8 FTPs)
by the member states and the related proceedings failure initiated by the
national Commission11. Here, it may also consider the implications,
liabilities and risks of enforcement in relation to policy brought before
National Parliaments against member state Government for transposition of
D-8 FTPs or doctrine. Generally, assumes that D-8 trade policy is correctly
transported by the member states but not only accountable by D-8
Secretariat. Whereby, this particular an assumption that creates Secretariat
responsibilities more difficult. Nevertheless, such diversity is recognising
by current D-8 policy. However, it is need to integrate it under single trade
policy so called as D-8 FTPs. The Commission and D-8 Secretariat cannot
use legal remedies and appears to be increasingly in favour of softer
measures such as peer reviews and benchmark as a means of bringing about
convergence of national trade rules and practices. Cause of that, absolutely
this raises the question of an important or tolerable degree of diversity
between member states. Hence, through this particular article, the
researcher opinion is that, because there is no way defining a priori the
optimum level of divergence (diversity) or convergence (integrate) , it is
important to have procedures that require the national authorities for
example Department of Trade or Trade Ministry to take into account the
reasoned opinions of their counterparts in other member states.
Meanwhile, although the issue of delegation, formulation, and
implementation, trade policy process have aware by D-8 communities, the
relevant literature only tangentially relates to the subject matter of this
chapter. This is because an intention to examine the act of delegation by the
D-8 Secretariat within the D-8 Commission of member states and with the
11 Interviewed with D-8 Director, D-8 Headquarters, Istanbul, Turkey. August 2009.
1280
other national trade bodies or agents (actor and players). At the same time,
that literature grounded in law, policy, and political science. Besides that,
the researcher would like assessing on National Authorities and the tools
use how their action or achievement could be measure and enforcement. It
is no specifics direction on D-8 policy that to clarifies how this monitoring
and appraisal should do. Then, the approach also differs by relying on
institutional analysis. In line with these, next, will be review the basic
platform of the Principle Agent Theory (P-A Theory) and explain it is
relevant for subject matter. Then, the researcher would like define the
relevant approach that takes into account the process of trade institution
integration and the potential might be arises. Meaning that, it allow to
explore, and evaluate the means by which how should member states
delegate executive powers from D-8 Commissions to the national grass
roots, and, even how the Commission and D-8 Secretariat will be monitor
the performance of the D-8 Trade Policy (D-8 FTPs) formulation and
implementation as well as enforcement in the right track.
Conclusion
Through the researcher point of view, the combination at the theory and
common sense, suggest that Principal should give Agent or Agencies both
positive and negative inducements (incentives and sanctions). To ensure it
will be perform the tasks assigned to them, means for Agent. Each
government of member states through their policies mainly needed an
effective and efficient institutional framework faith the rights incentives and
controls. Hence, in response for delay or weak formulation of trade policy
amongst D-8 member states, the amount of details and controls instruments
have been proliferating in D-8 trade policy. However, the approach will be
mentions that detailed trade provisions and control by Principals may also
be counterproductive, policymaking will be less flexible and less responsive
to changing market conditions. More than that, in the researcher mind is
that accountability instruments may be more efficient and effective in the
longer term to ensure consistency formulation and implementation of the
D-8 trade provisions in a fair policy framework. Later, through the research
study approach, shows that even countries which benefit from adopting
common trade provisions might be have an intention to delay because lack
of decision from national level even though the common trade regulations
was agreed at stage where they will be formulate or implement these
provisions. Herewith the risk occurred or delayed of miss- formulation or
implementation may compounded by the fact that agreement on common
trade rules may be possible only by adoption of broad principles rather than
1281
detailed rules for extremely support FTPs. Beside that the approach also
suggest that the inclusion of more member countries in the system of
common trade provisions (i.e. enlargement) may create critical the quality
of policy formulation and implementation because the new partners have an
even stronger difficulties of trade policy process from the common rules.
Hence, if more countries integrate their economics in Developing Eight (D-
8), more attention should be concern to instruments for monitoring how the
common trade provisions are formulate, applied and enforced. Response to
D-8 scenario, it is not surprisingly where very few D-8 trade provisions
adopted into the national trade provision amongst member states, impose
performance requirements on national FTPs or define strong accountability
instruments. Generally, current directives in D-8 trade relations with D-8
FTPs (e.g. in the field of Halal products) that are not yet fully well known
by member states because it still new; created an environment in which
FTPs will be more accountable. On the same time, the D-8 Commission
assumes a pre-dominant supervising role means from current D-8 FTPs
membership. Thus may lead to mixed results. On the other hand, D-8 FTPs
will be applied more consistently and systematic with trade, customs
regulations, and tariff. Besides that, the pre-dominance by the Commission
and Secretariat for FTPs and its views with other approaches to trade
regulation will be absolutely ensconce it in the right position for
implementation and enforcement of FTPs near future. In line with that, this
emerging hub and spoke model of D-8 trade regulation and the other related
rules, with the Secretariat being the hub of the system, is more vulnerable
to bottlenecks caused by the Secretariat and Commission’s increased
workload of monitoring a larger number of more diverse member states.
The need for potential candidate’s countries, which will soon become D-8
FTPs, will be fully ratify amongst members states may require a different
approach to this emerging D-8 model of trade regulation because currently
non D-8 FTPs members states still reviewing process and negotiating at
their National Parliament to ensure FTPs will be prepare to be implement
in D-8 level itself. Not only are they learning on delegation of trade
regulations from up to down (grass roots), they (actors and players in
decision-making) may also have to be help to fend off any political
interference (internal and external) especially from their own national
political process. The most an important through FTPs is that it would be
benefit from closer interaction with their D-8 counterparts also amongst
national actor and players; and from systematic analyses of the experiences
and the lessons of regulations amongst existing member states. In enlarge
of D-8 FTPs member states, the introduction of performance and
1282
accountability requirement in national regulations will enable the D-8 trade

regulatory system to function more effectively and more consistently
without relying excessively on Secretariat monitoring.
References
[1] G. Majone. (1996). ‘Regulating Europe,’ Rouledge, London.
[2] G. Majone. (1999). ‘The Regulating State and its Legitimacy
Problems,’ West European Politics, vol. 22, pp.1-24.
[3] J. Talberg. (2002). ‘Paths to Compliances: Enforcement,
Management and the European Union,’ International
Organization, vol. 56, pp. 609-643.
[4] J. Vervaele. (1999). ‘Compliance and Enforcement of European
Community Law,’ Kluwer, The Hague.
[5] K. Lenaerts. (1993). ‘Regulating the Regulatory Powers:
Delegation of Powers in the EC,’ European Law
Review, vol.18, pp.23-49.
[6] M. Pollack. (1997). ‘Delegation, Agency, and Agenda Setting in
the EC,’ International Organisation, Vol. 51, pp. 99-134.
[7] M. Pollack. (2002). ‘Learning from American again; Theory and
Method in the Study of Delegation,’ West European Politics, vol.
25, pp.200-219.
[8] R. Dehousse. (2001). ‘European Governance in Search of
Legitimacy, in O. De Schutter,’ N. Lebessis & J. Paterson,
eds., Governance in the EU, European Commission,
Luxembourg.
[9] Report of the 12th Session of the D-8 Council of Ministers, Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia, 2nd November 2009
Interviews Session
[1] Interviewed with Economist of D-8 via video conference SKYPE
(Antwerp-Istanbul). December 2009.
[2] Interviewed with Director, APEC Division, Ministry of
International Trade, and Industry of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia, December 2008.
[3] Interviewed with D-8, Secretary General, D-8 Headquarters,
Istanbul, Turkey, August 2009.
[4] Interviewed with Deputy Director, Programme Co-ordination, and
SMEs Corp. Negotiator, SME Corp. Kuala Lumpur. July
2010 (via Yahoo Messenger).
1283
[5] Interview with D-8 Director, D-8 Headquarters, Istanbul, Turkey.

August 2009.
1284
T02_047: THE DETERMINANT OF SUPPLIER

2 CUSTOMER RELATIONSHIP
MANAGEMENT PERFORMANCE MODEL
FOR SMES
Muhamad Fairos bin Mohamad Shah
mohd.fairos76@gmail.com
Samsudin Wahab
samsudinphd@yahoo.com
Mohd Subri bin Tahir
subri@salam.uitm.edu.my
Universiti Teknologi MARA Cawangan Pulau Pinang

Pulau Pinang.
ABSTRACT
Small and medium enterprises (SMEs) are playing an increasingly
important role in sustaining economics growth and logistic system in
Malaysia.SMEs also play a very crucial role in supplier 2 customer
relationship as they may serve the roles of customer, distributor producer
and supplier.However,adaption of customer relationship in Malaysian
SMEs has not been broadly explored.S2CRMP model for logistic service
present the combination of financial strategy, location strategy, business
process strategy, and technology strategy. Further study has important
managerial implications as the findings will enable management of SMEs
to understand progressive and highly varied S2CRMP practices and
contextual factors that contribute to the S2CRMP as well as effective,
efficient and innovative implementation.
Key Words: supplier, customer, relationship management, SMEs.
1.0 Introduction.
In distributed supply chain of transportation industry, accurate and
transparent business to process design plays an important role for success
of business. Better process design helps in reducing errors, cost and
inventory throughout the supply chain. Supplier to Customer Relationship
Management Performance (S2CRMP) is the backbone and heart of
1285
effective service and product delivery through supply chain network. To

gain a competitive advantage, many organizations are seeking to manage
their supply chain strategically, but realize that they lack the core
competencies and are increasingly seeking to outsource their logistics
activities.
Small medium enterprise (SMEs) is acknowledged to provide promise of
welfare and job creation. Many governments and politicians try to promote
SME with various entrepreneurship development programs [3]. Hence, the
efforts to boost the performance of logistic SMEs come to a challenging
question about what determinant variables influence firm performance of
logistic SMEs in the long term. Previous researcher have confirm that
supplier relationship management can determine efficient supply chain
performance. Have confirmed the important of relationship management in
both customer and supplier loyalty [11]. Successful implementation of
customer relationship management was increase the business profit up to
270 percent [17]. It was also increase the stock price [14], customer
satisfaction and customer loyalty [14]. Due to the above argument and
justification, this study propose that business process strategy, location,
financial and technology strategy are the determinant of customer
relationship management performance among logistic SMEs in Malaysian
context. Not many research has been done about customer relationship
management in logistic service, most of them are on banking, hotel,
insurance and other intangible service. Logistic service are chosen since
they are main contributor and player in export and import that involve
supply chain management.
1.1 Objectives of the study

The objectives of this study are as follow:
To investigate:
1. The influences of critical financial strategy on Supplier 2 customer
Relationship Management Performance of SME’s.
2. The influences of location strategy on Supplier 2 customer Relationship
Management Performance of SME’s.
3. The influences of business process strategy on Supplier 2 customer
4. The influences of technology strategy on Supplier 2 customer
2.0 Supplier 2 Customer Relationship Management Performance.

1286
Researchers believe that S2CRMP performance should be measured in

terms of supplier behaviours since suppliers are the underlying source of
value of for a company and have the potential to increase the future revenue
streams [4]. [5] Have suggested five dimensions of value from the supplier's
perspective i.e. social, emotional, functional, epistemic, and conditional as
providing the best foundation for extending the value construct. Because the
primary purpose of S2CRMP is to increase revenue and supplier lifetime
value, supplier behaviours that might bring revenue become strategically
important [1].
2.1 Financial Strategy

[28] stress that payment capabilities can be effect relationship
S2CRMP.The growth of economic practice and financial system is
characterized by the increasing role of strategic management in the area of
finance that is determined by such trends as globalization, an increase in the
amplitude of the fluctuations in the world financial market, an increase in
energy prices, growth of the share of innovation in sectors of the economy,
inefficient management practices in the current activity [6].
2.2 Location Strategy

According to [7] the ultimate goal of strategy is “long‐term, sustainable
superior performance.” Such superior performance now depends on the
ability of a manufacturing organization to become a fully integrated partner
within a supply chain context, thus all but requiring that manufacturing
organizations adopt a supply chain strategy. Such supply chain strategies
focus on how both internal and external business processes can be integrated
and coordinated throughout the supply chain to better serve ultimate
customers and consumers while enhancing the performance of the
individual supply chain members [13].
2.3 Business Process Strategy

Supplier 2 customer relationship management capabilities and business
process strategy performance had the positive relationship with each other.
If customer relationship management capabilities enhanced then business
process strategy performance automatically increased outstanding customer
relationship management capabilities leads to customer loyalty and superior
competition advantage (G.S. Day, 2003). Customer relationship
management capabilities capture customer pertaining needs at accurate time
(JIT).
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2.4 Technology Strategy

It appears that entrepreneurial concept goes beyond what strategic
management explains about how firms achieve their objectives [15].
Logistic SME’s can use their soft technology to enhance their relationship
with customers. Soft technology such system awareness that allow to
SME’s to update customer delivery status 24 hours per day. According [2]
technology is one of the pillar for customer relationship management
success hence the system that connected supplier and customer will enhance
relationship development within them. Furthermore [11] found that
usefulness ease of use, security of the system contribute to customer
relationship management performance.
3.0 Theoretical Background for the Models

CRM evolved from business processes such as relationship marketing and
the increased emphasis on improved customer retention through the
effective management of customer relationships [18]. So that, the model
below present and support the idea of many authors on the important of
technology and business process in implementing CRM in the organization.
Figure 1: A CRM implementation model [2]

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Figure 2: The DIE CRM gap model [6].
3.1 The DIE-Customer Relationship Management Gap Model
In identifying CRM critical success factors, a gap analysis between

technology, employees and processes has been suggested [12].Furthermore
the current conceptual model was build up from this conceptual theory by
considering two categories of variables under each namely; business
process factor and technology factor as the main antecedent for CRM
performance. Therefore, the current research will look at the situation as
explained in gap four from the DIE models which focus on the customer
perception on the performance of customer relationship management those
established from internal sources of organization involved people,
technology and business process. People factors were not considered in the
current study because the context of the study is the SME logistic service
provider in Malaysia whereas people involvement are at the minimum
levels. Customer perception on the CRM performance of the SME logistic
service provider in Malaysia will keep the current research understanding
how critical the gap based on their expectation and perception as well
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regarding to the technology and business process practices by the company.

Hence all the variable in this propose are the integration of people process
and technology directly or indirectly.
As been mention in the previous paragraph, technology is one of the pillars

of successful CRM. This growing concern in technology anchored in the
service economy where CRM implementation offer multiple opportunities
to deal with service characteristics like intangibility, inseparability,
heterogeneity and perishability [19]. First, for service firms having an
important dematerialized part of offering, like airlines companies, hotels or
banks, CRM is expected to multiply opportunities for delivering
information to customers, providing offerings and answers to complains
[6][26]; [6]. Second, CRM is expected to contribute to existing or new
relationships. As services are delivered through processes, their use is very
often dissociated from the purchasing process. Rather than having a
transaction for each purchase, the interaction with customers encompasses
acts, episodes and sequences, the whole process resulting into a relationship
[6]. For example, a credit card is purchased once while its use is daily. In
such systems, what matters is the established long-term relationship and
consequently the coordinated contribution of all interactions to this
relationship building. Third, CRM has the potential to facilitate the
customization of the offerings [22]; [6] by gathering and processing
available information on customers in the purpose of increasing their
loyalty. Finally, CRM is expected to reduce the transaction costs by
adapting the interaction to the kind of answer expected by the client.
Consequently, the pivotal role of CRM in increasing loyalty of profitable
customers is of first importance for most of services companies [23]; [6].
Technology innovations will enable the company to respond with timely
and effective customized communications, and deliver product and service
value to individual customers [2]. So that, the current research model
proposed a financial strategy and technology strategy as the determinacy of
Supplier 2 Customer Relationship Management Performance models for
SMEs in Malaysia. The previous theory by [9] covered business process
strategy and technology factors the other two factors which are financial
and location are included in [6] model. The complete models proposed are
as follows;
3.2 Hypotheses Development

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Past research has investigated the role of supplier value in behaviour

intention. There is a positive relationship between supplier value factor and
behaviour intention. Beside on intention to repurchase [24], on supplier
satisfaction [4], and on online purchasing intention [25] therefore, we
hypothesized that:
Hypothesis
There is a relationship between Financial, Location, Business Process and

Technology strategy factor and Supplier 2 Customer Relationship
Management Performance.
4.0 Conclusion
The current understanding of how aggregated Supplier 2 Customer

relationship management performance attitudes are influenced by important
business outcomes is limited. Based on the evidence to date, we conclude
that the effort taken by logistic provider will increase Supplier to customer
relationship management performance to meaningful business outcomes
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and that these relationships support the logistic SMEs sustainability.

Research efforts directed at further exploring these issues are sorely needed,
and we believe there is potential for longitudinal research in the area of
aggregated Supplier 2 Customer relationship management performance
satisfaction. Furthermore, the proposed model reflects the lack of other
practices such as cross-functional teams [20], risk and reward sharing [21]
and internal lean practices and postponement [27]. Future study should
define S2CRMP construct from wider and diverse perspectives by
encompassing the above dimensions. Finally, in terms of theoretical
contributions, this study is mainly given to the S2CRMP field. In short, the
study includes a more thorough explanation of information sharing,
strategic supplier partnership, customer relationship, material flow
management, corporate culture in SMEs’ S2CRMP practices.
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[8]Rauch A, Wiklund J, Lumpkin GT, Frese M (2009). Entrepreneurial

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[9]Peppers, D. and Rogers, M. (2001)The One to One Manager: Real-World
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[23] Clay comb, C. and Martin, C. L. (2002) Building Customers
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T02_048: MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

PRACTICES: THE CASE OF AEROSPACE
MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY
Azizul Hakim Mashkuri
National Defence University of Malaysia
Email address: azizulhm@gmail.com
Aliza Ramli
Zarinah Abdul Rasit
Faculty of Accountancy, Universiti Teknologi MARA,
Puncak Alam
ABSTRACT
The competitive market environment within aerospace manufacturing firms
has focused them on cost reduction through lean manufacturing. This
because high costs are associated with the industry. It has been found that
management accounting practices are seen as a critical support function in
lean manufacturing. However, there are problems such as initial disbelief
on its importance and difficulties with the practices during lean
implementation, as well as limited studies on linking management
accounting practices with lean manufacturing. Furthermore, similar
studies only focused in manufacturing as a whole and not specifically on
manufacturing sub-sector of aerospace. Therefore, this paper aims to
identify motivation for management accounting adoption and exploring its
current state in aerospace manufacturing industry. The outcome of the
paper will be the development of a theoretical framework that is based on
literature review. One of findings from the literature review shows that the
evolution of management accounting can be distinguished into five (5)
stages. The review also found that based on contingency theory, specific
circumstances faced by an organization may motivate management
accounting adoption. The circumstances are environment, technology and
size. In conclusion, the theoretical framework will be used to study factors
that motivate management accounting adoption in aerospace
manufacturing industry and exploring its current state. The findings will
bring awareness among managers in aerospace firms of the importance of
1295
management accounting as a means of improving performance and to

remain competitive.
Keywords: management accounting practices, contingency, aerospace
Introduction
The competitive market environment within aerospace manufacturing firms
has focused them on cost reduction through lean manufacturing [7]. This
because high costs are associated with the industry [21]. It has been found
that management accounting practices are seen as a critical support function
in lean manufacturing [10]. Management accounting practices are ‘a variety
of methods to support the organisation’s infrastructure and management
accounting processes’ [5]. However, there are problems of implementing
management accounting practices in the industry. [18] found that in an
aerospace firm, it has continued using traditional management accounting
practices as contemporary ones do not provide the full product cost
information. The importance of contemporary management accounting
practices are only realized when separate investigations and analyses are
made. Similarly, [9] found difficulties with management accounting
practices during lean implementation. There is limited studies on linking
management accounting practices with lean manufacturing [11].
Furthermore, similar studies only focused in manufacturing as a whole and
not specifically on manufacturing sub-sector of aerospace [10, 11]. Based
on gap in literature, the objectives of this paper are to identify motivation
for management accounting adoption as well as exploring its current state
in aerospace manufacturing industry. This conceptual paper begins with
literature review and next will be the development of a theoretical
framework. Conclusion is then made based on the framework.
Literature Review.
Management accounting evolution can be divided into four (4) stages. In
stage 1, the role of management accounting is a necessary technical
activity in ‘running’ an organisation. In stage 2, the role of management
accounting in this period is providing information to support ‘line’
management’s operation. In stage 3, the role of management accounting is
managing resources to ‘directly’ enhance profits by bearing down on
inputs. In stage 4, the role of management accounting in this period is
directly enhance outputs and add value through strategy of ‘leveraging’
1296
resources [13]. The evolution of management accounting in stage 5 deals

with strategic processes [2, 14].
Management accounting practices have been studied in aerospace
manufacturing industry. [8] studied accounting practices in a firm that built
components of airplane engines. Meanwhile, [18] studied lean and
throughput accounting in an aerospace manufacturing firm.
The contingency theory explains that there is no universally
appropriate accounting system which applies equally to all organizations in
all circumstances. Instead, particular features of an appropriate accounting
system will depend upon the specific circumstances in which an
organization finds itself [20]. The circumstances are size, technology and
environment [3, 4].
An example of environment is market competition [1]. Study has
shown that market competition has paved the way for the usage of
management accounting practices [3]. However when the intensity of
market competition is not strong, a change in management accounting
practices will not occur. Firms will maintain their current practices [24].
Other than that, management accounting practices have been also adopted
in economic recession and crises. Study has shown that contemporary
management accounting practices have been widely adopted than
traditional ones in economic crises and recession [22].
With regards to technology, study has found that advanced
manufacturing technology influenced the use of management accounting
practices by firms [3]. [16] found that high level of advanced manufacturing
technology adoption had led to high adoption of management accounting
practices. However, the increased use of advanced manufacturing
technology does not have any effect on the increased use of contemporary
management accounting practices [6]. Only when advanced manufacturing
technology is used lesser then one could see a high level usage of a
contemporary management accounting practice [23].
In terms of size, medium-sized firms have adopted a higher usage of
management accounting practices as opposed to small firms [4].
Subsequently, management accounting practices are extensively used by
large firms than medium size firms [17]. Study found that both traditional
and contemporary management accounting practices brought benefits to
large firms [19] However, another study found that there are no differences
in management accounting practices between small and medium, and large
firms [12].
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Based on the literature review, the development of theoretical framework is
premised upon contingency theory [20]. The adoption of management
accounting practices is motivated by specific circumstances that are based
on the theory. The circumstances are environment, technology and size.
Meanwhile, current state of management accounting practices are derived
from evolution stages [14, 15]. Figure 1 shows the theoretical framework.
Management
Contingent variables Accounting
Practices
1. Environment
2. Technology 1. Stage 1
3. Size 2. Stage 2
3. Stage 3
4. Stage 4
5. Stage 5
FIGURE 1: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The framework will be using survey method initially in its research

design. Case study method will be carried out next to extend survey
findings. Studies have used survey as well as case study methods in
conducting research on management accounting practices [3, 4, 13, 22].
Conclusion
The theroretical framewok will be used to study factors that motivate
management accounting adoption in aerospace manufacturing industry as
well as exploring its current state. The findings will bring awareness among
managers in aerospace firms of the importance of management accounting
as a means of improving performance and to remain competitive.
References
[1] Abdel-Maksoud, Ahmed, Wagdy Abdallah, and Mayada Youssef,
“An Empirical Study of the Influence of Intensity of Competition on
the Deployment of Contemporary Management Accounting Practices
1298
and Managerial Techniques in Egyptian Firms,” Journal of Economic

& Administrative Science 28(2), 84–97 (2012)
[2] Abdul Rasid, Siti Zaleha, and Abdul Rahim Abdul Rahman,
“Management Accounting and Risk Management Practices in
Financial Institutions,” Jurnal Teknologi 51, 89–110 (2009)
[3] Ahmad, K. and S. Mohamed Zabri, “Factors Explaining the Use of
Management Accounting Practices in Malaysian Medium-Sized
Firms,” Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development 22
(4), 762–781 (2015)
[4] Ahmad, K., “The Adoption of Management Accounting Practices in
Malaysian Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises,” Asian Social
Science 10 (2), 236–249 (2013)
[5] Alleyne, Philmore, and Diana Weekes-Marshall. “An Exploratory
Study of Management Accounting Practices in Manufacturing
Companies in Barbados,” International Journal of Business and
Social Science 2 (9), 49–58 (2011)
[6] Baines, Annette, and Kim Langfield-Smith, “Antecedents to
Management Accounting Change: A Structural Equation Approach,”
Accounting, Organizations and Society 28, 675–698 (2003)
[7] Blokland, W.W.A. Beelaerts van et al, “Measuring Value-Leverage
in Aerospace Supply Chains,” International Journal of Operations &
Production Management 32 (8), 982–1007 (2012)
[8] Carlsson-Wall, Martin, and Kalle Kraus, “Opening the Black Box of
the Role of Accounting Practices in the Fuzzy Front-End of Product
Innovation.” Industrial Marketing Management 45, 184–194 (2015)
[9] Chiarini, Andrea. “Lean Production: Mistakes and Limitations of
Accounting Systems inside the SME Sector,” Journal of
Manufacturing Technology Management 23 (5), 681–700 (2012)
[10] Fullerton, Rosemary R., Frances A. Kennedy, and Sally K. Widener,
“Lean Manufacturing and Firm Performance: The Incremental
Contribution of Lean Management Accounting Practices,” Journal of
Operations Management 32 (7), 414–428 (2014)
[11] Fullerton, Rosemary R., Frances A. Kennedy, and Sally K. Widener,
"Management accounting and control practices in a lean
manufacturing environment," Accounting, Organizations and Society
38(1), 50–71 (2013)
[12] Halbouni, Sawsan Saadi, and Mohamed Abdalla Nour, “An Empirical
Study of the Drivers of Management Accounting Innovation: A UAE
Perspective,” International Journal of Managerial and Financial
Accounting 6 (1), 60-86 (2014)
1299
[13] Haron, N. H., I. K. Abdul Rahman and M. Smith, "Management

accounting practices and the turnaround process," Asian Review of
Accounting 21(2), 100–112 (2013)
[14] IFAC, International Management Accounting Practice Statement:
Management Accounting Concepts, (New York, 1998), pp. 7-20
[15] IFAC, Managing Risk to Enhance Stakeholder Value, (New York,
2002), pp. 1-67
[16] Isa, C R, and Soon-Yau Foong, “Adoption of Advanced
Manufacturing Technology (AMT) and Management Accounting
Practices: The Case of Manufacturing Firms in Malaysia,” World
Review of Science Technology and Sustainable Development 2 (1),
35–48 (2005)
[17] Joshi, P.L., “The International Diffusion of New Management
Accounting Practices: The Case of India,” Journal of International
Accounting, Auditing and Taxation 10 (1), 85–109 (2001)
[18] Myrelid, Andreas and Jan Olhager, “Applying Modern Accounting
Techniques in Complex Manufacturing,” Industrial Management &
Data Systems 115 (3), 402–418 (2015)
[19] Nimtrakoon, Sirinuch and Michael E Tayles. “Contingency Factors
of Management Accounting Practices in Thailand : A Selection
Approach.” Asian Journal of Accounting and Governance 78, 51–78
(2010)
[20] Otley, David T., “The Contingency Theory of Management
Accounting: Achievement and Prognosis,” Accounting,
Organizations and Society 5 (4), 413–428 (1980)
[21] Park, Yongtae, Sungjoo Lee, and Sora Lee, “Patent Analysis for
Promoting Technology Transfer in Multi-Technology Industries: The
Korean Aerospace Industry Case.” Journal of Technology Transfer
37 (3), 355–374 (2012)
[22] Pavlatos, Odysseas, and Hara Kostakis. “Management Accounting
Practices before and during Economic Crisis: Evidence from Greece.”
Advances in Accounting 31 (1), 150–164 (2015)
[23] Schoute, Martijn, “The Relationship between Product Diversity,
Usage of Advanced Manufacturing Technologies and Activity-Based
Costing Adoption,” British Accounting Review 43 (2), 120–
134(2011)
[24] Tuan Mat, Tuan Zainun, Malcolm Smith, and Hadrian Djajadikerta,
“Management Accounting and Organisational Change: An
Exploratory Study in Malaysian Manufacturing Firms,” Asian
Journal of Accounting and Governance 1, 79–104 (2010)
1 December 2016
T02_049: THE USE OF BUSINESS
INTELLIGENCE: CASE STUDY:
CLEVELAND CLINIC
Mohammed Ahmed Saeed Binsuroor Almazroooei, Othman Yeop

Abdullah , Dr.Abdul Manaf Bin Bohari (Corresponding Author)
Graduate School Of Business
Universityi Utara Malaysia-Sintok
Othman Yeop Abdullah
ABSRACT
Business intelligence has become an important necessity in every
industry. Currently, numerous organizations across all sectors
including banking, manufacturing, and healthcare among others are
using a diverse range of business intelligence tools to improve their
performance and productivity level through better business analysis.
This paper used Cleveland Clinic as a case study to investigate how
business intelligence application is currently being used by
companies, opportunities, benefits, as well as challenges they face.
Cleveland Clinic is one of the leading multispecialty hospitals
currently operating 11 hospitals, 5 ambulatory surgery centers and
16 family health centers spread across United States of America,
Canada and Abu Dhabi. Through the use of business intelligence
software tool, companies are able to acquire and transform raw
business data into meaningful information for business analysis
process. It combines several interrelated disciples such as data
mining, analytical processing, querying and reporting among others.
They use big data, which consists of extremely large data sets to
reveal trends, patterns, and associations to identify business
opportunities as well key areas for improving performance. Through
the use of business intelligence applications process, Cleveland
Clinic has managed to successfully structure dashboards, customize
dashboards, link performance and annual reviews, as well as align
performance with strategic initiatives.
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Keywords: business intelligence, big data, key performance

indicators, business analysis, business strategy
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the 21st century, the use of business intelligence software

is rapidly becoming the norm of every industry. Specifically, most
industries including banking, healthcare, manufacturing among
others currently use different types of business intelligence
applications to improve their performance and productivity level
through better business analysis. This paper provides a detail of how
Cleveland Clinic has been using business intelligence to improve
their company performance over the past sixteen years. Using
Cleveland Clinic, the paper provides details of how the company has
been using business intelligence, why it should maintain big data,
benefits and challenges that it faces. The introduction to this paper
also gives brief details about Cleveland Clinic and business
intelligence / big data in the following subsections. The image below
shows the current Cleveland Clinic Cancer Center in Taussig.
Image I: Taussig Cancer Center
1.1 Cleveland Clinic

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Located in Cleveland, Ohio, Cleveland Clinic is one of the

leading multispecialty hospitals in United States of America. Even
though the hospital was established in Cleveland as a flagship project
in 1921, currently it operates 11 hospitals, 5 ambulatory surgery
centers and 16 family health centers spread across United States of
America, Canada and Abu Dhabi. In United States of America and
globally, Cleveland Clinic is recognized as one of the top medical
centers in the treatment of cardiovascular disease. The hospital is also
recognized for its acumen use of management and technological
systems. The table below shows the national ranking of Cleveland
Clinic in the treatment of various diseases.
Table I: National Ranking

Specialty National
rank
Cardiology and heart surgery 1
Urology 2
Nephrology 2
Gastroenterology and GI surgery 2
Orthopedics 3
Rheumatology 3
Gynecology 3
Diabetes and endocrinology 3
Cancer 8
Neurology and neurosurgery 8
Source: U.S. News & World Report (USNWR)
1.2 Business Intelligence and Big Data
Business intelligence is a set of software tools and

techniques that are used to acquire and transform raw business data
into meaningful information for decision making. In everyday use, it
refers to a variety of software applications that business organizations
use to analyze raw data for the purpose of generating meaningful and
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useful information. Several interrelated disciplines such as data

mining, analytical processing, querying and reporting makes up
business intelligence. This technology is capable of handling large
volumes of structured as well as unstructured data for the purpose of
identifying, developing and creating new strategic business
opportunities. The use of business intelligence serves an important
function of allowing easy interpretation of large volumes of data in
identifying business opportunities and implementing new strategies.
Big data is simply an extremely large data set that can be

analyzed using computational methods for the purpose of revealing
trends, patterns, as well as associations among other key elements and
characteristics: the data sets are so large and complex to the extent
that they cannot be handled by traditional data processing
applications. Three main properties that define big data are velocity,
volume and variety. Because handling big data presents a number of
challenges including capture, analysis, storage, sharing, data curation,
transfer, querying, visualization and privacy among others, they
require different more specialized and advanced software application.
2.0 USE OF BUSINESS INTELLIGENCE AT CLEVELAND

