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Analysis of the tensile behavior of tubular braids using energy method, part I:
theoretical analysis

Article  in  Journal of the Textile Institute · June 2015

DOI: 10.1080/00405000.2015.1046309

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 The Journal of The Textile Institute

ISSN: 0040-5000 (Print) 1754-2340 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tjti20

Analysis of the tensile behavior of tubular braids

using energy method, part I: theoretical analysis

H. Dabiryan & M.S. Johari

To cite this article: H. Dabiryan & M.S. Johari (2016) Analysis of the tensile behavior of tubular
braids using energy method, part I: theoretical analysis, The Journal of The Textile Institute, 107:5,
553-561, DOI: 10.1080/00405000.2015.1046309

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 The Journal of The Textile Institute, 2016
Vol. 107, No. 5, 553–561, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00405000.2015.1046309

Analysis of the tensile behavior of tubular braids using energy method, part I: theoretical
analysis
H. Dabiryan* and M.S. Johari
Textile Engineering Department, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
(Received 3 January 2015; accepted 23 April 2015)

In this study, tensile behavior of tubular braids has been studied using energy method. Tensile response of the braid is
investigated in two steps: Step I, geometrical deformation of braid structure; Step II, mechanical response of the
constituent yarn. In step I, the effect of geometrical deformation on the tensile behavior of braid is considered. A
geometrical model is generated to obtain the structural parameters of braid in deformed state and used to build a
mechanical model. In step II, the effect of mechanical properties of yarns on the tensile behavior of braid is investigated.
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For this purpose, a straight-line model is presented for geometry of the unit cell of 1/1 pattern braids. Based on the
constituent yarn characteristics and geometrical model, a predictive model for the Young’s modulus of braid is
developed. Theoretical results of Young’s modulus of the braid are compared to the experimental data reported in the
literature. Results showed that the generated model has reasonable accuracy.
Keywords: tubular braid; geometry; tensile properties; energy method

Introduction encompassing elastic core. Hristov et al. (2004)

Braids are textile structures formed by the interlacing of
one set of threads, in such a manner that no two
adjacent threads make complete turns about each other
(Brunnschweiler, 1953). Braid structures have received
less attention by researchers than other structures.
Nowadays, wide-spread application of this structure in
the composite materials has encouraged the researchers
to study their geometrical and mechanical parameters.
Many attempts have been carried out to model the
structure and mechanical properties of braids (Alpyildiz,
2012; Brunnschweiler, 1954; Harte & Fleck, 2000;
Hopper, Wallace Grant, & Popper, 1995; Hristov,
Armstrong-Carroll, Dunn, Pastore, & Gowayed, 2004;
Lee et al., 2003; Omeroglu, 2006; Phoenix, 1978;
Potluri, Rawal, Rivaldi, & Porat, 2003; Rawal, Kumar,
& Saraswat, 2012; Yüksekkaya, 2001). The first effort to
investigate the structure of braids was made by
Brunnschweiler (1954). He derived equations to
calculate the geometrical parameters of diamond braid
and described a practical method for testing tubular
braids to find their tensile properties. Phoenix (1978)
developed a model for the linear elastic response of the
diamond braid with an elastic core. He found that
parameters influencing the mechanical response are as
follows: the braid angle, the crimp angle at strand
crossovers, the modulus, and Poisson’s ratio of the core.
Hopper et al. (1995) developed a mathematical model to
predict the tensile response of hybrid circular braid
investigated the mechanical behavior of circular hybrid
braids under tensile load and developed a model to
predict the mechanical response of the braids based on
constituent yarn characteristics and machine parameters.
They believed that to improve the model, important
factors such as yarn diameter and crimp angle should be
investigated. Some researchers (Harte & Fleck, 2000;
Lee et al., 2003) modeled the structure of braids as
reinforcement of composites. Modeling the geometry of
braids has been the subject of several studies (Alpyildiz,
2012; Potluri et al., 2003). Different applications of the
braid were considered by Rawal et al. (2012) and
Yüksekkaya (2001). They investigated the effect of
mechanical behavior of braids on their medical
applications. Omeroglu (2006) investigated empirically
the effects of braid pattern and take-up rate on the
mechanical properties of the tubular braided ropes of
polypropylene.
The Young’s modulus of braids is the most important
parameter that can explain their tensile behavior. In order
to model this parameter, one needs to analyze the
geometrical deformation and the role of yarn constituent
properties. Analysis of textile structures has always
encountered difficulties due to their complex structure.
The way to avoid of this matter is to use the energy
method. Energy method has been used for analyzing the
mechanical behavior of textile materials by many
researchers (Adanur & Onal, 2004; Dabiryan, Jeddi, &

