Communication systems
CHAPTER
14
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
KEY CONCEPTS
1. Electronic communication refers to the faithful transfer of
information or message (available in the form of electrical
voltage and current) from one point to another point.
2. Transmitter, transmission channel and receiver are three basic
units of a communication system. In the process of
transmission of message/ information signal, noise gets added
to the signal anywhere between the information source and
the receiving end.
3. Basic terms in communications :
Transducer : A device that converts one form of energy into
another form of energy is called a transducer. For example, a
microphone converts sound energy into electrical energy.
Therefore, microphone is a transducer. Similarly, a loudspeaker
is a transducer because it converts electrical energy into
sound energy.
Signal : The information converted into electrical form that
is suitable for transmission is called a signal. For example, in
a radio station, music, speech etc. is converted into electrical
form by a microphone for transmission into space. This
electrical form of sound (music, speech etc.) is the signal.
The signals can be (i) analog signal (ii) digital signal.
Noise : The unwanted signal is called a noise. The noise is
undesirable because it disturbs the transmission and
processing of signals in a communication system. The source
generating the noise may be located inside or outside the
system. Efforts should be made to minimise the noise level in
a communication system.
Transmitter : It transmits the message-signal to the receiver
after converting it in the form which can propagate through
the communication channel.
Message-signal : It happens to be single valued function of
time that carries the information. It is of both types analog
and digital.
Communication Channel : The physical path between the
transmitter and the receiver is called as communication
channel. On the basis of the nature of the communication
channel they are divided into three categories. (1) Line
communication (2) Optical communication (3) Space
communication.
Band width : It is that frequency range of a signal within
which it can change its frequency.
Modulation : The phenomenon of superimposing the message
signal on the carrier signal so that it become communicable is
called as modulation. The modulation can be of three types,
amplitude, frequency and phase modulation.
Receiver : It converts the signal that reaches the receiving
end, after propagating through the communication channel,
into the original signal. It separates the carrier signal and the
original signal from the modulated signal. Thus demodulator
is an essential part of receiver.
Modem : It converts the digital signal obtained at the
transmitting end from the computer into the analog form and
the analog signal into the digital form at the receiving end.
Antenna : It happens to be a piece of conductor which is
used as a device to convert the type of signal. The
transmitting antenna converts electric signal into
electromagnetic waves and the receiving antenna converts
electromagnetic waves into electric signals.
Line communication : In such a communication there happens
to be a point to point relation between the transmitter and
the receiver. Directing media like twisted pair or coaxial cable
are used in this communication.
Optical Communication : Optical communication media such
as optical fibre are used in it. The information is propagated
in the form of optical pulses.
Attenuation : The loss of strength of the signal while
propagating through the medium is known as attenuation. It
occurs because the medium distorts, reflects and refracts the
signal as it passes through it.
Amplification : The process of raising the strength of a
signal is called amplification and is done by an electronic
circuit called amplifier. Amplification is necessary to
compensate for the attenuation of the signal in a
communication system. The energy required for additional
signal strength is obtained from a d.c. power source.
Demodulation : The process of extracting signal from the
modulated wave is called demodulation and is carried out in
the receiver. This is the reverse process of modulation.
Repeater : A repeater picks up the weak signal from the
transmitter, amplifies and then retransmits it to the receiver.
Repeaters are used to extend the range of a communication
system.
In order to transmit the signal over large distances, we erect
a number of antennas at suitable distances. These antennas
installed between the transmitting antenna and receiving
antenna are called repeaters. Each repeater receives the
transmitted signal, amplifies the signal and relays the amplified
signal to the next repeater. Finally, the signal reaches the
receiving antenna. The main problem with microwave link is
that it cannot cover the entire earth surface due to the
presence of various oceans and mountains. To overcome
this difficulty, we use communication satellites.
4. Modes of propagation :
(a) Ground wave propagation : This method of transmission
is used when the transmitting and receiving antenna are not
at a height much above the surface of the earth. In this method
Gyaan Sankalp 1
 Communication systems
the propagation of the wave takes place along the earth's
surface. The component of electric field of the wave gets
polarized vertically as the wave progresses. This is due to
the fact that the horizontal component of the field gets short
circuited by the surface of the earth.
The ground wave propagation is not appropriate for large
distances. In addition to it, the attenuation depends upon
the frequency of waves and it is high at high frequencies.
Thus ground wave propagation is suitable for low frequency
range from 500 kHz to 1500 kHz.
(b) Space wave propagation: In this method of propagation,
the waves from transmitter propagating through troposphere
reach to the receiver directly.
The relation between broadcasting distance and the height
of the antenna : d  2Rh
It is clear from equation that for long distance broadcasting,
the height of the antenna should be taken more. Using this
method the frequencies of 100-200 MHz can be propagated.
In television broadcast therefore the transmitting towers are
very high. Receiver receives directly the waves from
transmitter in this method. Thus the distance of direct visual
broadcasting has a limit due to the spherical shape of the
earth.
(c) Sky wave propagation : The ionosphere has an important
role in this method of propagation. Ionosphere is that part of
the atmosphere of the earth, which is at a height from 80
kilometer to 300 kilometers above the surface of the earth.
The number of ions (positive or negative) is more in
comparison to neutral molecules or atoms in ionosphere. The
number density of ions is not same in the whole ionosphere
but as the height increases, the number density increases.
The refractive index of ionosphere is very low in comparison
to free space and thus it behaves like a rare medium. Thus
when some wave from the space enters the ionosphere it
deviates away from the normal. The refractive index of the
ionosphere decreases as height increases, thus as the wave
moves forward in the ionosphere then the deviation increases
from the normal and its total internal reflection takes place
after reaching at a certain height. In this way the wave is
reflected towards the earth by ionosphere.
5. Critical frequency : The reflection of the waves of
frequencies greater than a particular frequency is not possible
by the ionosphere. This particular frequency is known as the
critical frequency. The waves of the frequency more than
this frequency after penetrating the ionosphere, transmits
through it. If Nmax is the maximum number density of
electrons at some height in atmosphere then the critical
frequency is given by the formula   9 Nmax and
critical frquency
Maximum usable frequency (MUF) = , i.e., Modulation factor,
cos 
where  is angle of incidence.
It has been found through the experiments that the waves of
frequency more than 30 MHz are not reflected by the
ionosphere and these waves transmit through it. Space waves
return back at certain distance from transmitter after getting
2 Gyaan Sankalp
reflected from the ionosphere. Receiving antenna is fixed at
this position. The distance measured along the surface of
the earth between the transmitter and the receiver antenna is
known as the skip distance.
6. Two important forms of communication system are: Analog
and Digital. The information to be transmitted is generally in
continuous waveform for the former while for the latter it has
only discrete or quantised levels.
7. Every message signal occupies a range of frequencies. The
bandwidth of a message signal refers to the band of
frequencies, which are necessary for satisfactory
transmission of the information contained in the signal.
Similarly, any practical communication system permits
transmission of a range of frequencies only, which is referred
to as the bandwidth of the system.
8. Low frequencies cannot be transmitted to long distances.
Therefore, they are superimposed on a high frequency carrier
signal by a process known as modulation.
9. In modulation, some characteristic of the carrier signal like
amplitude, frequency or phase varies in accordance with the
modulating or message signal. Correspondingly, they are
called Amplitude Modulated (AM), Frequency Modulated
(FM) or Phase Modulated (PM) waves. In the process of
modulation, new frequencies called sidebands are generated
on either side (higher and lower than the carrier frequency)
of the carrier by an amount equal to the highest modulating
frequency.
10. Pulse modulation could be classified as: Pulse Amplitude
Modulation (PAM), Pulse Duration Modulation (PDM) or
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) and Pulse Position
Modulation (PPM).
11. Advantages and disadvantages of amplitude modulation :
(a) Easy transmission and reception (b) Lesser bandwidth
requirements (c) Low cost.
Disadvantages : (a) Noisy reception (b) Low efficiency
(c) Small operating range (d) Lack of audio quality.
12. Advantages and disadvantages of FM :
Advantages : (a) It gives noiseless reception. (b) The operating
range is quit large. (c) It gives high-fidelity reception. (d) The
efficiency of transmission is very high.
(e) Since FM has a large number of sidebands, it can be used
for stereo sound transmission.
Disadvantages of FM : (a) A much wider band is required by
FM. The bandwidth required is 7 to 8 times as large as for
AM. (b) FM transmitting and receiving equipments are
complex, particularly for modulation and demodulation.
Therefore, FM is more expensive than AM. (c) FM reception
is limited to line-of-sight.
13. Modulation factor : The ratio of change of amplitude of carrier
wave to the amplitude of normal carrier wave is called the
modulation factor ma
Amplitude change of carrier wave
ma =
Normal carrier wave (unmodulated)
The value of modulation factor depends upon the amplitudes
of carrier and signal.