CLINIC
Over the past sixteen years, Cleveland Clinic has been using
business intelligence to track their KPIs on a daily basis in order to
measure the progress towards achieving their strategic objectives and
goals. Through this effort, the company has managed to significantly
improve quality of care as well as reduce labor costs and other
expenses. Through this process, Cleveland Clinic has managed to
successfully structure dashboards, customize dashboards, link
performance and annual reviews, as well as align performance with
strategic initiatives. They use the business intelligence tool to natively
connect and visualize data and build reports directly from data stores
without having to move them to another database.
This approach has offered substantial proof that comparison

of the KPIs is essential in achieving rapid organizational changes as
well as improving performances. Through this initiative, Cleveland
Clinic has learnt several lessons from four major activities namely (1)
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structuring of CEO’s dashboards, (2) customization of dashboards,

(3) linking of performance to annual reviews, and (4) alignment of
performance metrics. Many healthcare companies possess myriads of
helpful untapped strategic information which could be summarized in
meaningful and intuitive manner to provide real time view of their
actual performance.
Some of the benefits of data warehousing in the healthcare

industry includes the ability to free up cash flow, provide affordable
powerful solutions, free up capacity of the in-house system, provide
quality equipment and software, provide faster connections, as well
as provide solutions that enhances growth. The use of business
intelligence initiative has helped the hospital to reduce cost while at
the same time enhancing quality of care. For instance, after
implementation of the business intelligence in the nursing agency,
Cleveland Clinic, in 2006, significantly reduced its expenses by more
than $5 million. In addition, by using business intelligence system in
the careful analysis of blood products, Cleveland Clinic managed to
reduce the associated expenses by more $400,000 every year.
By using business intelligence, the hospital has benefited

from improved ability to effectively recruit clinical professionals:
they use BI software in the analysis and comparison of the actual
performance of clinical professionals against their initial strategic
objectives. It helps in the preparation of clinical professionals for
anticipated seasonal shifts in employment. In addition to effective
recruitment of clinical professionals, the application of BI metrics
enhances performance by allowing the company to properly
understand the relationship between finance and operation such as
experienced by the Cleveland Clinic. This capability actually enables
the hospital to effectively align its operational tasks with strategy
goals, which is a key factor in driving performance.
Deeper analysis of the case study indicates that the use of

business intelligence metrics gave Cleveland Clinic a number of
enhanced opportunities and abilities to improve their company
performance. First by tracking and analyzing the performance of
appointment phone line, Cleveland Clinic developed and established
new goals that required all patient calls to be answered with thirty
1305
seconds, which was achieved within few months thus resulting in

significant improvement of response time and overall company
performance in the long run. The first step in the improvement of the
response time was to identify issues of phone line appointment
through dedicated monitoring and tracking.
Cleveland Clinic, for instance, used the business intelligence

metrics to structure dashboards for their CEOs as well as customize
the dashboard view for each specified user. The modern business
intelligence platforms provide performance dashboards which can be
customized for specific user. The importance of dashboards depends
on their ability to provide visual displays of useful information
relating to performance; the required information can be arranged and
consolidated in a single screen to allow easy digesting and
understanding. In essence, the use of business intelligence has
provided vital for improving performance of all companies.
3.0 WHY COMPANIES SHOULD MAINTAIN BIG DATA
Big Data is the new technology that every company should

maintain in order to leapfrog into the top class competitive advantage
in the business field. With the digital age, data are now woven into
every sector and function of the economy globally and much of the
modern economics could not take place without its use. The use of
Big Data provides a company with a later pool of information which
can be brought together and analyzed accordingly for the purpose of
effective business decision making. The sheer volume of data mined,
generated, and stored are strongly becoming economically
significantly to government, business, as well as customers.
The use of Big Data is essential to Cleveland Clinic because

it has become a basis of competition and growth in every industry by
reducing waste, creating value, enhancing productivity as well as
increasing the overall quality of products and services offered. Firms
need to maintain Big Data technology because it offers them a new
competitive advantage in the way of doing business. The use of Big
Data helps companies leverage data-driven strategies for innovation,
1306
competition and capturing of value. For instance, in healthcare,

companies such as Cleveland Clinic could effectively analyze health
outcomes of pharmaceuticals when prescribed as well as discover the
risks and benefits that were not evident during clinical trials.
Every company should maintain Big Data technology

because it is essential in creating new growth opportunities. In
addition, with the sheer scale and high frequency nature of data, the
advent of Big Data has given companies the ability to estimate metrics
immediately such as consumer confidence, something that previously
could only be done retrospectively thus considerably improving
power of prediction. Due to the high frequency of data, companies
who maintain Big Data are able to test theories in real time, which
was previously not possible.
Companies that maintain Big Data benefit from improved

speed, capacity as well as scalability of their cloud storage. This
presents two important advantages to companies maintaining Big
Data. First, it allows companies to analyze massive data sets with
highly reduced capital investment on internal data hosting and
hardware purchase. Secondly, it significantly abstracts complexity of
the required new skills and training thus enabling more deployment
of data technology. This, too, is advantageous because it allows IT
developers to build preconfigured sandbox environment which the
company can use without setting configurations from the scratch.
Usability is another important consideration that has been

enhanced by visualization of the end-user data. Through
visualization, Big Data initiatives have leveraged charts, dashboards,
as well as infographics thus greatly enhancing usability of the data.
Companies need to maintain Big Data because, currently, leading
business intelligence vendors are rapidly shifting to self-service
analytic model instead of the pervious IT-driven platforms. Big Data
goes beyond the simple data analysis using natural language into
providing sentimental analysis, text mining, name entry recognition
as well as clinical language efforts among other capabilities.
4.0 CHALLENGES OF MAINTAIN BIG DATA

1307
The first challenge of Big Data relates to how companies

manage data: most companies that are maintaining Big Data are
struggling with their ability to capture, store and run analyses due to
the huge amount of data that are produced by their businesses. The
amount of data that is produced by the business and received from
external sources actually outstrips their internal infrastructural
storage. Another problem associated with data management is that in
practical sense it is impossible to collect some of the most valuable
data such as positive and negative historical responses.
Data interpretability and complexity is another challenge

which is holding back companies that want to maintain Big Data. If
data warehouses attempt to account for thousands of different ways
of consumer behaviors, then they will yield enormous amount of
syntax and codes which might be very difficult to manage. In
addition, if this data is captured in in legacy system then their true
interpretation can get lost if the company poorly captured the required
information.
Most companies are experiencing is the existence of talent

gap in the Big Data Analytics. With the existence talent gap, it is
apparently difficult to pursue high-tech media and analyst because the
Big Data is bombarded with content which eventually tout the value
of Big Data Analytics. This happens because of the correspondence
reliance on myriads of different techniques which often get
disruptive.
1308
Another great challenge of Big Data is the synchronization across

the data sources. Copies of data which are being migrated from different
schedules, sources, and rates often get out of synchronization when being
configured into the Big Data platform. The sequences of data
transformations, extractions, and migrations in the conventional data
warehouses provide situations which increase the risks of data becoming
unsynchronized.
5.0 CONCLUSION
Cleveland Clinic is a successful hospital when it comes to the use

of business intelligence techniques. The hospital is recognized globally for
its effective use of management and technological systems, which it has
achieved with the help of business intelligence applications. It is
recommended that other hospitals in United States and other country follow
the example of Cleveland Clinic by using relevant business intelligence
application in order to improve their performance and service delivery.
They will benefit from effective and powerful business analysis for accurate
decision making.
1309
T02_050: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK TO

REVISIT MALAYSIAN PUBLIC SCULPTURE
CHRONOLOGY
Muhammad Zulfadhli Amir Rasidi Amir,
Rusmadiah Anwar
Amer Shakir Zainol
Formgiving Design Research Group, Faculty of Art &
Design, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Shah Alam,
Malaysia.
ABSTRACT
Sculpture is one of the well-known arts in the world. It is a form of 3
dimensional arts that can be feels, see and touch at all edges. So, this
research will be studying about Malaysian public sculpture. Unfortunately,
there is lack of writing or information about public sculpture in Malaysia.
This is because not like painting, it is hard to find on book, any writings that
relate with sculpture especially public sculpture. The aims of this research
are to studying the analysis of the chronology of public sculpture in
Malaysia and thought of an artist. Therefore this research are to recognizes
the issue of the public sculpture that been stress by the artists by analysing
and interpreting the form of the public sculpture that relate with content
base from the observation and to define the thought of artists base from the
interview. Furthermore, the significant of study is it will be a good
documentation for art and design students to get some information about
public sculpture in Malaysia. Then, the scope of study about this research
is focusing about public sculpture in Malaysia within chronology that been
choose. There are 3 phases regarding the method to collect data. Firstly,
collecting the data collection by reviewing the previous Westerner artist
artworks by observing their form to analyse and interpret it. Then,
observing the local artist artworks base on the chronology period of time.
Lastly, phase on interviewing the 5 sculptural artists to get their knowledge
to know about the public sculpture in Malaysia. So, this research will be
hope that it wills success and can give more information to people when
needed in the future.
Keywords: Public sculpture, sculptor, thought, chronology
1310
Introduction
Public sculpture can be defined as an art that been place into open space that
have the background of environmental surroundings. The activity are
referring outside the gallery system, the appreciation of the artwork are
more focusing on the community, it is dominant, and the form must suitable
regarding with the weather factor, safety and services [1]. Therefore, it can
be known that sculptural public is based on the open environment within
the open space surroundings that also must take note on the safety, weather
and easy to maintenance.
Then on the other side, according to Abdullah (2010), state that in
Malaysia, public sculpture are mostly free standing and monumental, which
it is include with community, art galleries to spread the messages to the
public [2]. It is known that in Malaysia, the art that regarding with public
sculpture is mostly are free standing object, and have its own monumental
for the community to appreciate it.
The aesthetic issues on public sculpture
It is known that sculpture is one of the famous arts in the world. Instead it
is been documented for over the year and era, it is still difficult to find the
article or some educated writing about sculpture in Malaysia. Therefore, it
is can be find in the public gallery or National Art gallery regarding with
documented writing about sculpture that difficult to find. According to
Mahamood (2001), state that the education about sculpture are lack because
of the movement process and the intensity are slow [3].
According to Arus (1998), sculpture was confused with figurative
and Avant-Garde concept as discussed in [2]. It means that people in
Malaysia hard to accept sculpture as one of the art because of figurative that
exactly prohibited in Muslim religion. So, because of that, it makes people
think that sculpture is not important to study. It is different from painting,
where as many book, journal or catalogue could be found where it is been
documented with publishing.
The art’s elements: What behind the object?
In this literature review, this research will be review on the thought of an

artists, sculpture and sculptor on what artists before have done to make the
comparisons within our local public sculpture to see whether it is different
in the content of a form, issue, concept, context, material and etc. Therefore,
1311
based on the above it is been review base on different era from the
international sculpture such as from the Renaissance era, Modernism era
and Post-Modernism that will relate with Malaysian public sculpture in
different year. It’s difficult to find any report in regard to the design thinking
study of Malaysian artist. However, Anwar [4] reported, any process of
design were always involved with divergent and convergent process (see
Figure 1).
Figure 1: Divergent-Convergent Process by Anwar [4]
Firstly, one of the artists is Richard Serra (1979) that always likes
controversy in producing a sculpture. In the public space in Manhattan, New
York, she built a public sculpture with the length of 12th feet as one of the
symbolic artwork which known as “Tilted Arc” that have controversies [5].
Many were complaining this sculpture because they recognize this will
destroy the public nature of the space. This is because, she thinks that
controversy will look more attractive to people in appreciating her artworks.
Her thought are different from other artists that have a great vision which
like to do something different. The criticism finds that this is one of the
Minimalist and Post-Minimalist artwork.
In another study, on the modernism sculpture, one of artist name
Mark di Suvero (1933), which born in Shanghai that he contributes his
artwork with some post-war concept that also relate with contemporary era
[6]. His sculpture was contributing with his experience, style of life that he
wants a freedom. It is also call a revolutionary era that also has been name
as one of the artist that deals with space, scale and subject for viewers to
join participate with it. He also relates it with history of art to challenge the
1312
viewer’s experience and perception of art. This is one of the artists that deals
with his own critical thinking in understanding about the form and scale of
the three dimensional artwork.
By the way, on behalf of the other sculptor is Rachel Whiteread in
1993. The title of her artwork is “House” that gives some controversy where
as she makes a space for the house hold object. Therefore, it become the
public display in London and she focus on the absence of death, uncanny
and domestic [7]. This artwork then been taken by the government because
it was been marked for the homelessness and it becoming the central of
political issues. After that, the controversy appears and the logic of
mismatch from the artist begins. Then, because of that it been debate by the
political and reflect it towards the newspaper.
In other to overcome this issue, Daniel Chester which creates
innovative representation “Angel of Death” that being inspired by the era
of Christianity, Classical era and Contemporary iconographies. Therefore,
the figure in Milmore Memorial (1892) and Melvin Memorial (1908) which
being inspired by the concepts of death for the memorial of his development
artworks [8]. This is one of the artists that use the concept of death as his
theme in his artworks. Then, we know that his thought and concept is based
on death that being inspired by different era which are Christianity,
Classical and Contemporary to produce artworks.
Meanwhile, Vladimir Tatlin is another artist that uses the
monument of his artwork as he makes the tower which is for his own
agendas of propaganda to reach his own aim. “3rd International Tower” is
the title that he produces in 1919 because of his own revolution of the
Russian constructivists towards the social, politics as the revolution of the
soviet Russian of the Avant-Garde era [9]. It can be known from the form
of architecture which been construct well that he produce it for the art
society. Therefore, it will make the art world know about the Russian
revolution of art. Then, the artwork also looks of its own identity from that
form which look radical and the concept of the Constructivism aesthetics
occur. So, it can be known that the theory of Russian constructivist is known
as the form of architecture in his artwork.
Other than that, another artist that use abstract in his artwork is
Alexander Calder which is a well-known artist that use a mobile in his
artwork for twenty years. The artwork will move because of combination
with mechanical or natural. Then, he move towards artworks that are
monumental and more social. One of his well-known artwork is “Flamingo”
in 1973-74 [10]. It is a huge sculpture that put at central of the Federal Plaza.
The tone color looks sparkling that it will give attraction towards the
1313
society. This artworks will generally been produce as art for the society
because it is contributing with peoples.
In another issues, Maya Lin produces a memorable monuments
which also produces a written artwork. “Vietnam Veterans Memorial” in
1982 been produce to give a honor towards the American soldier who died
in the Vietnam War [11]. This is a kind of artwork that she record and gives
a reaction towards it which is a type of a monument artwork for people to
appreciate it. Therefore, she reflects the artwork towards the viewers for
them to react and she wants people to involve and feel from the tragedy that
had happen.
Figure 2. Model of design for aesthetics with two directions, each

having four levels of communication [12]
At this stage, we believe all the sculpture design process tries to

identifying the sculptural design variables compared to aesthetics
characters, and relates to what been mentioned by Knoop [12] as refer to
Figure 2. He defined that aesthetics has two different directions whereby,
each of the directions involved with four level of communication. This
model design will be apply as a guideline to develop the theoretical
framework for future study.
The Conclusion And Proposed Theoretical Framework For Future

Work
1314
For future work, we proposed qualitative research in order to be defined into

some activity in the community, which focusing on the technique on how
they plan to provide in terms of the context in the community itself [13].
The research will based on the research methodology suggested by Anwar
[14] where he suggested design protocol analysis to study the abstraction
design activity among the artists. There are 3 phases regarding the method
to collect data. Firstly, collecting the data collection by capturing the picture
of the artwork and observe the form by analyzing and interpreting the
artwork. Then, phase interviewing the 5 sculptural artists to get their
knowledge and know about the public sculpture. Lastly, record the data and
try to find the finding about the public sculpture in Malaysia. The demand
for quality workmanship and sculpture that blend well with craftsmen, trend
and contemporary design style always emphasize and relates to the art and
design heritage, includes local identity, and recognition, thus providing a
visually characteristic form and a consistent design format [4].
PHASE 1 PHASE 2 PHASE 3

Sculpture History Sculpture History Sculptural Composition
Chronology World Chronology Malaysia
Concept and Sample Artwork by Artist Artist that will be
Artwork within period Artwork Interviews with the
Collected from 1960 - sculptor
2000
OBJECTIVE 1 OBJECTIVE 2 OBJECTIVE 3
IDENTIFY HOW FIND THE ELEMENT OF ART
ARTIST ELEMENT OR PRINCIPLE OF
COMPOSED AND PRINCIPLE ART TO BE
PRINCIPLE OF ART REMAIN POPULAR
USED OR APPLY AND DESIGN IN THAT BEEN
BY THE THE APPLIED BY
ARTIST PUBLIC RESPONDENT
SCULPTURE ARTISTS
Figure 3: The proposed research framework
References
[29] L. F. Rathus, Understanding Art, 6th edition ed. USA: The College of
New Jersey, 2001.
1315
[30] A. Hasan, T. S. Hun, O. Osman, and R. Abbidin, JAGA. Malaysia:

Balai Seni Lukis Negara, 2011.
[31] M. Mahamood, Modern Malaysian Art from the pioneering era to the
pluralist era (1930s-1990s). Kuala Lumpur: Utusan Publication and
Distributors Sdn Bhd, 2007.
[32] Anwar, R., Abidin, S. Z., & Hassan, O. H. A Practical Guideline To
Quantifying Qualitative Analyses Of Design Cognition. Turkish Online
Journal of Educational Technology, pp. 13-21, 2015
[33] B. W. Hammer, "Changing spaces: Spatial destruction & the sculpture
of Richard Serra," M.A, State University of New York at Buffalo, Ann
Arbor, 2008.
[34] E. L. Kelley, "Mark di Suvero: Sculpture of space," Ph.D, University
of Louisville, Ann Arbor, 2011.
[35] J. Stallabrass, High art lite: British art in the 1990s: Verso, 1999.
[36] E. A. Donovan, "Daniel Chester French's memorial sculptures and his
innovative conceptions of the Angel of Death," M.A, American
University, Ann Arbor, 2016.
[37] B. Haran, Watching the Red Dawn: Oxford University Press, 2016.
[38] W. A. Wahid, Sejarah Seni Lukis & Seni Reka: Satu Pengenalan.
Malaysia: Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia, 2010.
[39] E. Heartney, Art and Today. London: Phaidon Press Limited, 2008.
[40] Knoop W.G., Breemen E.J.J. van, Horváth I., Vergeest, J.S.M. and
Pham B., “Towards Computer Supported Design for Aesthetics”, 31st
ASATA - International Symposium on Automotive Technology and
Automation, Dusseldorf, Germany, 2-5 June 1998.
[41] C. Arcidiacono, F. Procentese, and I. D. Napoli, "Qualitative research;
Epistemology; Social services; Trust;," vol. 3, pp. 163-176, 2009.
[42] Anwar, R., Abidin, S. Z., & Hassan, O. H. Function Means Analysis
For Ablution Concept Solution. The Online Journal Educational
Technology, pp. 224-231, 2015.
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T02_051: SUSTAINABILITY SUPPLY CHAIN

AND HALAL SUPPLY CHAIN: A
COMPARISON
Nik Mohd Fikri bin Nordin1
Dr. Harlina Suzana Jaafar2
1
Malaysia Institute of Transport, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Selangor,
Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Sustainability can be considered as a key topic especially in terms of supply
chain. Sustainability is very important because everything has a limit. Halal
supply chain is also another topic that shares the same level of interest with
sustainability if not more than it. Halal supply chain is important to serve
about 1.7 billion people as in 2015. Halal supply chain sustainability
performance received less attention in researches. The purpose of study is
to compare halal supply chain and sustainable supply chain. The method
used for this study is by comparing previous studies on Sustainable Supply
Chain Management(SSCM) and Halal Supply Chain Management(HSCM)
and compare them. Findings of this study shows that both SSCM and HSCM
shares some similarity especially in term of policy & objectives, the supply
chain resources and supply chain network structures but also have
differences in term of logistics control and business processes. However,
currently there are very limited research been done on sustainability of
HSCM. Therefore, more avenues of research could be explored in the area
of, sustainability of HSCM.
Keywords: halal supply chain, Sustainability, performance measurement,
policy, practices.
INTRODUCTION
Sustainability can be considered as a key topic especially in terms of supply
chain, reducing cost of operation, reducing wastes, use more from less and
efficiency oriented planning. It is very important because everything has a
limit, especially our earth environment’s level of quality, level of raw
materials currently unused as we may have our great grandchildren to live
without little to no resources to be used in the future. Many organizations
have starts to implement sustainability business model in order to lower
their business operation cost and to fulfil their pursue in ‘greening’ their
1317
business so that the future is viable for a much longer time and at the same
time adhering to the demand from governments, NGO’s and public
pressures to start saving the earth. Sustainable supply chain
management(SSCM) is the answer to induces sustainability into supply
chain industry. It focuses on making the supply chain more efficient and
reducing activities where it can be reduced. Halal supply chain is also
another topic that shares similar interest with sustainability topic. The
Malaysia Investment Development Authority (MIDA) valued global Halal
food industry in 2013 was between US$600 billion to US$2.3 trillion and it
is forecasted to be worth US$6.4 trillion by 2030. Halal supply chain is
important to serve about 1.7 billion peoples as in 2015. Halal supply chain
sustainability performance in term of sustainability currently receives less
attention in research perspectives. As pressures build for the needs of
business being sustainable, Halal Supply Chain is not excepted. Thus, the
reasoning on why a comparison between SSCM and Halal Supply Chain
Management (HSCM) is needed is because both are new extension to the
existing supply chain management technique. Since SSCM already have its
own performance measurement tools, if the same tools can be used for
HSCM. the purpose of the study is to compare SSCM and HSCM to see
whether they have any similarity or differences. The study focuses to
compare both of them in the context of supply chain’s elements. If the level
of similarity is high, the relevance of measuring the performance of HSCM
with SSCM tools can be considered viable.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Sustainability Supply Chain Management
Sustainability, what can be defined in the easiest term is to ability to endure
or retain its form across a period of time. To be able to use more from less,
increase in efficiency and to be able implement reverse logistics is what can
be considered as key elements in sustainable supply chain. Sustainability
strives for balance among the interconnected ecological, economic and
social systems[1]. For example, the practices of sustainability can be as
simple as using an ultra- efficient hybrid petrol/electric vehicle that can cut
greenhouse gases and petrol consumption by about 50% and cut other toxic
pollutants by about 90%[2]. The term sustainability, which refers to an
integration of social, environmental, and economic responsibilities, has
begun to appear in the literature of business disciplines such as management
and operations[3]. While the term for supply chain management has been
defined as “the integration of key business processes from end-user through
original suppliers, that provides products, services, and information that add
1318
value for customers and other stakeholders”[4]. It has also been defined as
“the strategic, transparent integration and achievement of an organization’s
social, environmental, and economic goals in the systemic coordination of
key inter-organizational business processes for improving the long-term
economic performance of the individual company and its supply
chains.”[3]. Sustainability has been long talked about since as early as 1987
by the Bruntland Commission, and they first defined sustainability as
“development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their needs.”[3]. While all the above
definition leaned more towards societal or policy-makers’ perspective,
SSCM in business perspective, focuses more on decision making which
includes environmental impact of their activities as essential “material”,
which spread across the supply chain that involves suppliers, distributors,
partners and customers[5].
Figure 1: (a) SSCM Framework of triple bottom line and the four
supporting facets of sustainability (source adopted from Carter &
Rogers 2013)[3]
Halal Supply Chain Management

Halal, as being defined by JAKIM, originates from an Arabic phrase that
means allowed or permitted by Islamic Law (Syara’). One of the common
thing community misunderstands about halal concept is that they have
forget to actually talk about halal as a whole, halal as a whole is what we
1319
call Halalan thoyyiban. As has already been explained earlier, Thoyyib has
meaning of safety, cleanliness, nutritious, quality, authentic which can be
summarized into one word “wholesome”. The term of Halalan thoyyiban
not only covers the things or object that enter our body, but also to
everything that happen around us. Thus, Halal Supply Chain can be defined
as a process of transferring goods from farm to fork with practices that is
allowed by islamic law and “wholesome” term. Halal term is currently
being used all over the world especially in Islamic country. HSCM can be
defined as supply chain management that being “sprinkle” with element
from the main sources of Islam, which are the Quran and Sunnah. This is
important as it also includes Thoyyib which in our daily language means
“wholesome”. Studies have shown that non-Muslims too use and consume
halal products and services [6]. Halal evolution, has gone through several
phases namely Muslim Company, Halal Products, Halal Supply Chain (our
current stage) and Halal Value Chain[7]. We are currently at phase 3, in
which we have complex set of local, regional and international Halal
standards International Halal manufacturing and distribution zones. In the
current situation, performance evaluation systems on supply chain are
mainly cost related and are not inclusive[8][9]. Halal Supply Chain must be
practiced by all supply chain members and that it must be presentable and
embedded within the activities along the supply chain[10]. It is clear that
the incorporation of Halal and supply chain management is relevant[10].
Figure 2: (a) Halal Supply Chain Model (source adopted from

Tieman, Van Der Vorst, Ghazali 2012)[7]
1320
DISCUSSION
Based on the literature review done on both SSCM and HSCM,

sustainability is important for all things especially in supply chain
businesses As seen in Figure 1, we can see that SSCM framework involves
three main core to its structure, which are environmental, social and
economic performance. Sustainability can be achieved by integrating all
three elements which need to do things like, being transparent in the
business itself, have a good risk management, integrating sustainability in
the company strategy and “install” organizational culture in terms of values
and ethics regarding sustainable businesses and activities. As for HSCM, as
seen in Figure 2, the way halal being implemented or integrated through
supply chain is through the addition in policy of the businesses. Halal policy
will affect all the element such as business process, logistics control,
objective of the supply chain and supply chain resources itself. Halal will
involve extra activities or processes on all elements.
Basically, both figures show that halal and sustainability are more or less
similar especially on how they are being integrated in supply chain: i) halal
policy control is implemented by providing guidelines, from conventional
tracking system to halal specific tracking systems, from conventional
warehouse to halal warehouse and from conventional handling to halal
specific handling and ii) sustainability policy control is implemented by
emphasizing on reducing waste, increase in efficiency, from previous
tracking system to an advanced tracking system that measure fuel efficiency
of a truck, from conventional warehouse to a much environmental friendly
warehouse that have natural flowing air, and even included reducing
process step to save time and cost.
Table 1: Comparison between SSCM and HSCM (original content

produced after Literature Review being done)
Elements of Supply SSCM HSCM

Chain
Policy and supply Achieve sustainability To follow the Islamic
chain objectives through having a Law, Shariah and
well-integrated social- practices a Thoyyib/
economic- “wholesome” supply
environment balance. chain
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Logistics control Having specific Having specific halal

sustainability SOP SOP and segregation
and aiming to reduce between halal and
waste with reverse non-halal products.
logistics.
Supply chain A committee that are A committee that are
resources responsible in making responsible for the
sure the company compliance of the
complies with management and
sustainable practices practices according to
in accordance to a halal standard.
company’s policy.
Supply chain All parties in All parties in a halal
network structure sustainable supply supply chain are halal
chain to ‘go green’ by certified or understand
practicing green and comply with the
driving, reduction of requirements of halal
unnecessary supply chains.
processes.
Supply chain Efficiency, waste Halal control activities
business processes control activities and and assurance
assurance activities activities.
Supply chain Have performance Do not have a specific
performance measurement tools performance
that measure cost measurement tools to
saving. accurately measure
performances.
Policy and supply chain objectives

Table 1 shows one of the similarities between HSCM and SSCM can be
discussed with the term of Thoyyib or “wholesome”. Both HSCM and
SSCM aims for a wholesome though the usage of different term like having
well-integrated between social/economics/environment and “wholesome”.
It is to ensure people receive the best services(social) with good safety and
quality assurance, with efficient cost and price for people(economic) and
preserving the current condition of the earth(environment) as Islam teaching
based on Quran and Sunnah also encourage or teaches us to preserve our
environment by not being wasteful in this verses of Surah Al-A’raf 7: 21
“Eat and drink: But waste not by excess, for Allah loveth not the wasters”.
1322
Supply chain resources

Both of SSCM and HSCM need to have their own committees in making
sure their company follows the guidelines and policy made by upper level
management. They share the same job scope but only in different in
concept. They can coexist with each other and even be merged together so
that “sustainable halal” can be created.
Supply chain network structure

Both SSCM and HSCM requires all the parties involved to follow the
regulation or at least know the requirement set by the company. By doing
this, slowly, it will transform not only their company, but also others along
the supply chain. Basically, their method is the same, in which to make sure
all parties to go along with them and at the same time all the parties gain the
same benefits.
Logistics control and supply chain business processes

These elements of supply chain can be considered as where both SSCM and
HSCM seems different. SSCM aims to reduce cost by focusing on
efficiency by reducing activities or shortening process while HSCM adds
more activities such as segregation to ensure Halal integrity is maintained
along the supply chain.
Supply chain performance

Both SSCM and HSCM requires a tools to measure their current
performance in order to see what need to be improved. Currently, only
SSCM has tools to measure the performance but mostly only focuses on
cost and is not inclusive[7]. Meanwhile, HSCM does not have any
measurement tools at all[7].
CONCLUSION
This paper compare SSCM and HSCM in five elements which as shown in
table 1. The findings show that there are similarity between them especially
at the word of “wholesome” or in Arabic Thoyyib. There are also differences
between them as SSCM main concept is more on saving and reducing cost
while HSCM is more on maintaining halal integrity along the supply chain.
This paper is based on ongoing research that cover the concept of halal and
sustainability. Therefore, more avenues of research could be explored in the
area of, sustainability of HSCM. In addition, tool for performance
measurement of halal supply chain should also be develop in order to be
1323
able to measure whether HSCM is sustainable or not. Henceforth, Muslim

and non-Muslim consumers will be able to consume and use safe and halal
products and gaining benefits from it.
REFERENCES
[1] Robin, A. and Kosha, A. J, “Beyond You and Me -Inspirations and

Wisdom for Building Community”, Gaia Education -Permanent
Publications ( 2007).
[2] Sutton. P, “A Perspective on Environmental Sustainability”. A Paper
for the Victorian Commissioner Environmental Sustainability, 27.
http://doi.org/2.b 12 (2004).
[3] Carter, C. R., & Rogers, D. S, “A framework of sustainable supply
chain management: moving toward new theory”,
Http://Dx.Doi.Org/10.1108/09600030810882816 (2013).
[4] Lambert, D.M., Croxton, K.L., Garcıá-Dastugue, S.J., Knemeyer, M.
and Rogers, D.S, “Supply Chain Management Processes, Partnerships,
Performance”, 2nd ed., Hartley Press Inc., Jacksonville, FL (2006).
[5] Gupta, S., & Palsule-Desai, O. D, “Sustainable supply chain
management: Review and research opportunities.” IIMB Management
Review, 23(4), 234–245. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.iimb.2011.09.002
(2011)
[6] Aziz, Y. A., & Chok, N. V. “The role of halal awareness, halal
certification, and marketing components in determining halal purchase
intention among non-Muslims in Malaysia: A structural equation
modeling approach”. Journal of International Food & Agribusiness
Marketing, 25(1), 1-23 (2013).
[7] Tieman, M, "The application of Halal in supply chain management: in-
depth interviews", Journal of Islamic Marketing, Vol. 2 Iss 2 pp. 186 -
195. http://doi.org/10.1108/17590831111139893 (2011)
[8] Estampe, D., Lamouri, S., Paris, J.L. and Brahim-Djelloul, S., “A
framework for analysing supply chain performance evaluation
models”, International Journal of Production Economics, 27 November
(2010).
[9] Bhagwat, R. and Sharma, M.K., “Performance measurement of supply
chain management: a balanced scorecard approach”, Computers &
Industrial Engineering, Vol. 35 No. 1, pp. 43-62. (2007)
[10] Ab Talib, M. S., Abdul Hamid, A. B., & Zulfakar, M. H, “Halal supply
chain critical success factors: a literature review”. Journal of Islamic
1324
Marketing, 6(1), 44–71. http://doi.org/10.1108/JIMA-07-2013-0049

