The Atom

August 15, 2022 Lecture

States of Matter
A substance is a sample of matter whose physical and chemical properties are the same
throughout the sample because the matter has a constant composition. It is common to see substances
changing from one state of matter to another. To differentiate the states of matter at least at a particle
level, we look at the behavior of the particles within the substance. When substances change state, it is
because the spacing between the particles of the substances is changing due to a gain or loss of energy.
For example, we all have probably observed that water can exist in three forms with different
characteristic ways of behaving: the solid state (ice), liquid state (water), and gaseous state (water vapor
and steam). Due to water's prevalence, we use it to exemplify and describe the three different states of
matter. As ice is heated and the particles of matter that make up water gain energy, eventually the ice
melts into water that eventually boils and turns into steam.

Classification of Matter
Matter can be classified as either a substance or a mixture. A substance is the homogeneous part of
matter which can be classified into elements or compounds. Elements are considered as the simplest
form of matter which can not be further broken down into smaller particles under ordinary condition.
Compounds are substances that are composed of two or more elements which can still be broken down
into simpler substances called elements. Examples of compounds include CH4, H2O, HCl, etc. A mixture
is composed of two or more substances. They can generally be classified into homogeneous mixture
which is also known as solution and heterogeneous mixture. In heterogeneous mixture, there is
boundary between phases such as oil and water, halo-halo, soil, etc. Solution can be classified as
saturated, unsaturated and supersaturated solution. A saturated solution contains the maximum

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.amount of solute that can be dissolved in a given amount of solvent at a specified temperature.
Unsaturated solution contains less than the maximum amount whereas supersaturated solution contains
more than the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved. The maximum amount of solute that
can be dissolved in a given amount of solvent at a particular temperature is expressed as the solubility of
the solute. Solubility of solutes vary depending on the temperature and solvent. Solubility of solute
usually increases with temperature. As a rule of thumb, it dissolves like. Polar solute is more soluble in
polar solvent whereas nonpolar solute is more soluble in nonpolar solvent. However, polar solute is
insoluble in nonpolar solvent. Classification of matter is illustrated below.

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Figure 1. Classification of Matter

Concept Review Exercises

Explain the differences between the physical properties of matter and the chemical properties of matter.
What is the difference between a heterogeneous mixture and a homogeneous mixture? Give an example
of each.
Give at least two examples of a phase change and state the phases involved in each.

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Answers
Physical properties describe the existence of matter, and chemical properties describe how substances
change into other substances.
A heterogeneous mixture is obviously a mixture, such as dirt; a homogeneous mixture behaves like a
single substance, such as saltwater.
solid to liquid (melting) and liquid to gas (boiling) (answers will vary)

Properties of Matter
All matter has physical and chemical properties. Physical properties are characteristics that scientists can
measure without changing the composition of the sample under study, such as mass, color, and volume
(the amount of space occupied by a sample). Chemical properties describe the characteristic ability of a
substance to react to form new substances; they include its flammability and susceptibility to corrosion.
All samples of a pure substance have the same chemical and physical properties. For example, pure
copper is always a reddish-brown solid (a physical property) and always dissolves in dilute nitric acid to
produce a blue solution and a brown gas (a chemical property).

Physical properties can be extensive or intensive. Extensive properties vary with the amount of the
substance and include mass, weight, and volume. Intensive properties, in contrast, do not depend on
the amount of the substance; they include color, melting point, boiling point, electrical conductivity, and
physical state at a given temperature. For example, elemental sulfur is a yellow crystalline solid that does
not conduct electricity and has a melting point of 115.2°C, no matter what amount is examined
(Figure 2). Scientists commonly measure intensive properties to determine a substance’s identity,
whereas extensive properties convey information about the amount of the substance in a sample.

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Figure 2. Difference between extensive and intensive properties of matter.