(i) When signal amplitude is zero, the carrier wave is not
modulated. The amplitude of carrier wave remains unchanged.
Amplitude change of carrier = 0,
Amplitude of normal carrier = A
Modulation factor, ma = 0/A = 0 or 0%
(ii) When signal amplitude is equal to the carrier amplitude,
the amplitude of carrier varies between 2 A and zero.
Amplitude change of carrier = 2 A – A = A
Modulation factor,
Amplitude change of carrier
ma =  A / A  1 or 100%
Amplitude of normal carrier
In this case, the carrier is said to be 100% modulated.
(iii)When the signal amplitude is one-half the carrier
amplitude, the amplitude of carrier wave varies between 1.5 A
and 0.5 A.
Amplitude change of carrier = 1.5 A – A = 0.5 A
 Modulation factor, ma = 0.5 A/A = 0.5 or 50 %
In this case, the carrier is said to be 50% modulated.
(iv) When the signal amplitude is 1.5 times the carrier
amplitude, the maximum value of carrier wave becomes 2.5 A.
Amplitude change of carrier wave = 2.5 A – A = 1.5 A
1.5A
 Modulation factor, ma =  1.5 or 150 %
A (E C / 2)2 E 2C
In this case, the carrier is said to be 150 % modulated i.e.,
over-modulated.
14. Importance of modulation factor : Modulation factor is very
important since it determines the strength and quality of the
transmitted signal. In an AM wave, the signal is contained in
the variations of the carrier amplitude. When the carrier is
modulated to a small degree (i.e., small ma), the amount of
carrier amplitude variation is small. Consequently, the audio
signal being transmitted will not be very strong. The greater
the degree of modulation (i.e., ma), the stronger and clearer
will be the audio signal. It may be emphasised here that if the
carrier is overmodulated (i.e., ma > 1), distortion will occur
during reception. The AM waveform is clipped and the
envelope is discontinuous. Therefore, degree of modulation
should never exceed 100%.
15. For amplitude modulated wave :
(i) The AM wave is equivalent to the summation of three
sinusoidal waves; one having amplitude EC and frequency
fc , the second having amplitude ma EC/2 and frequency
(fc + fs) and the third having amplitude ma EC/2 and frequency
fc – fs.
(ii) The AM wave contains three frequencies viz., fc, fc + fs
and fc – fs. The first frequency is the carrier frequency. Thus,
the process of modulation does not change the original carrier
frequency but produces two new frequencies (fc + fs) and
(fc – fs) which are called sideband frequencies.
(iii)The sum of carrier frequency and signal frequency i.e.,
(fc + fs) is called upper sideband frequency. The lower
sideband frequency is fc – fs i.e.. the difference between carrier
and signal frequencies.
(iv) The channel width is given by the difference between
extreme frequencies i.e. between maximum frequency of the
Communication systems
upper side band (USB) and minimum frequency of the lower
side band (LSB).
Channel width = 2 × maximum frequency of the modulating
signal.
16. Centre frequency : The frequency of an FM transmitter
without signal input is called the resting frequency or centre
frequency (f0 ) and this is the allotted frequency of the
transmitter. When the signal is applied, the carrier frequency
deviates up and down from its resting value f0. The change
or shift either above or below the resting frequency is called
frequency deviation (f). The total variation in frequency
from the lowest to the highest is called carrier swing (CS).
Hence, Carrier swing = 2 × frequency deviation = 2 × f.
For the purposes of FM broadcasts, it has been
internationally agreed to restrict maximum deviation to 75kHz
on each side of the centre frequency for sounds of maximum
loudness.
17. Power in AM wave : The power dissipated in any circuit is a
function of the square of voltage across the circuit and the
effective resistance of the circuit. Equation of AM wave
reveals that it has three components of amplitude EC,
ma E C/2 and m a E C/2. Clearly, power output must be
distributed among these components.
Carrier power, PC   .......... (1)
R 2R
Total power of sidebands,
(m a E C / 2 2) 2 (m a E C / 2 2)2
PS  
R R
m 2a E C2 m a2 E 2C ma2 E C2
=   .......... (2)
8R 8R 4R
Total power of AM wave,
E C2 m a2 E C2 E C2  m a2 
PT = PC + PS = 2R  4R  2R 1  2 
 
E 2C [2  m a2 ]
or PT  .......... (3)
2R 2
Fraction of total power carried by sidebands,
PS Exp.(2) ma2
 
PT Exp.(3) 2  m 2a
18. Antenna : An antenna or aerial is a system of elevated
conductors which couples the transmitter or the receiver to
free space.
This antenna should have a size comparable to the
wavelength of the signal (at least /4 in dimension) so that
the antenna properly senses the time variation of the signal.
For an electromagnetic wave of frequency 20 kHz, the
wavelength  is 15 km. Obviously, such a long antenna is not
possible to construct and operate. Hence direct transmission
of such baseband signals is not practical. We can obtain
transmission with reasonable antenna lengths if transmission
frequency is high (for example, if  is 1 MHz, then  is 300 m).
Gyaan Sankalp 3
 Communication systems
Therefore, there is a need of translating the information
contained in our original low frequency baseband signal into
high or radio frequencies before transmission.
/4
/4
Dipole antenna
A theoretical study of radiation from a linear antenna (length
2
 ) shows that the power radiated is proportional to ( /  ) .
This implies that for the same antenna length, the power
radiated increases with decreasing , i.e., increasing
frequency. Hence, the effective power radiated by a long
wavelength base band signal would be small. For a good
transmission, we need high powers and hence this also points
out to the need of using high frequency transmission.
Directivity is the ability of the antenna to concentrate the
electromagnetic waves in the most desired directions (during
transmission) or to have maximum reception from most
preferred directions (during reception).
19. Radio : Even today it seems like magic. You turn on your
radio and, somehow, sound sent from a distant radio station
fills the room. 20. Amplitude modulated (AM) transmitter : AM broadcast radio
For almost 100 years radio has allowed us to send sounds
over the air. How, exactly, is this done?
The Amazing Journey of a Sound Wave via AM Radio
(a) Microphone : Sound vibrations leave the singer's mouth.
The higher the pitch of the sound, the higher the frequency,
or number of vibrations in a given amount of time. The sound
enters the microphone, where it is converted into a weak
electrical signal.
RF section
Crystal Buffer RF power
Oscillator amplifier amplifier
Micro AF
phone amplifier
AF section
Figure : Functional block diagram of amplitude modulated radio transmitter
4 Gyaan Sankalp
(b) Amplifier : The weak signal from the microphone is
amplified. The incoming signal is flatter than the outgoing
signal. This additional height, or amplitude, indicates that
the signal has more power. The frequency of the incoming
and outgoing signals are the same.
(c) Carrier Wave Generator : The Wave Generator creates a
high-frequency radio signal. The frequency of this signal is
many times greater than the frequency of the audio wave.
This signal will "carry" the audio signal over the air.
(d) Modulator : The carrier signal amplitude (height) is altered,
or modulated, to reflect changes in the audio signal's
amplitude. A copy of the audio wave is visible on the upper
and lower halves of the carrier wave.
(e) Transmitting Antenna : The radio signal travels to the
antenna. The signal creates a corresponding electromagnetic
field - a radio wave. This radio wave moves outward in all
directions.
(f) Receiving Antenna : An antenna picks up the radio wave.
If the antenna is far from the transmitter, the signal is very
weak.
(g) Amplifier : The weak signal is amplified.
(h) Demodulator : The radio signal is cut in half. Since both
halves of the signal hold the same audio information, only
half of the signal is needed.
(i) Filter : The signal is fed through a filter. This removes the
carrier wave from the signal. What remains is the audio signal.
(j) Speaker : The audio signal causes the radio speaker's
diaphragm to vibrate, which creates sound waves. A sound
wave equivalent to the singer's voice radiates from the speaker.
sends music and voice in the Medium Frequency (MF-0.300
MHz to 3 MHz) radio spectrum. AM radio uses amplitude
modulation, in which the amplitude of the transmitted signal
is made proportional to the sound amplitude captured
(transduced) by the microphone while the transmitted
frequency remains unchanged.
Transmitting
antenna
Modulator
AF power
amplifier