(2015).
[11] Yaacob, T. Z., Jaafar, H. S., & Rahman, F. A. A, “Review of
Regulatory Framework for Halal Meat Supply Chain : The Case of
Halal Meat Based Food Products in Malaysia”, 6, 14–21. (2016)
[12] Tieman, M., “Principles in halal supply chain management”. Journal of
Islamic Marketing, 3(3), 217–243.
http://doi.org/10.1108/17590831211259727 (2012)
1325
T02_052: MALAYSIAN LEGAL FRAMEWORK

ON ELECTRONING MONITORING OF
OFFENDER: PREVENTIVE OR
REHABILITATIVE?
Che Audah Hassan
Associate Professor Dr Haidar Dziyauddin
ABSTRACT
There are several reformative legislations proposed in the Political
Transformation Programs (PTP) in 2011, which include the introduction of
laws on electronic monitoring of offenders. Electronic monitoring or
commonly known as tagging of offenders originates from United States of
America whereby in the late 1960’s, Harvard social psychology students
invented and assessed a prototype monitoring system to use on juvenile
offenders to encourage them to show up to places or time as a way of
rehabilitation. The application of electronic monitoring on offender has
developed in use and purposes in criminal justice system. In Malaysia, the
laws on electronic monitoring of offenders was first introduced by an
amendment to the Criminal Procedure Code (CPC), followed by the
Prevention of Crime Act 1959 (POCA), Security Offences (Special
Measures) 2012 Act (SOSMA) and Prevention of Terrorism Act 2015
(POTA). This paper attempts to examine the aims of electronic monitoring
of offenders either as preventive or rehabilitative in a number of legislations
in Malaysia.
Keywords: electronic monitoring, legal framework, offender, prevention,

rehabilitation
Introduction
The Prime Minister, Dato’ Sri Mohd Najib Tun Abdul Razak12 in his speech
on 15th of September 2011 to commemorate Malaysia Day presented a few
of his Malaysian Political Transformation Programs (PTP) encompass the
12
https://ms-my.facebook.com/notes/suara-rakyat-sarawak/najib-speech-
fulltext/272877096065147/NAJIBSPEECH - FULL TEXT
1326
aspect of administration, justice system and legal sovereignty. In

emphasising the need to maintain national security and public safety, the
government sometimes need to implement law beyond the ordinary
democratic norms for instance the laws on preventive detention. A smart
strategy in overcoming violence requires preventing it before destruction of
innocent lives, property and injuries occur. This is global truth and generally
accepted by many people. He further stressed that this phenomena is not
strange and extraordinary. Many other developed democratic countries such
as United States and United Kingdom had implemented special laws to
overcome threat of terrorism post the September 11 tragedy.
Under the legal transformation, there are several reformation
intended firstly, the abolition of three emergency proclamations previously
made under Article 150 of Federal Constitution. Secondly, the abolition of
Internal Security Act 1990 to be replaced by two new laws in overcoming
the subversive act, organised crime and violent crimes to ensure peace and
safety of the public. In maintaining the rights of those affected, the
government also undertakes to uphold the fundamental rights enshrined
under the Federal Constitution. Thirdly, the abolition of Banishment Act
1959. The government will also review Restricted Residence Act 1933,
Printing, Presses and Publication Act 1984 in relation to renewal of license
and Police Act 1967 in relation to freedom of assembly. Currently, the
Prime Minister’s plan were accomplished, when the three emergency
proclamations was officially abolished as well as the Banishments Act 1959
and Restricted Residence Act 1933 resulting in the release of those detained
under the Restricted Residence Act 1933. In addition, two new laws to
replace the Internal Security Act 1990 are the Security Offences (Special
Measures) 2012 Act (SOSMA) and Penal Code Amendment (2012) were
also introduced. The details on this legislative reformation was further
explained when the proposal for the amendment of Criminal Procedure
Code was laid down for approval in the parliament 13. In achieving the
objectives of both new legislations, it was stated that the Criminal Procedure
Code must also be amended to complement the purpose of both legislations,
strengthen and improve current laws from the scope of investigation and
prosecution of offences under Penal Code. The introduction of new
amendments to the Criminal Procedure Code (Amendment) 2012 entails
three general objectives namely; to fill in the loopholes in overcoming the
13
Malaysia, Parliamentary Debates, Dewan Rakyat, 17 April 2012, 126-
130 (Dato’ Seri Mohamad Nazri Abdul Aziz)
1327
cyber issues, to enhance investigative power of the police and to provide

laws on the attachment of electronic monitoring device.
It is the third objective of the said legislative reformation which is

within the scope of this paper, i.e. to provide laws for the attachment of
electronic monitoring device on offender. In this type of electronic
monitoring commonly known as ‘tagging’, an offender wears a uniquely
coded electronic transmitter devices (in the form of an anklet or bracelet)
that sends a signal to a home monitoring device located in offender’s home
and communicates with a central computer via a telephone line. Electronic
monitoring equipment comes in two general forms; continuously signalling
(active systems) and programmed contact (passive systems) 14. In essence
active systems require the individual to wear a transmitter, usually in the
form of an ankle bracelet, which continuously emits a signal to a receiver
unit connected to his or her landline telephone. The receiver unit then relays
the signal to a computer at the monitoring centre, where any interruptions
with the offender’s schedule, or any attempts to tamper with the equipment,
can be detected and alerted to the appropriate authorities. This first
generation of electronic monitoring technology relied on radio frequency.
As radio frequency has some limitations, the application of a more advanced
Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) technology as an alternative tool to
enhance the supervision of offenders in community. Available in both
active and passive formats, compared to radio frequency systems, GPS
technology has the added advantage of being able to track offender’s
movement 24 hours a day15.
This type of monitoring attracts the issue of fundamental right
under Article 5(1) of Federal Constitution in which no person shall be
deprived of his life or personal liberty save in accordance with the law.
There are two key words in Article 5(1) namely ‘life’ and ‘liberty’ which
are relevant as far as the electronic monitoring is concerned. In having to
wear a device attached to the body of a person (ankle or forearm) for 24
hours within a stipulated period, for the purpose of surveillance may
infringe the person’s right to life and liberty. The word ‘life’ and ‘liberty’
were given extended meaning by judges in judicial cases. It is inclusive the
right to human dignity and the right to privacy.
1414
Rondinelli, V. 1997, “Tracking humans: the electronic bracelet in a
modern world”, Criminal Lawyers’ Association newsletter, August.
15
Ibid
1328
The issue that electronic monitoring may infringe the right to

human dignity and privacy is better understood by looking into the
development in the Indian Constitution especially its Article 21 which is in
pari materia with Article 5(1) Malaysian Constitution. The Indian Supreme
Court decision in Maneka Gandhi’s16 case and cases subsequent to it have
asserted two important principles. Firstly, the Supreme Court has asserted
that in order to treat as a fundamental right, it is not necessary that it should
be expressly stated in the constitution as a fundamental right. Political,
social and economic changes in the country entail the recognition of new
rights. The law in its eternal youth grows to meet the demands of the society.
Secondly, Article 21 was given the extended view and proven to be multi-
dimensional. This multi-dimensional of Article 21 has been made possible
by courts giving an extended meaning to the word ‘life’ and ‘liberty’ in
Article 21. These two words are not to be read narrowly. These are organic
terms which are to be construed meaningfully 17.
The right to ‘life’ has been liberally interpreted so as to mean
something more than mere survival and mere existence or animal existence.
It therefore includes all those aspects of life which go to make a man’s life
meaningful, complete and worth living. In the case of Francis Coralie 18, a
grand step was taken by the court when it argued ‘life’ in Article 21 does
not mean merely ‘animal existence’ but living with ‘human dignity’. The
court has given very extensive parameters to Article 21:
“But the question which arises is whether the right to life is limited
only to protection of limb or faculty or does it go further and
embrace something more. We think that the right to life includes right to
live with human dignity and all that goes along with it, viz., the bare
necessities of life such as adequate nutrition, clothing and shelter over the
head and facilities for reading, writing and expressing oneself in
diverse forms, freely moving about and mixing and mingling with
fellow human beings. Of course, the magnitude and content of the
components of this right would depend upon the extent of the economic
development of the country, but it must, in any view of the matter,
include the right to the basic necessities of life and also the right to
carry on such functions and activities as constitute the bare expression
of the human self.”
16
AIR 1978 SC 597: (1978) 1 SCC 248
17
M.P. Jain, Indian Constitutional Law, Lexis Nexis Butterworths
Wadhwa Nagpur, Sixth edition 2010
18
AIR 1981 SC 746 at 753
1329
Another broad formulation of the theme of life with dignity is to be found

in Bandhua Mukti Morcha19. Characterizing Article 21 as the heart of
fundamental rights, the court gave it an expanded interpretation:
“…to live with human dignity, free from exploitation. It includes
protection of health and strength of workers, men and women, and
of the tender age of the children against abuse, opportunities and
facilities for children to develop in a healthy manner and
conditions of freedom and dignity; educational facilities, just and human
conditions of work and maternity relief. These are the minimum
conditions which must exist in order to enable the person
to live with human dignity. No government can take any action to
deprive a person of the enjoyment of these basic rights.”
In Chameli Singh v. State of Uttar Pradesh20, the Supreme Court while
dealing with Article 21 has held that the need for a decent and civilized life
includes the right to food, water and decent environment. The court
observed in this connection:
“In any organised society, right to live as a human being is not
ensured by meeting only the animal needs of a man. It is secured
only when he is assured of all facilities to develop himself and is
freed from restrictions which inhibit his growth. All human rights
are designed to achieve this object. Right to live guaranteed in any
civilized society implies the right to food, water, decent
environment, education, medical care and shelter. These are basic
human rights known to any civilized society.”
A question also arise as to whether Article 21 provides for the right to
privacy. The Supreme Court has observed in People’s Union for Civil
Liberties v. Union of India21:
“We have, therefore no hesitation in holding that right to privacy
is a part of the right to “life” and “personal liberty” enshrined
under Article 21 of the Constitution. Once the facts in a given case
constitute a right to privacy, Article 21 is attracted. That said right
cannot be curtailed ‘except according to procedure
established by law’.”
The issue on privacy was earlier discussed in the case of Kharak Singh v
State of Uttar Pradesh22, a question was raised whether the right to privacy
19
AIR 1997 SC 2218
20
AIR 1996 SC 1051: (1996) S SCC 549
21
AIR 1991 SC 207, 211
22
AIR 1963 SC 1295 : (1964) 1 SCR 332
1330
could be implied from the existing fundamental rights, such as Article

19(1)(d), 19(1)(e) and 21. The majority of the judges were of the view that
“Our constitution does not in terms confer any like constitutional
guarantee”. On the other hand the minority opinion (Subba Rao J.) was in
favour of inferring the right to privacy from the expression ‘personal liberty’
in Article 21. In the words of Subba Rao J.:
“Further, the right to personal liberty takes in not only a right to be
free from restrictions placed on his movements; but also free from
encroachments on his private life. It is true our constitution does not
expressly declare a right to privacy as a Fundamental right, but the
said right is an essential ingredient of personal liberty. Every
democratic country sanctifies domestic life…”
It was decided in this case that police surveillance of a person by domiciliary
visits was held to be void. The Supreme Court in the case of R. Rajagopal
v. state of Tamil Nadu23, has asserted that in recent times the right to privacy
has acquired constitutional status; it is “implicit to the right to life and
liberty guaranteed to the citizen”. It is a “right to be left alone”. A citizen
has a right “to safeguard the privacy of his own, family, marriage,
procreation, motherhood, child bearing and education among other
matters."
The right to privacy protects a person’s right to control the
dissemination about himself. Research on privacy indicates there to be a
several dimensions on type of privacy in existence 24. Physical privacy (also
known as solitude) is the state of privacy in which persons are free from
unwanted intrusion or observation. Informational privacy (also known as
anonymity) is the desire to have control over the conditions under which
personal data is released. Psychological privacy is defined as the control
over released or retention of personal information to guard one’s cognitions
and affects. Interactional privacy (also known as intimacy) is relevant to
relationship in social units as it preserves meaningful communication
between individuals and among group members.
A person who is subjected to electronic monitoring by way of
tagging may raise the issue of privacy from the aspect of information. The
data collected through the monitoring by way of police supervision may
have been use not only to gain information related to the crime but other
unnecessary purpose. Furthermore, the personal data obtained by the
23
AIR 1995 SC 264 : (1994) 6 SCC 632
24
Cho, H and Larose, R. “Privacy Issues in Internet Surveys” (1999) 17
(4) Soc Sci Comp Rev, at 421-434
1331
government is not governed by the Personal Data Protection Act 2010. Prior
to the introduction of electronic monitoring, the monitoring of offender was
conducted by a random visit made to the offender’s home or by requiring
him to report to the nearest police station at the prescribed arrangement.
The fundamental rights is not absolute enjoyment of an individual.
This is due to two reasons: firstly, the wording in Article 5(1) ‘no person
shall be deprived of his life and liberty save in accordance with the law’ i.e.
the right to life and liberty may be deprived through legal procedures.
Secondly, under Article 149 of Federal Constitution, the Parliament is
empowered to limit the freedom guaranteed under Article 5, 9, 10 or 13
under the several circumstances inclusive of an act which is prejudicial to
public order or the security of the Federation or any part thereof. For
instance, in Govind v. State of Madhya Pradesh25 AIR 1975 SC 1378, the
court undertook a more elaborate appraisal of the right to privacy. In this
case the court considered the constitutional validity of a regulation which
provided for surveillance by way of several measures indicated in the said
regulation. The court upheld the regulation by ruling Article 21 was not
violated as the regulation in question was “procedure established by law”,
in Article 21.
In Malaysia, the laws on electronic monitoring of offender was first
introduced by an amendment to the Criminal Procedure Code (CPC),
followed by the Prevention of Crime Act 1959 (POCA), Security Offences
(Special Measures) 2012 Act (SOSMA) and Prevention of Terrorism Act
2015 (POTA). The attachment of electronic monitoring device on offenders
began with the amendment to the Criminal Procedure Code to be applied
for accused on bail pending trial and bail pending appeal. In situation where
the accused is unable to provide bail, electronic monitoring could be
allowed in lieu of bail bond, thus detention is not required. The minister26
in his proposal had stated that the electronic monitoring has been in practice
for decades by the developed countries such as America and United
Kingdom. Electronic Monitoring is effective to reduce the problem of
prison overcrowding and to ensure accused attendance in court for trial, as
he claimed with electronic monitoring attached to the accused, he is not able
to flee. At the same time, the use of electronic monitoring on offenders will
enable the accused to continue in employment and live a normal life.
The application of electronic monitoring under the Prevention of
Crime Act 1959 (POCA), Security Offences (Special Measures) 2012 Act
25
AIR 1975 SC 1378
26
Note 2
1332
(SOSMA), Prevention of Terrorism Act 2015 (POTA) may have the same
justifications with the Criminal Procedure Code, except that they apply to
certain offences depending on their objectives. The Prevention of Crime Act
1959 (POCA) for instance apply to cases of unlawful societies or a gang,
associate for purposes which include the commission of offences under the
Penal Code, traffickers in dangerous drugs, traffickers in persons, unlawful
gaming and smugglers of migrants. Meanwhile the Security Offences
(Special Measures) 2012 Act (SOSMA) govern offences under chapter V1
(offences against the State) and V1A (offences relating to terrorism) of
Penal Code. Finally, the Prevention of Terrorism Act 2015 (POTA), as the
name is provide for the prevention of the commission or support of terrorist
acts involving listed terrorist organizations in a foreign country. It also
applies to specified entity declared under sections 66B and 66C of the Anti-
Money Laundering Act, Anti-Terrorism Financing and Proceeds of
Unlawful Activities Act 2001. In summary, except for Prevention of Crime
Act and Criminal Procedure Code, the Security Offences (Special
Measures) 2012 Act and Prevention of Terrorism Act 2015 are more
specific in terms of the types of offences liable to be attached with electronic
monitoring.
It is further highlighted that electronic monitoring is imposed on
offenders who are ordered and punished with police supervision under the
Prevention of Crime Act, Prevention of Terrorism Act and Security
Offences (Special Measures) 2012. In fact, electronic monitoring is one of
the means utilised by the police in the supervision of offenders under the
said Acts. Although, electronic monitoring is not treated as a punishment
per se, it is undeniable that this mode of monitoring imposed on offenders
still need to meet the objectives and theories of punishments. Under the
criminal law, there are few objectives in punishments namely; retribution,
incapacitation (prevention), deterrent and rehabilitation. Under the theory
of retribution, offenders are punished for criminal behaviour because they
deserve punishment, ‘an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth’. Generally,
it is believed to be a form of taking revenge. Deterrence is divided by noted
criminologist Sutherland 27 into two categories: general and specific
deterrence. For general deterrence, punishment is designed to deter future
crime by making an example of each convicted offender, thus frightening
citizens so much that they will not do what the said offender did. Specific
deterrence means that the punishment should prevent the same person from
Sutherland, Edwin H. ‘Principles of Criminology’ 1924 Chicago:

27
University of Chicago Press

1333
committing crimes. Meanwhile, prevention was meant to restrain an

offender personally from repeating a criminal act by incapacitating him. For
example the hands of a thief have a major role in an offence of theft.
Chopping the hands of the thief would hence incapacitate him from
repeating theft. Rehabilitation is a punishment based on psychology and
sociology of crime. Rehabilitation is defined, to restore somebody to a
normal life by retraining, medical treatment etc, especially after
imprisonment or illness. The goal of rehabilitation is to prevent future crime
by giving offenders the ability to succeed within the confines of the law. It
aims at making the criminal as far as possible a better citizen by means of
moral and ethical training that is teaching him to go straight as an upright
man and meaningful citizen.
Looking into the types of legislations which apply electronic
monitoring especially both the Prevention of Crime and Terrorism Acts, as
well as the Security Offences (Special Measures) Act 2012, it is understood
that they are intended mainly in preventing serious crimes which affects
public safety such as terrorism and offences against the Yang Dipertuan
Agong. Since the use of electronic monitoring will not amount to detention
of an offender in prison, it is still not clear on how effective is the use of
electronic monitoring to curb the same offender from reoffending. If the
offender is a dangerous criminal for committing serious offence, should he
be released and attached with electronic monitoring device? In addition, a
question may also arise, whether there exist an element of rehabilitation in
this type of punishment, assigned under the police supervision. Shauna
Bottos28 pointed out that it is unlikely that electronic monitoring will ever
come to replace the direct human contact characteristic of traditional
probation or parole officer…it may well prove to to be useful aid in
community supervision, and may demonstrate merit when used as one
component of a multi-need, individualized rehabilitation programs.
In conclusion, the deprivation of fundamental right by the use of
electronic monitoring on a person is justified by legal procedure as well as
under the license of public interest. However it is hoped that the
infringement of fundamental right of the person monitored, could be
enhanced due to human dignity concept by firstly, introducing an electronic
monitoring device which is more humane form similar to the size of a
watch. The current device used in electronic monitoring is bigger than a
28
Shauna Bottos (2007) “An overview of electronic monitoring in
corrections: The issues and implications” Research Branch Correctional
Service Canada.
1334
watch in size, thus is visible to the public and therefore would result in
feeling of humiliation to the wearer. Secondly, recommending a regulation
to control the accessibility and usability of the data or information gathered
through the monitoring by way of police supervision. Thirdly, the relevant
authority to increase efforts in using electronic monitoring as a positive
behavioral change to reduce risk of reoffending.
References
[1] M.P. Jain “Indian Constitutional Law” Lexis Nexis Butterworths
Wadhwa Nagpur, Sixth edition 2010
[2] Sutherland, Edwin H. ‘Principles of Criminology’ 1924 Chicago:
University of Chicago Press
[3] Cho, H and Larose, R. “Privacy Issues in Internet Surveys” (1999) 17
(4) Soc Sci Comp Rev, at 421-434
[4] Rondinelli, V. (1997), “Tracking humans: the electronic bracelet in a
modern world”, Criminal Lawyers’ Association newsletter, August.
[5] Shauna Bottos (2007) “An overview of electronic monitoring in
corrections: The issues and implications” Research Branch Correctional
Service Canada.
[6] Malaysia, Parliamentary Debates, Dewan Rakyat, 17 April 2012, 126-
130 (Dato’ Seri Mohamed Nazri Abdul Aziz)
Cases
[1] Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India AIR 1978 SC 597: (1978) 1 SCC 248
[2] Francis Coralie v Administrator, Union Territory of Delhi, AIR 1981 SC
746 at 753 : (1981) 1 SCC 608
[3] Bandhua Mukti Morcha v. Union of India AIR 1997 SC 2218
[4] Chameli Singh v. State of Uttar Pradesh AIR 1996 SC 1051 : (1996)
SCC 549
[5] People’s Union for Civil Liberties v. Union of India AIR 1991 SC 207,
211
[6] Kharak Singh v. State of Uttar Pradesh AIR 1963 1991 SC 207, 211
[7] R. Rajagopal v. State of Tamil Nadu AIR 1995 SC 264 : (1994) 6 SCC
632
[8] Gobind v. State of Madhya Pradesh 1975 2 SCC 1481
1335
T02_053: SHOULD GRAMMAR BE TAUGHT

IN THE COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE
TEACHING (CLT) ENVIRONMENT?
Tuan Sarifah Aini Syed Ahmad
Academy of Language Studies, Universiti Teknologi
MARA Negeri Sembilan, Kuala Pilah Campus, 72000
KualaPilah, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia
Anealka Aziz Hussin

Academy of Language Studies, Universiti Teknologi
MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
English is an international language used by approximately 1.75 billion
people worldwide especially for communication [1]. Therefore, the English
users need to be sufficiently competent in order to function in English at the
global settings. Grammar is one of the components in English language
teaching (ELT) However, language competence in learning include
linguistic competence (accuracy) and communicative competence (fluency).
It is argued that being fluent only is inadequate to become effective
language users as a degree of accuracy is needed to produce
comprehensible communication [4,7] it is particularly emphasised in the
formal and academic settings. The notion to teach or not to teach grammar
for English as Second Language (ESL) and English as a Foreign Language
(EFL) class has long been controversial at any level of education. The
current language teaching method, Communicative Language Teaching
(CLT,) does not emphasise on grammar instruction, unlike the previous
method namely Grammar Translation Method in which grammar
instruction is central. Therefore, this paper intended to review the English
proficiency status after the implementation of CLT, the attitudes of
instructors towards grammar instruction and how grammar instruction can
be carried out in the CLT teaching environment. It was evident that
deductive grammar teaching is significant for second language users (EFL
and ESL).
1336
Keywords: language proficiency, grammar. English language teaching,

communicative language teaching
Introduction
English is internationally used for global communication. It is claimed that
English is the dominant international language in the 21 st century as
approximately 1.75 billion people (the ratio of 4:1) speak English at a useful
level [1]. It is forecasted that there will be two billion English users by 2020
[1]. Consequently, they need to be sufficiently competent in order to
communicate comprehensibly at the global settings.
English is an important subject that is not only taught in English speaking

countries but also in non-English speaking countries. The English subject
in non-English speaking countries is classified into two namely English as
Second Language (ESL) and English as a Foreign Language (EFL). EFL is
taught in the countries where English in not commonly used while EFL is
taught in the countries where English in commonly used. It is argued that
different teaching approach should be applied for EFL and ESL [2].
However, the well-known teaching method that is currently applied for EFL
and ESL worldwide is Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) replacing
the previous method called Grammar Translation Method (GTM) [3-6],
Both CLT and GTM aim to produce competence language users. However,
the former focusses on communicative competence (fluency) while the
latter focusses on linguistic competence (accuracy). Thus, the teaching of
grammar only central in GTM.
Although CLT is believed to be the best method to produce proficient

English users [7-10], its effectiveness is argued as there has been a
significant drop in students’ English proficiency [3, 4, 5, 11, 12-14].
Therefore, the aim of this paper is to review the English proficiency status
after the implementation of CLT, the attitudes of instructors towards
grammar instruction and how grammar instruction can be carried out in the
CLT teaching environment.
Methodology
Research papers related to the topic were obtained from Google Scholar and
the online databases subscribed by Universiti Teknologi MARA. The
selection of papers was based on two criteria: (1) access of free papers and
(2) access of full text paper. After filtering, only ten (10) research papers
were selected for the analysis.
1337
The analysis that was carried out will be reported as follow:

 The English proficiency status after the implementation of CLT:
low, medium or high
 The attitudes of instructors towards grammar instruction: whether
the instructors chose explicit or implicit grammar instruction
 How grammar instruction can be carried out in the CLT teaching
environment: state the approaches or techniques used or suggested
in presenting grammar instruction. The suggestions are written
with the word “should”.

The results of the English proficiency status after the implementation of
CLT, the attitudes of instructors on the need of grammar instruction and
how grammar instruction can be carried out in the CLT teaching
environment are presented in the following tables.
Table 1: The English proficiency status after the implementation of

CLT,the attitudes of instructors on the need of grammar instruction
and how grammar instruction is carried out in the CLT teaching
environment
Country/ Proficienc Attitudes Approaches/ Techniques
Level y
Source
1 Malaysia/ Low Explicit Should provide remedy to
tertiary improve grammar skills
[15]
2 Malaysia Low Explicit Re-examine current the
Secondary teaching approach
School and Provide language practice
tertiary outside the classroom
[16]
3 Indonesia/ Low Mixed Use a mixed method
School called the communicative
[4] grammar teaching
4 Bangladesh/ Low Explicit Combine GTM into CLT
Tertiary
[12]
1338
Country/ Proficienc Attitudes Approaches/ Techniques

Level y
Source
5 Iran/ School Low Explicit Should teach grammar
[17] rules and their usage
explicitly through
communicative tasks
6 Bangladesh/ Low Explicit Should conduct learning
School and activities in class focusing
tertiary on grammar that finally
[5] can enable students to use
English meaningfully for
various purposes.
Should revamp a syllabus
to be multidimensional by
having the a formal and
communicative grammar
teaching
7 Malaysia/ Low Explicit Use supplementary
Secondary materials such as grammar
school and workbooks
[13] Use L1 translation
8 Malaysia/ Low Explicit Use a board game to
Tertiary practice grammar in the
[18] fun way
9 Malaysia/ Low Explicit Should provide extra
School learning materials to
[19] practice grammar
10 Japan/ School Low Explicit Use translation to teach
[20] Present grammar (teacher-
led presentation)
It is evident that grammar instruction is significant to be considered

although CLT is applied as the method of teaching. Moreover, it is argued
that being fluent only is inadequate to become effective language users as a
degree of accuracy is needed to produce comprehensible communication
[4,7] especially in the global settings. Furthermore, it is particularly
emphasised in the formal and academic settings.
1339
Knowing grammar is crucial due to the belief that language is governed by

rules raising [7]. Therefore, Ellis argues that mastering grammar is believed
can aid in using a language competently due to awareness of grammar
through conscious raising. Familiarity with grammar can help to improve
students’ productive skills, grow intellectually and promote mental exercise
of learning grammar that is beneficial in the learning process [8].
A study [21] reveals that students requested for more grammar practice as
they lacked the skills and practice in class was insufficient. This is
consistent with a review on ELT of students at school and tertiary levels in
Malaysia [16] that reported students are poor in English and various
researcher suggest that practice outside the classroom is essential.
Therefore, instructors need to choose grammar practice that students will
participate in them voluntarily without the presence of instructors. The
practice need be able to sustain students’ motivation in participate
voluntarily.
Conclusions
The teaching of grammar is crucially needed in the CLT environment for
EFL and ESL students in order to enhance their English proficiency. Having
communicative competency only is inadequate in order to use English
effectively especially in the formal and academic settings. Therefore, it is a
need to find effective ways to provide grammar practice outside the
classroom. The practice should be easily and conveniently accessible by
students outside the classroom. Moreover, the practices should not only be
sufficiently interesting but also can promote optimal learning. This is
crucial to ensure that students’ motivation can be sustained to utilise the
practice provided. There are various established online platforms offering
Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) such as Open Learning
(www.openlearning.com) and the university’s learning management
systems (LMS) or learning websites such as Khan Academy
(https://www.khanacademy.org/) and BBC Learning English
(http://www.bbc.co.uk/learningenglish/) providing ubiquitous learning
materials for learning grammar. However, the learning materials that match
with students’ learning needs and the requirement of syllabus can only be
provided by designing them (Tuan Sarifah Aini & Faizah, 2011).
References
1340
[1]British Council. (2013). The English Effect: The impact of English, what
it’s worth to the UK and why it matters to the world. British Council.
British Council.
[2]Darus, S. (2009). The Current Situation and Issues of the Teaching of
English in Malaysia. International Symposium of the Graduate
School of Language Education and Information Sciences, 19–27.
[3]Selvaraj, B. (2010). English Language Teaching ( ELT ) Curriculum
Reforms in Malaysia. Voice of Academia, 5(1), 51–60.
[4]Marzuki, D. (2012). Combining Form and Function in Language
Teaching : Teaching Grammar Communicatively. Jurnal Bahasa
Dan Seni, 13(1), 33–42.
[5]Huda, M. E. (2013). A Critical Appraisal of CLT on Grammar, and
Implications for ELT in Bangladesh. GJHSS-G: Linguistics &
Education, 13(1), 0–8. Retrieved from
http://www.journalsofeducation.com/index.php/GJHSS-
G/article/view/1
[6]Asl, H. E. (2015). Comparative Study of Grammar Translation Method
( GTM ) and Communicative Language Teaching ( CLT ) in
Language Teaching Methodology. International Journal of Science
and Research Methodology, 1(3), 16–25. Retrieved from
www.ijsrm.humanjournals.com
[7]Ellis, R. (1992). Second Language Acquisition and Language Pedagogy.
Clevedon: Multilingual matters Ltd.
[8]Larsen-Freeman, D. (2000). Techniques and Principles in Language
Teaching (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press., 21(3), 106.
http://doi.org/10.1016/S0889-4906(01)00006-0
[9]Brown, H. D. (2006). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching.
Language (5th ed.). Sans Francisco: Pearson Education.
http://doi.org/10.2307/414380
[10]Cook, V. (2016). Second Language Learning and Language Teaching
(5th Ed). New York: Routledge.
[11]Ansarey, D. (2012). Communicative Language Teaching in EFL
Contexts : Teachers Attitude and Perception in Bangladesh. ASA
University Review, 6(1), 1–18.
[12]Mondal, N. K. (2012). English language learning through the
combination of Grammar Translation Method and Communicative
Language Teaching. Academia Arena, 4(6), 20–24. Retrieved from
http://www.sciencepub.net
1341
[13]Raissi, R., & Fazirah, M. N. (2013). Teachers ’ Perceptions and