*Corresponding author. Email: dabiryan@aut.ac.ir

© 2015 The Textile Institute

 554 H. Dabiryan and M.S. Johari
Rastgoo, 2011; Grosberg, 1966; Hearle, Potluri, &
Thammandra, 2001; Leaf & Kandil, 1980; Sagar, Potluri,
& Hearle, 2003; Treloar & Riding, 1963) over the years.
The literature states that they choose energy method in
preference to the force method to analyze the complex
structures such as yarn, fabrics, and braids. It is well
known that energy is a scalar quantity from which the
individual contributions to the total energy can be added
numerically. This can decrease the complexity of
equations and calculations. Hearle et al. (2001) reviewed
the basic principle of energy method and discussed the
elastic response of plain-woven fabrics. They suggested
using this method for other textile structures such as
braids. The aim of this study was to develop a model to
predict the Young’s modulus of braids using energy
method.
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Theoretical analysis
Figure 1 shows a typical stress–strain curve of tubular
braids. The initial region of this diagram has a low slope
due to the change of yarn path in the braid structure.
Thereafter, the slope of the stress–strain curve rises
steeply. In other words, when a piece of braid is
extended, its geometry will be deformed up to a
jamming condition. In this condition, the maximum
geometrical deformation has occurred. If stretched
beyond its extended jamming condition, yarn extension,
bending, and compression would occur. This causes a
very gradual increase in the Young’s modulus of the
braid. Therefore, the braid response can be simplified in
two steps. In step I, the geometry of the braid is changed
and the yarns are aligned with the applied force
(jamming condition). In step II, the yarns are extended
and therefore, their mechanical property plays the main
role. In order to analyze the tensile behavior of the
braids, two mentioned steps need to be investigated
separately. To do this, it is assumed:
Figure 1. Typical stress–strain curve of tubular braids.
• The cross section of yarns is round.
• The yarns are incompressible.
• The braid and yarns extension are elastic.
Step I: the effect of geometrical deformation on the
tensile behavior of braid
Figure 2(a) shows a small section of a braid in which θi
and lui are the braid angle and length of the unit cell,
respectively. When the braid is subjected to a tensile
force in the direction of braid axis, the yarns in the braid
structure move and their edges come in contact with
each other, and the “jamming condition” is occurred
(Figure 2(b)). Jamming is a state of braid deformation in
which the yarns jam and prevent any further movement
in that particular direction (Brunnschweiler, 1954). In
this situation, the geometrical parameters of braid in
jamming position will be θj and luj. In order to find out
these parameters, the length of the yarn in the unit cell
(ly ) is assumed to be constant.
Referring to Figure 2(a), the length of the yarn in the
unit cell is obtained as follows:
1
ly ¼ lui sechi : (1)
2
Assuming that the length of yarn in the unit cell (ly ) is
not changed in the jamming position, the braid angle in
the jamming position (θj ) would be equal to


1 1 dy
hj ¼ sin ; (2)
2 ly
where dy is the yarn diameter.
Consequently, the length of the unit cell in the
jamming position can be calculated as follow:
luj ¼ 2ly coshj : (3)
Figure 2. Unit cell of the 1/1 braid (a) before extension, (b)
jamming condition.
 The Journal of The Textile Institute 555

Figure 5. Yarns in the structure of 1/1 pattern.

fu ¼ Fb =2n; (5)

where n is the number of yarns in the braid structure.

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To analyze the tensile behavior of the braid, the unit

cell of 1/1 pattern is considered (Figure 5). In this
Figure 3. Crimp angle of the yarns in the braid structure. structure, the yarns are divided into two groups,
clockwise and anti-clockwise yarn. The suffice cl and ac
represent clockwise and anti-clockwise, respectively.
Crimp angle of the yarns in the braid structure (α) The yams are assumed to have the following
depends on the parameters such as yarn diameters, properties:
number of carriers, and interlacing pattern.
Referring to Figure 3: (1) The yarns extend according to the Hook’s law
σ = Eεy, where σ is the stress in the yam, E is the
AB tensile modulus of yarns, and εy is the resulting
sin a ¼ : extension.
OA
(2) The yarns bend based on M = B·κ, where the M
Portion AB is approximately equal to the yarn diameter is applied moment, κ is the yarn curvature, and
(dy ), hence B = EI.