21. Frequency modulated (FM) transmitter :
Frequency modulated systems are operated usually at a
frequency above 40 MHz.
FM broadcast radio sends music and voice with higher fidelity
than AM radio. In frequency modulation, amplitude variation
at the microphone causes the transmitter frequency to
fluctuate. Because the audio signal modulates the frequency
and not the amplitude, an FM signal is not subject to static
and interference in the same way as AM signals. Due to its
need for a wider bandwidth, FM is transmitted in the Very
Communication systems
High Frequency (VHF-30 MHz to 300 MHz) radio spectrum.
VHF radio waves act more like light, traveling in straight
lines, hence the reception range is generally limited to about
50-100 miles. During unusual upper atmospheric conditions,
FM signals are occasionally reflected back towards the Earth
by the ionosphere, resulting in Long distance FM reception.
FM receivers are subject to the capture effect, which causes
the radio to only receive the strongest signal when multiple
signals appear on the same frequency. FM receivers are
relatively immune to lightning and spark interference.

Transmitting
antenna

Crystal Buffer Phase Power

Oscillator amplifier modulator amplifier

Micro Pre-emphasis AF
phone network amplifier

Figure : FM transmitter
22. Radio reception : A radio receiver has the function of selecting
the desired signal from all other unwanted signals, amplifying,
demodulating it and finally producing it in the desired manner.
A simple (or) straight radio receiver : In the Direct conversion
receiver the signals from the aerial pass through a band pass
filter, and an amplifier before reaching a non-linear mixer where
they are mixed with a signal from a local oscillator which is
tuned to the carrier wave frequency of an AM or SSB
transmitter. The output of this mixer is then passed through
a low pass filter before an audio amplifier. This is then the
output of the radio.
Advantages : (a) Simpler than a superhet (b) Better tuning
Receiving
antenna
than a simple crystal set.
Disadvantages : Simple radio receiver circuit has
(i) poor sensitivity (the ability to amplify the weak signals).
(ii) poor selectivity (the ability to select a particular wanted
signal only and rejecting the unwanted signals)
23. AM superheterodyne receiver : The superheterodyne
receiver was developed to overcome the disadvantages of
earlier receivers. A block diagram of a representative
superheterodyne receiver is shown in figure.
Superheterodyne receivers may have more than one
frequency-converting stage and as many amplifiers as needed
to attain the desired power output.

Loud
speaker

RF IF AF
Mixer Detector amplifier
amplifier amplifier

Local
oscillator

Figure : Superhet AM receiver

Gyaan Sankalp 5
 Communication systems
24. FM superheterodyne receiver : Fundamentally, FM and
AM receivers function similarly. However, there are
important differences in component construction and circuit
design because of differences in the modulating techniques.
Comparison of block diagrams shows that electrically there
are two sections of the FM receiver that differ from the AM
Receiving
antenna
Mixer and
RF IF amplifier
local
section and limiter
oscillator
Figure : FM recieiver
Drawbacks to the superheterodyne receiver include
interference from signal frequencies close to the Intermediate
Frequency. To prevent this, IF frequencies are generally 29
controlled by regulatory authorities, and this is the reason
most receivers use common IFs. Examples are 455 kHz for
AM radio, 10.7 MHz for FM, and 45 MHz for television.
Additionally, in urban environments with many strong
signals, the signals from multiple transmitters may combine
in the mixer stage to interfere with the desired signal.
25. Aviation voice radios use VHF AM. AM is used so that
multiple stations on the same channel can be received. (Use
of FM would result in stronger stations blocking out reception
of weaker stations due to FM's capture effect). Aircraft fly
high enough that their transmitters can be received hundreds
of miles (or kilometres) away, even though they are using
VHF.
26. Marine voice radios can use single sideband voice (SSB) in
the shortwave High Frequency (HF-3 MHz to 30 MHz) radio
spectrum for very long ranges or narrowband FM in the VHF
spectrum for much shorter ranges. Narrowband FM sacrifices
fidelity to make more channels available within the radio
spectrum, by using a smaller range of radio frequencies,
usually with five kHz of deviation, versus the 75 kHz used by
commercial FM broadcasts, and 25 kHz used for TV sound.
27. Government, police, fire and commercial voice services also
use narrowband FM on special frequencies. Early police 30.
radios used AM receivers to receive one-way dispatches.
28. Civil and military HF (high frequency) voice services use
shortwave radio to contact ships at sea, aircraft and isolated
settlements. Most use single sideband voice (SSB), which
uses less bandwidth than AM. On an AM radio SSB sounds
like ducks quacking. Viewed as a graph of frequency versus
power, an AM signal shows power where the frequencies of
the voice add and subtract with the main radio frequency.
SSB cuts the bandwidth in half by suppressing the carrier
and (usually) lower sideband. This also makes the transmitter
6 Gyaan Sankalp
receiver: the discriminator (detector) and the accompanying
limiter. FM receivers have some advantages over AM
receivers. During normal reception, FM signals are static-
free, while AM is subject to cracking noise and whistles.
Also, FM provides a much more realistic reproduction of
sound because of the increased number of sidebands.
FM
detector
Loud
speaker
De-emphasis AF
network amplifier
about three times more powerful, because it doesn't need to
transmit the unused carrier and sideband.
Television : The aim of a television system is to extend the
sense of sight beyond its natural limits and to transmit sound
associated with the scene. The picture signal is generated
by a TV camera and sound signal by a microphone. In the
625 line CCIR monochrome and PAL-B colour TV systems
adopted by India, the picture signal is amplitude modulated
and sound signal frequency modulated before transmission.
The two carrier frequencies are suitably spaced and their
modulation products radiated through a common antenna.
As in radio communication, each television station is allotted
different carrier frequencies to enable selection of desired
station at the receiving end.
The TV receiver has tuned circuits in its input section called
‘tuner’. It selects desired channel signal out of the many
picked up by the antenna. The selected RF band is converted
to a common fixed IF band for convenience of providing
large amplification to it. The amplified IF signals are detected
to obtain video (picture) and audio (sound) signals. The
video signal after large amplification drives the picture tube
to reconstruct the televised picture on the receiver screen.
Similarly, the audio signal is amplified and fed to the
loudspeaker to produce sound output associated with the
scene.
Picture transmission : The picture information is optical in
character and may be thought of as an assemblage of a large
number of tiny areas representing picture details. These
elementary areas into which picture details may be broken
up are known as ‘picture elements’ or ‘pixels’, which when
viewed together represent visual information of the scene.
Thus, at any instant there are almost an infinite number of
pieces of information that need to be picked up
simultaneously for transmitting picture details. However,
simultaneous pick-up is not practicable because it is not

feasible to provide a separate signal path (channel) for the
signal obtained from each picture element. In practice, this
problem is solved by a method known as ‘scanning’ where
conversion of optical information to electrical form is carried
out element by element, one at a time and in a sequential
manner to cover the entire picture. Besides, scanning is done
at a very fast rate and repeated a large number of times per
second to create an illusion (impression at the eye) of
simultaneous reception from all the elements, though using
only one signal path.
31. Vidicon camera tube : In a monochrome (black and white)
picture, each element is either bright, some shade of grey or
dark. A TV camera, the heart of which is a camera tube, is
used to convert this optical information into corresponding
electrical signal, the amplitude of which varies in accordance
Communication systems
with variations of brightness.
Fig. shows very elementary details of one type of camera
tube (vidicon) and associated components to illustrate the
principle. An optical image of the scene to be transmitted is
focused by a lens assembly on the rectangular glass face-
plate of the camera tube. The inner side of the glass face-
plate has a transparent conductive coating on which is laid a
very thin layer of photoconductive material. The photolayer
has very high resistance when no light falls on it, but
decreases depending on the intensity of light falling on it.
Thus depending on light intensity variations in the focused
optical image, the conductivity of each element of photolayer
changes accordingly. An electron beam is used to pick-up
picture information now available on the target plate in terms
of varying resistance at each point.