Challenges Regarding the Implementation of Communicative
Language Teaching ( Clt ). In Proceeding of the Global Summit on
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[14]Steele, D., & Zhang, R. (2016). Enhancement of Teacher Training: Key
to Improvement of English Education in Japan. Procedia - Social
and Behavioral Sciences, 217, 16–25.
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[15]Latisha Asmaak, S., Anis, M., Nazira, O., Surina, N., & Mahani, M.
(2010). Understanding Collaborative Academic Writing among
Beginner University Writers in Malaysia. Studies in Literature &
Language, 1(2), 58–69.
[16]Normazidah, C., Koo, Y. L., & Hazita, A. (2012). Exploring English
Language Learning And Teaching In Malaysia. Journal of Language
Studies, 12(1), 35–51. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-
9720.2007.tb03201.x
[17]Zohrabi, M., Torabi, M. A., & Baybourdiani, P. (2012). Teacher-
centered and/or Student-centered Learning:English Language in
Iran. English Language and Literature Studies, 2(3), 18–30.
http://doi.org/10.5539/ells.v2n3p18
[18]Tengku Nazatul Shima, T. D. P., & Rahmah, L. Y. (2013). Use of
“Time Trap Board Game” to Teach Grammar. Procedia - Social and
Behavioral Sciences, 105, 398–409.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.11.042
[19]Loke, D. L., Ali, J., & Norin Norain, Z. A. (2013). A corpus based study
on the use of preposition of time “on” and “at” in argumentative
essays of form 4 and form 5 Malaysian students. English Language
Teaching, 6(9), 128–135. http://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v6n9p128
[20]Nishimuro, M., & Borg, S. (2013). Teacher Cognition and Grammar
Teaching in a Japanese High School. JALT Journal, 35(1), 29–50.
[21]Kaur, N. (2014). Supporting Learner Empowerment. Malaysian
Journal of Learning and Instruction, 11, 101–126.
[22]Tuan Sarifah Aini, S. A. & Faizah, M., The Usability Of Online
Features Of Supplementary Online Quizzes. Journal Of Academia,
1 (1), 19-38
1342
T02_054: SYMBOLIC ROLES OF MUSIC IN

KAVADI RITUALS
Serenna Fadzil, Valerie Ross, Ainolnaim Azizol
ABSTRACT
Music plays a significant role in rituals. Delineating its symbolic meaning
yields a deeper understanding of the culture and community in which it
thrives. Rituals portray expressions of social interaction and the practice of
belief systems evolved through time among a community. Seen through the
lens of hermeneutic phenomenology, this article extrapolates the symbolic
roles of music played during Kavadi rituals at the Thaipusam Festival in
Malaysia. It focuses on the practice of a group of notable musicians who
assist Kavadi bearers enter into a trance state through music. It views
Kavadi music as creative outputs and as artefacts of a living culture with
potential for development in enriching community music in the global
classroom
Keywords: Kavadi rituals, music, trance, Thaipusam festival
Background
Music contributes to the cultural sustainability and heritage of a civilised
nation. Rituals portray expressions of social interaction and belief systems
evolved through time among communities. Music plays a significant role in
rituals. Delineating its symbolic meaning yields a deeper understanding of
the culture and community in which it thrives. This article extrapolates the
symbolic roles of music played in Kavadi rituals during Thaipusam in
Malaysia. Interpretations were made through the lens of hermeneutics
phenomenology in deciphering lived experience, belief and praxis of a
group of musicians.
Thaipusam, a Hindu festival, is known to have been celebrated at Batu

Caves since 1888, an event initiated by Kayaroganam Pillai, founder of the
Sri Maha Mariamman Kovil temple, who dreamt that Sakti (a goddess)
directed that he build a shrine for her son Murugan at the top of the hill at
Batu Caves (Jáhnichen, 2010; Belle, 2005). Hindus pay annual homage to
Lord Muruga, making offerings and asking for forgiveness and blessings.
The highlight of the Thaipusam celebrations is the kavadi procession where
1343
devotees in trance walk two hundred and seventy-two steps up the jagged
face of a limestone crop to the three main caves. Kavadi bearers enter a
period of renunciation and asceticism with several weeks of ritual
purification to prepare them for their encounter with the deities (Sankaran,
2013). While there is much focus on the spectacle of devotees with body
piercings carrying their Kavadi, lesser is known about the music that
induces and accompanies the trance state. This study fills this gap and
contributes to extant knowledge in understanding the phenomenon.
Theoretical framework and literature review

Hermeneutics phenomenological is a form of inquiry that explores
phenomena, lived experience and shared meanings. It is continuously open
to new insights and interpretations, interweaving theory, reflection and
practice (Friesen et al., 2012). It attempts to understand people’s
perceptions, perspectives and actions in comprehending social phenomena,
theorizing and offering reflective interpretations of their meanings
(Moustakas, 1994). Phenomenology has its origins in the work of German
philosopher, Edmund Husserl (1859-1938) and has since developed from a
descriptive, transcendental model into a philosophical embodiment of
praxis and as a method of enquiry focusing on interpretation, textual
meaning, dialogue, preunderstanding and tradition (Manen, 2014). Blum
(2012) advocates phenomenological approach to aid in the ‘interpretation
of religion or religious experience and consciousness’ (p.1029).
Furthermore, cultural associations that accompany the music play an

important role in stimulating a trance experience and facilitating trance
induction (Aldridge, D. and Fachner, J, 2006; Beng-Yeong, 2000). Music
has a neurological effect on the listener, stimulating brainwaves and
promoting audiation in facilitating the meaning of sound (Ross, 2014).
Devotional practices such as Thaipusam symbolise a long developed
interrelationship between humans and nature (in this case a cave within a
limestone hill) as a site of spiritual value.
Methodology
A case study approach under the aegis of hermeneutics phenomenology was
adopted (Menon, 2014, Groenewald, 2004). Blum (2012) postulates that
phenomenology seeks to ‘describe and interpret the perspective of the
religious or the experience that the subject regards as real’ (p.1030). The
1344
method was selected for its ability to generate rich data enabling a deeper
understanding of cultural and musical practices of an extraordinary social
phenomenon. Specifically, it unveiled the ‘lived experience’ of a group of
music practitioners guided by their personal, social and spiritual beliefs.
This ensemble was chosen due to its established role in providing music to
assist devotees enter into a trance state and to accompany the kavadi bearers
along the route to Batu Caves during the yearly Thaipusam festival. The
members of this ensemble, numbering eighteen, are also regarded as the
keepers of the Indian musical tradition in playing Kavadi music and they
have even been invited to India to demonstrate Kavadi music as practised
in Malaysia. The techniques engaged in securing data comprised
interviews, field observations of practices and studio performance
recordings. This study was conducted over a period of one year and it has
yielded rich qualitative and musical data. Within the remit of the scope and
size of this paper, the findings relating to ‘musical practice and symbolic
roles’ are articulated, supported by interview extracts, images of the Kavadi
group playing traditional Indian instruments and an excerpt of the score
transcription.
Findings
Kavadi bearers are induced into trance by a priest while a band of musicians
play a special set of musical repertoire with chanting. The musicians often
train for the Thaipusam festival for up to five months to a year in advance
and like Kavadi bearers, musicians too enter a period of renunciation and
asceticism with several weeks of ritual purification to prepare for their
physical (and spiritual) engagement. They view their role as enabling
devotees to transcend into the spiritual world through the passage of sound.
Urumi Melam ensembles usually consist of a pair of double headed drums
called Pambai, one to three Urumi drums, one or two Tavil drums and a
Jalra cymbal as well as a vocalist. The Sri Muthappan Urumi Melam group
rehearse at a sacred spot near a shrine along the Batu River where trance is
engaged during Thaipusam. A transcription of ‘Pillayar’, the most
important piece in the cycle of five pieces usually played at the beginning
of trance rituals was made (Figure 1).
1345
Figure 1 : Sri Muthappan Urumi Melam musicians rehearsing and

a score transcription of ‘Pillayar’
Several of the musicians were interviewed to ascertain how they perceived
their ‘extra-musical’ role in enabling trance. They were also asked how they
learnt to play the instruments, and the types of repertoire and how they
viewed the significance of the music. Some salient comments follow.
MA As a third generation group of musicians we have played for every

type of kavadi ritual. Every single ritual gives different meanings
for the prayers by the music played…devotees get more energy and
power when listening to the music during the ritual.
MB There are many groups but we are the only group playing for
‘Muthappan’ deity during Thaipusam. The pieces played for
trance, summons the deities, invokes the spiritual, protect man
from evil, grant forgiveness…our instruments are sacred too, they
transport the message.
MC I am willing to teach but I must know that they are really interested
in learning. We study new songs, different drumming patterns and
compose music. It takes years to learn the instruments properly, so
should start young. Girls can join too but it’s difficult for them to
carry the instruments and play along the pilgrimage which takes
4-5 hours…We play by ear, I hope one day the music and musical
instruments will be taught in schools.
There are many types of songs played in Kavadi rituals. The study identified
five songs deemed most important to the ritual, namely, Pillaiyar, Murugan,
Muthapan, Ayya and Amman. They represent the core repertoire played to
‘summon the deities’ and assist devotees enter into a state of trance during
the ritual enactment. Such repertoire is transmitted by the oral tradition. A
digital transcription and analysis of the works ascertained that these songs
were largely in verse and chorus form, each with distinct rhythmic patterns
supporting figurative melodic lines.
1346
To summarise, the study yielded invaluable insights into the roles of music
in the phenomenal practice of body piercing-through-trance in what has
become a signifying feature of the annual celebration of Thaipusam in
Malaysia (ABC News 2016). Yet beneath this seemingly display of overt
religiosity, there lie a deep belief system, steeped in cultural, spiritual and
musical practice. The complexities of practice are deeply rooted in tradition,
necessitating a discourse that requires much expansion. Nevertheless,
premised on the rich data accrued in this instance, the symbolic roles played
by music in Kavadi rituals may be categorised as (i) facilitating extra-
musical associations, (ii) acting as an agent for audiation in assisting
devotees enter an altered state and (iii) yielding musical scores as artefacts
of culture with a potential of fostering community music education in the
global classroom.
Conclusion and recommendations

Viewed through the lens of hermeneutics phenomenology, study explored
the intertwining nexus between the inner and outer worlds of theory,
reflection and praxis. Further studies in establishing how neural patterns
change into and within trance states of devotees using brain imaging
technology is needed. It views the various musical repertoire that is played
during Thaipusam as creative outputs and as artefacts of an astounding
culture and practice. Finally, it moots the design of a pedagogical model
which may be used for the teaching and learning of traditional Indian music
and musical instruments thereby enriching community music and cultural
heritage in the world music classroom.
Acknowledgement
The research team, Serenna Fadzil, Ainolnaim Azizol and Assoc. Professor
Dr Valerie Ross would like to thank Universiti Teknologi MARA and the
Ministry of Higher Education for supporting this research (RAGS Grant
/1/2014/SSI07/UITM//10 ). Special thanks are accorded to members of the
Sri Muthappan Urumi group and to all who have contributed to the study.
References
ABC News (2016). Feats of piercing on display as Hindus celebrate
Thaipusam in Malaysia, Australian Broadcasting Corporation,
1347
http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-01-24/more-than-a-million-hindus-
celebrate-thaipusam-in-malaysia/7110608.
Aldridge, D. and Fachner, J. ed. (2006). Music and Trance, London: Jessica
Kingsley, p. 49 – 50.
Belle, C. (2005). Thaipusam in Malaysia: A Hindu festival misunderstood?

Retrieved from http://tux.lib.deakin.edu.au/adt VDU/ uploads/ approved/
adtVDU20050705. 110706/public/01front.pdf.
Beng-Yeong, N.G. (2000). Singapore: A cross-cultural perspective

phenomenology of Trance States seen at a Psychiatric Hospital.
Transcultural Psychiatry, 37: 560.
Blum, J. (2012). Retrieving phenomenology of religion as a method for

religious studies. Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 80(4),
1025-1048.
Friesen, N. , Henriksson, C., and Saevi, T. (2012) Hermeneutic
Phenomenology in Education, Sensepublishers.
Groenewald, T. (2004). A phenomenological research design illustrated,

International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 3 (1), p.1.
Jáhnichen, G. (2010). Indian community cultures and their present situation

in Malaysia. Journal of the Indian Musicological Society, 40, 43-65, 271.
Manen, M. (2014). Phenomenology of Practice, Left Coast Press.
Moustakas, C. (1994). Phonomenological research methods.Thousand

Oaks,
CA: Sage Publications.
Ross, V., Norlida Buniyamin, Zunairah Murat, Zaini Mohd-Zain (2014),

‘Violinists playing with and without music notation during performance:
Investigating hemispheric brainwave activity‘, Intelligent Systems for
Science and Information, Springer, Vol.542, 153-169.
Sankaran, C. (2003). Gendered Spaces in the "Thaipusam" Festival,

Singapore. Theatre Research International, 245-258.
Sheehan, S. (2014). A Conceptual Framework for Understanding

1348
Transcendental Phenomenology through the Lived Experience of Biblical

Leaders, Emerging Leadership Journeys, 7 (1),10-20.
1349
T02_055: IDENTIFICATION OF INTRINSIC

ATTRIBUTES OF CLOTHING FOR
CONSUMER WITH DISABILITIES (BREAST
CANCER SURVIVOR): A PRELIMINARY
STUDY
Norazean Miswat
Rosita Tajuddin
Nur’ Ain Yusof
Universiti Teknologi Mara, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Breast cancer is the most common cancer that affects women in Malaysia.
Breast cancer survivor faces with a various issue regarding physical
change and body image issue after cancer treatment. Clothing with an
intrinsic attribute for the consumer with disabilities( breast cancer
survivor) has become important to enhance breast cancer survivor positive
quality of life to breast cancer survivor, due to the decreased ability of
movement, pain dimension and demotivated feeling. Therefore, breast
cancer survivor wants to be a part of the society . Breast cancer survivors
has difficulties in clothing that can suit their requirement during the
treatment phase.This study was conducted to identify and understand the
problem in relation to intrinsic attributes of clothing among breast cancer
survivor. Review of past literature related to intrinsic attributes was
conducted as well as an interview with breast cancer survivors to discover
the attributes required to fulfilled the needs of breast cancer survivor. Five
intrinsic attributes emerged that involved (fitting, style, design, fabric
content and the feeling of the garment) which served importance elements.
However, these elements and it relation to life quality little discovered. The
paper reported preliminary findings derived from the semi-structured
interviews conducted with three breast cancer survivor. An in-depth
interview with the patients was done to gain more and deeper
understanding of the social phenomenon. The paper concluded that
comfort, wrinkle free types of fabric and aesthetic values of clothing are
needed to boost their self-esteem, while at the same time enhancing their
life quality. These attributes are crucial to build their confidence and
nurture their social life
1350
Keyword : intrinsic Attributes, Breast Cancer Survivor, Clothing
Introduction
Disability is defined as any lack of ability to perform an activity that is

considered normal for a human being in a particular society[1][2].
Disabilities are often categorized into several different groups. The first
group of disabilities is based on the type of disability: physical and/or
mental [1] which is defined as any differentiation of individuals based on,
for example, their medical treatment[1] or some other context (e.g.,
educational setting).Breast cancer is the number one most common cancer
in Malaysia, followed by colorectal cancer[3]. Treatment for breast cancer
like a chemotherapy, surgery, or radiotherapy may change the body
structure, physically, mentally, sexually and emotionally[4]. On the other
hand, it was predicted that breast cancer causes physical change and body
image issue [4]–[8], which including weight gain, hair loss [8], repeated
infections, discomfort and functional impairment [9], lack of comfort,
functionality,self-esteem due to cancer treatment. However, people with
disabilities do not want to be considered as a special group [1], [2], [10]–
[13]. Therefore clothing is essential to improve the physical and cognitive
skills of a breast cancer survivor.
This research focuses on intrinsic element attributed to the physical

properties of a garment such as fit, style, design, fabric contents, colour, and
the feeling of the garment. The intrinsic element is also significant in
product evaluation compared to the extrinsic element because the intrinsic
element has higher “ predictive”. The extrinsic element is a lower level
element that can change without changing the product such price, brand,
name, country of origin [14]–[17] added concrete attributes, represents the
product by its ‘indistinct” qualities.
A style can be the fashionable silhouette of the event. A detailed garment

shape , a design element, the type of dress by a certain individual or a part
of society, or it may be a garment that fulfills a functional
requirement[16][18][19]. The model or ideal female body shape, which is
closely correlated to the clothing styles, has diversified if over time and
remains to differ among cultures. Clothing is the manifestation of physical
beauty and Wang [20] analyzed that fashion design should be based on the
human body as a latent visual focus. Research findings by Watkin [18] also
point towards this matter.
1351
Garment fit, linked to physical comfort relates to the effect of the intrinsic
elements, either physiological or psychological [18]. This is because
comfort can only be felt by the wearer and the wearer's response. According
to Sykes,1980 [18] physical comfort is " freedom from pain ' and general '
well-being '. The statement in line with breast cancer survivor’s statement,
which have various levels of difficulty that only they can feel. Most of the
people have a sense an undesirable feeling or discomfort when body and
mind are unfavorably affected. The physical change could have an effect,
Alexander [21] said that dissatisfaction with fit is the most frequent problem
with the garment. Physical change due variety of circumstance medical
treatment makes do not fit anymore.
Disability people may need clothing more than just to cover their body. Jane
[22], [23] also said that clothing has communication element on how to
deliver the wearer. Damhhorst [22] claimed that the beauty of the garment
vary with how well the garments fulfill the specific purposes. Disability
people uses clothing as a cosmetic to cover their weakness and
disability[1][23], [24]. Clothing also contains symbolic of increasing their
confident.
Conceptual Framework
Clothing is a necessity in life. This includes the need to protect the body
from the physical elements of the weather (rain, snow, and heat) as
described by Barnard[1] [10], [11], [24]–[29]. However, it is not limited
to just the basics only. It is also used as tools to introduce oneself in terms
social and cultural identity of the community and to differentiate an identity
element with others, for those who do not use clothing as a medium of
culture, they will cover and decorate their bodies with different materials
such as paint beads and other [25]. Some important observations were
noted and summarized that the element of gender, physical abnormalities,
religious needs, culture, and it will affect the meaning and terminology in
clothing.
For disability person, clothing functions had more that just to cover their
body, but also to manage their appearance. Clothing as a concealment from
disability, deflections to retract attention away from disability,
compensation as a reward to a particular context for which stigma is no
1352
irrelevant to physically disability and to emphasizing social

uniqueness[10][30][31].
Table 1 below shows the basic meaning of the general terminology used to
dress for laypersons and clothing scholar alike. But this will change with
the needs of their special needs.
Table 3 : Every Day And Conceptual Clothing Terminology[25]
Adornment Any decoration or alteration

Apparel A body covering, specifically referring to actual
garment constructed from fabric . (This is a term
often used by industry)
Clothing Any tangible or material object connect to the
human body.
fashion A dynamic social process by which new style are
created, introduced to a consuming public, and
popularly accepted by public[32]; as object: a
style accepted by a large group of people at a
particular time [25]
Style A distinctive characteristic or way of expression;
style in clothing describe the lines that distinguish
one form or shape from another [25]
The social psychology of clothing meaning differs from people to people.

Table 1 shows the general meaning used by the public at large and clothing
scholar alike .However, this will change with the need of the user.
Figure 1 shows five themes emerged from responses based on the

phenomenological of interview data[1] , The basic indicator showed form
and function which represent the functional reason behind clothing for
individual with a disability. Followed by self-expression that showed that
clothing as a tool to express themselves with what they wear and to express
aspects of their personalities. The third level, social identity in which that
clothing indicates to other what role the wearer is playing is consistent with
what is known about non-disabled individuals from previous research [25].
The ultimate theme is a symbol of victory, in which clothing marks as a
triumph.
1353
Figure 28 : The Paradigm Of Clothing For Disabled Consumers.

Source [1]
Body Image and Physical Change
The moment breast cancer patients are the diagnosed that they have breast
cancer, their lives are already changed. The impact of the loss through breast
cancer is really devastating for breast cancer patients [7]. The impact causes
physical changes and interference of daily activity[33]. Breast cancer not
only just leads to mastectomy scars the radiation can also lead to redness
and soreness in the affected area whereas chemotherapy often leads to hair
loss and weight gain [9]. The clinical management of lymphedema
encompasses a wide variety of strategies, including manual lymphatic
drainage, compression garments, pneumatic pumps, multilayer bandaging
and surgery [34] had proven that these treatments will lead to repeated
infections, discomfort, and functional impairment [35]. Body image is a
component of a larger concept of self that for women include feeling
feminine and attractive [5], [36]for this reason, Clothing is considered to be
a significant component of outer appearance in order to enhance confidence
and a good attitude[1][37]. Many studies have been done regarding body
changes because of breast cancer [6]–[8], [18], [23], [38]. Therefore, it is
essential for breast cancer survivor to create positive body image or body
experience through clothing, it is because clothing offers multiple purposes
such as components of physical, psychological and social comfort [25]
Psychological and social comfort is affected because breast cancer survivor
1354
has an altered outer image, as well as an altered internal feeling about her
body[1], [10], [25], [26], Only a few research had been done to overcome
the fitting problem to accommodate these changes.
Methodology
Review of past studies [14][15][39][40][41][42][43][1][17], [31], [37],

[39], [44]–[46], related to intrinsic attributes was implemented to explore
the elements of intrinsic that can help breast cancer cope with theirs issue.
In the preliminary stage of this study, ten breast cancer survivors who had
gone through breast cancer treatment were interviewed to obtain
preliminary information about the quality of life. A semi-structured
interview were conducted face to face to gathered deep understanding about
the effect of breast cancer . The in-depth interview will be the primary
qualitative method employed in order to explore how individuals with
disabilities (breast cancer survivors) experience their daily lives and to
better understand these experiences relative to their clothing selection
behaviors [1].
Women with variety body physical limitations due to

breast cancer treatment, who can help reseacher
understand the phenomenon
To develop a detailed understanding on clothing selection,

among breast cancer survivor
 Provide useful information

 Help people to know about
phenomenon
Figure 29 : The Sampling Plan ( Purposeful

Qualitative Sampling)
1355
The sample populations consisted of women with a variety of upper body

physical limitations due to breast cancer treatments. The sample of women
was a purposive sample. The initial selections of the sample were done
using a snowball method. According to Babbie [47], snowballing is an
appropriate method of obtaining participants, whereby a set of participants
is recommended to the researcher by word of mouth through a local hospital
support group and experts. This process was carried until it reaches
saturation point or state. This process to open up a line of inquiry and
generate insight that will all three breast cancer survivors informed
throughout the process of recovery, comfort and appearance are the
important things for them. Therefore, the sample was not rigorously
constructed in order to correct for bias. Instead, the firm selection was
directed by a desire to sample widely and variously
Figure 30 clothing attributes with intrinsic and extrinsic cue
This research used a purposive sampling method. Therefore results were

only applicable to this sample or to others with similar characteristics and
1356
are not generalizable to other large groups of individuals with special needs
or physical disabilities. The age average for this study was females from 35
years to 50 years of age. The breast cancer survivor who had undergone the
treatment between six months to two-year length of time. The study also
involves an intrinsic element of clothing focusing on tops.

Aqueveque found , that intrinsic cues are more significant in product
evaluations because they have higher "predictive" values than extrinsic.
extrinsic cues are lower level cues that can be changed without changing
the product such as price, packaging, brand, name, country of origin. [16].
Figure 3 show the intrinsic and extrinsic cue for clothing.
Table 4 : Intrinsic cue analysis

Intrinsic Design / Fibre Style / colo The feeling of the Sensu
cue construct conte fashion ur Size/ garment/thickness/ al
ion / style nt ability fit quality pleasu
/uniquen re
ess
[15]Fiore / /
and
Damhorst
[29] /
Lennon
[41]Anders /
on
[48]Lamb / /
[1] Chang / /
[49]Jay / /
[44]Kitticha / / /
i
[43]Rahma / / / / /
n
[40] Kim / / /
[45]Abraha / / / / / /
n
[37]Rochell / / / / / / /
e
[46]Wolfen / / / /
dale
[39]Fiore / / / / / /
and Ogle
1357
In order to identify which intrinsic attributes that are highly importance,

several past studies related to intrinsic attributes of clothing here analyzed
[15][29][41][48][1][49][44][43][40][45][37][46][39].
The review of these articles also helps to identify the common attributes
preferred by the consumer. Style,fashionability, and uniqueness are more
preferred by consumer followed by size and style. Nevertheless fabrication
also importance to the consumer in order to provide a good sense of clothing
and fulfill their needs. The last consumer also preferred the feeling of the
garment to offer a maximum comfort for good quality of life.
Comfort and appearance are the important elements for breast cancer
survivor to enhance the quality of life. This what the participant said
regarding their clothing experience through the interview :
“I try to look normal as I can, prettier than ever so that other people’s feel
comfortable and positive with me. Although I feel discomfort with my own
appearance.”
“After chemotherapy, I surely need a very good clothes, which is more

comfortable and suitable for Malaysia climate, so that I’m less sweating
and not trying to rub my scar because of itchiness.”
“Please do something to my blouse, my arm is swelling, it is because of

treatment and my sleeve size not suitable anymore.”
“I used to be fat, but now due to my cancer treatment I become so skinny,

but the doctor said I will gain my weight back if I follow all the regime that
create for me. And now all my clothing were very loose for me and I feel
uncomfortable because of the bagginess.”
“ losing the breast makes me feel ugly, imperfect and miserable. I do not
want to see my scar, it makes me sad”
During the interview, and to validate and confirm perception that clothing
should be an issue for breast cancer survivor, most of the breast cancer
survivors allied the following general physical problem related to the
treatment of breast cancer like a changes of body size or not suitable fitting,
swelling and numbness in the affected arm and chest area, heat management
and lack of motivation . This situation very crucial and breast cancer
1358
survivors really needs clothing that can provide a solution to this matter and
can reduce the impact of treatment through psychology part. This way, they
can express their feeling through clothing. Clothing is akin to tools or
cosmetic, to deflect away from their weakness and disabilities. Clothing can
emphasize their inner beauty, their spirits, and effort. Therefore clothing
with intrinsic attribute importance for a better quality of life.
Conclusion
The review of past studies managed to confirm the type of intrinsic element
that are essential for clothing. This analysis is showed in ,figure 3 and table
2. Based from the review and interview with participant this can conclude
that attributes such as comfort, fabrication, design, and fitting are relatively
significant toward their clothing needs. This is consistent with what was
found in past studies.
Recommendation
Finally, because this research was preliminary exploratory study, the

sample consisted of a small number of participant. Tthe preliminary nature
of this paper it is only possible to suggest some tentative conclusion, assess
the focus adopted on the informational issue and suggest future lines of
enquiry. The breast cancer survivor quality of life studied so far, including
those not detailed in this paper. Future research is needed regarding on
various view how society looks at breast cancer survivor through clothing
and how society copes with breast cancer survivor clothing selection. Future
research needs to include a large sample size to ensure consistency and
reliability of the results.
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1363
T02_056: THE MODERATING EFFECT OF

DIRECTORS’ DEMOGRAPHIC
CHARACTERISTICS ON THE
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE BOARD OF
DIRECTORS’ EFFECTIVENESS AND FIRM
PERFORMANCE
Mohammed Hassan Makhlouf*, Nur Hidayah Laili, Mohamad Yazis Ali
Basah, Nur Ainna Ramli
Faculty of Economics and Muamalat

Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia, 71800 Nilai, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia
*
mohmakh1983@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
This paper proposes a conceptual framework to investigate the moderating
effect of directors’ demographic characteristics on the relationship between
the board of directors’ effectiveness and firm performance in Jordanian
listed firms. The increasing reliance on corporate governance raises
questions about whether the board of directors as the main component of
corporate governance mechanisms has an influence on firm performance,
and whether or not intervening variables moderate the effect of the
relationship between board of directors' effectiveness and firm
performance. Therefore, based on upper echelon theory, this study proposes
a comprehensive framework to answer these questions through integrating
the directors' demographic characteristics into the board of directors'
effectiveness and performance framework.
Key words; Board of directors, Firm performance, Directors’ demographic
characteristics.
Background of the study

Corporate governance has become one of the most important issues
discussed in the world economies and represents an important factor that
enhances the success of economic and organizational reforms [1, 2]. The
role of good corporate governance is providing useful information to help
and improve the firm performance and that along with providing useful
information to shareholders and other beneficiary parties [3, 4]. Black, et al.
1364
[5] argue that firms with good corporate governance have better
performance than the firms with poor corporate governance.
Corporate governance is interested with the functioning of the board of
directors and its composition, relationships, tasks, activities and etc.
Therefore, whatever the principles or structures of corporate governance
adopted, the board of directors has been considered as one of the most
important mechanisms of corporate governance and considered as a
governance structure safeguard between the firm and the shareholders
(owners) [6, 7]. The Cadbury Report (1992) described the board of directors
as the center stage of governance system and is able to play a pivotal role
in the success of a firm.
The presence of an effective board of directors is important for proper
functioning of listed firms, because boards are expected to perform different
of monitoring tasks, for instance, monitoring of management to reduce the
agency problem, monitoring the CEO, appointing and firing of management
members, presenting strategic guidance for the firm and protect the
shareholder’s interest [9, 10]. On the other hand, the board represents a
strategic resource for the firm, since the board is responsible for improving
and choosing creative decisions in the advancement of the firm, for
example, bolstering the public image of the firm, providing expertise,
building external relations, administering advice and counsel and etc. [11].
This view is in line with the resource dependence theory which assumed
that the primary function of the board of directors is to provide different
resources to the firm.
Despite there are studies have examined the effects of board of directors on
firm' performance both in and outside of Jordan such as [12-15] yet the
findings of these studies are still inconclusive and mixed. Garcia-Castro and
Aguilera [16], Miller, et al. [17] explained that the mixed and inconclusive
findings in empirical studies may arise due to methodological problems
related to measurement issues, the lack of relevant control variables or the
absence of moderating or mediating variables [18].
The mixed and inconclusive findings in the field of board of directors and
firm performance emphasizes that the researchers should look in other
intervening variables that may have an affect the behaviors of board of
directors and moderate the relationship between board of directors
effectiveness and firm performance, in order to clarify the relationship from
all sides especially these which associated with the differences between the
board of directors' members and its composition [11, 18-20]. Therefore, this
study aims to examine the moderating effect of directors' demographic
characteristics (namely average age, education level and nationality
1365
diversity) on the board of director effectiveness and performance

framework.
The importance of examine the directors' demographic characteristics as
moderating variables between board of director’s effectiveness and
performance is to examine the impact of differences in demographic
characteristics (board's diversity) between the board's members in
understand and apply the corporate governance rules which influence the
firm performance and to understand what is really happening inside the
boardroom [18]. The differences in demographic characteristics between
board members constitute a difficulty in interpreting, understanding and
dealing with the instructions and information, and therefore have a negative
impact on the board of directors efforts [21], and also influence the
decisions that the management and directors make, because the
demographic characteristics are associated with many cognitive bases and
values that influence the decision making [22]. According to Upper echelon
theory, directors' demographic characteristics affect the effectiveness of
decision-making of directors and effect on the strategic decisions and
eventually firm performance.
This paper proposes a conceptual framework to investigate the moderating

impact of directors' demographic characteristics on the relationship between
the effectiveness of board of directors and firm performance in Jordanian
listed firms. The remainder of the paper is organized as follows: Section 2
highlights the literature review; Section 3 presents the conceptual
framework and hypothesis development; Section 4 summarizes and
concludes this paper.
Literature Review
Board of directors considers as one of the main props of corporate
governance. Recently, the theorists and decision makers focused on
studying all the board of directors' attributes including the demographic
characteristics such as age, education, gender and etc. [23]. Thus, board
members as individuals with qualities that are unique for them or for the
organizations that they lead raises the need to establish the influence of
board attributes on firm performance [24]. In recent years, characteristics of
boards of directors’ members have received major attention in corporate
governance research. Because the shareholders, investors and stakeholders
have pressured firms increasingly to appoint directors with diverse
backgrounds in terms of their expertise and professionalism, to ensure that
the board is protecting their interests [25].
1366
Upper echelon theory argued that the demographic characteristics