Although mass and volume are both extensive properties, their ratio is an important intensive property
called density (ρρ). Density is defined as mass per unit volume and is usually expressed in grams per
cubic centimeter (g/cm3). As mass increases in a given volume, density also increases. For example, lead,
with its greater mass, has a far greater density than the same volume of air, just as a brick has a greater
density than the same volume of Styrofoam. At a given temperature and pressure, the density of a pure
substance is a constant:

Physical and Chemical Changes

Physical changes are changes in which no bonds are broken or formed. This means that the same types
of compounds or elements that were there at the beginning of the change are there at the end of the
change. Because the ending materials are the same as the beginning materials, the properties (such as

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color, boiling point, etc) will also be the same. Physical changes involve moving molecules around, but
not changing them. Some types of physical changes include:

● Changes of state (changes from a solid to a liquid or a gas and vice versa)

● Separation of a mixture

● Physical deformation (cutting, denting, stretching)

● Making solutions (special kinds of mixtures) .

As an ice cube melts, its shape changes as it acquires the ability to flow. However, its composition does
not change. Melting is an example of a physical change. A physical change is a change to a sample of
matter in which some properties of the material change, but the identity of the matter does not. Physical
changes can further be classified as reversible or irreversible. The melted ice cube may be refrozen, so
melting is a reversible physical change. Physical changes that involve a change of state are all reversible.
Other changes of state include vaporization (liquid to gas), freezing (liquid to solid),
and condensation (gas to liquid). Dissolving is also a reversible physical change. When salt is dissolved
into water, the salt is said to have entered the aqueous state. The salt may be regained by boiling off the
water, leaving the salt behind.

Chemical changes occur when bonds are broken and/or formed between molecules or atoms. This
means that one substance with a certain set of properties (such as melting point, color, taste, etc) is
turned into a different substance with different properties. Chemical changes are frequently harder to
reverse than physical changes.

One good example of a chemical change is burning paper. In contrast to the act of ripping paper, the act
of burning paper actually results in the formation of new chemicals (carbon dioxide and water, to be
exact). Another example of chemical change occurs when water is formed. Each molecule contains two
atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen chemically bonded.

Another example of a chemical change is what occurs when natural gas is burned in your furnace. This
time, on the left we have a molecule of methane, CH4, and two molecules of oxygen, O2, while on the
right we have two molecules of water, H2O, and one molecule of carbon dioxide, CO2. In this case, not

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only has the appearance changed, but the structure of the molecules has also changed. The new
substances do not have the same chemical properties as the original ones. Therefore, this is a chemical
change.

Examples of Chemical Changes:

Atomic Models

Atom is composed of subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons with the following
fundamental properties:

Electron- negatively charged; charge is -1 and mass is approximately zero

Proton-positively charged; charge is +1; and mass is 1amu
Neutron- uncharged; charge is zero, and mass is 1amu
Mass number (A)- no. of protons + no. of neutrons ; collectively known as nucleons
Atomic number(Z)- no. of protons
Neutral atom= no. of protons is equal to no. of electrons
Cations- positively charged atoms; no. of protons is greater than no. of electrons
Anions- negatively charged atoms; no. of protons is less than no. of electrons

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Isotopes- atoms having the same atomic number (no. of protons) but different mass numbers; atoms of
the same element with same number of protons but different number of neutrons.

Atomic Models:

Theories regarding the structure of an atom indestructible m started with the Greek philosopher,
Democritus. He was the one who coined the term “atomos”meaning tiny, particle. This was followed by
John Dalton is his famous “Billiard Ball Model” The concept was similar to Democritus, except that
Dalton performed several experiments and came up with various postulates which are as follows:

● All matter is composed of extremely small particles called atoms.

● Atoms of a given element are identical in size, mass, and other properties. Atoms of different
elements differ in size, mass, and other properties.

● Atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed.

● Atoms of different elements can combine in simple whole number ratios to form chemical
compounds.

● In chemical reactions, atoms are combined, separated, or rearranged.

Dalton's atomic theory has been largely accepted by the scientific community, with the exception of
three changes. We know now that:

An atom is composed of smaller particles (electrons, protons, and neutrons).

All atoms of an element are not identical. The existence of isotopes illustrates this phenomena.

Through the use of nuclear reactions, atoms of one element can be changed into atoms of another
element.

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To attain the true concepts about atom, other theories evolved which are as follows:

Thomson Model- atoms consist of a positively charged jelly-like mass with negative electrons scattered
throghout it- much as raisins are spread throughout a plum pudding.

Rutherford Model- developed the nuclear model: most of the mass of the atom is concentrated in a
dense, positively charged nucleus; electrons revolve in orbits about the nucleus ( as the planets revolve
about the sun).