Conductive coating
Glass plate

Photoconductive Cathode
Light surface

Electron beam Electron gun

Object
to be televised
Video signal
output
Magnetic deflection and
RL focusing coils
+
Power supply
–

Figure : Vidicon camera tube and associated components

Top
The beam is formed by an electron gun in the TV camera
Width
tube. On its way to the inner side of glass face-plate, it is
deflected by a pair of deflecting coils mounted on the glass
envelope and kept mutually perpendicular to each other to
achieve scanning of the entire target area.
32. Scanning and synchronising : Scanning is done in the same
way as one reads a written page to cover all the words in one
line and all the lines on the page (see Fig.). To achieve this,
Height

Trace Retrace
the deflecting coils are fed separately from two sweep
oscillators which continuously generate suitable waveform
voltages, each operating at a different desired frequency.

Bottom
Gyaan Sankalp 7
 Communication systems
Magnetic deflection caused by the current in one coil gives
horizontal motion to the beam from left to right at uniform
rate and then brings it quickly to the left side to commence
trace of the next line. The other coil is used to deflect the
beam from top to bottom at a uniform rate and for its quick
retrace back to the top of the plate to start this process over
again. Two simultaneous motions are thus given to the beam,
one from left to right across the target plate and the other
from top to bottom thereby covering entire area on which
electrical image of the picture is available. As the beam moves
from element to element, it encounters a different resistance
across the target-plate, depending on the resistance of
photoconductive coating. The result is a flow of current which
varies in magnitude as the elements are scanned. This current
passes through a load resistance RL, connected to the
conductive coating on one side and to a dc supply source
on the other. Depending on the magnitude of current, a
varying voltage appears across resistance RL and this
corresponds to optical information of the picture.
If the scanning beam moves at such a rate that any portion of
the scene content does not have time to change perceptibly
in the time required for one complete scan of the image, the
resultant electrical signal contains true information existing
in the picture during the time of scan. The desired information
is now in the form of a signal varying with time and scanning
may thus be identified as a particular process which permits
conversion of information existing in space and time co-
ordinates into time variations only. The electrical information
thus obtained from the TV camera tube is generally referred
to as video signal (video is Latin for ‘see’).
Synchronization : It is essential that the same co-ordinates
be scanned at any instant both at the camera tube target
plate and at the raster of picture tube, otherwise, the picture
details would split and get distorted. To ensure perfect
synchronization between the scene being televised and the
picture produced on the raster, synchronizing pulses are
transmitted during the retrace, i.e., fly-back intervals of
horizontal and vertical motions of the camera scanning beam.
Thus, in addition to carrying picture details, the radiated
signal at the transmitter also contains synchronizing pulses.
These pulses which are distinct for horizontal and vertical
motion control, are processed at the receiver and fed to the
picture tube sweep circuitry thus ensuring that the receiver
picture tube beam is in step with the transmitter camera tube
beam.
In a colour TV system additional sync pulses called colour
burst are transmitted along with horizontal sync pulses.
These are separated at the input of chroma section and used
to synchronize the colour demodulator carrier generator. This
ensures correct reproduction of colours in the otherwise black
and white picture.
33. Interlaced scanning : In India, the frame repetition rate has
been standardised at 25 frames per second. This repetition
rate is enough to cause an illusion of continuity. But, the
brightness of one frame blends (mix) smoothly into the next,
through this time when the screen is blanked between
successive frames. This results in definite flicker of light,
8 Gyaan Sankalp
that is very annoying to the observer, when the screen
becomes alternatively bright and dark. To eliminate this flicker,
each frame is scanned twice.
In this scanning, the total number lines are divided into two
groups called fields. During the presentation of the first field,
only the odd numbered lines are scanned, while during the
second field all the even numbered lines are scanned. Half
way along the bottom of the first field, the vertical retrace
returns the scanning beam to the top of the image and
completes the unfinished lines. (i.e) The remaining even
numbered lines are then scanned during second field. This
method of scanning is known as interlaced scanning. In the
625 line TV system, for successful interlaced scanning, the
625 lines of each frame or 219 picture are divided into sets of
312.5 lines and each set is scanned alternatively to cover the
entire picture area.
Hence, with the interlaced scanning the flicker effect is
eliminated without increasing the speed of scanning, which
in turn does not need any increase in channel bandwidth.
34. Horizontal and vertical scanning frequencies : The
movement of electron beam spot from left to right and back,
so as to start a new line in the same direction is termed as
horizontal scanning. The horizontal scanning frequency is
defined as the number of lines scanned per second. In a 625
line system, transmitting 25 frames per second, the horizontal
frequency is 625 × 25 = 15,625 Hz.
Consequently, time taken to scan one line is
1
 64 s
15, 625
Vertical scanning is the movement of the electron beam spot
in the vertical direction. One frame consists of two fields,
resulting into 50 fields per second with a vertical field scan
1
time of  20ms
50
35. Monochrome TV transmitter : An oversimplified block
diagram of a monochrome TV transmitter is shown in Fig.
The luminance signal from the camera is amplified and
synchronizing pulses added before feeding it to the
modulating amplifier. Synchronizing pulses are transmitted
to keep the camera and picture tube beams in step.
The allotted picture carrier frequency is generated by a crystal
controlled oscillator. The continuous wave (CW) sine wave
output is given large amplification before feeding to the power
amplifier where its amplitude is made to vary (AM) in
accordance with the modulating signal received from the
modulating amplifier. The modulated output is combined (see
Fig.) with the frequency modulated (FM) sound signal in the
combining network and then fed to the transmitting antenna
for radiation.
 Communication systems
AM picture
signal
Crystal RF Power
oscillator amplifier amplifier

Transmitter
antenna
Scanning and
synchronizing
circuits

Light
Television Video AM Combining
camera amplifier modulating network
amplifier

Microphone FM
FM
Audio modulating sound
amplifier amplifier transmitter
section
FM
Figure : Monochrome television transmitter sound signal

36. Monochrome TV receiver : A simplified block diagram of a

black and white TV receiver is shown in Fig.
Loudspeaker
Sound FM
Audio
IF sound
Receiver amplifier
amplifier demodulator
antenna