1 dy
(3) The yarns are compressed due to the generated
a ¼ sin : (4) force between yarns in the intersection points.
ly
They are compressed according to N = C·εd,
where the N is the inter-yarn force, C is the
compression modulus, and εd is strain of the yarn
diameter.
Step II: the effect of mechanical properties of yarns
on the tensile behavior of braid
Since the maximum geometrical deformation can be Calculation of strain energies
occurred in the “jamming condition” state, additional In the normal state, the yarns follow a helical path and
extension must be accommodated by extension of yarns. curve at intersections. Using the real model involves the
Suppose the braid is subjected to the tensile force, Fb, in use of elliptic integrals where the resulting equations of
direction of its axis. As it is shown in Figure 4, the load equilibrium are complicated. This increases the
acting on the unit cell (fu) would be equal to difference between the theoretical and experimental
results. To avoid this, a much simpler model, i.e.,
“Straight Line” model is used in this research. The strain
energy of the unit cell is equal to
UT ¼ Ucl þ Uac ; (6)
where the Ucl and Uac are the strain energy of clockwise
and anti-clockwise yarns, respectively.
Figure 6 shows the free-body diagram of the straight
line model of the unit cell under tensile force. The force
Figure 4. Tubular braid under axial load. fu is in the direction of the braid axis. Yarns will be
 556 H. Dabiryan and M.S. Johari

Figure 6. Free-body diagram of the unit cell of 1/1 pattern interlacing.

extended, bent, and compressed at intersection points. Hence, the strain energies for the BC part of
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Consequently, the total strain energy of each group of clockwise yarn can be derived as follows:
yarns is equal to the sum of extension, bending, and  2
compression energies as follows: lcl fy cosacl þ Ncl sin acl
Ucl ¼
e
pd 2
Ucl ¼ Ucle þ Uclb þ Uclc ; 2 4cl Ecl
(7)  2
2lcl fy cos acl þ Ncl sin acl
¼ ;
Uac ¼ Uac
e
þ Uac
b
þ Uac
c
; (8) pdcl2 Ecl

where Ucle : the extension strain energy of clockwise yarns, lc

Z2  2
Uclb : the bending strain energy of clockwise yarns, Uclc : the s2 fy sin acl  Ncl cos acl
compression strain energy of clockwise yarns, Uac e
: the Uclb ¼ ds
b 2Bcl
extension strain energy of anti-clockwise yarns, Uac :
c 0 2
the bending strain energy of anti-clockwise yarns, Uac : the fy sin acl  Ncl cos acl lcl3
compression strain energy of anti-clockwise yarns. ¼ ;
48Bcl
Since the yarns deformation is assumed elastic, the
extension, bending, and compression strain energies can
be calculated using the Equations (9)–(11), respectively. dcl ð2Ncl Þ2 2dcl ðNcl Þ2
Uclc ¼ ¼ :
l  T2 2Ccl Ccl
Ue ¼ ; (9)
2EA Consequently, the strain energy of clockwise yarns in the
lM 2 unit cell is as follows:
Ub ¼ ; (10)  2 !
2B 2lcl fy cos acl þ Ncl sin acl
Ucl ¼ 2
pdcl2 Ecl
d  ð2N Þ2  2 !
Uc ¼ ; (11) fy sin acl  Ncl cos acl lcl3 2dcl ðNcl Þ2
2C þ2 þ :
where T: the tensile force in direction of yarn axis, l: the 48Bcl Ccl
lent of yarn in the unit cell, E: the Young’s modulus of (12)
yarns, B: the flexural rigidity of yarns, C: the
Similarly for anti-clockwise yarns:
compression rigidity of yarns, M: the bending moment
applied on the yarns, N: the inter-yarn force in the  2 !
2lac fy cos aac þ Nac sin aac
intersection points, d: the diameter of yarns. Uac ¼ 2 2 E
pdac ac
As shown in Figure 6, it is possible to write  2 3 !
fy sin aac  Ncl cos aac lac 2dac ðNac Þ2
T ¼ f cos a þ N sin a; þ2 þ :
48Bac Cac
M ¼ ðf sin a  N cos aÞ  s;
(13)
where f is the axial load and N is the normal load at
intersection points. The total strain energy:
 The Journal of The Textile Institute 557
(  
X 4li fy cos ai þ Ni sin ai 2
UT ¼
cl;ac
pdi2 Ei
 2 ) (14)
fy sin ai  Ni cos ai li3 2di ðNi Þ2
þ þ :
24Bi Ci