Bohr Model- proposed the planetary model (just like Rutherford)

- electrons can occupy only certain spherical orbits called energy levels or shells (K, L, M,etc.) which
are arranged concentrically around the nucleus. The principal energy level is quantized.

- the lowest energy level is called the ground state energy level

- when one or more electrons of an atom absorb energy, these electrons can occupy the higher
energy level; the atom is in excited state. This is illustrated below. The energy of the electron for a
particular energy level can be computed as follows:

Ei = -RH (1/n2)

n= 1,2,3,4 etc.

RH = Rhydberg constant which is equal to 2.2 x10 -18 J

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When electron is excited from n1 ---- > n3, energy is absorbed which is computed as follows:

∆E = Ef-Ei= 2.2 x10 -18 J(-1/n2f-[-1/n2i]) = (1/n2i-1/n2f)

∆E = 2.2 x10 -8 J (1/12-1/32) = 1.9x10-18

The corresponding wavelength of this energy can be computed using Plank’s equation

∆E = hc/l

h= Plank’s constant = 6.63 x 10 -34 J.s

c = speed of light = 3.0 x10 8 m/s

l = hc/∆E =( 6.63 x10 -34 J.s)(3x108 m/s)/ 2.2 x10 -18 J = 9x10-8 m or 90 nm

Quantum-Mechanical Model- is based on the premise that an electron exhibits both particle and
wave-like properties, depending on the circumstances.

Schrodinger- developed an equation that related the wave properties associated with electrons to their
energies; the wave function describes the region within which an electron is most likely to be found, the
Orbital.

Orbital= an energy state for an electron described by three quantum numbers; n, l,m

To complete the description of an electron in an orbital, experimental evidence such as spinning of

electrons was included in the description.

Quantum Numbers:

n = principal quantum numbers, gives the size and energy of an orbital

n= 1,2,3 .......
l = azimuthal quantum number; gives the shape of the orbital
l= 0, 1,2,...n-1

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ml = magnetic quantum number; gives the orientation of the orbital
m = -l -------- 0 --------+l
ms = spin quantum number
= -1/2 (unpaired electron); +1/2 (paired electron)

Example:
First energy level is occupied by 2 electrons:
n=1
l=0
ml=0
ms= -1/2,+1/2

Write the set of quantum numbers for the two electrons with a configuration, 1s2

n= 1 l=0 ml=0 ms=-1/2

n=1 l=0 ml=0 ms= +1/2
Second energy level can be occupied with 8 electrons
n=2
l=0,1 ( s,p) 2s2 2p6
ml= 0 (s); -1,0,+1 (3 orientations: px,py, and pz) 2s2 2px2 2py2 2pz2
ms= -1/2; +1/2

Electronic Configuration - describes the manner in which electrons are arranged in an atom.

First energy level has only one sublevel designated as s =contains1orbital (2 e-)
Second energy level has two sublevels, s and p (px,py, and pz)= contains 4 orbitals (8e-)

Third energy level has three sublevels, s, p, and d (dxy, dxz, dyz, dx2-y2, dz2)= 9 orbitals (18e)

Three Guiding Principles in Writing Electronic Configuration

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1. Aufbau’s Building Up Principle- orbitals with lower energy are filled up first:

2. Pauli’s Exclusion Principle- not more than two electrons can occupy an orbital

3. Hund’s Rule- in degenerate orbitals, electrons are distributed singly before being paired.

Example:

Write the electronic configuration of N which has an atomic number of 7. Determine the no. of valence
electrons and no. of unpaired electrons.

Solution:

1s2 2s2 2p3 or 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz1

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N contains a valence electron of 5 and contains 3 unpaired electrons (paramagnetic)

Periodic Table and Periodic Trends

The aufbau process is a set of rules that allows us to predict the electronic configuration of an atom if we
know how many electrons there are in the atom. If the periodic table is used as a tool, this process is
pretty easy.

For atoms found in the first two columns of the periodic table (figure 3), the configuration is a closed
shell of core electrons, plus s electrons in a new shell. For example, potassium has a configuration
[Ar]4s1. These atoms are often called the alkali and alkaline earth elements. Alkali elements, from the
first column, have a configuration ending in s1; alkaline earth elements, from the second column, have
configurations ending in s2. Together, these elements are often called the s-block elements, because their
valence electrons are s electrons. Remember, the valence electrons are the ones beyond the noble gas
core. In the case of potassium, they are the ones beyond [Ar].