Picture tube

RF Common Video Video

tuner IF detector amplifier
amplifiers
Light

Figure : Black and white TV receiver
The receiving antenna intercepts radiated RF signals and
the tuner selects desired channel’s frequency band and
converts it to the common IF band of frequencies. The
receiver employs two or three stages of intermediate
frequency (IF) amplifiers. The output from the last IF stage is
demodulated to recover the video signal. This signal that
carries picture information is amplified and coupled to the
picture tube which converts the electrical signal back into
picture elements of the same degree of black and white.
Scanning
synchronizing
circuits
37. Monochrome picture tube : The picture tube shown in fig. is
very similar to the cathode-ray tube used in an oscilloscope.
The glass envelope contains an electron-gun structure that
produces a beam of electrons aimed at the fluorescent screen.
When the electron beam strikes the screen, light is emitted.
The beam is deflected by a pair of deflecting coils mounted
on the neck of picture tube in the same way as the beam of
camera tube scans the target plate. The amplitudes of currents
in the horizontal and vertical deflecting coils are so adjusted
that the entire screen, called raster, gets illuminated because
of the fast rate of scanning.
Gyaan Sankalp 9
 Communication systems
Accelerating anode
Control grid
Focusing anode
Cathode
Heater
Electron gun
Base
Deflection coils
Figure : Elements of a picture tube
The video signal is fed to the grid or cathode of picture tube.
When the varying signal voltage makes the control grid less
negative, the beam current is increased, making the spot of
light on the screen brighter. More negative grid voltage
reduces brightness. If the grid voltage is negative enough to
cut-off the electron beam current at the picture tube, there
will be no light. This state corresponds to black. Thus the
video signal illuminates the fluorescent screen from white to
black through various shades of grey depending on its
amplitude at any instant. This corresponds to brightness
changes encountered by the electron beam of the camera
tube while scanning picture details element by element.
The rate at which the spot of light moves is so fast that the
eye is unable to follow it and so a complete picture is seen
because of storage capability of the human eye.
38. Radar : Radar is a system that uses electromagnetic waves
to identify the range, altitude, direction, or speed of both
moving and fixed objects such as aircraft, ships, motor
vehicles, weather formations, and terrain. The term radar was
coined in 1941 as an acronym for radio detection and ranging.
The term has since entered the English language as a standard
word, radar, losing the capitalization. Radar was originally
called RDF (Radio Direction Finder) in the United Kingdom.
A radar system has a transmitter that emits either microwaves
or radio waves that are reflected by the target and detected
by a receiver, typically in the same location as the transmitter.
Although the signal returned is usually very weak, the signal
can be amplified. This enables radar to detect objects at ranges
where other emissions, such as sound or visible light, would
be too weak to detect. Radar is used in many contexts,
including meteorological detection of precipitation, measuring
ocean surface waves, air traffic control, police detection of
speeding traffic, and by the military.
39. Transmission and reception of radar :
The transmitting system consists of a transmitter and a
pulser. The receiving system consists of a receiver and an
10 Gyaan Sankalp
Final anode
Screening
Electron beam
Phosphor
coating
EHT
indicator. In most of the cases, a single antenna is used for
both transmission and reception and this is achieved with
the use of TR switch (Transmitter Receiver Switch). This
switching arrangement is called as ‘duplexer’. This connects
the antenna to the transmitter during transmission and to the
receiver during reception. Moreover, this switch isolates the
sensitive receiver from the damaging effects of the high
power transmitter.
The transmitter is essentially a high power magnetron
oscillator which generates high power pulses. This transmitter
is turned on and off with a periodic pulse from the pulser.
Thus the transmitter generates periodic pulses of very short
duration. These short pulses are fed to the antenna which
radiates them into the space. The antenna is highly directional.
If the transmitted pulse hits any target, a weak echo signal
returns to the same antenna. But, now the TR switch puts
the antenna in contact with the receiver. This echo signal is
amplified and demodulated by the superhet receiver. The
sensitivity of the receiver is very high. The detected output
is sent to the indicator. The indicator is a cathode ray tube.
The CRT displays the original transmitted pulse as well as
the detected echo pulse along a horizontal base line. The
synchronising pulse generated by the ‘timer’ is supplied to
both transmitting and receiving systems. So, the indicator
records the transmitted pulse as well as the returning pulse
simultaneously. The returning echo pulse appears slightly
displaced from the transmitted pulse and this displacement
is a measure of the range of the target.
Some applications of radar
(i) Air and sea navigation is made entirely safe, with radar
installations. High flying planes and ship at sea, can get
detailed reports of mountains, ice bergs, rivers, lakes, shore
lines etc., which they can avoid.
(ii) Radar systems are used for the safe landing of air crafts.
On approaching the air field, the pilot is guided by signals
from a radar set, so that it flies along the line of the runway