(including both psychological characteristics such as behaviors and values)
and (observable characteristics including age, gender, educational level and
number of directorships) affects firm performance and affecting the
decision process [26, 27]. Williams, et al. [28] concluded that the upper
echelon theory is more suitable for top management team research to study
the association between management team and firm’s outcomes such as
employee's commitment, career involvement and firm performance. Where
the board of directors considers a part of top management team. Therefore,
this theory should use in corporate governance research [26]. Carpenter, et
al. [19] argued that the directors are responsible in the decision making
process, so the directors’ demographic characteristics should reflect their
behavior, and also can affect in information processing and then effect on
the firm performance.
According to Upper echelon theory, the corporate governance framework
should focuses on demographic characteristics of directors to enrich the
corporate governance framework [18]. The theory explained that it's
necessary to focus on the demographic characteristics of directors to
understand the effectiveness of implementation of corporate governance
practices because the demographic characteristics such as (education level,
expertise, age and gender) effect on the directors' behavior when facing any
matter or problems, and the treatment way will effect on the firm
performance [29, 30].
The moderating effect appears if a relationship of two variables is affected
by the influence of third variable [31]. Combs, et al. [32] pointed out that
the mixed and inconclusive results between board characteristics and firm
performance are a result to the missing moderator of the board of directors
power. The importance of examine the directors' demographic
characteristics as moderating variables between board of director
effectiveness and performance is to examine the impact of differences in
demographic characteristics (board diversity) between the board members
in understand and apply the corporate governance rules which influence the
firm performance and to understand what is really happening inside the
boardroom [18]. Especially, the differences in demographic characteristics
between board members constitute a difficulty in interpreting,
understanding and dealing with the instructions and information, and
therefore have a negative effect on the board of directors efforts [21].
Using a sample of Chinese firms, Guo [18] studied the moderating effect
directors’ demographic characteristics (namely average age, age
heterogeneity, functional heterogeneity, average tenure and tenure
1367
heterogeneity) on the corporate governance-performance relationship. He

argued that the directors' demographic characteristics may affect the
strength of the relationship between corporate governance and performance,
because the effectiveness of corporate governance affected by the cognitive
biases and cognition of directors on the monitoring role of board of
directors. Al-Matari, et al. [33] examined the moderating effect of board
diversity on the relationship between board of directors characteristics and
firm performance in Oman. They found that the foreign members in the
board have an insignificant moderating effect on the relationship between
board director’s characteristics and firm performance, attributed to foreign
members’ lack of knowledge on current environment in order to deal
efficiently with decision making. Using moderated regression analysis,
Tantri and Sholihin [34] examined the moderating effect of directors’
demographic characteristics between corporate governance and earning
management and found that the relationship is moderated by age, gender
and education background.
Figure 31 the moderating effect of directors’ demographic characteristics and family

control on the relationship between the board of director’s effectiveness and firm
performance
The Conceptual Framework and Hypothesis Development

Upper echelon theory provides a theoretical basis for the impact of directors'
demographic characteristics on the relationship between the board of
director's structure and firm performance [18]. The theory argued that the
directors' demographic characteristics such as average age, education level
and nationality which may have influence the cognitive biases and values
of the directors which leads to different strategic options in the decision-
making processes [26]. Therefore, the demographic characteristics consider
significant factors affecting the firm performance.
Based on resource dependence theory, the board diversity considers as a
competitive advantage for the firm and it's deeply effective in highlighting
various aspects of opportunities and in the presence a wide variety of skills
1368
and aptitudes for solving issues and decision-making [35]. In addition,

resource dependency theory suggests that managing external relationships
to leverage influence and resources is the prime purpose of the board. Thus,
board members should select for their background, contacts and skills [36].
Previous studies have tried to determine the qualities of board of directors
that lead to enhancing the firm performance, but these studies findings have
been inconclusive [24, 37, 38]. The demographic characteristics that
examined in this study with respect to their effect on the relationship
between the board of directors effectiveness and firm performance are
(average age, education level, and nationality).
In this study, firm performance represents the dependent variable. The

accounting-based and market-based measures are used to measure the firm
performance. Accounting-based measure represented by return on assets
(ROA), while market-based measure represented by Tobin's Q. Board of
directors composite represents the independent variable and consists of five
variables, namely (independence of directors, board size, board meetings,
leadership structure and board of director ownership). To measure the
effectiveness of board of directors, the study supposes the following
measurements; Independence of board of directors is measured as
proportion of independent directors at board of directors. Board size
measured as total number of board of directors' members. Board meetings
measured as the total number of board of directors meetings over the year.
Leadership structure measured as a dummy variable takes one if the
chairman not holds the position of CEO, otherwise zero. Board of directors’
ownership measured as percentage of ownership of board of directors' and
their relatives to total shares of the firm. To calculate the composite measure
of board of director effectiveness, we calculate the sample median for each
characteristic over the years, and then compare each value of characteristic
for every year with the sample median. A value of one (1) is assigned when
the measure is equal to or above the sample median and zero (0) otherwise.
These values are then summed to obtain a composite score ranging between
(0 - 5), with higher score indicates higher board effectiveness.
Directors’ demographic characteristics represent the moderating variables:
Average age measured as the mean of the age of board of directors'
members. Education level measured as proportion of directors holding the
higher degree such as Master or PhD degree. Nationality diversity measured
as proportion of foreigners members in the board of directors. Firm size,
leverage, industry, and year effect represent control variables.
1369
Hypotheses
Average age
The directors age is an important demographic characteristic linked to

interaction process between the members and then have a robust effect on
the relationship between corporate governance and firm performance
through the differences in background and experiences between the
members [18]. Since a long time, researchers have interested in studying
the effect of directors' age on firm performance. According to upper echelon
theory, Hambrick and Mason [26] argued that young members are more
likely to take out risky strategies, and companies with young managers will
experience higher growth than their counterparts with older managers. Also,
Horvath and Spirollari [39] pointed out that younger members are probably
willing to bear more risk and to undertake major structural changes to
improve firm's future prospects. Older managers are more likely to avoid
risky decisions [40, 41].
Agency theory argued that the older directors have less time to wait for
high-risk projects and prefer investments that deliver a rapid payback while,
the younger members are more probably ready to bear more risk and to
undertake significant structural changes to develop company's future
prospects [39, 42, 43]. On the other hand, according to resource dependence
theory, that young directors enhances the process of the decision-making
and bring unique perspectives and ideas to the firm, which improve the
board performance and enhance the creativity [44].
Guo [18] examined the average age as a moderating variable and found that
corporate governance is more negatively related to the performance
measured by ROA and profit margin when the average age of directors is
high, and also found that the directors' average age can strengthen the
relationship between corporate governance and performance in Chinese
listed firms. Hence, based on the above discussion, this study hypothesises
that:
H1: Average age negatively moderates the relationship between the board
of directors’ effectiveness and firm performance.
Education level
Upper echelon theory argued that the high education level associated with
open-mindedness, the ability for data processing and dealing to continuous
1370
changes, then enhancing the firm performance [45]. Moreover, the literature
is treated with education level as an alternative for knowledge and human
capital. Hambrick and Mason [26] argued that the board's members with
high-level education is assumed to be more knowledgeable and is able to
work with information.
Based on resource dependence theory, the board of directors considers as a
main resource for the firm. Thus, the education level such as PhD and
master degree will function as a strategic resource, because the members
with high-level education will serve as a blend of competencies and
capabilities that aid in performing the tasks [46]. Hence, based on the above
discussion, this study hypothesises that:
H2: Education level moderates the relationship between the board of
director's effectiveness and firm performance.
Nationality Diversity
According to resource dependence theory, the board of directors considers

as a link between the firm and its outside resources. Thus, the presence of
foreigners members helps in getting access to resources that are necessary
to firm’s success. Moreover, existence of foreign directors brings new
experiences, different knowledge and provides the firms with new ideas on
how to deal with multinational problems if any and help the employees to
deal with foreign problems [47]. Al-Musalli and Ismail [48] argued that the
nationality diversity among board members is considered as an important
tool to improve the board’s ability to instigate more comprehensive policies
and strategies that improve its relationship with employees and clients.
Hence, based on the above discussion, this study hypothesises that:
H3: Nationality diversity positively moderates the relationship between the
board of director's effectiveness and firm performance.
Conclusion
Previous research found that board of directors has a significant influence
on firm performance, but these previous research mainly focused on the
characteristics of board of directors according to corporate governance
system and ignore to the importance of the board interactive processes (e.g.
cognitive conflicts, values, use of skills and knowledge) between the board
of directors members and firm performance. Upper echelon theory
explained that the directors' demographic characteristics which act as
proxies for the board interactive processes will affect the effectiveness of
decision making process of board members and may affect the monitoring
and advisory functions of board of directors and then have a strong impact
1371
on the interaction among the members of board of directors and then on its
relationship with firm performance. Therefore, this study proposes to fill
this gap by examine whether directors’ demographic characteristics
influence the relationship between board of director effectiveness and firm
performance.
The expected findings of this study will draw the attention of the regulators
and researchers to the importance of integrating between the demographic
characteristics, corporate governance and firm performance. In addition, the
expected outcomes of this study contribute to a better understanding of the
significance of directors' demographic characteristics in firm performance
and board effectiveness. The findings may provide useful insights for firms
in Jordan in particular, and firms in developing countries in general, on how
boards of directors of firms might be better structured to help firms grow
and compete.
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1376
T02_057: THE PERSPECTIVES OF LOCAL

COMMUNITY IN SAFEGUARDING
INTANGIBLE CULTURAL HERITAGE AT
GEORGE TOWN, PENANG
Noorfathehah bt Abdullah Sani
Centre for Fundamental and Liberal Education

University Malaysia Terengganu, Malaysia
Email: noorfathehah.sani@umt.edu.my
ABSTRACT
The importance of intangible cultural heritage refers to the wealth of
knowledge and skills that is transmitted from one generation to the next
ones. Intangible cultural heritage is expressed through process, phrases,
know-how, and abilities- that include associated objects and cultural spaces
- that people distinguish as component of their cultural heritage. Spread
through generations and constantly recreated, it ensures humanity with a
sense of identity and continuity. The Convention also speaks about the
important role of communities and groups of tradition-bearers in a non-
specific way. This field is peculiar, as it is characterized by the urgency to
preserve and disseminate some of the most peculiar intangible artistic
expressions, especially those at risk of disappearing; so far these cultural
expressions have been passed down mainly through imitation and oral
tradition. Thus this paper provides an insight to the perspectives of local
community in the involvement of safeguarding ICH present in their
territory. This is a case study using an in-depth interview as a method to
collect data. The result showed that the current framework for safeguarding
ICH is limited in scope and lacking of local people’s perspectives though
there are efforts in safeguarding mechanism by the relevant authority.
Keywords: safeguarding, intangible heritage, UNESCO, community

involvement
1.0 Introduction
1377
This paper provides an analysis of the perspectives of local community in

safeguarding ICH in one of the inscribed World Heritage Sites (WHS),
which is George Town Heritage Sites, Penang. One of the three selection
criteria that George Town fulfilled as a WHS it is emphasized on the ICH
expressed by a variety of multicultural activities of cultural community in
Malacca (UNESCO, 2008). ICH refers to human skills, practices,
expression and instruments which form the transmitted practices of local
cultures through generations and provide senses of identity, continuity,
respect, diversity and creativity particularly to the involved local
communities (UNESCO, 2003). In order to safeguard the ICH, community
involvement approaches were crucially indispensable. Their central role in
the implementation of the Convention is already included in the definition
provided in Article 2.1 of intangible cultural heritage. Articles 11, 13 and
15 of the Convention provide, among other things, that States Parties are
required to take the necessary measures to ensure the safeguarding of the
intangible cultural heritage present in their territory and to include
communities, groups and relevant NGOs in the identification and definition
of elements of that intangible heritage (UNESCO, 2003). They shall
endeavor to ensure the widest possible participation of communities, groups
and individuals that create, maintain and transmit intangible cultural
heritage within the framework of their safeguarding activities and actively
involve them in its management.
Although the Convention underlines the importance of community
participation in the identification and safeguarding of intangible heritage,
recent research has revealed that such heritage designation initiatives are
often driven in a top-down manner by cultural bureaucrats or authority
rather than traditional bearers and practitioners of ICH. Smith et.al (2009)
justified that intangible cultural heritage can only be heritage when it is
recognized as such by the communities, groups or individuals that create,
maintain and transmit it, without their recognition, nobody else can decide
for them that a given expression or practice is their heritage. One of the key
success factors for sustainable protection of cultural heritage is the level of
awareness and appreciation on the heritage value of the resources by
stakeholders, particularly the local communities (Norzaini Azman, Sharina
Abdul Halim & Ibrahim Komoo, 2009). Thus, this research presents the
views of the local communities residing in a Core Zone and Buffer Zone of
the WHS on their appreciation of the George Town as a WHS and their
interpretation of the benefits and opportunities afforded by the WHS and
the extent of their involvement in the implementation of safeguarding ICH’s
1378
activities by the authority to match the local community’s needs and

aspirations.
The research presents the issues faced by the community in regards

of their involvement in safeguarding ICH at WHS. The findings and with
the support of relevant literature reviews identified the community issues
faced by George Town cultural community in safeguarding their ICH. The
findings also provided justifications to generate guidelines on the
improvements of the conservation of ICH among the community members,
conservation organizations and tourism agencies.
2.0 Literature review
Community involvement in safeguarding ICH refers to engaging members

of a concerned community to generate, recreate, transmit and sustain their
ICH. ICH refers to the manifestations of range of community-based heritage
products which individuals or a community recognized as their cultural
heritage. UNESCO (2003) categorizes the heritage products under five
domains of ICH. They are oral tradition and expression, performing arts,
social practices, knowledge and traditional craftsmanship. Intangible
heritage is a relatively new concept in the cultural property protection
domain emerging at the interface of international law and concerns about
the loss of local traditions and cultural practices. UNESCO’s effort of
safeguarding ICH begun since 1952 when back then ICH was referred as
folklore (Smith, 2006; Smith and Akagawa, 2009). In 2003 UNESCO
adopted the Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Heritage with
the view of establishing an international instrument for mitigating the
effects of globalization on traditional cultures.
There are two challenging questions raised by conservators to UNESCO
regarding safeguarding ICH. The first question is if the living heritage is to
be passed on to the future generation, what are the forms of living heritage
to be documented and how are they documented? The second question is if
the forms of living heritage were the practitioners of the heritage itself, what
are to be transmitted to the next generation and why are they transmitted?
UNESCO (2003) emphasizes that practitioners of the ICH are more
important to be protected over the ICH itself; without the practitioners,
transmission of ICH is impossible to be accomplished. The protection of
ICH requires more than just attention towards the arts and artifacts but also
the artists, craftsmen and practitioners. Unlike tangible heritage, ICH is
1379
alive and needs to be transmitted. Hence to ensure the sustainability of ICH,

the whole system of living heritage transmission must be observed and
protected. This means that the responsibility of safeguarding ICH greatly
subjected to the concerned community, which a certain ICH belongs to
(Smith and Akagawa, 2009).
In order to ensure that the concerned communities generate, recreate,
transmit and sustain their ICH, the approaches of community involvement
are essential. Community involvement is a process of engaging individuals
of a community to accomplish a determined activity. The purpose of the
activity is to resolve issues in the community or the surrounding context of
the community. The activity also indicates potential assets to benefit the
physical and the social aspects of the location (Reid, 2000; Haus, 2004;
Mathbor, 2008). In this research, the activity refers to safeguarding ICH.
Among commonly discussed community issues of George Town cultural
community are socio-economic inequality, strong ethnic enclaves,
disconnection of youth from the traditional knowledge and impact of
modernization. These issues contributed to the decline of ICH. Nordin
Hussin (2002) highlights the issue of socio-economic inequality that
resulted in social exclusion of community members. The social exclusion
associates to how much the family earned. Consequently, community
members faced difficulties to work cooperatively in safeguard their ICH.
Additionally, Penang Heritage Thrust (PHT) (2009) reported that there
are 30 types of traditional art and crafts endangered in Penang. The reason
is that the entrepreneurs had no descendent to continue the legacy. The lack
of interests from younger generations to carry on the legacy became one of
the major constraints for the ICH to sustain (Saleh et. al, 2007). One of the
outcomes of modernization is the adaptation of popular cultures into the
lives of the community members, particularly the youth (Endon Mahmood,
2004, Saleh et al., 2007; MStar Online, 2008; Noriah Mohamed, 2009;
Zalina Samadi and Rodzyah Mohd Yunus, 2012). Across the globe, youth
are easily absorbed into the western way of life and cultural form which
pays attention to materialistic elements. This has eclipsed many local
cultures. As a result, local cultures have increasingly losing grip with the
community they belong to and gradually declines along with generation
change (Nayak, 2003; Abu Sadat, 2008).
Other than the highlighted issues, family institution and metaphysical force
of ICH influence how the community members behave towards their ICH.
Other issues include conventional over indigenous knowledge input and
finally interest and convenience. Lack of attention on the community issues
1380
lead to insensitivity on how the quality of life of the ICH practitioners

affects their behavior towards involvement in ICH.
3.0 Research Methodology
The research is drawn from the field of anthropology. Abdel-Hadi (2012)

believes that, 'cultural anthropologists' focus on the ways people express
their view of themselves and their world in symbolic forms and also the
cultural frameworks that impact local cultural frameworks that live in
reality. This ethnographic research method collects the data through
fieldwork observation and in-depth interview method. Fieldwork study
involves researchers to experience and observe the activities of the society
such as rituals, social behavior and the cultural practices closely. In
addition, to see the activities they perform and interviewing those involved,
obtaining information through their experience. This research was carried
out in Penang and study visits focused on the famous tourist destinations in
the world; Georgetown, as a World Heritage City. In addition, the research
samples were obtained through snowball technique. The informants for this
research are officers from the Department of National Heritage- specifically
under the Division of Intangible Heritage, NGO’s officers from Penang
Heritage Thrust (PHT) and practitioners or artisans which officially
recognized by the Government State of Penang and they are (the
practitioners) listed under the program of PAPA (Penang Apprenticeship
Program of Artisan) by Penang Heritage Thrust (PHT) - a membership-
based non-government organization. The overall numbers of informants are
30 people.
4.0 Findings
4.1 Transmission of ICH: Conventional over Indigenous knowledge
It is difficult for the traditional knowledge or practices to survive in the age

of globalization without any proper mechanism to protect it. Some cultural
practices are difficult to learn and to transmit. The nature of ICH
manifestations such as dance, performing arts, crafts, rituals, oral tradition,
or music is non-documented and most of the time is passed down from one
generation to another. The risks of elderly are dying without transmit it to
the younger generations contribute to the cultural extinction. Apart from
that, youth are increasingly becoming more disconnected from their
traditional communities without an interest, or in most cases access to these
1381
knowledge systems and also contemporary way of thinking cannot adapt

with traditional cultural practices or beliefs. Some of the respondents claim
that their younger generation is only able to understand ethnic language but
fail to reply in the same ethnic language.
There is an issue of conventional and indigenous knowledge that influenced
the involvement of the community in safeguarding ICH. Some highly
educated members were successful with conventional education input, but
the conventional education pay less attention to the learners’ local context
(De Young, Howley and Theobald, 1995). Thus, it is a doubt if they were
able to adapt the knowledge in their native social context. Vice versa, low
educated members who were more involved in ICH and were likely thrived
with indigenous knowledge, they were unqualified to teach in the
conventional education system.
4.2 Funding Mechanism
It is undeniable that preserving cultural heritage is costly and managing

ICH forms cannot be the same way that tangible heritage has been managed
because the nature of ICH form is they are changing frequently and evolving
as well. According to Smith (2009), ICH is often not expressed in a
permanent physical form where every performances or expressions of
intangible heritage are different. Changes can, however, be documented and
communities can be encouraged to continue practising and passing on the
traditions. Heritage only retains its significance through performance or use.
However, majority of the community interviewed claimed that issues of
resources to produce and manifest the culture are expensive is the main
reason that lead to lack of participation in generating the resources. Apart
from that, issues of small financial encouragement by the public or
authority, lack of support from the public and authority, expensive cultural
equipment and practice of certain culture is costly play a role in hindering
the transmission of ICH to be safeguarded among the community. Emma
et. al (2011) claimed that economic incentives to safeguard intangible
heritage will probably play the largest role of all in encouraging
transmission and re-enactment of intangible heritage and stressed that
simply creating a heritage product for sale to outsiders, however, will not
1382
necessarily safeguard intangible heritage or be economically sustainable.  
4.3 Interest and Convenience
Cultural practices are time-consuming and nowadays people are busy with
other life priorities such as careers and businesses. There exists an issue of
interest and convenience that influenced the involvement of the respondents
in ICH. Some respondents were inconvenience to communally involve in
ICH due to school and working hours while some effortlessly involved in
ICH as ICH embedded in their everyday routine. Interest and convenience
contributed by professional field and working hours influenced the
awareness and availability of the members to be involved in ICH
manifestations.
Respondents who were government employees, housewives and retirees,

were more likely to feel involved in ICH than respondents of the remaining
occupations. Housewives unintentionally manifested most of their local
cultures in everyday tasks such as indigenous culinary skills, hereditary tips
and childcare (Carli, 2001; Schmid, 2003). Similarly, the retirees
manifested most of their local cultures in everyday routine such as spending
time with family and friends, hobbies, volunteer work and communal
activities. Frank and Lewis (2004) asserted that government employees
were more interested in communal benefits, which indirectly value the ICH
instead of personal benefits such as advancement opportunities. On the
other hand, the students, private employees, sole traders and partnerships
were professionally occupied in the working environment .
4.4 Religion and Beliefs
Religion and beliefs are always inter-related when it comes to cultural

practices. Old generations or practitioners that believed in Hinduism are
1383
more involved in safeguarding ICH. Since religious practices contribute

metaphysical force to cultural practices (Dhaouadi, 2009), the result
suggested that Hinduism encouraged the respondents to be highly involved
in their cultural activities. However, it was unfair to suggest that the other
religions did not encourage their believers to be involved in cultural
practices, but merely religion as metaphysical force to cultural practices
poorly realized by some members of the cultural communities.
Additionally, some religions such as Islam prohibit cultural practices, which
induce polytheism and distraction of one from his Creator such as magic
and sorcery as well as sing and dance (Azlina Musa and Yusmilawati
Yunos, 2011). Majority of cultural practices are against religious belief and
community prefers religious laws over traditional cultural norms.
Alternatively for the Hindu believers, majority of their cultural practices

were customary activities in temple activities, religious ceremonies and
ancestral worship practices (Ravichandran, 2009). Thus, it was likely for
the Hindu respondents to feel highly involved in their cultural heritage as
compared to respondents of other religions. There exists an issue of
metaphysical force of cultural practices, which influenced the involvement
of the respondents in ICH. Additionally, it was vital to acknowledge that
some religious laws prohibit certain cultural practices that indirectly led to
a decline in certain indigenous cultures.
4.5 Personal preference of popular culture over local culture
The continuation of cultural heritage is depending on the interest of future

generation to practice the heritage. However, the preference between
adapting the popular culture over the local ones in everyday life, especially
the youth is indeed contributes to the dissemination and continuation of
1384
their cultural heritage. The analysis discovered that the youth respondents
were unlikely to feel involved in ICH than respondents of retirement age.
Since youths often perceived as the prey of westernization and popular
cultures (Abu Bakr, et al., 2011), it was inevitable to imply that the youths
of the cultural communities experienced the same pattern of culture
preferences.
Most of the respondents claimed that their younger generation, especially

the youth are no longer interested and also do not believe in the traditional
cultural beliefs. The youth has overlooked and are ignorant of cultural
values. Many of them (youth) have no talent of traditional craftsmanship
and also the modern lifestyle with superficial activities has taken over
traditional lifestyle of profound cultural values. Apart from that, new and
better style of performing arts, certain cultural products are no longer
produced in a traditional ways and cultural practices are not suited for
modern lifestyle especially for the young generation are among the
justification of why it is a big challenge in safeguarding ICH. Others
claimed that technology is taking over traditional methods, contemporary
way of living cannot adapt with traditional cultural practices and beliefs and
some cultural beliefs are nonsense and unbelievable in the present days. The
most important factors are elderly experts passed away without successfully
transmitting the cultural legacy and the descendants of elderly experts
cannot continue the legacy.
There exists an issue of preference of popular cultures over traditional

cultures, which influenced the community involvement of the respondents
in ICH, particularly the youths. Additionally, the middle age respondents
who vary between 40 to 60 years old were either too occupied with work
commitment or increasingly uninterested to be involved in ICH. On the
1385
other hand, the small number of retired community members with most
experiences and skills in indigenous cultures were slowly decreasing.
5. Discussion
Result from the observation participated and in-depth interview with the
respondents, several issues are recognized in terms of the perspectives of
local community in safeguarding ICH. There are Conventional over
Indigenous knowledge, funding mechanism, interest and convenience,
religion and beliefs and personal preferences between local and popular
culture.
6.0 Recommendation
The findings revealed that there was a lack of soft infrastructure or a

structured organization that cater issues affecting the community quality of
life as ICH practitioners. The soft infrastructure should act as an operational
mechanism to safeguard ICH in Malaysia and in the same time, it should be
responsive to the cultural variety of the community that upholds the
heritage. Community involvement initiatives are to engage the community
in safeguarding their ICH with the assist of the existing surrounding efforts,
especially the authorities and NGOs. The community involvement is
important in order to indicate suitable methods to improve the management
of ICH in Malaysia.
According to Haus et al (2009), three objectives of community involvement
are;
1. to voice opinion on decisions upon public concerns which
affect the community,  
2. to take responsibility in the changes occur in the community, and
3. to increase and exercise control over resources and institution  
Parallel to the objectives, four phases of community involvement in
cultural heritage management are identified and the main aim of these four
phases is to develop an inclusive engagement within community. Smith et.
al (2010) justified that inclusive engagement refers to ensuring that
community members and stakeholders are involved in cultural heritage
assessments and in management decisions as well as consulted on impacts
and opportunities. It is also to ensure that cultural awareness is promoted
1386
internally and that information is shared and integrated across operational

functions.
The four phases are know and understand, plan and implement, monitor,
evaluate and improve, report and communicate.
Table 1. Four Phases of Cultural Heritage Management
Phase Justification
1. Know and Establish the knowledge base needed to shape and drive the
Understand operation’s cultural heritage management approach and cultural
heritage management system.
Identify and understand cultural heritage values, their significance and

appropriate management options, through cultural heritage assessment
and surveys with the community (including within the operation’s
socioeconomic knowledge base, social impact assessment and social
risk analysis).
Identify and understand the operation’s potential impacts upon

cultural heritage values.
Understand appropriate management options by drawing on the

knowledge base in consultation with community members, heritage
experts and other stakeholders.
2. Plan and Develop cultural heritage management procedures and systems

Implement appropriate to the operational and cultural heritage context.
Use Cultural Heritage Management (CHM) planning tools such as

Communities multi year plans and specific cultural heritage
management plans to implement the operation’s cultural heritage
management system effectively.
Ensure cultural heritage management considerations are integrated

into all relevant operational plans and procedures, such as ground
disturbance permit systems, human resources policies, health and
safety procedures and environmental management programmes.
Contribute to the socioeconomic development of the region and meet

communities’ target by effectively implementing cultural heritage
programmes.
1387
3. Monitor, Set targets and indicators to monitor the impact of the operation on
Evaluate and cultural places, objects and practices, and the overall performance of
Improve the cultural heritage management system.
Use the results of Communities site managed assessments, cultural

heritage management system audits and complaints mechanisms to
continually improve performance.
Develop participatory monitoring and evaluation processes that

include community’s employees, heritage experts and the community
custodians of the heritage.
4. Report and
Communicate Community is comprehensively approached. That is, no small groups
of the community are left out.
Clarification of Vision of the Program in which to establish a strong

vision which foresees the positive future of ICH practices of the
cultural community.
Establishment of Steering Committee in which to acknowledge that

community leaders are important assets to the programs, but new
leadership need to be introduce to enhance sense of self-reliance
within the community members.
Publish the cultural heritage management outcomes, the cultural

heritage and its values more broadly through academic or public
means, while respecting intellectual property or privacy requirements
of the owners
The four phases of community involvement guidelines deliver an

approach to establish a soft infrastructure which provides an operational
mechanism that helps to safeguard ICH. Since ICH is part of local practices
of the cultural community, community involvement is an important
initiative to ensure involvement of the concerned community in indicating,
implementing and safeguarding their ICH. Community involvement
initiatives give a big impact to the effectiveness of policy making and policy
implementation in the WHS. Attention given to community opinions, ideas,
issues and conditions contribute to more effective and responsive
framework for the development of the City of Living Culture.
1388
7.0 Conclusion
This paper provides an analysis on the perspectives of the

community involvement in safeguarding ICH in one of the inscribed World
Heritage Sites, which is the George Town, Penang. The findings and with
the support of relevant literature reviews identified the community issues
faced by George Town cultural community in safeguarding their ICH. The
findings also provided justifications to generate guidelines on the
improvements of the conservation of ICH among the community members,
conservation organizations and tourism agencies.
References
Abubakr, Al-Shamahi., Abdulalem, Alshamery., Saleem, Haddad., &

Petouris, T. (2011). Where Next for Yemen? Perspectives on the Youth
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Asmah Osman. (2004). The encyclopedia of Malaysia. Vol. 9: Languages
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Urban Communities:
Validating a Multicultural Awareness Scale. Journal of Asian Behavioural
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www.emalacca.com. Daus, R. (1989). Portuguese Eurasian Communities
in Southeast Asia. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.
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(2012). Perception of Community in Tourism Impacts and their
Participation in Tourism Planning:
Ramsar, Iran. Journal of Asian Behavioural Studies, 5 (2), 51-64. Frank,
1389
S. A., & Lewis, G. B. (2004). Government Employees Working Hard or

Hardly Working?. American Review of Public Administration, 4 (1), 36-
51 
Haus., M. (2004). Urban Leadership and Community Involvement:
Ingredients for Good Governance? Findings from the PLUS Project.
Germany: Jan Erling Klausen. 
Nayak, A. (2003). Race, Place and Globalization: Youth Cultures in a
Changing World. New York: Berg Publishers Nordin Hussin. (2008).
Social Life in Two Colonial Port-Towns: Dutch-Melaka and English-
Penang 1780-1830. Welcome to the Penang Story Project. Retrieved March
13, 2013. www.penangstory.net.my. 
Noriah Mohamed. (2009). Malay Chetty creole language of Malacca: A
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Schmid, H. (2003). Do Women and Men Really Live In Different Cultures?
Evidence from the BNC. Frankfurt: LMU Munchen.
Smith, L. (2006). Cultural Heritage: Critical Concepts in Media and
Cultural Studies. New York: Routledge. 
Smith, L., & Akagawa, N. (2009). Intangible Heritage. New York:
Routledge
1390
T02_058: ASEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY

(AEC), COMPETITIVENESS IMPACT TO
CROSS BORDER HAULIERS –
A REVIEW
Muhamad Aziyan Hussim
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Selangor
Shahrin Nasir
Universiti Teknologi MARA Shah Alam
Faculty of Business and Management,
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Puncak Alam, Selangor
ABSTRACT
This research examines the current and up-to-date literature pertaining to
the liberalisation & ASEAN Economic Community (AEC), competitiveness,
impact of single market, cross border logistics, from a theoretical as well
as an empirical point of view and highlights the impact of single market
towards container haulage industry. This paper also reviews the growing
pattern of performance benchmarking on freight transport industry. The
discussion on the factors contribute to the competitiveness of logistics
industries including operational efficiency, information efficiency, service
responsiveness and service collaboration. The research aims to analyse
competitiveness level of Malaysian container haulage players who are
providing cross border services in facing AEC in making them as preferred
choice of customers for cross-border logistics services. Scope of the study
encompass perceptions of Malaysian cross border hauliers to AEC and
competitiveness factor towards the industry including threat posed by
liberalisation and opportunity for the stakeholders. Hauliers need to
develop a system to determine indicators in evaluating logistics
performance through elements of costs, results (profit), customer
satisfaction, and delivery time and service quality. Measuring
competitiveness is a high priority for any logistics organization. Some
scholar refers competitiveness measurement as a metric used to quantify
the efficiency and or effectiveness of an action. Some indicators, although
1391
regarded as important for example delivery flexibility and marketing

indicators, were not measured due to difficulty in determining the correct
metrics in quantifying these indicators. As a conclusion, the performance
analysis framework can be a useful tool in a supply chain or in a particular
organization.
Keywords: Cross Border Logistics, ASEAN Economic Community (AEC),