Because of symmetry, the variations of crimp height of

yarns in vertical direction are equal, i.e.
dhcl ¼ dhac ) dhcl þ dhac ¼ 0, it can be concluded
that:

@UT @UT
þ ¼ 0:
@Nac @Ncl
So

 
X8lcl sin acl fy cos acl þ Ncl sin acl
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ac;cl
pdcl2 Ecl
  
lcl3 cos acl fy sin acl  Ncl cos acl 4dcl Ncl
 þ ¼ 0:
12Bcl Ccl
Since the yarns are balanced, Ncl = Nac = N, and



4lcl lcl3 4lac 3
lac
fy sin2acl  þ sin2a ac 
pdcl2 Ecl 24Bcl 2 E
pdac ac 24Bac Figure 7. Exerted force on the yarns in the unit cell.
N ¼
 :
P 2 3 2
8li sin ai li cos ai 4di
ac;cl þ þ ( !)
pdi2 Ei 12Bi Ci 4ly ly3
(15) fy 2 sin 2a 
pdy2 Ey 24By
In the common 1/1 braids, the clockwise and anti- N ¼ !: (17)
16ly sin2 a ly3 cos2 a 8dy
clockwise yarns are similar. In other words, þ þ
pdy2 Ey 6By Cy
dcl ¼ dac ¼ dy ;
According to Figure 7,

lcl ¼ lac ¼ ly ; 1
fy ¼ fu = cos h:
2
Therefore, Equations (16) and (17) change to
Ecl ¼ Eac ¼ Ey ;   2
cos h fu þ N sin a
a
8ly 12 cos
UT ¼
pdy2 Ey
Bcl ¼ Bac ¼ By ; 1 sin a  2 3 (18)
2 cos h fu  N cos a ly 4dy ðN Þ2
þ þ ;
12By Cy
Ccl ¼ Cac ¼ Cy :
n  o
l3
In this case, αcl = αac = α. Rearranging Equations (14) fu
2 cos h 2 sin 2a
4ly
pdy2 Ey 24By y
and (15), we get N ¼  : (19)
16ly sin2 a ly3 cos2 a 8dy
2
pd Ey þ 6By þ Cy
 2  2 y

8ly fy cos a þ N sin a fy sin a  N cos a ly3

UT ¼ þ
pdy2 Ey 12By
Calculation of braid extension
4dy ðN Þ2
þ ; As previously stated, the braids are extended in two
Cy steps. In the first step, the yarn path in the braid
(16) structure changed. In this step, the braid angle decreases
 558 H. Dabiryan and M.S. Johari

and yarns are positioned in the direction of braid axis. EI EII

Eb ¼  : (20)
The low modulus of braid is due to the considerable l
EII þ lujui EI
variation in braid angle. In the second step, the yarns are
extended (straightened). As the braid angle is decreased,
the force needed to stretch the braid raises very steeply where EI and EII are the tensile moduli of the braid in
and, as a results, the modulus of braid increases. the first and second step of braid extension, respectively.
Therefore, the braid extension can be obtained as follow: According to the Castigliano’s theorem,


@UT
dI ¼
@fu h¼hi
2  3
l¼lui
8
fu <4ly cos2 a 4 96ly sin aBy Cy þ pdy Ey ly cos aCy þ 48By pdy Ey dy  sin aCy 96By ly  pdy Ey ly 5
2 2 3 2 2 2 2 3
¼ 
cos2 hi : pdy2 Ey 96ly sin2 aBy Cy þ pdy2 Ey ly3 cos2 aCy þ 48By pdy2 Ey dy
2  3)
3 2
ly sin a 96l y sin 2
aB y Cy þ pd 2
y E y l 3
y cos 2
aCy þ 48B y pd 2
y Ey d y þ cos 2
aC y 96By l y  pd 2
y Ey l 3
y
þ 4  5 ð21Þ
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24By 96ly sin aBy Cy þ pdy2 Ey ly3 cos2 aCy þ 48By pdy2 Ey dy
2

where δI = εIlui. The tensile behavior of the braid is

assumed elastic; hence,
du ¼ dI þ dII
where the δI and δII are the extension of the braid in the dI rI 1 fu
eI ¼ ¼ ¼ ; (22)
first and second steps, respectively. Also, we can write lui EI EI 2Ay

eb lb ¼ eI lI þ eII lII : where Ay is the yarns cross-sectional area.