and lands safely, whatever be the visibility.
(iii) Rain drops may reflect suitable radar signals and thus
enable meteorologists to measure the distance of the clouds,
with great accuracy for forecasting.
(iv) The pulses can be used for discovering the position of
buried metals, oils and ores.
40. Digital communication : In digital communication, the
modulating signals are discrete and are coded representation
of the message signal or information to be transmitted.
However, in analog communication the signals are continuous
signals and are essentially analogous to the message or
information. There are a number of encoding steps in the
digital communication, which makes its circuitry complicated.
Advantages :
(i) The transmission quality is high and almost independent
of the distance between the terminals.
(ii) The capacity of the transmission system can be increased.
(iii) The newer types of transmission media such as light
beams in optical fibers and wave guides operating in the
microwave frequency extensively use digital communication.
Disadvantages :
(i) A digital system requires larger bandwidth.
(ii) It is very difficult to gradually change over from analog to
digital transmission.
41. Modem (Mo + dem) : The name modem is the abbreviation of
the term Modulator and Demodulator. As the name implies,
both functions are included in a modem. A modem is used to
convert digital signals into analog signals capable of being
transmitted over telephone lines. At the receiving end of the
system, modem is used to demodulate the analog signals
and reconstruct the equivalent digital output. Modems are
placed at both ends of the communication circuit.
42. Facsimile (Fax) : Fax is short for facsimile, which means a
copy or reproduction. A fax machine uses a sensor to "read"
the black and white sections of a document. The sensor
switches a signal on or off according to whether a light beam
is reflected by white sections or absorbed by black sections.
This information is then sent over wires or cables to the
receiving machine. The receiving machine decodes the
signals and marks the sections that are black.
A Scottish physicist, Alexander Bain, developed the first basic
fax machine in 1842. Other facsimile machines were developed
in Europe and the United States in the late 1800's and early
1900's. By the 1930's news services began using fax machines
to send photographs.
As the equipment became less expensive to manufacturer,
the fax machine became a common office tool for businesses.
To send a fax, both parties must have a fax machine connected
to a telephone line or cable.
A page is placed into the document feeder of the fax machine.
The telephone number of the receiving fax machine is dialed.
When the telephone connection is made between the two
fax machines, the document moves through the fax machine.
The text or image on the document passes by a light sensor.
The light sensor (a light sensitive device) scans the
document and creates an electronic signal for the light and
dark images on the document. This electronic signal is coded
Communication systems
and sent over the telephone lines to the receiving fax machine.
How does the fax machine print the page? Fax machine uses
a special type of paper "thermal" paper. The word "thermal"
refers to heat.
This paper is sensitive to heat. When the paper is heated, a
chemical reaction occurs which creates a dark image. As the
fax machine decodes the page it heats up the portion of the
special paper where it wants to place letters or other markings
on it.
Today, many fax machines use ordinary paper instead of
thermal paper. (The thermal paper is very thin and it curls,
fades, and can be difficult to read and write on.) Toner similar
to that used in a photocopying machine is used to make the
images. Faxes can also be send to computers.
43. Line communication : In the space communication, there
was no physical point-to-point contact between the receiver
and the transmitter. However, the simplest and the oldest
point-to-point communication mode is communication
through transmission lines or wires as in earlier telephone
and telegraph links. These are still used through significant
changes in the design of such lines have occurred. The
principal types of such communication channels are :
(a) Two wire transmission lines (b) Coaxial cables
(c) Optical fibres.
Coaxial cable : It consists of hollow outer cylindrical
conductor which surrounds a single inner conductor kept
separated from each by an insulator.
In the transmission of power through coaxial cable, the
dielectric medium used as spacer plays an important role.
These dielectrics are good insulators only for dc or low
frequencies. As the frequency increases, there is significant
dielectric loss and can sometimes become quite high after a
certain frequency. So, it puts an upper limit (approximately 20
MHz) upto which a coaxial cable can be effectively used).
Optical fibre : An optical fiber is a thin transparent rod, usually
made of glass or plastic, through which light can propagate.
The light signals travel through the rod from the transmitter
to the receiver and can be easily detected at the receiving
end of the optical fiber. The principle of total internal reflection
is used for the transmission of light signals through the optical
fiber.
Advantages : (i) Transmission loss is low.
(ii) Fiber is lighter and less bulky than equivalent copper
cable. (iii) More information can be carried by each fiber than
by equivalent copper cables.
(iv) There is no interference in the transmission of light from
electrical disturbances or electrical noise.
Applications : The various applications of fiber in
communication area are, voice telephones, video phones,
message services, data network etc.
44. Satellite Communication :
Satellite communication is basically a microwave link repeater.
A satellite receives energy from an earth station, amplifies it
and returns it to each at a frequency about 2 GHz away from
the uplink frequency (earth to satellite) . This prevents
interference between the uplink and the downlink (satellite
to earth). Satellite so used is a geostationary satellite which
Gyaan Sankalp 11
 Communication systems
appears to be stationary at a given spot above the equator.
Actually, it moves with the same angular velocity as the earth
i.e. it completes one revolution per 24 hours and hence
appears to be stationed over one spot on the globe. Satellite
orbiting the earth will be geostationary when it is about 36,000
km away from the earth.
As per WARC (World Administrative Radio Conference) 1979
allocation, commercial communication satellites use 500 MHz
bandwidth near 6 GHz for uplink transmission and use 500
MHz bandwidth near 4 GHz for downlink transmission. In
actual practice, uplink of 5.725 – 7.075 GHz is used while
downlink of 3.4 – 4.8 GHz is used.
Polar circular orbit which is nearer to earth (1000km away) as
compared to the geostationary orbit. It passes over, or very
close to the poles (i.e., inclination 90°).
Inclined highly elliptical orbit which is used for
communications in regions of high lattitudes. The preferred
inclination is  63° and hence such orbits are referred to as
being in 63° slot.
IMPORTANT RESULTS
1. The attenuation in the case of ground wave propagation
increases as the frequency of the wave and the distance
increases. For space wave propagation direct field of view is
required. Waves of frequency greater than 30 Mega Hertz
penetrate through the ionosphere.
2. In case of space wave propagation following is the relation
between the distance (d) for broadcasting and the height (h)
of the antenna d  2Rh .
3. For ionosphere c  9 N max is the critical frequency..
4. The energy of a wave is directly proportional to its frequency.
This permits modulated waves to carry the signals to long
distances.
5. In amplitude modulation (AM), the amplitude of high
frequency wave is changed in accordance with the intensity
of the signal. Modulation factor,
Amplitude change of carrier wave
ma 
Normal carrier wave (unmodulated)
6. In A.M., the signal is contained in the sidebands.
7. The disadvantages of AM are noisy reception, low efficiency
and small operating range.
8. In frequency modulation (FM), the frequency of high
frequency wave (carrier) is changed in accordance with the
intensity of the signal.
Maximum frequency deviation
Modulation index, mf 
Modulating signal frequency
9. A communication satellite is a spacecraft around the earth
which carries on board microwave receiving and transmitting
equipment capable to relaying signals from one point on
each to other points.
10. Optical fibres are hair-thin glass strands and use the principle
of total internal reflection for transmission of light through
them.
12 Gyaan Sankalp
11. Buffer is an electronic circuit, used for the purpose of
providing isolation between two other stages. This also
prevents the impedance change between the two stages.
12. Communication in UHF/VHF regions can be established by
space wave or tropospheric wave. However, it is limited to
line of sight distance  40 km.
13. Actual guided physical transmission channels can be
established by two wire transmission lines or coaxial cables
for radio frequencies.
14. LED or diode lasers are used as optical source for optical
communication because these can be easily modulated by
the message electrical signal voltage.
15. Semiconducting photodiodes are used as detectors in optical
communication network.
EXAMPLES
Example 1 :
Is it necessary for a transmitting antenna to be at the same
height as that of the receiving antenna for line-of-sight
communication? A TV transmitting antenna is 81m tall. How
much service area can it cover if the receiving antenna is at
the ground level ?
Sol. No. Service area will be
2 22
A = d T   162  6.4  106  3258 km 2 .
7
Example 2 :
Due to economic reasons, only the upper sideband of an
AM wave is transmitted, but at the receiving station, there is
a facility for generating the carrier. Show that if a device is
available which can multiply two signals, then it is possible
to recover the modulating signal at the receiver station.
Sol. Let, for simplicity, the received signal be A1 cos (c + m) t
The carrier Ac cos ct is available at the receiving station. By
multiplying the two signals, we get
A1Ac cos (c + a) t cos c t
A1A c
= [cos (2c + m) t + cos m t]
2
If this signal is passed through a low-pass filter, we can record
A1A c
the modulating signal cos  m t .
2
Example 3 :
A sinusoidal carrier voltage of frequency 1 MHz and
amplitude 100 volts is amplitude modulated by sinusoidal
voltage of frequency 5 kHz producing 50% modulation.
Calculate the frequency and amplitude and lower and upper
sidebands terms.
Sol. Frequency of carrier, fc = 1 MHZ = 1000 kHz
Frequency of signal, fs = 5 kHZ
Modulation factor, ma = 50% = 0.5
Amplitude of carrier, EC = 100 V
The lower and upper sideband frequencies are
fc – fs and fc + fs
or (1000 – 5) kHz and (1000 +5) kHz
or 995 kHz and 1005 kHz
 Communication systems
Amplitude of each sideband term Amplitude of the carrier signal = Ec = 10 mV
Amplitude of the audio signal = Es = 6 mV
ma E C 0.5  100
=   25V Frequency components of modulated wave = ?
2 2 Amplitude of the components in the modulated wave = ?
Example 4 : The modulated carrier wave contains the following
For an amplitude modulated wave, the maximum amplitude is frequencies
found to be 10V while the minimum amplitude is found to be (i) Original carrier wave of frequency = fc = 10 MHz
2V. Determine the modulation index, µ What would be the (ii) Upper side band frequency, fc + fs = 10 + 0.005
value of µ if the minimum amplitude is zero volt ? = 10.005 MHz
Sol. Since the AM wave is given by (Ac + Am sin m t) cos ct, (iii) Lower side band frequency fc . fs = 10 . 0.005 = 9.995 MHz
the maximum amplitude is M1 = Ac + Am while the minimum The modulation factor is,
amplitude
is M 2 = A c – A m . Hence the modulation index is Es 6
m   0.6
E c 10
A m M1  M 2 8 2
m    Amplitude of USB = Amplitude of LSB
Ac M1  M 2 12 3
With M2 = 0, clearly, m =1, irrespective of M1. mE c 0.6  10
=   3mV
Example 5 : 2 2
If a broadcasting station is transmitting but not modulating, Example 7 :
what is heard in a receiver tuned to its frequency ? An FM transmission has a frequency deviation of 18.75
Sol. If a broadcasting station is transmitting but not modulating, kHz. Calculate percent modulation if it is broadcast (i) in
it means that the station is sending the carrier wave only. the 88–108 MHz band (ii) as a portion of a T.V. broadcast.
The loudspeaker in the radio receiver will produce no sound Sol. Frequency deviation f = 18.75 kHz
from this carrier. It is because the carrier frequency is general (i) A maximum frequency deviation of 75 kHz is allowed for
very high and the loudspeaker cannot respond to such rapid commercial FM broadcast, i.e.,
variations due to mechanical inertia. (f)max = 75 kHz
Example 6 :
18.75
10 MHz sinusoidal carrier wave of amplitude 10 mV is percent modulation, m = f × 100 =  100  25%
modulated by a 5 kHz sinusoidal audio signal wave of 75
amplitude 6 mV. Find the frequency components of the (ii) A maximum frequency deviation of 25 kHz is allowed for
resultant modulated wave and their amplitude. sound portion of the T.V. broadcast,
Sol. Frequency of the carrier = fc = 10 MHz i.e., (f)max = 25 kHz
Frequency of the signal = fs = 5 kHz = 0.005 MHz 18.75
So, percent modulation, m =  100  75%
25