Readiness, Competitiveness Indicators.
Introduction
ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) envisions as a single market and
production base, with 5 core elements namely Free flow of goods, Free flow
of services, Free flow of investments, Free flow of capital and Free flow of
skilled labor, and objective to eliminate Non-Tariff Barriers (NTB),
improve region’s trade facilitation, enhance capabilities of border
management and ultimately accelerate the development of an efficient and
competitive haulage sector in the region. For container haulage industry,
subject to domestic regulations, there should be substantially no restriction
to ASEAN services suppliers including haulage service providers in
establishing companies across national borders within the ASEAN region.
With AEC, demand for logistics services in Malaysia is expected to
significantly increase as there will be substantially no restriction for the
movement of goods and services, particularly on border and transit trade
with simplified and harmonized customs procedures, improved road
network and reduced tariffs.
With globalisation and economic integration including AEC, ASEAN

member countries will enjoy declining trade barriers and an increasingly
mobile workforce, which resulted logistics industry to continue enjoy above
average growth. The effective management of logistics including cross
border hauliers will become a focal point and strategic benefits in the area
of national competitive advantage.
Literature Review
Globalisation & ASEAN Economic Community (AEC)
Globalization of production is associated to the practice of sourcing of

goods and services from locations around the globe to take advantage
competitive cost of labor, energy, raw materials, land, and capital.
1392
According to [1], globalization is the diminution or elimination of state-

enforced restrictions on exchanges across borders and the increasingly
integrated and complex global system of production and exchange that has
emerged as a result.
An Economist defines globalization as historical process of increasing
international economic integration via foreign direct investment, reductions
in the barriers to trade and increased capital flows, migration and knowledge
transfer [2]. The future belonged to companies that make and sell the same
thing, the same way, everywhere [3]. The arrival of globalization also
brought into convergence of global tastes and preferences which lead
competition. This globalization phenomenon has brought attention of any
companies and organizations to preserve and increase their respective
market share and countries.
According to AEC blueprint, ASEAN is set to become a single market

where free flow of goods and services, investment, and skilled labor and
freer flow of capital among ASEAN member states. With AEC in the near
future, the Government of Malaysia has initiated number of measures in
tandem with liberalization and deregulation efforts in logistics industry.
Hence, globalization and the effect of internationalization set to position
Malaysia to be one of the most exciting market and important logistics hub
in the Asia-Pacific region.
With globalization, collaboration among all border management agencies

including customs, immigration, standards, sanitary, transport and
veterinary agencies is vital to position Malaysia ahead on cross border
management. It is crucial for holistic approach for clearance of goods,
which requires more collaboration among all border management agencies.
Introductions of modern approaches to regulatory compliance is important
where rapid increases of logistics activities are expected.
Cross Border Logistics
Cross-border logistics involves complex operations carried out by private

enterprise such as freight transportation, warehousing, border clearance,
and payment systems. The efficiency of cross border logistics activities very
much depends on efficiency of government services and related policies that
provide the logistics infrastructure for global trade [4].
1393
With AEC, while the potential for Malaysia’s logistics sector are enormous,
there is still room for improvement for the industry to look into. To enable
the logistics sector to handle greater volumes of freight, speed up the time
taken to deliver goods across the supply chains and to lower the delivery
cost, the industry need to strive for continuous improvement.
AEC calls for an increased efficiency in cross border logistics and warrants
an improvement to cross border logistics through among others minimizing
manual documentation, better coordination between stakeholders,
increasing compliance of services to international standards, leveraging on
ICT to provide seamless movement and attracting/ nurturing/ retaining
skilled talent within the logistics industry.
Cross Border Hauliers Competitiveness Measurement
Despite the positive growth of the logistics industry in Malaysia, there is

little attention been devoted to the competitiveness of Malaysian hauliers
including assessing readiness of the cross border haulage service industry
in facing AEC [5].
According to the 2016 Logistics Performance Index (LPI) by World Bank

[6], Malaysia ranked at the position of 32nd, declined from the position of
25th in year 2015 where Singapore lead ASEAN member states ranked at
the position of 5th. Among ASEAN members, Malaysia ranked at 2nd place
behind Singapore, but ahead of among others Thailand (45th) and Indonesia
(63rd). The assessment is based on 6 components including efficiency of
customs & border management clearance, quality of trade & transport
infrastructure, competency & quality of logistics services – trucking,
forwarding, and customs brokerage (i.e: logistics services) and ability to
track & trace consignments. A nation’s competitiveness depends on the
capacity of its industry to innovate and upgrade. Companies gain advantage
against the world’s best competitors because of pressure and challenge [7].
Competitiveness is a multi-dimensional concept. Competitiveness can be

viewed from different levels: country, industry, and firm level.
Competitiveness at the enterprise level according [8] can be defined as:
1394
 the ability of enterprises to export or provide services to an array of

countries without preferential treatments;
 the ability of enterprises to engage in foreign direct investment (FDI)
using assets and skills developed at home;
 the ability of enterprises to operate at internationally accepted
standards in terms of cost, service level, business processes, etc.; and
 the ability of enterprises to earn above-average returns in a
competitive market.
[9] Developed a conceptual framework for evaluation of logistics

performance, which analyse logistics performance in 4 categories or
clusters of indicators. The first indicator is ‘efficiency’ which measure
utilisation of resources. This category involves indicators in the elements of
logistics process for example distribution costs and transaction or
possession of stock. The second category is ‘flexibility’ where represents
an indication on the ability of an organisation to respond to changes in the
environment or trend and exceptional customer orders. The third category
is ‘responsiveness’ where the ability to response to customer’s demand or
wants in the shortest amount of time. Finally, the last category is ‘quality’
which representing particular characteristics of supply chain, such as shelf
life and product safety.
[5] has developed several performance based measurement based on the

financial measures (revenue per TEU, Cost per TEU, Profit per TEU, Profit
per prime mover), productivity measures (turn around per prime mover, turn
around per driver, distance per prime mover) and quality measures
(percentage of claims per revenue, customer complaint).
Competitive Advantage Through Logistics
Efficient logistics is a determining factor for country's competitiveness

particularly in the areas of import and export that contribute directly to
country's economic growth rate. An efficient logistics services will enhance
the productivity of companies. To be a regional economic powerhouse,
Malaysia must become a logistics hub, where multinational corporations
making Malaysia as an ASEAN base. A country with better logistics
services will grow faster, become more competitive and will attract
businesses to increase their level of investment. Research shows that
logistics performance in low income countries to the middle-income
1395
average could boost trade and benefit all firms and consumers through lower
prices and better quality services [10]. This would also benefit both firms
and consumers where it can lower the total prices of products and services.
The Elevents Malaysia Plan 2016-2020 [11] has emphasized on creating

seamless connectivity for goods where the focus is given to developing
intergrated logistics and enhancing trade facilitation mechanism. Strategies
that will be undertaken include strengthening institutional and regulatory
mechanism, building freight infrastructure efficiency and capacity,
deploying technology in the logistics chain and strengthening capabilities
of logistics service providers.
Competitiveness Indicators
Measuring competitiveness is a high priority for any logistics organization.

[12] produced performance indicators model where indicators have been
applied in several companies. Some scholar refers competitiveness
measurement as a metric used to quantify the efficiency and or effectiveness
of an action [13]. Researchers always have difficulties in defining
competitiveness measurement as organisations have varies objectives and
goals (multiple and frequently conflicting goals [14]. Competitiveness
advantage indicators revolves around factors as listed in the Table 1:
Table 1 : Fundamental Factors Contributing To Competitiveness

Advantage
Factors Contributing Factors
Operational Efficiency  Transport Infrastructure
 Human Capital
 Innovation
Information Efficiency  Supply Chain Management
 Trace & Track Facility
 Electronic Data Interchange
(EDI)
Service Responsiveness Ability to quickly adapt to
changes of situations & well as
customer needs
Service Collaboration Ability to achieve completion of
necessary activities
1396
Concluding Remarks
Based on the review of literatures pertaining to liberalisation & AEC, as the

consumers will have access to a cheaper and wider range of services
(logistics) and enjoy more extensive consumer protection, the cross border
hauliers need to equip themselves with information on how to adjust to a
more liberalized and integrated environment. They need to aware changes
to be brought by AEC measures when they are fully implemented including
challenges on expanding to other ASEAN member states (i.e: differences in
commercial practices, legal systems).
Following the establishment of AEC also, foreign logistic firms will

expediting their efforts to tap into the market’s growth. As the AEC
undoubtedly will intensify competition among the hauliers within the
region, it is vital for Malaysian cross border hauliers to establish planning
and control system both for the day-to-day operations as well as the more
long-term strategic objectives. A good insight in performance information
indicators will enable the hauliers to identify current performance and be
able to analyze performance evolution based on trends. Cross border
hauliers that understand and practicing performance analysis based on
defined set of service indicators will successfully embraced the potential
offered by the AEC.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank Public Service Departments (JPA),

Malaysia Institute of Transport (MITRANS), Universiti Teknologi MARA,
Ministry of Transport, Land Public Transport Commission (SPAD) and
Association of Malaysian Hauliers (AMH) for monetary assistance
provided, input and time allocated.
References
[1] T. G. Palmer, “Globalization, Cosmopolitanism, and Personal

Identity,” Ethics Polit., no. 2, pp. 1–15, 2003.
[2] P. Minford, “in a globalised Competitiveness commentary,” Int.
Bus., vol. 37, no. 2, pp. 176–178, 2011.
[3] “T Levitt - Globalisation a Converging Commanality.” .
[4] B. Shepherd, “Asia Pacific Trade Facilitation Forum: Background
1397
Paper for Session on Trade Logistics,” vol. 1, pp. 1–32.

[5] Z. M. Zaid and M. Shah, “Performance measurement in Malaysian
container haulage industry: A critical evaluation,” Eprints.Utm.My,
pp. 1–14, 2007.
[6] “lpi_global_ranks_2016.” .
[7] M. E. Porter, “The Competitive Advantage of Nations,” Harv. Bus.
Rev., vol. 68, pp. 73–93, 1990.
[8] S. Balzaravičienė and V. Pilinkienė, “Comparison and Review of
Competitiveness Indexes: Towards the Eu Policy,” Econ. Manag.,
vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 103–109, 2012.
[9] L. H. Aramyan, A. G. J. M. O. Lansink, J. G. A. J. Van Der Vorst,
and O. V Kooten, “Performance measurement in agri-food supply
chains: A case study,” Supply Chain Manag., vol. 12, no. 4, pp.
304–315, 2007.
[10] J.-F. Arvis, D. Saslavsky, L. Ojala, B. Shepherd, C. Busch, and A.
Raj, “LPI 2014 - Connecting to Compete, Trade Logistics in the
Global Economy,” Worldbank, p. 72, 2014.
[11] Economic Planning Unit, “Unleashing Growth of Logistics and
Enhancing Trade Facilitation,” 2015.
[12] E. Krauth, H. Moonen, V. Popov, and M. Schut, “Performance
measurement and control in logistics service providing,” Iceis 2005
- Artif. Intell. Decis. Support Syst., pp. 239–247, 2005.
[13] A. Neely, J. Mills, K. Platts, H. Richards, M. Gregory, M. Bourne,
and M. Kennerley, “Performance measurement system design:
developing and testing a process-based approach,” Int. J. Oper.
Prod. Manag., vol. 20, no. 10, pp. 1119–1145, 2000.
[14] J. T. Mentzer and B. P. Konrad, “An efficiency/effectiveness
approach to logistics performance analysis,” J. Bus. Logist., vol. 12,
pp. 33–62, 1991.
1398
T02_059: ENSURING SUSTAINABILITY OF

EDUCATION WAQF FUND FOR HIGHER
EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS
Khairul Jannah binti Samsudin, Siti Khadijah binti Ab Manan
Academy of Contemporary Islamic Studies (ACIS), UiTM
Mohd Sabri bin Abdul Ghafar

Center for Islamic Thought & Understanding, UiTM
‘Ismah binti Osman

Faculty of Business Management, UiTM
ABSTRACT
Waqf serves as philanthropic tool to assist the development of a Muslim
country. The urging needs in education system leads to implementation of
education waqf fund. The utilization of the fund saw many established
education institutions such as Al-Azhar University in Egypt, Islamic
University of Malaysia and Albukhary International University in
Malaysia. These and other education institutions in the world create the
education waqf fund in ensuring better education for the society. This
qualitative study observes the implementation of waqf or endowment fund
in education history and today’s higher education institutions either in
Muslim country or in non-Muslim country. At the end, this research
considers areas to strengthen the education waqf fund to enhance higher
education system.
Keywords: education waqf fund, higher education institutions (HEIs),

Majlis Agama Islam Negeri-negeri (MAIN), Perbadanan Tabung
Pendidikan Tinggi Nasional (PTPTN)
1.0 Introduction
Education is a mirror to economic development of a country. This is
a relevant reason for Malaysia’s government to spend huge amount of
monies for the education system in this country. In (Asharaf Mohd Ramli,
2014), EPU (2013) recorded the tertiary education expenditure in 8 th
1399
Malaysia Plan was RM13 billion and the amount increased up to RM16
billion in 9th Malaysia Plan.
The economic turmoil in these few years seems to affect every
structure of this country including the education system. Due to increasing
education fee, higher education institutions (HEIs) students are offered with
student loans scheme and financial assistance from government agencies
and charitable organizations (Asharaf Mohd Ramli, 2014). The government
introduced Perbadanan Tabung Pendidikan Tinggi Nasional (PTPTN) in
1997 to assist the HEIs students.
Until 2014, PTPTN has issued RM53.23 billion loan to 2.34 million
people (Malaymail, 2014). The problem arises as the number of graduates
who did not settled the loan is increasing. It has been reported that currently
605,685 lenders still did not pay their loan totalled RM 4.7 billion
(Mohammad Yasir, 2015). Hence, 170,000 PTPTN defaulters were reported
to be blacklisted by Bank Negara due to RM1.2 billion unpaid loans
(Malaymail Online, 2014).
There is another major problem in the education system in these few
years. The rising number of HEIs in this country leads to rising need of
financial support. Both situations, the PTPTN and unstable economic
condition put the education system and HEIs students in difficulty. While
the government’s ability to cope with current economic downturn is worsen,
philanthropic funding is seen as an effective tool to remedy the problem
(Ogawa, Takemoto, Takahashi, & Suzuki, 2012).
HEIs should reduce their dependency on government yearly
monetary budget, rather focusing on creating waqf or endowment fund on
their own (Najibah Mustafa & Mohd Zamro bin Muda, 2014). Najibah
Mustafa & Mohd Zamro bin Muda (2014) further discussed there are
universities in the US that developed their own endowment fund and make
huge profit.
In Muslim history, waqf has been used for centuries to improve the
economic condition of a society. It is not limited for development per se,
hence, waqf was utilized for other areas, such as medical and education.
Many Muslim countries benefit from waqf fund and are able to build
education institutions using the fund. This study will highlight in what
manner HEIs can gain from waqf fund and assist the students to finance
their education.

1400
2.1 Definition and Concept of Waqf
Waqf or Islamic charitable endowment is one of the oldest charity

that exist in the world and was reported to be used since the era of Egypt’s
pharaohs (Habibollah, Hamed, and Davoud, 2010). Technically, waqf can
be defined as ‘giving something as donation for public usage or as necessity
for the sake of Islam’ (Che Zuina Ismail, 2012). The word waqf is rooted
from verb waqafa that carries a meaning of ‘to restrain, to prevent or to
stop’ (Che Zuina Ismail, 2012).
Muslim scholars differ in defining waqf. Although there are
differences in their definition, but all definitions have similarities in terms
of the principles. There are three main principles in the concept of waqf;
those are - it is owned by God, it is eternal in nature, the right of ownership
is removed from the donor and its benefits mankind (Che Zuina Ismail,
2012).
Zeinoul Abedien (2013) outlined evidences that permit waqf
practices. First evidence is based on the Quranic verse in Surah A’l Imran
(3:92) that carries the meaning:
By no means shall ye Attain righteousness unless Ye give (freely) of
that Which ye love; and whatever Ye give, of a truth God knoweth it
well.
Second evidence is the hadith of the Prophet (pbuh) that says:
The Prophet (pbuh) said: When a man dies his acts come to an end,
except three things, recurring charity, knowledge (by which people
benefit), and pious offspring, who pray for him. (narrated by Abu
Hurairah pbuh)
Based on the narrated hadith, it is understood by scholars that the recurring
charity refers to waqf (Magda Ismail Abdel Mohsin, 2008). The third
evidence is based on the case of Umar ibn al-Khattab on the advice of the
Messenger he granted his land in Khaybar, named Thamagh for waqf (Siti
Alawiah Siraj, 2012). Then, this is followed by other Companions of the
Prophet who carried out similar charities and endowments.
Farra Munna Harun, Bayu Taufiq Possumah, M Hakimi bin Mohd
Shafiai, & Abd. Halim Mohd. Noor (2016) classified waqf into three;
religious waqf, philanthropic waqf and family waqf. Religious waqf was
used for Imam’s salary, religious education, mosque construction and
expenses, philanthropic waqf for poor people in the society and to support
all public facilities (Farra Munna Harun et al., 2016), while in family waqf
the revenue is first distributed among family members and proceeded to the
poor (Najibah Mustafa & Mohd Zamro bin Muda, 2014).
1401
Therefore, in discussing waqf for education, the education waqf fund

is one of philanthropic deed as the fund is utilized by all students regardless
of their field of studies. Students are acknowledged as one of the waqf
beneficiaries (Abdul Ghafar, Muhammad Hasbi, & Hakimi, 2013) and the
allocation of education waqf fund is encouraged as it will develop the
socioeconomics of a Muslim country (Khalifa, 2014; Ahmad Sahlan, Noor
Inayah & Mohamad, 2013). It can be donated by waqif (donor) for students’
hostels, scholarships, allowances, buildings and learning materials (Latiff,
Sayin. Salahuddin, M. Rani, & Hamid Afifah, 2013).
2.1 The Development of Education Waqf Fund

Education activities were financed with waqf fund and donation since
early seventh century (Muhammad Ridhwan Ab. Aziz & Mohd Asyraf
Yusof, 2014). The island of Sicily had 300 elementary schools that were
built by waqf and provided with waqf revenues for teachers’ payment and
school supplies (Muhammad Ridhwan Ab. Aziz & Mohd Asyraf Yusof,
2014). At the beginning of the twentieth century, Jerusalem had 64 schools
that was supported by waqf properties (Mek Wok Mahmud & Sayed
Sikandar Shah, 2010).
Al-Azhar University in Egypt existed during the period of Fatimite
dynasty started with the small mosque as a centre of Islamic study (Imam
Bahroni, 2012). Al-Azhar University and Zaituniyyah University in Tunis
were among universities provided endowment for a long term (Holiah,
2011). In (Mek Wok Mahmud & Sayed Sikandar Shah, 2010), waqf
financing is said to not limited to religious studies, hence, encouraged poor
people to enjoy the same education level as the rich. This is one of the
reasons why higher institutions in those days saw the benefits and
implement them.
Traditional Islamic education in Malaysia developed when Muslims
donated their land to build religious schools (Najibah Mustafa & Mohd
Zamro bin Muda, 2014). Najibah Mustaffa & Mohd Zamro bin Muda
(2014) further elaborated that the religious studies expanded after Muslims
contributed their wealth to build residences for teachers. In Islamic history,
waqf fund was used for public libraries, reading rooms, research activities
and translation programs (Dr Muhammad Tariq Khan, 2015).
The waqf educational institution started in Malaysia with the
existence of Sekolah Agama Rakyat (SAR), Sekolah Agama Negeri (SAN),
madrasah and pondok (Latiff Azha et al., 2013). Sekolah Agama Rakyat
administrated through board administration and gain the financial resource
from central government, state or Religious Council, madrasah was built in
1402
town areas or small towns and set certain terms and regulations on students,
and pondok institutions focused more on villages and did not imposed any
conditions (Latiff Azha et al., 2013).
The pondok institution later was replaced with madrasah or Arabic
school in the early 20th century, which had very systematic and formal
system compared to pondok institution (Latiff Azha et al., 2013). Sekolah
Menengah Agama al-Attas; formerly known as Madrasah al-Attas and
Madrasah al-Misriyah were known as the earliest madrasah built in this
country (Latiff Azha et al., 2013). In 1955, Selangor palace in Klang was
donated by Sultan Hisamuddin Alam Shah to opened the Islamic College
(Latiff Azha et al., 2013).
Today, Albukhary International University and Islamic University of
Malaysia in Cyberjaya are two HEIs that are wholly funded by waqf fund
(Fuadah Johari & Mohammad Haji Alias, 2013). Other HEIs initiated their
own waqf fund, such as a) Dana Wakaf Ilmu, Universiti Putra Malaysia, b)
IEF (Islamic Endowment Fund, International Islamic University Malaysia),
c) Tabung Pemberian Islam Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, d) Universiti
Islam Malaysia, e) Pusat Pembangunan Pembiayaan Wakaf (PPPW) /
Center for Awqaf Development Financing, Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia
(USIM) (Fuadah Johari & Mohammad Haji Alias, 2013).
The Federal Government of Malaysia, under the Prime Minister’s
Department had formed Jabatan Wakaf, Zakat dan Haji (JAWHAR) on 27 th
March 2004 with the objectives of harnessing the potential of waqf, zakat
and mal and assisting the Majlis Agama Islam Negeri-negeri (MAIN) to
realize these potential in a systematic and effective manner (Azri Ahmad,
Syarqawi Muhammad, & Mohd Asyran Safwan Kamaruzaman, 2012). On
the other hand, it is reported that Majlis Agama Islam Negeri Johor had
bought 6-storey building that can accommodate 80 students in Cairo for
students studying in Al-Azhar University using waqf fund (Azri Ahmad et
al., 2012). These two situations show how serious the Malaysian
government nowadays in developing and sustaining waqf in education.
3.0 METHODOLOGY
Based on reviews of scholarly literature on waqf, education waqf,
education waqf fund and endowment fund, this study main focused is on the
development of education waqf fund. Using qualitative research method,
this paper draws upon analysis of existing literature and secondary data
from publicly available information. This study looks into the track record
of waqf fund throughout histories to finance HEIs students in the Malaysian
1403
context. Other than that, this study used inductive reasoning approach where
conclusion is made based on information obtained throughout the study.
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Waqf in education contribute significantly in improving the quality

and competitiveness of the system (Holiah, 2011). In education institution
context, waqf fulfils three basic needs; institution development and
facilities; operational cost; academic excellence activities, personality and
leadership (Syed Mohd. Ghazali Wafa bin Syed Adwam Wafa, 2010).
Thus, education waqf fund brings equality and social justice in the
society. It is proven as in a study conducted by Dr Asming Yalawae & Dr
Izah Mohd Tahir (2008), the United State acknowledged that the fund has
the ability to bring equality in the society. Waqf as a beneficial philanthropic
tool can be used in education to eradicate financial tight of the system.
Another study conducted by Najibah Mustafa & Mohd Zamro bin
Muda (2014) justified that westerners recognized the capability of waqf for
Islamic institutions and they rebrand it in the form of trust or endowment.
Universities like Oxford and Cambridge in Britain as well as Harvard and
Stanford in United States are among universities that were built with
endowment fund (Najibah Mustafa & Mohd Zamro bin Muda, 2014).
In stirring the waqf fund, there are two measures that can be applied;
raising of fund from various sources – state religious agencies, Federal and
State government, foundations, companies, cooperatives and individuals,
alumni, parents; and raising of funds from activities conducted on the waqf
fund itself (Syed Mohd. Ghazali Wafa bin Syed Adwam Wafa, 2010).
However, other factors have to take into account for the fund to be a success.
In (Najibah Mustafa & Mohd Zamro bin Muda, 2014), Abdul Halim
Sunny (2007) outlined four factors that determine the success of education
waqf fund; those are public awareness, demographic condition that is high
Muslim population, economic stability owned by Muslims and professional
and efficient management. As Muslims nowadays aware of their
responsibilities to help people in need, the education waqf fund
management has to take advantage of this situation to develop the fund. A
study conducted by Anwar Allah Pitchay, Ahamed Kameel Mydin Meera,
& Muhammad Yusuf Saleem (2014) proved that limited number of
government university and limited inexpensive fee for tertiary education
lead waqf donors to donate for education waqf fund as compared to other
sectors as they realized the needs of poor students.
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Thus, Allah s.w.t. reminded humans whoever contributes their

money in the goodwill, they will be rewarded with manifolds (Surah al-
Baqarah, 2:261) (Asmak Ab Rahman, 2009). It is a matter of how the
education waqf fund is established and introduced to the community in
order to gain more contributions. Furthermore, the waqf fund management
should know that people donate due to several reasons such as to get
blessings from Allah s.w.t., to spread the religion, no heirs and to developed
the economy (Hj. Ahmad Zaki Hj. Abd Latiff, Hj. Abdul Halim Ramli, Che
Zuina binti Ismail, Kamarulzaman Sulaiman, & Norzaidi Mohd. Daud,
2006). The society is aware of their responsibilities, however, they are lack
of channels to contribute their donation.
HEI waqf fund manager can convey information through
contemporary marketing channels such as electronic media, social media or
printed media in such a way encouraging more people to donate (Najibah
Mustafa & Mohd Zamro bin Muda, 2014). There is information need to be
instilled for the community to have full understanding on waqf. The do’s
and don’ts on the waqf property, sold waqf land and legally renamed without
an agreement are among problems that happened nowadays (Farra Muna
Harun, Bayu Taufiq Possumah, Muhammad Hakimi Mohd Shafiai, & Abd.
Halim Mohd. Noor, 2014). In this sense, the waqf fund manager should not
focus on increasing contribution only, but they also need to educate the
society with waqf knowledge.
Muslims in Malaysia are willing to donate. The government agencies
contribute for waqf fund through salary deduction scheme (Farhana
Mohamad Suhaimi, Asmak Ab Rahman, & Sabitha Marican, 2014). The
scheme showed significant increase between 2006 and 2009 and it is mostly
donated among 25 to 34 years old government servants (Farhana Mohamad
Suhaimi et al., 2014). The research proved that young Muslims are ready to
donate some of their salary for waqf fund.
Another method suggested by Syed Mohd. Ghazali Wafa bin Syed
Adwam Wafa (2010) whereby few products can be launched with the
application of waqf fund, such as Waqf Scheme and General Infak and
Takaful, Education and Takaful Scheme, Educational Development Waqf
and Takaful Scheme, Hibah and Education Will Scheme. These products
will gain attention from consumers as there are takaful and other scheme
attached to the waqf fund, which may increase demand for the products.
Fund management that consists of appropriate individuals or parties
will determine whether education waqf fund can be a success. The waqf
fund should be independent, practicing honest and transparent
administration as well as involving in different kind of business (Najibah
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Mustafa & Mohd Zamro bin Muda, 2014). Another research conducted by
Mohd Asyraf Yusof, Muhammad Ridhwan Ab. Aziz, & Fuadah Johari
(2013) also proved that willingness of Muslims to donate for waqf fund
were not affected by level of income, hence is affected by knowledge and
trust on individual managed the fund.
Individuals administering the fund are one of the critical factors of
education waqf fund success (Najibah Mustaffa & Mohd Zamro bin Muda,
2014). The agency administering the fund should give more attention in
selecting the best candidate with suitable knowledge, skills and
qualifications. Training can be provided to the staffs from time to time to
enhance individuals’ knowledge and skills.
Waqf fund management in Malaysia differs for each state, and this
problem leads to different solution for the states (Hj. Ahmad Zaki Hj. Abd
Latiff et al., 2006). HEIs waqf fund manager has to acquire Majlis Agama
Islam Negeri (MAIN) approval in order to enhance the waqf fund
management, simultaneously achieving the objective outlined (Najibah
Mustafa & Mohd Zamro bin Muda, 2014).
Due to disorganized previous waqf management system MAIN is
facing two main problems; first, problem to identify the amount and waqf
land location, and second, problem to register the waqf wealth for MAIN as
the trustee (Che Zuina Ismail, 2012). Che Zuina Ismail (2012) further
elaborated due to those problems MAIN has to confront with heirs who tried
to repossess the waqf wealth and on the other hand, some of the waqf wealth
is not used as it should be.
Azliza Azrah Mohd Zakaria, Rose Ruziana Abd. Samad, & Zurina
Shafii (2012) outlined that mismanagement or misappropriation had
significant effect on the success of the establishment of waqf fund. Clear
codes and conducts for the administrators have to be outlined to avoid bribes
or other harmful activities on the fund. After all, the administrator should
find ways in ensuring the sustainability and continuous growth of the fund.
Other than that, Farra Muna Harun, Bayu Taufiq Possumah,
Muhammad Hakimi Mohd Shafiai, & Abd. Halim Mohd. Noor (2014)
discussed the needs of law and legislation for waqf fund implementation.
The enactment on waqf is needed as it will provide guidelines for the
administrators on the best way to manage the fund. Thus, the administrators
are bound to follow the laws once they established the fund. However,
current scenario sees there is no proper enactment for waqf.
Farra Munna Harun et al. (2016) further suggested that the problem
with waqf land can be solved through amendment and approval of the new
rules related to waqf. The acts that should be considered consist of Akta
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Kanun Tanah Negara 1965 (Akta 56), Akta Kerajaan Tempatan 1976 (Akta
171), Akta Pemegang Amanah 1949 (Akta 208) dan Akta Pengambilan
Tanah 1960 (Akta 486) (Farra Munna Harun et al., 2016).
5.0 Conclusion
Waqf as a philanthropic tool is seemed as the best remedy to enhance
the education system of a Muslim country, especially Malaysia. With
increasing standard of living and reducing value of Malaysian Ringgit,
education waqf fund will assist in reducing financial burden on the
government, as well as the HEIs students.
This study had clearly discussed on the development of education
waqf in Islamic history and in Malaysia. The education institutions showed
that the education waqf fund can be a huge success considering challenges
that may impede. This study also evidently showed factors to ponder in
strengthening the education waqf fund once it is operated. The factors
consist of public awareness, willingness to donate, fund management and
waqf law and legislation.
Above all, Muslims should realize that waqf is an important
investment and having education waqf fund for HEIs in Malaysia can be a
huge success. The education waqf fund will add value to the HEI at the same
time assisting to borne graduates who are excelled in academics and leaders
that will contribute to a country’s development.
6.0 REFERENCES
[1] Abdul Ghafar Ismail, Muhammad Hasbi Zaenal, & Hakimi Shafiai.
(2013). Philanthrophy in Islam: A Promise to Welfare Economics
System. IRTI Working Paper Series.
[2] Ahmad Sahlan bin Sedek, Noor Inayah Yaakub, Mohamad Abdul
Hamid, & Rizal Palil. (2013). Waqf: A Contribution Towards
Economic Development. In 2nd International Conference on
Management, Economics and Finance (2nd ICMEF 2013)
Proceeding (pp. 653–659).
[3] Anwar Allah Pitchay, Ahamed Kameel Mydin Meera, &
Muhammad Yusuf Saleem. (2014). Priority of Waqf Development
among Malaysian Cash Waqf Donors : An AHP Approach. Journal
of Islamic Finance, 3(1), 13–22. http://doi.org/2289-2117 (O) /
2289-2109 (P)
1407
[4] Asharaf Mohd Ramli. (2014). An Overview of Public Funding for