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Figure 3. The periodic table. Red elements are the alkali and alkaline earth metals (s-block). Yellow
elements are the transition metals (d-block). Orange elements are the lanthanides and actinides
(f-block). Green, blue and purple elements are the p-block; together with the s-block, they are called
the main group elements. The main group is divided into metals (green), metalloids (teal), non-metals
(blue) and noble or inert gases (purple).

The first two and the last six columns of the periodic table are called the main group elements.
Alternatively, they are sometimes called the s-block and p-block elements, respectively. For example,
phosphorus has a configuration, [Ne]4s24px1py1pz1, or simply [Ne]4s24p3.

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The middle block of the periodic table consists of the transition metals or the d-block elements. For
example, scandium has configuration [Ne]4s23d1.

The final two rows of the periodic table are the lanthanides and actinides. Collectively, they are called
the f-block elements

● The periodic table is divided into columns of atoms with similar electron configurations.

● Atoms with similar electron configurations have similar properties.

Chemical reactions depend on the movement of electrons. In a reaction, one atom may accept electrons
from another atom. One atom may donate electrons to another atoms. The valence electrons are the
outermost electrons in an atom; they are closest to the surface of an atom. That fact makes the valence
electrons more likely to interact with other atoms. The valence are also the highest-energy electrons in
an atom, and most likely to participate in a reaction.

For these reasons, atoms with similar electron configurations generally behave in similar ways. The
repeating properties in each row of the periodic table, as observed by Mendeleev and others, reflect the
repeating electron configurations in subsequent rows. The periodic table organizes atoms with similar
configurations and properties together in columns. To summarize, we can classify elements as follows:

Classification of Elements

1. Representative Elements- Group A; progressive addition of electrons in the s and p

Group I= alkali metals
Group II= alkaline earth metals
Group VII- halogen family
Group VIII- noble elements or inert elements
Group no.- indicates the no. of electrons in the outermost energy level (valence electrons)
Period- indicates the highest energy level occupied by electrons.

2. Transition Elements - Group B; progressive addition of electrons in the d orbitals

- form colored compounds when combined with other atom
Metals - lower left region of the periodic table.

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Non-Metals- upper right-hand region of the periodic table.
Metalloids- B, Si, As, Te, At

Period number- highest value of n

Group number:

A. US convention
Family A if last electron is s or s and p
Family B if last electron is d or f subshells
For family A, group number = number of valence electrons
For family B, group number = number of (ns + (n-1) d electrons

Example: Determine the period number and group number of V (Z=23)

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d3

Period number = 4
Group number = 2 electrons in 4s (ns) and 3 electrons in 3d (ns-1)d = 5

B. IUPAC notation

Groups 1 and 2 = s block

Groups 13 – 18= p block
For s block, group number= number of valence electrons
For p block, group number = 10 + number of valence electrons
For the d block, group number = number of ns + (n-1)d electrons

Periodic Trends:

Periodic trends are specific patterns that are present in the periodic table that illustrate different
aspects of a certain element, including its size and its electronic properties. Major periodic trends
include: electronegativity, ionization energy, electron affinity, atomic radius, melting point,

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and metallic character. Periodic trends, arising from the arrangement of the periodic table, provide
chemists with an invaluable tool to quickly predict an element's properties. These trends exist because
of the similar atomic structure of the elements within their respective group families or periods, and
because of the periodic nature of the elements.

1. Atomic radius- decreases across a period and increases down a group.

2. Ionization energy – the energy required to remove an electron from an atom.
3. Electronegativity – the ability of an atom to attract electron.
- ionization energy, and electronegativity increase across a period
and decrease within a group (Exception: IIA higher energy than IIIA; VA higher energy than VIA)
4. Metallic property- decreases from left to right of the period accompanied by a gradual change in the
oxidation state from positive to negative.
5. Electron Affinity- measures the ease with which atoms gain electrons and form negative ions.
Metals lose electrons easily and therefore has lower ionization energy than non- metals.

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