Gyaan Sankalp 13
Communication systems

QUESTION BANK
EXERCISE - 1
Q.1 The process of superimposing signal frequency (i.e., audio only binary system, and (iv) can utilize decimal as well as
wave) on the carrier wave is known as – binary system. Which of the following option is true –
(A) transmission (B) reception (A) only (i) and (ii) (B) only (ii) and (iii)
(C) modulation (D) detection (C) only (i), (ii) and (iii), but not (iv)
Q.2 Modulation is used to – (D) All the above (i) to (iv)
(A) reduce the bandwidth used Q.14 The modulation index in case of FM is defined for –
(B) separate the transmissions of different users (A) Multi-tone modulation (B) Tone-modulation only
(C) ensure that intelligence may be transmitted to long (C) All types of modulating signals
distances (D) None of these
(D) allow the use of practical antennas. Q.15 Space waves normally propagated in –
Q.3 AM is used for broadcasting because (A) UHF (B) VHF
(A) it is more noise immune than other modulation systems (C) HF (D) SHF
(B) it requires less transmitting power compared with other Q.16 Modem is used to –
systems. (A) Modulate the digital signals
(C) its used avoids receiver complexity (B) Convert analog signals to digital ones
(D) no other modulation system can provide the necessary (C) Both (A) and (B) (D) None of these
bandwidth faithful transmission Q.17 In AM wave, useful power is carried by –
Q.4 The modulation as well as band width increases in case (A) sidebands (B) carrier
of– (C) both sidebands and carrier
(A) AM (B) FM (D) None of these above
(C) VSB (D) DSB Q.18 Space wave propagation is useful for –
Q.5 The characteristic impedance of co-axial cable is of the (A) low frequency waves and large distances
order of – (B) low frequency waves and small distances
(A) 50 (B) 200 (C) high frequency waves
(C) 270 (D) None of these (D) ultra-high frequency waves
Q.6 Radio waves of constant amplitude can be generated with– Q.19 Modulation is done in –
(A) filter (B) rectifier (A) transmitter (B) radio receiver
(C) FET (D) oscillator (C) between transmitter and radio receiver
Q.7 For television broadcasting, the frequency employed is (D) None of the above
normally – Q.20 Overmodulation results in –
(A) 30-300 MHz (B) 30-300 GHz (A) weakening of the signal (B) excessive carrier power
(C) 30-300 kHz (D) 30-300 Hz (C) distortion (D) none of the above
Q.8 In an amplitude modulated wave for audio-frequency of Q.21 Band width is dependent on –
500 cycle/second, the appropriate carrier frequency will be (A) the frequency of carrier
(A) 50 cycle/sec (B) 100 cycle/sec (B) the frequency of modulated signal
(C) 500 cycle/sec (D) 50,000 cycle/sec (C) the thickness of the cable
Q.9 Frequencies in the UHF range normally propagate by means (D) the resistance of the circuit.
of – Q.22 The most useful transmission for low frequency and small
(A) Ground waves (B) Sky waves. distance is through –
(C) Surface waves (D) Space waves (A) sky waves (B) ground waves
Q.10 Nature of analog signal is – (C) surface waves (D) space waves
(A) discrete (B) continuous Q.23 Long distance short-wave radio broadcasting uses –
(C) distorted (D) transverse (A) ground wave (B) ionospheric wave
Q.11 An ‘antenna’ is – (C) direct wave (D) sky wave
(A) inductive (B) capacitative Q.24 Broadcasting antennas are generally –
(C) resistive above its resonance frequency (A) omnidirectional type (B) vertical type
(D) none of the above (C) horizontal type (D) none of these
Q.12 Broadcasting antennas are generally: Q.25 Ozone layer above earth’s atmosphere will –
(A) horizontal (B) vertical (A) prevent infrared radiations from sun reaching earth
(C) omnidirectional (D) none of these (B) prevent infrared rays reflected from earth from escaping
Q.13 Digital signals (i) do not provide a continuous set of val- earth’s atmosphere
ues. (ii) represent values as discrete steps, (iii) can utilize (C) prevent ultraviolet rays from sun
(D) reflect back radio waves
14 Gyaan Sankalp
 Communication systems
Correct options are – (B) only the frequency of the carrier wave varies.
(A) abc (B) acd (C) both the phase and the frequency of the carrier wave
(C) ab (D) bc varies.
Q.26 The diameter of optical fibre is – (D) there is no change in the frequency and phase of the
(A) 10–2 cm (B) 10–4 cm carrier wave
–3
(C) 10 cm (D) 10–5 cm Q.39 If AM having 100% modulation, of the total transmitted
Q.27 Optical fibres, made of glass or plastic are – power, each side band carries –
(A) brittle (B) leaky (A) one third (B) one half
(C) fragile (D) insulators (C) one fourth (D) one sixth
Q.28 High frequency waves follow Q.40 In optical fibre, propagation angle of light must be less
(A) the ground wave propagation than or equal to –
(B) the line of sight direction (A) incident angle (B) refraction angle
(C) ionospheric propagation (C) reflection angle (D) critical angle
(D) the curvature of the earth Q.41 The frequency used in TV and radar system lies in –
Q.29 The disadvantage of FM over AM is – (A) VHF (B) UHF
(A) Noise is very high for high frequency signals (C) EHF (D) VLF
(B) High modulation power is required Q.42 In amplitude modulation
(C) Larger band width is required (A) the amplitude of the carrier wave varies in accordance
(D) None of the above with the amplitude of the modulating signal.
Q.30 In amplitude modulation, the band width is (B) the amplitude of the carrier wave remains constant
(A) equal to the signal frequency (C) the amplitude of the carrier varies in accordance with
(B) twice the signal frequency the frequency of the modulating signal
(C) thrice the signal frequency (D) modulating frequency lies in the audio range
(D) four times the signal frequency Q.43 Select the incorrect statement –
Q.31 Lasers are used in alignment of pipes because – (A) FM reception is quite immune the noise
(A) they are coherent (B) Efficiency of FM transmission is high
(B) they are highly directional (C) High fidelity reception is obtained in FM
(C) both (A) and (B) (D) FM signals can be easily coded
(D) None of these Q.44 Modem is a device which performs –
Q.32 Intelsat satellite is used in – (A) Modulation (B) Demodulation
(A) Intercontinental communication (C) Rectification
(B) Radio communication (D) Modulation and Demodulation
(C) Radar communication Q.45 The RF channel in a radio transmitter produces
(D) None of these (A) audio signals
Q.33 Data communicated by optical fibres system is generally – (B) high frequency carrier waves
(A) digital (B) analog (C) both audio signal and high frequency carrier waves
(C) modulated (D) unmodulated (D) low frequency carrier waves.
Q.34 The main purpose of modulation is to Q.46 The number of telephone conversations carried by optical
(A) combine two waves of different frequencies fibres are –
(B) acquire wave shaping of the carrier wave (A) 2200 (B) 1800
(C) transmit low frequency information over long distances (C) 2000 (D) 2400
efficiently Q.47 The purpose of dividing each frame into two fields so as to
(D) produce side bands transmit 50 views of the picture per second is
Q.35 Which of the following is not a transmission media used in (A) to avoid flicker in the picture
communication system ? (B) the fact that handling of higher frequencies is easier
(A) 2-wire line (B) Fax (C) that 50 Hz is the power line frequency in India
(C) Coaxial cable (D) Fibre cable (D) to avoid unwanted noises in the signals
Q.36 The digital transmission is done mostly via – Q.48 In an AM transmission, band width is equal to –
(A) Telephone links (A) maximum frequency of audio signal
(B) Satellite links (B) minimum frequency of audio signal
(C) Computer to computer links (C) twice the maximum frequency of audio signal
(D) None of the above (D) half the maximum frequency of audio signal
Q.37 Tropospheric scatter happens in – Q.49 Printed documents to be transmitted by fax are converted
(A) VHF (B) UHF into electrical signals by the process of
(C) HF (D) SHF (A) reflection (B) scanning
Q.38 In phase modulation (C) modulation (D) light variation
(A) only the phase of the carrier wave varies
Gyaan Sankalp 15
Communication systems
EXERCISE - 2
Q.1 In a superheterodyne receiver, the input at the mixer stage is– Q.14 Calculate the length of half wave dipole antenna at 200MHz.
(A) IF and RF (B) RF and AF (A) 0.75 (B) 2.30
(C) IF and AF (C) 1.20 (D) 5.10
(D) RF and local oscillator signal Q.15 The maximum distance upto which TV transmission from a
Q.2 Which of the following frequencies will be suitable for TV tower of height h can be received is proportional to –
receiver beyond-the horizon communication using sky waves? (A) h1/2 (B) h
(A) 10 kHz (B) 10 MHz (C) h3/2 (D) h2
(C) 1 GHz (D) 1000 GHz Q.16 To cover a population of 20 lakh, a transmission tower
Q.3 The fundamental radio antenna is a metal rod which has a should have a height: (radius of the earth = 6400 km, popu-
length equal to: lation per square km = 1000)
(A)  in free space at the frequency of operation (A) 25 m (B) 50 m
(B) /2 in free space at the frequency of operation (C) 75 m (D) 100 m
(C) /4 in free space at the frequency of operation Q.17 The area of region covered by the TV broadcast by a TV
(D) 3/4 in free space at the frequency of operation tower of 100m height is: (radius of the earth = 6.4 × 106 m)
Q.4 A 500W carrier is amplitude modulated with the modulation (A) 1.28  × 103 km2 (B) 12.8  × 103 km2
index of 60%. What will be total power of modulated wave 3
(C) 0.64  × 10 km 2 (D) 1.28 × 103 km2
(A) 640.5 W (B) 590W Q.18 If the input and output power of an optical fibre of length
(C) 780W (D) 450W 150M are 10µW and 9µW respectively then loss in dB/kM
Q.5 The maximum range, dmax. of radar is: is approximately –
(A) proportional to the cube root of the peak transmitted power. (A) –1 (B) –2
(B) proportional to the fourth root of the peak transmitted power. (C) –3 (D) –4
(C) proportional to the square root of the peak transmitted power Q.19 In AM wave the modulation index is 100%. If the carrier is
(D) not related to the peak transmitted power at all suppressed the percentage saving in power will be –
Q.6 A T.V. tower has a height 150 m. What is the population (A) 66.6% (B) 50%
density around the T.V. tower if the total population cov- (C) 75% (D) None of these
ered is 50 lakh? The radius of earth is 6.4 × 106 m. Q.20 A modulated carrier wave has maximum and minimum am-
(A) 800 km–2 (B) 829 km–2 plitudes of 700mV and 200mV respectively. Calculate the
(C) 82.6 km –2 (D) 826.6 km–2 modulation factor.
Q.7 The T.V. transmission tower in Delhi has a height of 240 m. (A) 55.55% (B) 45.12%
The distance upto which the broadcast can be received. (C) 60.55% (d) 35.12%
(Radius of earth is 6.4 × 106 m) Q.21 A radar has a power of 1kW and is operating at a frequency
(A) 60 km (B) 100 km of 10 GHz. It is located on a steep mountain top of height
(C) 50 km (D) 55 km 600m. What is the maximum distance upto which it can
Q.8 Critical frequency c for the ionosphere is – detect an object located on the surrounding earth’s surface
(A) c = 9.Nmax (B) c = 9 N max (A) 87.6 km (B) 70.1 km
(C) c = 6 N max (D) c = 6 . Nmax (C) 82.3 km. (D) 90.3 km.
Q.9 The signal voltage induced in the serial of a radio receiver Q.22 An audio signal 20 sin 2 (1500t) amplitude modulates
is of the order of 80 sin 2 (106t). The band width required to transmit the
(A) mV (B) µV AM wave is –
(C) V (D) kV (A) 3 KHz (B) 2.5 KHz
Q.10 If level of modulation is increased ........ power is increased. (C) 2 KHz (D) 2.8 KHz
(A) carrier (B) sideband Q.23 Advantages of amplitude modulation include –
(C) carrier as well as sideband (D) none of the above (A) Easy transmission and reception
Q.11 The band width of optical fibre communication is – (B) Lesser bandwidth requirements
(A) 106 to 109 Hz (B) 1013 to 1015 Hz (C) Low cost (D) All of these
9 11
(C) 10 to 10 Hz (D) None of these Q.24 In a FM system, a 7 kHz signal modulates 107.6 MHz so that
Q.12 Range of frequencies allotted for commercial FM radio the frequency deviation is 50 kHz. The carrier swing will be–
broadcast is – (A) 7.143 (B) 8
(A) 88 to 108 MHz (B) 88 to 108 kHz (C) 10 (D) None of these
(C) 8 to 88 MHz (D) 88 to 108 GHz Q.25 A broadcast AM transmitter radiated 50kW of carrier wave.
Q.13 Frequencies higher than 10MHz are found not to be re- What will be the radiated power at 80% modulation.
flected by the ionosphere on a particular day at a place. (A) 66 kW (B) 55 kW
Calculate the maximum electron density of the ionosphere. (C) 70 kW (D) 80 kW
(A) 1.25 × 1012 m–3 (B) 0.25 × 1014 m–3 Q.26 Advantages of frequency modulation include –
(C) 5.15 × 10 m10 –3 (D) 2.18 × 1015 m–3 (A) It gives noiseless reception.