Higher Learning Education in Malaysia and the Prospect of Waqf
Funding. In Global Higher Education Forum 2013 (pp. 1–20).
[5] Asmak Ab Rahman. (2009). Peranan Wakaf dalam Pembangunan
Ekonomi Umat Islam dan Aplikasinya di Malaysia. Shariah Journal,
17(1), 113–152.
[6] Azliza Azrah Mohd Zakaria, Rose Ruziana Abd. Samad, & Zurina
Shafii. (2012). Venture Philanthropy - Waqf Practices and Its
Implementation: Scenario in Malaysia. International Journal of
Business, Economics and Law, 1, 108–115.
[7] Azri Ahmad, Syarqawi Muhammad, & Mohd Asyran Safwan
Kamaruzaman. (2012). Education Development Through Waqf. 3rd
International Conference on Islam and Higher Education, (13), 1–
22.
[8] Dr Asming Yalawae, & Dr Izah Mohd Tahir. (2008). The Role of
Islamic Institution in Achieving Equality and Human Development:
Waqf or Endowment. In 5th Annual Conference of the HDCA, Delhi,
India (pp. 1–16).
[9] Dr Muhammad Tariq Khan. (2015). Development of Human Capital
Through Institution of Islamic Waqf. International Journal of
Information, Business and Management, 7(3), 41.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2010.11.002
[10] Farhana Mohamad Suhaimi, Asmak Ab Rahman, & Sabitha
Marican. (2014). The Role of Share Waqf in the Socio-Economic
Development of the Muslim Community : the Malaysian Experience.
Humanomics, 30(3), 227–254. http://doi.org/10.1108/H-12-2012-
0025
[11] Farra Muna Harun, Bayu Taufiq Possumah, Muhammad Hakimi
Mohd Shafiai, & Abd. Halim Mohd. Noor. (2014). Empowering
Higher Education Institution : The Role Of Waqf - Malaysian
Perspective. In Proceeding of the Australian Academy of Business
and Social Science Conference ISBN978-0-9925622-0-5.
[12] Farra Munna Harun, Bayu Taufiq Possumah, M Hakimi bin Mohd
Shafiai, & Abd. Halim Mohd. Noor. (2016). Issues and Economic
Role of Waqf in Higher Education Institution: Malaysian
Experience. Al-Iqtishad: Journal of Islamic Economics, 8(1), 149–
168. http://doi.org/10.15408/aiq.v8i1.2514
[13] Fuadah Johari, & Mohammad Haji Alias. (2013). Potential of Waqf
Funds and Instruments in Contemporary Economic System. In Paper
Proceeding of the 5th Islamic Economics System Conference
1408
(iECONS 2013).
[14] Habibollah Salarzehi, Hamed Armesh, & Davoud Nikbin. (2010).
Waqf as a Social Entrepreneurship Model in Islam. International
Journal of Business and Management, 5(7), 179–187.
[15] Hj. Ahmad Zaki Hj. Abd Latiff, Hj. Abdul Halim Ramli, Che Zuina
binti Ismail, Kamarulzaman Sulaiman, & Norzaidi Mohd. Daud.
(2006). Pengurusan Harta Wakaf dan Potensinya ke Arah Kemajuan
Pendidikan Umat Islam di Malaysia.
[16] Holiah. (2011). Pengelolaan Wakaf Tunai Pada Tabung Wakaf
Indonesia Untuk Pemberdayaan Bidang Pendididikan.
[17] Imam Bahroni. (2012). Streamlining Education Institution Through
Waqf Enlargement: An Experience of Gontor System 1 *. Jurnal At-
Ta’dib, 7(2).
[18] Khalifa Mohamed Ali. (2014). Waqf for Poverty Alleviation:
Challenges and Opportunities. IRTI Working Paper Series.
[19] Latiff Azha, Sayin Baharuddin, Sayurno, S.S Salahuddin, M. Rani
Afandi, & Hamid Afifah H. (2013). The Practice and Management
of Waqf Education in Malaysia. In 6th International Conference on
University Learning and Teaching (InCULT 2012) (Vol. 90, pp. 22–
30). Elsevier B.V. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.07.061
[20] Mek Wok Mahmud, & Sayed Sikandar Shah. (2010). Optimization
of Philanthropic Waqf: The Need for Maqasid-based Legislative
Strategies.
[21] Mohd Asyraf Yusof, Muhammad Ridhwan Ab. Aziz, & Fuadah
Johari. (2013). The Relationship Between Level of Income and
Willingness of Muslim Community to Contribute for Islamic Waqf
Bank. In 5th Islamic Economics System Conference (iECONS 2013).
[22] Muhammad Ridhwan Ab. Aziz, & Mohd Asyraf Yusof. (2014). An
Initial Study on Student’s Need towards Islamic Waqf Bank for
Education. In International Conference on Arts, Economics and
Management (ICAEM ’14) March 22-23, 2014 Dubai (UAE) (pp.
71–74).
[23] Najibah Mustafa, & Mohd Zamro bin Muda. (2014). Pengurusan
Wakaf Pendidikan di Institusi Pengajian Tinggi Malaysia: Satu
Sorotan Literatur. International Journal of Islamic and Civilizational
Studies, 1, 45–57.
[24] Norasikin Salikin, Norailis Ab. Wahab, Nurazalia Zakaria, Rosnia
Marsuki, & Siti Nurulhuda Nordin. (2012). Students’ Saving
Attitude: Does Parents’ Background Matter? International Journal
of Trade, Economics and Finance, 3(6), 479–484.
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http://doi.org/10.7763/IJTEF.2012.V3.249
[25] Ogawa, K., Takemoto, T., Takahashi, H., & Suzuki, A. (2012).
Income Earning Opportunity and Work Performance Affect
Donating Behavior: Evidence from Dictator Game Experiments.
Journal of Socio-Economics, 41, 816–826.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.socec.2012.08.008
[26] Siti Alawiah Siraj. (2012). An Empirical Investigation into the
Accounting, Accountability and Effectiveness of Waqf Management
in the State Islamic Religious Councils (SIRCs) In Malaysia.
Retrieved from http://orca.cf.ac.uk/46875/
[27] Syed Mohd. Ghazali Wafa bin Syed Adwam Wafa. (2010). Waqf and
Financing for Education. In Proceedings of the Seventh International
Conference The Tawhidi Epistemology: Zakat and Waqf Economy.
http://doi.org/10.1109/INCOS.2010.100
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T02_060: TREND ANALYSIS OF PROPERTIES

MARKET IN MALAYSIA
1
Nurharyanti Borhan and 2Nurfadhlina Abdul Halim
1,2
Pusat Pengajian Informatik dan Matematik Gunaan,
E-mel:
1
nurharyantihusna@gmail.com,2lina@umt.edu.my
ABSTRACT
This study aims to see the price movement for the property market in
Malaysia. The data used are annual data from 1978 to 2014. Data was
obtained from an article published by The City and Country Team. Data is
collected, analyzed using a linear trend. This analysis can help users and
developers in reducing market risk and assist consumers in making better
decisions.
Keywords: Trend Analysis, Properties Market
1.0 INTRODUCTION
A sharp drop of the economy and the depreciation of the ringgit was
affecting the properties market. The property is one of the areas that became
the catalyst for Malaysia’s market. Property’s prices in Malaysia continue
to increase at a slower rate and the transaction is decline and residential
construction activity has slowed.
The property market in Malaysia is estimated to continue to be weaken in

2016, with house prices rising slowly for the next year. Malaysia’s
economic growth is expected to slow, from 4.7% in 2015 to 4.5% in 35 to
4.5% in 2016 as a result of the tight fiscal situation [1].
The slowdown in the property market more apparent with the number of
unsold units of residential and commercial properties are increase.
Increased in living makes the user not being able to buy and own a home,
even a low-cost housing.
1411
The number of unsold units increase by 16% in the first quarter of this year.
18908 out of 81894 residential and commercial units launched in the first
quarter of 2016 remained unsold. The total of unsold is RM9.4 billion and
an increase of 15.9% from the unsold units in the fourth quarter of 2015 [2].
2.0 TREND ANALYSIS
Property is an asset that contributes to the economy of Malaysia. The real

estate sector is among the most important in the Malaysian economy as it is
the need for people to build homes and have a more comfortable life.
However, to have an asset, users need to consider the current economic
situation, namely whether conditions are appropriate or otherwise. In order
to make judgments, trend analysis can help users or developers aware on
the future price’s movements. This analysis can also help users and
developers to avoid the risk of substantial losses.
As every company knows that all the market growth is not the same. It may
grow slowly or quickly, cyclic or both decline and growing at the same time.
Different trend of growth also occur in a small area and even each market
is evolving either rise or fall because the growth is not a discrete distributed.
It is fluid and constantly adapt to the conditions that affect the population’s
growth and decline. The importance of knowing the history of the growth
trend of the market as it is a powerful way to make decisions that will give
benefit to the future investments to reduce risk and gain a strong competitive
advantage.
In this study, linear trend analysis was conducted to obtain trend pattern for
the property market data in Malaysia. This analysis is important to predict
the behavior of the future market. The analysis is important in helping
developers and users in drawing up their plans to buy a house and land in
order to buy the cheaper price.
In this study, trend analysis is conducted by using Minitab 17 to get the

pattern of linear trend as shown in (1) .
yt     t   t (1)
Where y t is the value of dependent variable or also known as trend value

at time t , t is the time variable,  and  is a unknown intersection and
1412
slope parameter to be estimated and t is error term which usually assumed

as identical, independent and normal distributed with mean zero and
variance,  2 .[3]
Equation (1) is a theoretical model where the value of  and  is the

unknown parameter that will be assumed. Equation (2) and (3) can be used
to find the estimate value of  and  .
ˆ  y  ˆ (t )
(2)
T  ty t ( t )( y t )
ˆ  (3)
T  t 2  ( t ) 2
‘  ’ is a mark used to show the estimate value of  and  and y is the

mean for variable y t . As the estimate value is obtained, equation (1) can be
written as equation (4) as follows,
yˆ  ˆ  ˆt (4)
3.0 ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
Analysis was conducted on the Malaysia’s properties market for the year
1978 until 2014 using the software Minitab 17. The data is from The City
and Country Team. Figure 1 shows the results of the analysis that has been
carried out. Based on Figure 1, linear trend equation is shown in equation
(5)
yt  23695  18460t (5)
With   23695 and   18460t . From Figure 1, it shows that exist

a trend in properties data in Malaysia. In 1978 until 1979, shows that prices
increase horizontally before rising sharply in 1980. Properties rose slightly
in 1981 and this situation continued until 1983 and decreased slightly in
1984. However, the decline in prices in 1984 did not last when it increased
1413
gradually until 1986 before the prices fell drastically until 1988. In 1989,
the prices started to rise again and horizontally increase until 1995 before
rising drastically until 1998. This situation does not last longer because once
in 1999, the prices plummeted and rebounded horizontally from 2000 until
2003, then declined in 2004 before rising briefly in 2005. In 2006, prices
slightly decreased and returned rising horizontally until 2009. Significant
changes occur when the prices continue to rise sharply in 2010 and this
situation continued until 2014. In Figure 1, the analysis shows that the
lowest home prices that occurred from 1978 to 2014 was in 1988 and the
highest prices is in 2014.
Trend Analysis Plot for Properties Price Market in Malaysia 1978 until 2014
Linear Trend Model
Yt = -23695 + 18460*t
1000000 Variable
Actual
Fits
800000
Properties Price Market
Accuracy Measures
MAPE 3.38967E+01
MAD 8.72912E+04
600000 MSD 1.11201E+10
400000
200000
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
Index
Figure 1 : Linear Trend Analysis Plot for Properties Price Market in

Malaysia 1978 until 2014.
Rising of the property prices increased in line with demand from users and
developers.[4] From the analysis conducted, it can be said that in 2014,
demand from users and developers has been overwhelming. However, in
the year 1988, demand is not encouraging. This suggests, the economic
recession led to a decline in prices. If users and developers realize the
occurrence of this downturn earlier, users and developers can buy a cheaper
price than in previous years.
1414
This shows that trend analysis is very important in order to help users and
developers manage their plan on buying or selling the property without
having any loss. In addition, this analysis help in preventing the market risk
and makes users and developers more wise and prudent in making a
decisions.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Property is one of the most important market in Malaysia’s economy. A

downturn in properties market can make the economic recession. In order
to avoid the risk, trend analysis can be done to help the users and developers
in making decision towards their plan on having or selling the property.
This study is conducted to investigate the trends existed in the property

market in Malaysia. As a result, trend analysis conducted shows that there
exists a trend in the property market showing an increase and decrease in
prices. This analysis can help developers and users to predict future prices
and preventing the market risk. From Figure 1, we can predict that, the value
of properties market will increase gradually in 2017. Further research may
be conducted in order to forecast the future value of the properties market
for a better prediction.
5.0 REFERENCES
[1] Global Property Guide (2016). Malaysia’s Property Market

Slowing Sharply. Retrieved from:
www.globalproperyguide.com/Asia/malaysia.
[2] A. Ruban, Opalyn Mok and Julia Chan (2016). Unsold Units
Continue to Dampen Properties Market in Malaysia. Kuala
Lumpur.
[3] Mohd Alias Lazim (2011). Introductory Business Forecasting:

A Practical Approach. 3rd Edition. Universiti Teknologi Mara,
53-114, ISBN 978-983-3643-10-3.
[4] N. Hamzah, M.A. Khoiry, M.A.M. Ali, N.S. Zaini and I. Arshad
(2011). Faktor Luaran dan Dalaman yang Mempengaruhi Harga
Rumah Teres di Bandar Baru Bangi. Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia. Journal Design + Built (4), ISN 1985-6881.
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T02_061: THE INFLUENCE OF VIEWING

CONDITION TOWARDS COLOUR
DIFFERENCE ACCEPTABILITY IN THE
GRAPHIC ARTS
Nur Ain Shafinaz Kairuddin
Siti Farhana Zakaria
Faculty of Art & Design, Universiti Teknologi MARA
ABSTRACT
This research aimed to investigate the colour difference acceptability
judgement in the graphic arts using colour patches test and to explore the
influences of viewing conditions. In this project controlled viewing
conditions were used for evaluating the colour in a psychophysical
experiment. Evaluation was carried out by category judgements. A panel of
twenty observers were used to evaluate four colour patches such as Light
Grey, Mid Grey, Purple and Yellow with approximately twenty samples in
each colour patches. The relationship between the resulting visual scales
and the result of calculations using CIELab colour difference equation was
described. The study concluded that the acceptability threshold was affected
by the chromaticity but not the level of illuminance.
Keywords: Colour difference, Illuminance, Chromaticity, Colour

Judgement.
Introduction
Colour is perceived by the eye-brain visual system. Human response to

colour is influenced by various factors, including such diverse things as the
room lighting, what is in the scene and the mood or age of the observer. In
printing industry, it is very challenging to get digital imaging systems to
cope with the nuances in the way humans sees colours. An image may
appear differently when it is reproduced on a different media under different
viewing condition [1]. Perceived colour of objects generally varies with the
viewing condition and thus, the colour comparison in daylight, is preferred.
In colour specification and colour measurement, the wavelength
composition of daylight must be specified precisely [2]. These standards are
called CIE Illuminants and have been established by the Commission
1416
Internationale d’Eclairage (CIE) [3]. Standard lighting conditions are

defined in different categories related to the type of lighting such as CIE
Illuminant A, CIE Illuminant B, CIE Illuminant C, and CIE Illuminant D.
Notation D refers to daylight type of lighting. The colour temperature is
measured in Kelvin (k) and there are two illuminants used namely D50
(5000k) illuminant and D65 (6500k) light source. D50 is the standard
illuminate used in graphic arts for years and specified in ISO 13655 and ISO
3664 for colorimetry and viewing standard [4].
Colorimetric tolerances using printed images was conducted by Uroz et al

[5]. They found the colour difference threshold between two images was
between 1.9 and 2.3 CIELAB units depending on the experimental method
used. In this study, observers determined whether they could perceive or
accept the difference between a pair of colour patches by using a threshold
method.
Sample Preparation
The sample were printed by Mimaki Textile Jet TX 1600S on cotton fabric
and were cut into 2.5cm squares. From the twenty samples for each colour
patches, one was identified as reference patch. Observers were asked to
judge the colour difference of the samples against the reference colour
patch.
Visual Observations and experimental method

The sample were inclined at about 45 angle and were positioned centrally
in the viewing cabinet and illuminated from above by D50, D65 and two
units D50 fluorescent lamps (two tubes were turned on instead of one). The
luminance level for D50 was 2.781 klx, two units D50 was 6.052 klx and
for D65 illuminant was 2.173 klx approximately. Three types of illuminants
were used to see whether the observers would evaluate and give the same
judgement or they would vary in their judgement.
All observers made the comparisons of each colour with the
standard, giving one hundred and sixty results for each colour. The
observers were asked to judge the samples against the reference sample.
The results of the colour differences were estimated by pass or fail decision
in the following category descriptions. The categories were displayed to the
observers at all times:
0. Not Perceptible
1. Barely Perceptible
1417
2. Perceptible but acceptable

3. Barely acceptable
4. Just acceptable
5. Unacceptable

Acceptability threshold was calculated for each colour sample using the
mean of the E on two samples where the decision falls between pass and
fail. Table 1 shows that, the judgement or threshold value between two units
D50 and D50 illuminants. There was not much difference between Yellow,
Purple and Light Grey. For Yellow, the acceptability threshold value is the
same for both illuminants.
Table 1: Threshold value for all three illuminants – D65, D50 and two
units D50.
Yellow Purple Light Grey Mid Grey

D65 5.445 4.131 1.713 3.264
D50 x2 4.785 6.794 2.299 2.692
D50 4.785 6.781 2.692 3.594
The threshold in achromatic samples was affected by both level and

chromaticity of illuminant, but there was no consistent effect on both light
grey and mid grey samples. The threshold in the chromatic samples (yellow
and purple) was affected by the chromaticity but not by the level of
illuminance. There was a consistent effect where the bluer illuminant - D65
was used made harder to discriminate the yellow samples and in comparison
a yellow illuminant - D50 made it harder to discriminate bluish samples. It
shows that the colour perception and judgement of the observers were
affected by the choice of illuminants. Observers gave the same judgement
for yellow patches when viewed under two units D50 and single unit of D50
illuminant. However, when the colours were viewed under D65 illuminant,
observer did not mention noticeable difference against the reference
patches. It can be concluded that, the lower the threshold of the illuminant,
the more people can see the different. The graph is shown in Figure 1.
1418
TRESHOLD FOR YELLOW
6
D65
D50 x2 D50
4
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Figure 1- Treshold graph for yellow
Result for Light Grey and Mid Grey are shown in Figure 2 and 3, the
responses are different for both colour and the illuminants. For Light Grey,
observers could easily make the difference between patches under D65
illuminant. However, for Mid Grey under the same illuminant, observers
were unable to clearly perceive the difference between sample colour patch
and the reference colour patch.
TRESHOLD FOR LIGHT GREY
D50
D50 x2
2
D65
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Figure 2 - Treshold graph for Light Grey

1419
Figure 3 shows that, the observers made clear decision about the patches
under two units D50 illuminants. For Mid Grey, observer clearly perceived
the difference during the judgements under two units D50 illuminance.
Higher reading judgements are given when comparing to D50. From the
response and judgements in this experiment, it can be concluded that lower
the acceptability threshold, the more people can see the difference.
TRESHOLD FOR MID GREY
4
D50
D65
D50 x2
2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Figure 3 – Threshold for Mid Grey
Figure 4 to figure 6 shows the acceptability threshold for all colours under
different illuminants.
TRESHOLD UNDER D65 ILLUMINANT
6
Yellow
4 Purple
Mid Grey
2
Light Grey
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Figure 4- Treshold reading viewed under D65

illuminant
1420
TRESHOLD UNDER D50 X 2 ILLUMINANT
Purple
6
Yellow
4
Mid Grey
Light Grey
2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Figure 5- Treshold reading viewed under two unit of

D50 illuminant
TRESHOLD UNDER D50 ILLUMINANT
Purple
6
Yellow
4
Mid Grey
Light Grey
2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Figure 6- Treshold reading viewed under D50 illuminant
The different for Light Grey were easily noticeable under all illuminants. In
the experiment, observers faced some difficulties to make a judgement for
Purple colour when viewed under D50 and two units D50 illuminants.
When viewed under D65 illuminant, observers faced difficulties to decide
the colour differences acceptability for Yellow colour.
1421
CONCLUSION
From the experimental results, it was found that, several factors may affect
the observer’s judgements such as glare, angle of viewing, metamerism,
chromatic adaptation and height of viewing. A major factor in this
experiment was the ability of the eye to adapt different viewing conditions.
The differences in colour vision between individuals and variations between

viewing conditions have always lead to different perceptual experiences.
The main conclusions from the study were the acceptability threshold was
affected by the chromaticity but not the level of illuminance. The difficulties
of modelling individual visions and viewing realities will somewhat limit
the usefulness of model based upon a standard observer and standard
viewing specification. The use of colour appearance models within colour
imaging system will nevertheless, lead to improved quality for routine
colour reproduction works in printing industry.
Reference
[1] Phil Green and Tony Johnson, (2000) Issues of Measurement and
Assessment in Hard Copy Colour Reproduction, Colour Imaging Group,
London College of Printing.
[2] Gary G. Field (1999) Color and Its Reproduction (2nd edition) GATF
Press, Pittsburgh
[3] Samuel J. Williamson, Herman Z.Cummins (1983) Light and Color In
Nature and Art Braun-Brumfield, Inc
[4] McDonald, R.(1997) Colour Physics for Industry (2nd edition) Society
of Dyers and Colourists: Bradford.
[5] J. Uroz, M. R. Luo, and J. Morovic, “Perception of colour differ-ence
between printed images,”in Colour Science: ExploitingDigital Media, L. W.
MacDonald and M. R. Luo, eds., (Wiley,2002), pp. 49–73
1422
T02_062: EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND

COUNTERPRODUCTIVE WORK
BEHAVIOUR:
MODERATING EFFECT OF WORKPLACE
SPIRITUALITY
Raja Muhamad Yusof, Abdul Rahman Abdul Rahim,
Arshad Ayub Graduate Business School, Universiti Teknologi Mara, Shah
Alam, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
The role of workplace spirituality as a moderator between emotional
intelligence and counterproductive work behaviour, have not been given
much attention by scholars. Based on social cognitive theory and previous
research findings, a model has been developed to demonstrate that
workplace spirituality could strengthen the negative relationship between
emotional intelligence and counterproductive work behaviour among
employees. The model also postulated that when employees’ spirituality is
high it could further strengthen the negative relationship of emotional
intelligence and counterproductive work behaviour and thus would
eliminate negative behaviour. This conceptual framework explains how the
integration of workplace spirituality and emotional intelligence could
provide a better understanding of employees’ conduct in counterproductive
work behaviour and deliberate better insight for employers in dealing with
negative behaviour in workplace.
Keywords: workplace spirituality, emotional intelligence,
counterproductive work behaviour.
INTRODUCTION
Emotional intelligence, counterproductive work behaviour and
workplace spirituality are three distinct yet related areas of research that have
attracted the attention of both academics and practitioners in organizational
psychology, organizational behaviour and human resources management [1].
This paper will further contribute to the related field by focusing on the direct
relationship between emotional intelligence and counterproductive work
behaviour, and workplace spirituality as a moderator [2]. Thus, the current
paper seeks to expand the literatures on the counterproductive work
behaviour as the observed variable of the research.
1423
Counterproductive work behaviour continues to be a world-wide

phenomenon and common problem in today’s organizations and has been
reported to have high rate of occurrence and serious negative impact either
economically or socially, which victimizes the organization and its
stakeholders [3]. Thus, has proliferated and attracted many researchers in
studying counterproductive work behaviours since the last decade [4] with
the intention to identify its root causes and recognizing the right solutions
to eradicate counterproductive behaviours in organisations.
Counterproductive work behaviour can be defined as any
volitional acts by employees that potentially violate the legitimate interests
of, or do harm to, an organization or its stakeholders [5]. This definition
covers a broad range of specific acts (e.g., theft, substance use, sabotage,
interpersonal violence, absenteeism) and partially overlaps with a number
of related constructs such as workplace retaliation, moral disengagement,
aggression, or incivility, to name only a few.
Data from the Association of Certified Fraud Examiners 2014
(ACFE) [6], a study on 100 nations worldwide; revealed that survey
participants estimated that the typical organization loses 5% of revenues
each year to fraud which amount to approximately USD 3.7 trillion and
asset misappropriations are the most common fraud occurring in 85% of the
cases in the study. In a similar statistic (KPMG-UK) [7], fraud barometer
for 2013 confirms that identity fraud in 2012 reached to a level high of £
26.3 million from £12.3 million the year before. In Malaysian context,
a survey (KPMG Malaysia Fraud, Bribery and Corruption Survey 2013) [8];
revealed that 83% of respondent (representing 14 industry segments) felt
that fraud is a major problem for Malaysian business and is an inevitable
cost of doing business. Of the total reported value of fraud which amounted
to RM2.407 million, 45% were attributed to customers, 32% were attributed
to non-management level employees while 21% were attributed to service
providers.
The National Business Ethics Survey (2013) [9] performed on
6,579 respondents of the USA found that among the forms of
counterproductive work behaviour that are often reported include abusive
behaviour, lying to employees, conflicts of interest, violating company
policies, and discriminating against employees. Chirasha and Mahapa
(2012) [10] posit that 75% of employees involved in counterproductive
work behaviour such as theft, fraud, vandalism, sabotage and voluntary
absenteeism. It is estimated that 95% of organizations have experienced
theft by their own employees, causing financial losses between $50 and
$200 billion annually on the US economy.
1424
A meta-analysis [11] done on nursing violence literature search of

136 articles (151,347 nurses from 160 samples), found that overall violence
exposure rates were 36.4% for physical violence, 66.9% for nonphysical
violence, 39.7% for bullying and 25% for sexual harassment. The rates of
violence exposure varied by world region (Anglo, Asia, Europe and Middle
East) which the highest rates of physical violence and sexual harassment are
in the Anglo region and the highest rate of nonphysical violence and
bullying are in the Middle East.
The above mentioned statistics are self-evidence of why there has
been an increased interest in counterproductive work behaviour studies
among researchers. Counterproductive work behaviour potentially affects
and decreases work performance and result in organizational losses [12].
Since there have been fewer studies on the effects of moderating roles on
the relationship of emotional intelligence and counterproductive work
behaviour, it has sparked the interest of the researcher to study on the
moderating variable. Simplistically, the objectives of this study are as
follows;
 To examine the direct relationship between emotional intelligence
and counterproductive work behaviour.
 To examine whether workplace spirituality moderates the
relationship between emotional intelligence and counterproductive
work behaviour.
LITERATURE REVIEW
COUNTERPRODUCTIVE WORK BEHAVIOUR (CWB)

Research on counterproductive work behaviour has proliferated
and attracted much research attention during the last decade [13] and has
emerged as a major area of concern among scholars, researchers, academics,
practitioners, and the general public [14]. As a result of investigation done
by other scholars, different terminologies surfaced which implied the same
meaning as CWB such as: organizational delinquency [15], organization-
motivated aggression [16], organizational retaliatory behaviours, workplace
aggression and workplace deviance [17], and antisocial behaviour in
organizations [18].
In broad perspectives, CWB has been classified into subcategories
using several different approaches, but not entirely conflicting schemes
[19]. Robinson and Bennett (1995) [20] conducted a multidimensional
scaling study of CWB and derived two dimensions: organizational versus
personal targets, and minor versus serious acts. They further divided CWB,
1425
based on these dimensions, into four categories: production deviance (minor

organizational), property deviance (serious organizational), political
deviance (minor interpersonal), and personal aggression (serious
interpersonal).
However, three years later, Neuman and Baron (1998) [21]
discovered only three dimension of CWB namely scheme of hostility,
obstruction, and overt aggression. Gruys and Sackett (2003) [22] examine
the relationship between various CWB utilizing a university alumni (n=343)
members. 11 categories of CWB were formulated i.e. theft and related
behaviour, destruction of property, misuse of information, misuse of times
and resources, unsafe behaviour, poor attendance, poor quality work,
alcohol use, drug use, inappropriate verbal actions and finally inappropriate
physical action.
Furtherance to that, Spector et al., (2006) [23] compiled data from
three of their prior studies i.e Bruursema et al., (2004), Goh et al., (2003)
and Penney & Spector (2005) that used a 45-items CWB checklist resulting
in five dimensions: abuse against others, production deviance, sabotage,
withdrawal and theft. The first dimension targets people; the next four target
the organization or both, but incline to the organization. However, in
Malaysia, Rahman (2008) [24] study amongst production workers found
only three dimensions of CWB namely; production, organizational and
interpersonal deviance.
More recent study by Peng (2012) [25] found six-factor model of
CWB utilizing Chinese’s knowledge workers (n=366). The six dimensions
are unethical behaviour, resistant behaviour, loophole seeking, passive
obedience, knowledge withholding and story-telling. Interestingly, Unal
(2013) [26] found four-factor model of CWB amongst secondary and
primary school teachers in Konya Turkey (n=3201). The four dimensions
are interpersonal deviance, education deviance, time deviance, and
collaboration deviance.
WORKPLACE SPIRITUALITY (WS)

Assessing workplace spirituality in the business/work environment
is a relatively new area of study [27]. Previous research has paid little
attention to spirituality in relation to the workplace in general [28], which
is a rather important omission given the key role that spirituality plays in
many peoples’ lives, and given the amount of time people spend at work.
However, it has been noted that there is a need for more empirical research
with respect to the relationship between workplace spirituality and work
attitudes [29]. From an organisation’s perspective, leaders are becoming
1426
convinced that bringing some form of spirituality into the workplace has
many benefits, including increase selling performance, accelerate
organizational citizenship behaviour and work attitude [30] increased
productivity and earning management motivation, profitability, job
retention, competitive advantage, honesty and trust, employee’s job
satisfaction, employee’s creativity, customer service and employee’s ethical
behaviour [31].
The term spirituality can take on a variety of meanings, and is often
confused with the term religiosity. It is important to understand, however,
that spirituality and religion are not the same entity; rather, they are two
related, but distinct constructs [32]. While spirituality and religion are
commonly thought of as synonymous, researchers have acknowledged the
differences between the two. Zinnbauer and colleagues (1997) [33] state
that religion is typically associated with formal/organizational membership
and beliefs/rituals, whereas spirituality is associated with a closeness to a
higher being and/or feelings of interconnectedness with the world and living
things.
Workplace spirituality has also been defined as “the recognition
that employees have an inner life that nourishes and is nourished by
meaningful work that takes place in the context of community” [34]. In this
definition, workplace spirituality encompasses three dimensions: inner life,
sense of community and meaningful work. Inner life is when individuals
find their inner strength and use it to conduct their activities at work. Sense
of community is about working in an environment of interconnectedness.
Meaningful work refers to conducting activities that are of importance to the
employee.
Emotional Intelligence (EI)

The concept of emotional intelligence was proposed as a new kind
of intelligence that is more important than traditional cognitive intelligence
[35]. Emotional intelligence was originally defined as “the subset of social
intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one’s own and others’
feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this
information to guide one’s thinking and actions” [36]. Under the concept of
emotional intelligence studies, it has been divided into three main
approaches.
The first perspective is the model of emotional quotient [37],
centered on the general wellbeing and measured with the Emotional
Quotient Inventory (EQi). This is also referred to as a mixed model, where
emotional intelligence is regarded as a mix of skills such as emotional
1427
awareness, traits such as persistence and desirable behaviours. This model

shifts the accent from general intelligence and cognitive abilities towards
the emotional intelligence. The second perspective is the model of
emotional abilities [38], which conceptualized emotional intelligence as
composed of four distinct dimensions as follows: i). Appraisal and
expression of emotion in the self (self-emotional appraisal [SEA]). This
relates to the individual’s ability to understand their deep emotions and be
able to express these emotions naturally. People who have great ability in
this area will sense and acknowledge their emotions well before most
people. ii). Appraisal and recognition of emotion in others (others-
emotional appraisal [OEA]). This relates to peoples’ ability to perceive and
understand the emotions of those people around them. People who are high
in this ability will be much more sensitive to the feelings and emotions of
others as well as reading their minds. iii). Regulation of emotion in the self
(regulation-of emotion [ROE]). This relates to the ability of people to
regulate their emotions, which will enable a more rapid recovery from
psychological distress. iv). Use of emotion to facilitate performance (use-of
emotion [UOE]). This relates to the ability of individuals to make use of
their emotions by directing them towards constructive activities and
personal performance. The third and last main perspective is the model of
emotional competence [39], focused on those behaviours that lead to
performance, and measured with the Emotional Competence Inventory -
ECI. In this model, emotional intelligence is seen as a large array of
dispositions and competences that vary from individual traits to learned
abilities. All these are included in five separate elements, totalling 25
different competences from the following categories: (i) self-awareness; (ii)
motivation; (iii) self-regulation; (iv) empathy and (v) adaptability in
relationships. Goleman claims that these competences are essential for
learning job related skills, that later direct the emotional intelligence EI
towards achieving performance. The model developed by Mayer and
Salovey was mainly used in educational programs, while the model
proposed by Goleman found its use in the organizational environment.
In another perspective, Goleman and Times (2013) [40] defines
the concept of emotional intelligence in which it means how we handle
ourselves and how we handle our relationship. There has been a steady
increase in the study of emotional intelligence as an important workplace
construct. Within literature, two research streams can be identified; Ability-
EI and Trait- EI. Trait-EI (rooted in personality attributes) is measured
through self-report questionnaires, whereas Ability-EI is measured through
performance based questionnaires (as in traditional intelligence tests).
1428
SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY

Social Cognitive Theory started as the Social Learning Theory in
the 1960s by Albert Bandura. It developed into the social cognitive theory
in 1986 and posits that learning occurs in a social context with a dynamic
and reciprocal interaction of the person, environment, and behaviour
(Boston University School of Public health, 2013). The unique feature of
social cognitive theory is the emphasis on social influence and its emphasis
on external and internal social reinforcement. Social cognitive theory
considers the unique way in which individuals acquire and maintain
behaviour, while also considering the social environment in which
individuals perform the behaviour. The theory takes into account a person's
past experiences, which factor into whether behavioural action will occur.
These past experiences influences reinforcements, expectations, and
expectancies, all of which shape whether a person will engage in a specific
behaviour and the reasons why a person engages in that behaviour.
In his famous ‘Bobo doll’ experiment, Bandura tested 36 boys and
36 girls from the Stanford University Nursery School aged between 3 to 6
years old, Bandura demonstrated that children learn and imitate behaviours
they have observed in other people. The children in Bandura’s studies
observed an adult acting violently toward a Bobo doll. When the children
were later allowed to play in a room with the Bobo doll, they began to
imitate the aggressive actions they had previously observed. Similarly,
based on this theory, it is expected that employees with high emotional
intelligence in an organization will be a life model to demonstrate or acting
good behaviour. This will subsequently become a mirror to other member
of the society or colleagues in performing or reinforce good deed and
eventually turning counterproductive behaviour into citizenship behaviours
at workplace. In other words, it is theorized that people are easily imitated
with behaviour around they surrounding or environment and thus good
model/actor will indirectly reinforce positive learning and behaviour for
society.
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND COUNTERPRODUCTIVE

WORK BEHAVIOUR
There has been a steady increase in the study of emotional
intelligence as an important workplace construct [41]. Most studies on the
significance of a human performance model concerning emotional
intelligence criticize the theory that an individual’s knowledge, abilities,
and specific skills determine the performance of an organization. This view
sees that the emotions of individual employees have greater significance
1429
than their intellectual abilities in determining their long-term performance.