Equations (21) and (22) give
According to the braid geometry in each step, the lI = lui

82  3
pdy2 < Cy 96By ly  pdy2 Ey ly3 sin2 a 2
1
¼ 41   5 4ly cos a
EI 2lui cos2 hi : 96ly sin2 aBy Cy þ pdy2 Ey ly3 cos2 aCy þ 48By pdy2 Ey dy pdy2 Ey
2  3 )
Cy 96By ly  pdy2 Ey ly3 cos2 a ly3 sin2 a
4
þ 1þ 5 : ð23Þ
96ly sin2 aBy Cy þ pd 2 Ey l 3 cos2 aCy þ 48By pd 2 Ey dy A 24By
y y y

and lII = luj. Based on Hook’s law,

rb rI rII
lb ¼ lui þ luj :
Eb EI EII
Similarly, for second step of deformation, it is
Since σb = σI = σII and lb = lui. Hence, possible to write


1 1 luj 1
¼ þ :
Eb EI lui EII
Or
 The Journal of The Textile Institute 559


@UT
dII ¼
@fu h¼hj
l¼luj
8 2  3
fu < 2
4ly cos a 4 96l y sin 2
aBy Cy þ pd 2
y Ey l 3
y cos 2
aC y þ 48B y pd 2
y Ey d y  sin 2
aCy 96B y l y  pd 2
y E y l 3
y
¼  5
cos2 hj : pdy2 Ey 96ly sin2 aBy Cy þ pdy2 Ey ly3 cos2 aCy þ 48By pdy2 Ey dy
2  3)
ly3 sin2 a 96ly sin aBy Cy þ pdy Ey ly cos aCy þ 48By pdy Ey dy þ cos aCy 96By ly  pdy Ey ly
2 2 3 2 2 2 2 3
þ 4  5 ; ð24Þ
24By 96ly sin2 aBy Cy þ pd 2 Ey l 3 cos2 aCy þ 48By pd 2 Ey dy
y y y

1 cos a 2
but, δII = εIIluj, and according to the Hook’s law, 8ly fu þ N sin a
UT ¼ 2 cos h
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pd 2 Ey

 1 sin a  y 2 3
dII rII 1 fu
eII ¼ ¼ ¼ : 2 cos h fu  N cos a ly
luj EII EII 2Ay þ ; (27)
12By
Therefore, the tensile modulus of the braid in second
step is as follows:

82  3
1 pdy2 < C y 96B y l y  pd 2
y E y l 3
y sin 2
a 4l cos2 a
¼ 41   5 y 2
EII 2luj cos hj :
2
96ly sin2 aBy Cy þ pdy2 Ey ly3 cos2 aCy þ 48By pdy2 Ey dy pdy Ey
2  3 9
Cy 96By ly  pdy2 Ey ly3 cos2 a ly3 sin2 a=
þ41 þ  5 : ð25Þ
96ly sin2 aBy Cy þ pd 2 Ey l 3 cos2 aCy þ 48By pd 2 Ey dy A 24By ;
y y y

n  o
From Equations (20), (23), and (25), the Young’s 4ly l3
fu
2 cos h 2 sin 2a pdy2 Ey  24By y
modulus of braid can be obtained as: N ¼  : (28)
(
2 ly3 cos a
2
16ly sin a

 pdy2 Ey þ
1 pdy2 4ly cos2 a A 2 6By
¼ 1  sin a
Eb 2lui pdy2 Ey D Following the above approach, the elastic modulus of
3 2

 each step is obtained as below:
ly sin a A 1 1
þ 1 þ cos a g
2
þ : (26)
24By D cos2 hi cos2 hj 
lui ly2 pdy2 Ey cos2 a þ 96By sin2 a cos2 hi
where EI ¼ : (29)
2ply3 dy2

A ¼ Cy 96By ly  pdy2 Ey ly3

 luj ly2 pdy2 Ey cos2 a þ 96By sin2 a cos2 hj
D ¼ 96ly sin2 aBy Cy þ pdy2 Ey ly3 cos2 aCy þ 48By pdy2 Ey dy : EII ¼ : (30)
2ply3 dy2

It is assumed that the yarns are incompressible, so the Consequently, the elastic modulus of braid would be
compression rigidity of yarns tends to infinity. Then, the equal to
Equations (18) and (19) reduce to
 560 H. Dabiryan and M.S. Johari

Table 1. The mechanical properties (mean ± standard deviation) of strands used in the tubular braided ropes (Omeroglu, 2006).