Cohen and Abdellah (2015) [42] believed that employees’ emotional
intelligence plays a role in preventing negative behaviour’s. In addition,
Mayer et al. (2000) [43] explained that, if employees’ emotional
intelligence improved, counterproductive work behaviour related to
organizational tasks would be remarkably reduced, thereby revealing
negative relationships between emotional intelligence and employees’
counterproductive work behaviour. In non-western setting study [44] in a
deluxe hotel consists of 319 food and beverage (F&B) employees of a five-
star hotel in Korea, showed that dimensions of emotional intelligence, i.e.
(i) others' emotion appraisal, (ii) use of emotion, and (iii) self-emotion
appraisal are significantly affected counterproductive work behaviour.
In congruence with the above finding, a mixed culture study [45]
explores the six dimension of emotional intelligence on comparative
between Indian students and foreign students and found out that there were
no significant differences between Indian and foreign students with respect
to total score of emotional intelligence. Seader (2012) [46] noted that
employees’ emotional continuity would adversely affect counterproductive
work behaviour. In addition, Mavroveli et al. (2007) [47] argued that lack
of emotional intelligence causes not only negative behaviours in
organizations but also antisocial behaviours from a macro perspective. In
short, when employees are not able to control their emotions, they are likely
to fail in social interactions and experience negative emotions, resulting in
counterproductive work behaviour.
Based on these studies, it can be assumed that employees with high
emotional intelligence would not engage with counterproductive work
behaviour and thus could reduce counterproductive behaviour in
organization; and employees who are lacking in emotional intelligence
would have a high level of counterproductive work behaviour. With the
above arguments and findings, we expected that:
 Proposition 1: High intensity of emotional intelligence will reduce
counterproductive work behaviour amongst employees and
strengthening the negative relationship.
THE MODERATING ROLE OF WORKPLACE SPIRITUALITY

Workplace spirituality has become increasingly prevalent in the
United States work environment as a growing number of employees seek
value, support, and meaning in their work as well as their lives [48] within
organizations, spirituality may provide benefits for employees and
organizational strategy. For example, Milliman, Czaplewski, and Ferguson
1430
(2003) [49] found that workplace spirituality was related to organizational

commitment, intentions to quit, intrinsic work satisfaction, and
organization-based self-esteem. Furthermore, workplace spirituality
employees may perform better due to increased feelings of motivation and
meaning in their work. As such, there is evidence suggesting that workplace
spirituality plays an important role in the work environment. From the
perspectives of Muslim’s organization study [50] it has suggested that the
workplace spirituality can be one factor that may be utilized to overcome
many issues. The vertical and horizontal dimensions of spirituality helps
one achieve a sense of direction and purpose in life. It helps one achieve
desires and satisfaction at large and may also provide employees with better
interaction, communication, build honesty and trust among them.
A number of studies using multiple measures have found
workplace spirituality to be positively related to organizational
commitment, job satisfaction, productivity, and other measures of
performance [51]. In addition, the empirical research on workplace
spirituality has demonstrated that measures of spirituality are significantly
related to altruism and conscientiousness, self-career management, reduced
inter-role conflict, reduced frustration, organization- based self-esteem,
involvement, retention and ethical behaviour. These results are consistent
across various countries and cultures, including Brazil, China, India, Iran,
Malaysia, Pakistan, Taiwan, and the United States [52]. In addition to main
effects, workplace spirituality has also been studied as a moderator in the
stressor-strain relationship. For example, Charoensukmongkol, Daniel and
Chatelain (2013) [53] found that workplace spirituality can be enhanced via
emotional intelligence. Workplace spirituality buffered the adverse effects
of stress on emotional and physical adjustment, suggesting that spirituality
may serve as a resource in combating negative effects associated with the
environment.
Given that prior research has suggested benefits of spirituality, we
seek to investigate workplace spirituality as a potential amplifier or a
booster in the relationship between emotional intelligence and
counterproductive work behaviour. Hence, this study extends
counterproductive work behaviour research by examining workplace
spirituality as a potential moderator and we foresee that workplace
spirituality will strengthen the negative relationship between emotional
intelligence and counterproductive work behaviour. Thus, with the above
arguments we expected that:
1431
 Proposition 2: High intensity of workplace spirituality will

strengthen the negative relationship between emotional
intelligence and counterproductive work behaviour.
THE MODEL
Building on the findings of previous researchers and social
cognitive theory, a moderating model is developed. Based on previous
findings, it is evident that there is a negative relationship between emotional
intelligence and counterproductive work behaviour. In this model, we argue
that changes in the extent of emotional intelligence experienced by
individual employee could lead to changes in the intensities of
counterproductive work behaviour. Therefore, the research model
postulates that the intensity of workplace spirituality as the moderating
variable will influence the relationship between the independent variables
(emotional intelligence) and the dependent variable (counterproductive
work behaviour).
CONCLUSION
To provide a better understanding of the relationship between emotional
intelligence and counterproductive work behaviour, researchers have
suggested various intervening mechanisms such as self-efficacy and effect
of trust. However, there is lack of attention given to workplace spirituality
as a mechanism of moderator through which emotional intelligence can
curb or reduces counterproductive work behaviour. Based on social
cognitive theory and extant literatures a model has been developed to
demonstrate that the roles of workplace spirituality as a moderator will
amplify the emotional intelligence experienced by employees, which in turn
could eradicate further the counterproductive work behaviour which are
harmful to organizations and its stakeholders.
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Work Behaviour Relationship. International Journal of Business and
Management, 10(9), 99–109. http://doi.org/10.5539/ijbm.v10n9p99
[2] Kumar, V., Jain, A., Rahman, Z., & Jain, A. (2014).
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Social and Behavioural Sciences, 133, 481–490.
Http://Doi.Org/10.1016/J.Sbspro.2014.04.215
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[3,50] Sulaiman, M., & Bhatti, O. K. (2013). Workplace Deviance and

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1436
T02_063: MARITIME BOUNDARY

DELIMITATION ISSUES IN THE STRAIT OF
SINGAPORE: INDONESIA, MALAYSIA AND
SINGAPORE
Izyan Munirah Mohd Zaideen1, Mohd Hazmi Mohd Rusli3 & Saharuddin
Abdul Hamid1,2*
1
School of Maritime Business & Management, Universiti Malaysia
Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu, Malaysia
2
Director of Postgraduate Management Centre, Graduate School,
Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Terengganu,
Terengganu, Malaysia
3
Faculty of Syariah and Law, Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia, 71800
Nilai, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia
*Corresponding author email: sdin@umt.edu.my
ABSTRACT
The Strait of Singapore connects the territorial seas of Singapore and
Malaysia as well the biggest archipelagic state in the world, Indonesia.
Those three States or better known as the littoral States to the Strait of
Singapore have shown interest to safeguard their territorial water
particular to maritime security and natural resources. However, the
lingering issue is on the matter of when a State’s claim overlaps with
other state’s claim since the breadth of the Strait of Singapore is less than
24. Thus, maritime delimitation act as a key to establish a balance in
clarifying littoral state's maritime zone. The aim of this paper is to explore
and assess the legal issues relating to the boundary delimitation that takes
place in the Strait of Singapore, within the context of the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). UNCLOS convention
provide guidelines for the process of the delimitation of the territorial sea
between two or more coastal States which are opposite or adjacent to each
other. Finally, this paper concludes that the littoral States should continue
to work closely among them with the concern of way to resolve the
unsettled maritime boundary issues in the Strait of Singapore.
1437
Keywords: Maritime Delimitation, UNCLOS, Strait of Singapore
INTRODUCTION
The Strait of Singapore is situated in the middle of Sunda Shelf,
encompassed by the South China Sea and the Strait of Malacca [1]. The
Strait has a unique geographical orientation as it links three major oceans:
the South China Sea in the North, the Indian Ocean to the South and the
Pacific Ocean via the Strait of Malacca. And with its connection to the
Strait of Malacca, the Strait has become the most important shipping
waterways not only in the Southeast Asia region but also in the world
from both an economic and a strategic perspective [2]. Both Straits have
been vital shipping routes for international trade for hundreds of years [3]
as they provide shortest shipping route between the Indian Ocean and the
Pacific Ocean. The Strait of Singapore is one of the world's most strategic
shipping lanes that provides shipping route to facilitate global trade. The
Strait is a 105 kilometres in length [4] and runs mostly between the
Singapore and Indonesia territorial waters. The word “strait” from
geographical points of view give meaning of a natural water passage that
connects two large areas of water bodies and typically narrow yet
navigable.
The Strait of Singapore is a shared border of Indonesia, Malaysia and

Singapore and with this, the Strait lies within the definition of the semi-
enclosed sea. In accordance to Article 122 of the UNCLOS, which stated
that "Enclosed or semi-enclosed sea" means a gulf, basin, or sea
surrounded by two or more states and connected to another sea or the
ocean by a narrow outlet or consisting entirely or primarily of the
territorial seas and exclusive economic zones of two or more states’. This
paper was aimed to assess the legal status of maritime boundaries
delimitation in the Strait of Singapore. Maritime boundary was defined
as division of the sea into areas, encompassing maritime features, limits
and zones and thus, providing exclusive national rights over the mineral
and biological resources.
MARITIME BOUNDARY DELIMITATION IN THE

STRAIT OF SINGAPORE
1438
The history of maritime boundaries delimitation in the Strait of Singapore

has existed in colonial times [5]. The earliest agreement of the Anglo-
Dutch treaty or known as Treaty of London in 1824 has divided maritime
Southeast Asia into two territories; Malaysia and Singapore, which was
controlled by the British and the areas of the Indonesia Archipelago
which is located at the south of the Strait of Singapore were placed under
Dutch dominion [6]. The line that demarcated the spheres of influence
between the British and the Dutch arbitrarily became the border between
Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore. Legally, Malaysia and Indonesia
have placed a claim of its territorial sea up to 12 nm [7] while Singapore
was up to 3 nm from baseline. Thus, the States enjoy full sovereignty in
their territorial waters as mentioned in Article 3 of the UNCLOS.
Pursuant to the UNCLOS, a coastal state is entitled to several maritime
zones which are measured from baselines including territorial sea,
contiguous zone, exclusive economic zone (EEZ) and continental shelf.
However, the lingering issue is on the matter of when the States show
their interest in securing their sovereign right over the Strait of Singapore
and their claim overlaps with others claim since the breadth of the Strait
of Singapore is less than 24 nm. In particular, it is impossible to find a
situation where the littoral States in the Strait entitled to a full suite of
maritime zones without overlapping claims. Therefore, for such
overlapping entitlement, maritime delimitation is required by considering
the geographical setting and distance separating these three States.
However, maritime delimitation is not a clear-cut process as disputes
concerning sovereignty over the Strait of Singapore are one major cause
of pending maritime delimitation.
Maritime Boundary Delimitation Issues between

Malaysia and Singapore in the Strait of Singapore
One of the most remarkable aspects in the study delimitation boundaries
in the Strait is the fact that there have been claims between Malaysia and
Singapore over small territories located at the eastern part of Strait for
centuries. The legal status of Pedra Branca is perhaps one of the most
controversial delimitation issues in the Strait of Singapore, and perhaps,
due to the intermittent conflicts, the relations between both States have
been affected. However Singapore’s win over Malaysia, in relation to
Pedra Branca cases.
1439
At the southern sector of the Strait of Malacca, the earliest maritime

boundary delimitation agreement related to the division of the Johor Strait
was concluded between the British Government and the Sultan of Johor
in the Straits Settlements and Johor Territorial Waters Agreement of 1927
[5, 8]. Malaysia and Singapore previously undergo a bilateral settlement
to the disadvantage of Indonesia, later after mutual agreement of
terminating the old Johore-Singapore Treaty of 1927. The Malaysia–
Singapore border in the Strait of Singapore consider as an international
maritime border between the Southeast Asian countries of Malaysia,
which lies to the north of the border, and Singapore to the south. Malaysia
extended territorial sea claims to 12 nm in 1969 in accordance to the
Geneva Convention 1958 on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone. No
map was issued with the ordinance setting out the baselines from which
the territorial sea would be measured until in 1979, the Director of
National Mapping Malaysia published a map indicating the territorial
waters and continental shelf boundaries claimed by Malaysia. However,
Malaysia as well as Singapore did not make a formal declaration or
publicly identify the exact coordinates of its straight baselines from which
these claims are measured, as required by Article 4(6) of the convention.
The long-standing maritime delimitation issue arises between Malaysia

and Singapore concerning the sovereignty over three maritime features in
the strait namely the Pedra Branca, Middle Rocks, and South Ledge has
been settled by the International Court of Justice (ICJ). These three
features are located at the eastern entrance to the Strait of Singapore and
have been subject of sovereignty dispute between the two states for
almost three decades. Figure 1 shows the map of the location of dispute
area in the eastern part of Strait of Singapore.
Pedra Branca is an outlying small granite outcrop with an area of about

8,560 square metres, coordinated at the eastern entrance of the Strait of
Singapore. Pedra Branca is not really an island as claimed as it did not
meet internationally recognised criteria for an island and in fact, it is so
small and doesn’t even show up properly on Google Maps. It is located
about 25 nm from east of Singapore and 7.7 nm from south of Johor,
Malaysia and 7.7 nm from Indonesian island of Bintan. There are another
two maritime features near the Pedra Branca; Middle Rocks (0.6 nm south
of Pedra Branca), which consists of two clusters of small rocks and also
1440
South Ledge (2 nm southwest of Pedra Branca). Figure 2 shows the

picture of the Pedra Branca and the middle Rocks, South Ledge is not
visible in the picture as it only visible during low tide.
Figure 1: The map of dispute area in the eastern part of the Strait
of Singapore.
(Source: Modified from Google Maps)
Figure 2: Pedra Branca and Middle Rock.

(Source: The Hague Justice Portal)
1441
This is a longstanding maritime dispute issue, been discussed since 1979,

and right after Malaysia published a map entitled “Territorial Waters and
Continental Shelf Boundaries of Malaysia”. In the map, the island of
Pedra Branca is lying within Malaysia’s territorial waters. However,
Malaysia's claim for Pedra Branca is not recognised by Singapore. With
the prolonged of high complex in the relations between Malaysia and
Singapore since Singapore has been expelled from the Malaysian
Federation in 1965, Singapore show their protest on 1980 as response to
Malaysia’s map publication 1979. Singapore claimed that it acquired
sovereignty over Pedra Branca on the basis of their works on the
operation of so called the oldest lighthouse in Singapore, the Horsburgh
lighthouse since it was constructed by the British government during the
period 1850–51. Other than Pedra Branca, Singapore also include Middle
Rocks and South Ledge in its claim in 1993. Malaysia give its standpoint
on the basis of principle coverage of Sultanate of Johor (Malaysia) for all
the islands and islets within the Strait of Singapore including Pedra
Branca. The major obstacle to the delimitation of maritime boundaries
issue has finally comes to an end after it was brought to the ICJ in 2003
by Malaysia and Singapore. ICJ has made a decision on May 2008, 6
months after public hearings were held in The Hague in 2007, to award
Pulau Batu Puteh or better known as Pedra Branca to Singapore, Middle
Rocks or Batuan Tengah to Malaysia however refrained from awarding
South Ledge to either country, ruling that sovereignty over South Ledge
belongs to the State in whose territorial waters it is located. This directly
resolve the issue on which state has sovereignty of the island on which
the Horsburgh Lighthouse is located as its decision is final and binding.
Maritime Boundary Delimitation issues between

Malaysia and Indonesia in the Strait of Singapore
The maritime boundaries between Indonesia and Malaysia are generally
located four bodies of water, namely the Strait of Malacca, Strait of
Singapore, South China Sea and Celebes Sea. Indonesia is a country with
the longest maritime boundary in Southeast Asia and Indonesia shares
border areas with at least ten neighbouring countries. The codification of
the concept of the archipelagic State through the UNCLOS represented a
significant development of the international legal status of waters which
can be geographically and legally considered as archipelagos [9].
1442
On 13 December 1957 Indonesia declared a new policy on its territorial

sea by announcing straight baselines connecting the outermost points of
the outermost islands in its archipelago. The waters inside the baselines
are known as archipelagic waters. In a negotiation on the delimitation of
maritime boundaries involving an archipelagic State and a non-
archipelagic State, both parties tend to enter into an often long series of
discussions relating to the method of delimitation to be applied. Earlier,
Indonesia and Malaysia both agreed to sign a territorial sea boundary on
17 March 1970. However, there is an unresolved delimitation issue of
Indonesia- Malaysia border in eastern and western part of the Strait of
Singapore as both States not yet established any final agreement to
delimit their territorial seas in the waters of the Strait of Singapore [10].
One of the reason is due to the effect of long-standing sovereignty dispute
between Malaysia and Singapore in the eastern part the Strait.
Tanjung Berakit incident is one example of boundary issues involving

Indonesia and Malaysia. Tanjung Berakit located at the eastern part of
the Singapore, to the north of Indonesia’s Pulau Bintan, which not far
from three small geographical features of Pedra Branca, Middle Rock,
and South Ledge. The incident involved the apprehension of seven
Malaysian fishermen by Indonesian officials and was followed by the
seizure of three Indonesian officials by the Royal Malaysian Police [11].
The cause of the incidents on 13 August 2010 seemed to be an unsettled
maritime delimitation between the States. In addition, both Indonesia and
Malaysia have made their own unilateral maritime claims to maintain
their 12nm territorial sea. Indonesia’s unilateral maritime claim is
depicted on an Indonesian Map issued in 2009. On the other side,
Malaysia bases its claim on a map it calls Peta Baru 1979, issued in
December 1979. The map clearly includes most of the maritime area
around Tanjung Berakit to be part of Malaysia’s territory.
Tanjung Berakit incident is an ideal approach to settle maritime disputes

between the two States of Indonesia and Malaysia in the Strait of
Singapore. It is worth noting that pending maritime boundaries between
Indonesia and Malaysia may be a spark to other border problems cause in
the future. Thus, to avoid tension, both States have to accelerate the
settlement of maritime boundaries between them establish final and
1443
binding maritime boundaries. Bilateral negotiation seems to be the most

preferable way for both.
Maritime Boundary Delimitation Issues between

Indonesia and Singapore in the Strait of Singapore
The maritime boundary delimitation in the Strait of Singapore between
Indonesia and Singapore has been defined in the ‘Agreement Stipulating
the Territorial Sea Boundary Lines between Indonesia and the Singapore
in the Strait of Singapore’. The agreement which has been signed in 1973
and entered into force in 1974 has delimit the territorial sea between
Singapore and Indonesia [10].
Indonesia and Singapore have made a significant achievement regarding

their maritime boundary delimitation. Approximately after 36 years of
previous agreement and four years of negotiation process, both States
finally agreed upon a new maritime boundary segment in the Strait of
Singapore which was finally signed in March 2009. The agreement focus
on a short segment of territorial sea boundary in the western side of the
Strait of Singapore. Historically, Singapore has claimed a territorial sea
of 3 nm since 1878, as Singapore has little opportunity to take advantage
of the right to claim a 12 nautical mile territorial sea due to its location
which is very close to its neighbours, Malaysia and Indonesia. However,
until now Singapore has neither extended its territorial sea to 12 nm nor
claimed an EEZ.
Indonesia and Singapore has previously signed The Agreement

Stipulating the Territorial Sea Boundary Lines between Indonesia and
Singapore in the Strait of Singapore on 25 May 1973, containing six
turning points (point 1 to 6) as per outlined in Table 1. This agreement
delimit the maritime boundary between Indonesia and Singapore in the
Strait of Singapore. Indonesia ratified the agreement on 3 December 1973
while Singapore ratified the agreement on 29 August 1974 in order to
ensure the smooth flow of maritime traffic through strait. The boundary
line of the territorial seas of the Indonesia and Singapore in the Strait of
Singapore shall be a line and consist of straight lines drawn between
points.
1444
Table 1: Territorial sea boundary turning point coordinates under

1973 agreement
Points Latitude North Longitude East
1 1°10'46"0 103°40'14".6
2 1°07'49"3 103°44'26".5
3 1°10'17"2 103°48'18".0
4 1°11'45"5 103°51'35".4
5 1°12'26"1 103°52'50".7
6 1°16'10"2 104°02'00".0
The territorial sea boundary of Singapore-Indonesia in the Strait of

Singapore extends for a distance of 24.55 nautical miles. The average
distance between the turning points is 4.91 nautical miles; the minimum
is 1.35 nautical miles; the maximum is 9.85 nautical miles; with an
average of 1.90 nautical miles from Indonesian territorial and 2.27
nautical miles from Singaporean territory. The water depths along the
territorial sea boundary range from 12 to 25 fathoms, with an average
depth of 17.83 fathoms. However, beyond these points, a significant
portion of the maritime boundary has not been defined.
On 10 March 2009, Indonesia and Singapore signed Treaty between the

Republic of Indonesia and the Republic of Singapore Relating to the
Delimitation of the Territorial Seas of the Two Countries in the Western
Part of the Strait of Singapore 2009. The treaty came into force upon
ratification for both States on 31 August 2010. Under this treaty,
Indonesia and Singapore have managed to agree to three additional
turning points, extending the delimitation of their common maritime
boundary by a further 12.1 km or 6.5 nm westwards from Point 1
determined in the 1973 agreement, to Point 1C. Territorial sea boundary
end and turning point coordinates under 2009 treaty is listed in Table 2.
Table 2: Territorial sea boundary turning point coordinates under

2009 treaty
Points Latitude North Longitude East

1A 1º 11’ 17.4” 103º 39’ 38.5”
1B 1º 11’ 55.5” 103º 34’ 20.4”
1C 1º 11’ 43.8” 103º 34’ 00.0”
1445
Unlike the previous agreement signed in 1973, this new treaty specifies a
geodetic datum to determine the coordinates of the maritime boundary
between the two States. The use of specific geodetic datum is an
advancement from a geospatial point of view [12]. Figure 3 shows the
graphical location of 6 points of 1973 Agreement (Points 1 to 6) and 3
additional points of 2009 Treaty (Points 1A, 1B and 1C) in the Strait of
Singapore. Thus, the delimitation of the Indonesia-Singapore boundary
in western segment of the Strait of Singapore is presumed to be complete.
This reflect good bilateral relationship between Indonesia and Singapore
in establishing maritime boundaries through the series of negotiations
without involving any armed conflict.
Figure 3: Indonesia-Singapore territorial sea boundary in the Strait of

Singapore
(Source: Modified from Peta NKRI 2009)
MANAGING MARITIME BOUNDARIES

DELIMITATION IN THE STRAIT OF SINGAPORE
Bearing in mind all the circumstances mentioned, it is obvious that

Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore waters overlap, however in practice,
those States have rights to have a territorial sea. Thus, the problems of
1446
overlapping maritime claims in the Strait of Singapore could only be

settled with the establishment of proper maritime boundary delimitations
fixed amicably between the three littoral States [13]. As far as maritime
boundary delimitation is concerned, there are a number of established
rules in international law that could become the basis for the resolution
of the boundary delimitation issue in the Strait of Singapore. Since all the
littoral States have ratified the UNCLOS Convention, this treaty can be a
basic guideline to govern the delimitation of the Strait. Article 15 of
UNCLOS convention provides a regulatory framework for addressing,
among other things, sovereignty, territorial sea limits, legal status of
resources on the seabed beyond the limits of national jurisdiction and a
binding procedure for settlement of disputes between States. According
to the UNCLOS, it can be understood that the maritime boundary are
determined by the baselines therefore in order to exercise maritime
delimitation in the Strait of Singapore, baselines of Indonesia, Malaysia
and Singapore need to be primarily defined. Indonesia is an archipelagic
State which is entitled to employing archipelagic baselines according to
Article 47 of UNCLOS.
Initially, the delimitation should be based on the principal rule and via an
agreement. In other words, a method acceptable for delimitation among
these three States is median line or equidistance line, unless there are
special circumstances. Until now, the application of these principles can
be found in state practices or the decisions of the court on maritime
boundary delimitation cases. However, maritime boundary delimitation
is usually resolved either through negotiation among affected parties or
by submission of the case to a third party. This third party can be
arbitrators, mediators, courts, or tribunals such as the International Court
of Justice (ICJ) and the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea
(ITLOS). The certainty in territory ownership and maritime jurisdiction
will motivate the efforts to maintain maritime security. Therefore,
maritime delimitation, being one of the essential requirements in security
maintenance, should be one of the top priorities on the agenda. The
dispute settlement concerning Pedra Branca, Middle Rocks and South
Ledge by the ICJ can ideally be an accelerating factor to the delimitation
of maritime boundaries in the Singapore Strait. In doing so, the three
states need to agree on legal and technical issues prior to conducting the
delimitation.
1447
CONCLUSION
The issues concerning maritime boundary delimitation in the Strait of
Singapore are still left out, as clearly stated in the discussions above.
Maritime boundary delimitation is often complex as the process over the
long haul leads to an agreement among Malaysia, Indonesia and
Singapore on where the boundary shall be delimit. The approaches to
delimit the maritime boundary should be through peaceful methods
among the littoral States, for the benefit of both sides. Thus, the littoral
States to the Strait should continue to work closely among them with the
concern of way to resolve the unsettled maritime boundary issues in the
Strait of Singapore.
1448
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1449
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2

THE 7TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE

Going Beyond Research in Postgraduate Education

DEWAN SRI BUDIMAN

Institute of Graduate Studies, UiTM

Copyright© 2016 by Institute of Graduate Studies,

LIST OF EDITORS AND REVIEWERS

REVIEWERS : TRACK 1: ENGINEERING, SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

ASSOC. PROF . DR. NAEEM M. S. HONNOON

ASSOC. PROF. DR KAMARULARIFIN ABD JALIL

ASSOC. PROF. DR. KALAVATHY RAMASAMY

ASSOC. PROF. DR. SAYANG MOHD DENI

ASSOC. PROF. DR. ZULHABRI ISMAIL

DR NORIN ZAMIAH KASSIM SHAAR

DR KHAIRUL SAFUAN BIN MUHAMMAD

DR MOHAMAD NIDZAM RAHMAT

DR MOHAMMAD NAWAWI SEROJI

DR MOHD AFZAN MOHD ANUAR

DR MOHD HISBANY MOHD HASHIM

DR MOHD SHAHRIMAN ADENAN

DR NOR SUHAILA BINTI MOHAMAD HANAPI

DR NOR SUHAILA MOHAMAD HANAPI

DR NORLIANA MOHD ABAS

DR SHAHRUL YANI SAID

DR UMMI KALTHUM IBRAHIM

DR WAN EMRI WAN ABDUL RAHMAN

DR WAN FAIZIAH WAN ABD RAHMAN

DR WAN RAZARINAH BT WAN ABDUL RAZAK

DR ZAMZALIZA ABDUL MULUD

DR. FAZLEEN HASLINDA MOHD HATTA

DR. HANIM BT. HUSSIN

PROF. DR DAUD MOHAMAD

PROF. MADYA DR LOW CHENG YEE

PROF. MADYA DR NURAINI YUSOFF

PROF. MADYA DR NURAINI YUSOFF

SAIFUL AMAN HJ SULAIMAN

SR MASNIZAN CHE MAT

SR. FARIDAH ISMAIL

AZINOOR AZIDA ABU BAKAR

DR AZLI ABD RAZAK

SR DR KHAIRUL NIZAM TAHAR

TRACK 2: ARTS, HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

ASSOC. PROF. DR. ANIZAH ZAINUDDIN

ASSOC. PROF. DR. NORLIDA ABDUL HAMID

ASSOC. PROF. DR. RAMONA MOHD TAHIR

ASSOC. PROF. DR. TAN PECK LEONG

DR YUSFIDA AYU ABDULLAH @ MOHD ZAIN

DR AIDA HAZLIN ISMAIL

DR ANI SAIFUZA ABD SHUKOR

DR MOHD BAHRIN BIN OTHMAN

DR NOORUL HUDA SAHARI

DR ROHAYA ABDUL WAHAB

DR SUSEELA DEVI S CHANDRAN

DR. AMINA JOSETTA AHMAD

DR. AZLINA HANIF

DR. ISMADI ISMAIL

DR. MOHD NAJIB MD SAAD

DR. MUHAMAD KHALIL OMAR

DR. NOR SUZIWANA HJ TAHIR

DR. NORASHIKIN HUSSEIN

DR. NORASHIKIN HUSSEIN

DR. ROZITA HAJI NAINA MOHAMED

DR. SITI ZALEHA SAHAK

MOHD NIZAM BASIRON