Maximum load Maximum tenacity Maximum strain Modulus Yield tenacity Yield strain
Strands (N) (cN/tex) (%) (cN/tex) (cN/tex) (%)
70 Tex f60 17.80 ± 0.60 25.42 ± 0.86 98.50 ± 13.21 280.3 ± 8.5 24.56 ± 0.75 33.76 ± 4.15
150 Tex 31.10 ± 0.50 20.75 ± 0.36 200.90 ± 7.70 105.6 ± 11.4 18.10 ± 0.30 48.56 ± 3.77
f125

Table 2. The structural parameters of tubular braided ropes (Omeroglu, 2006).

Group Strand fineness, linear Take-up Braid Braid fineness linear Pick count Braid angle
no. Code density (tex) rate pattern density (tex) (1/cm) (°)
1 70L1 70 Low 1/1 915 8 30
2 150L1 150 Low 1/1 2256 8 39
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Table 3. Calculated parameters of braids and comparison with experimental results.

dy * lui θi ly θj luj α Ey By** Ee Et err.

Code (mm) (mm) (°) (mm) (°) (mm) (°) (cN/tex) (cN/tex mm4) (cN/tex) (cN/tex) (%)
70L1 0.35 1.25 30 0.72 15 1.40 29.0 280 0.206 85 86 1
150L1 0.51 1.25 39 0.80 20 1.51 39.6 105 0.355 31 25 −20
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
*In order to calculate the diameter of yarns we used d ¼ 3:57  103 tex
q u.
f
**The bending rigidity of yarns was obtained using B = EI.


lui ly2 pdy2 Ey cos2 a þ 96By sin2 a cos2 hi cos2 hj
Eb ¼  
2ply3 dy2 cos2 hi þ cos2 hj
Validation of model
Since the comprehensive experimental study of tensile
behavior of braids is the subject of further part of this
series, the experimental results reported in the literature
(Omeroglu, 2006) is used to verify the presented model.
Omeroglu (2006) produced tubular braided ropes of
polypropylene (PP) multifilament strands on a braiding
machine under controlled process conditions.
Polypropylene twistless multifilament strands of two
different finenesses have been used, namely 70 tex f60
and 150 tex f125. The mechanical properties of strands
are presented in Table 1.
The production of tubular braided ropes has been
carried out on a braiding machine with 12 carriers.
Because the model is generated for 1/1 pattern braids,
the data of this kind of braids are used. Table 2 shows
the structural parameters of produced braids.
Using the experimental data taken from Omeroglu
(2006) and the derived equations in this paper, the
structural parameters of tubular braids were obtained.
Then, the theoretical results of Young’s modulus of
braids were calculated using generated model and
compared with experimental results. Table 3 shows the
calculated parameters and comparison of theoretical and
: experimental values of Young’s modulus of tubular
braids. According to Table 3, there is a good agreement
(31) between results of the model and experimental values of
70L1 braid, but the difference between these values for
150L1 is about 20%. This can be associated with
neglecting yarn’s compression. When the braids are
extended, the yarns are compressed due to inter-yarn
forces. Because the numbers of filaments in the yarns
cross section in the structure of 150L1 braid are more
than that of 70L1 braid, the yarns of 150L1 braid are
deformed more than that of 70L1 braid due to fibers
slippage. This could lead to increase the difference
between theoretical and experimental results in the case
of 150L1.
Conclusion
Tensile modulus of tubular braids is a function of
structural parameters of braids and mechanical properties
of constituent yarns. During extension, braids are
deformed in two steps. Step I is related to the initial
geometrical deformation. In this step, the yarn path in
the structure of braids changes. Step II is associated with
the mechanical properties of yarns. Based on these two
deformation states, a mathematical model is developed to
predict the tensile modulus of tubular braids using
energy method. Comparing our theoretical results with
experimental results from the literature, it is found that
 The Journal of The Textile Institute
the generated model is able to predict the Young’s
modulus of braids. The model is more general in nature
and it can be easily extended to predict the tensile
behavior of hybrid structures and other patterns.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Funding
This work was supported by the Amirkabir University of
Technology.
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