16 Gyaan Sankalp
 Communication systems
(B) The operating range is quite large. (D) None of these
(C) The efficiency of transmission is very high. Q.30 In India, the frame repetition rate for television has been
(D) All of these standardised at –
Q.27 Frequency modulated systems in radio operate usually at (A) 25 frames per second (B) 15 frames per second.
a frequency – (C) 10 frames per second (D) 20 frames per second.
(A) above 40 MHz (B) below 40 MHz Q.31 In the 625 line TV system –
(C) above 20 MHz (B) below 20 MHz (A) Picture are divided into sets of 212.5 lines
Q.28 Simple radio receiver circuit has – (B) Picture are divided into sets of 625 lines
(A) poor sensitivity (B) poor selectivity (C) Picture are divided into sets of 500 lines
(C) good sensitivity (D) Both (A) and (B) (D) Picture are divided into sets of 312.5 lines
Q.29 Vidicon converts – Q.32 In a 625 line system, transmitting 25 frames per second, the
(A) light energy into electrical energy horizontal frequency is –
(B) electric energy into light energy (A) 625 Hz (B) 15,625 Hz
(C) mechanical energy into light energy (C) 1250 Hz (D) 312.5 Hz
EXERCISE - 3
Q.1 Determine the modulation index and carrier swing of an (A) (i) and (ii) only (B) (ii) and (iii) only
FM carrier having a frequency deviation of 25 kHz and a (C) (i), (ii) and (iii) but not (iv) (D) All of (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv)
modulating signal of 5 kHz. Q.10 Electromagnetic waves with frequencies greater than the
(A) 7, 70 kHz (B) 8, 80 kHz critical frequency of ionosphere cannot be used for com-
(C) 5, 50 kHz (D) 10, 100 kHz munication using sky wave propagation because:
Q.2 How many AM broadcast stations can be accommodated (A) the refractive index of the ionosphere becomes very
in a 100 kHz bandwidth if the highest frequency modulat- high for f > fc
ing a carrier is 5 kHz ? (B) the refractive index of the ionosphere becomes very
(A) 10 (B) 20 low for f > fc
(C) 5 (D) 30 (C) the refractive index of the ionosphere very high for
Q.3 A1000 Hz modulating voltage fed into frequency f < fc (D) none of the above
modulation generator produces a frequency deviation Q.11 For sky wave propagation of 10 MHz signal. What should
1200Hz. What is modulation index ? be the minimum electron density in ionosphere ?
(a) 1.2000 (B) 3.1200 (A) 1.2 × 1012/m3 (B) 106/m3
14
(C) 10 /m 3 (D) 1022/m3
(C) 12.000 (D) 0.1200
Q.4 The maximum peak-to-peak voltage of an AM wave is 16 Q.12 At maximum modulation (i.e. m = 1), the power in each
mV and the minimum peak-to-peak voltage is 4mV. Calculate sideband is ......... of that of carrier.
the modulation factor. (A) 25% (B) 50%
(A) 0.6 (B) 2.1 (C) 40% (D) 60%
(C) 5.2 (D) 4.2 Q.13 In short wave communication waves of which of the fol-
Q.5 An audio signal is given by 30 sin (2 × 2000t) is used for lowing frequencies will be reflected back by the ionospheric
modulating a carrier wave given by the equation layer, having electron density 1011 per m3 –
60 sin (2 × 200000t), find the percentage modulation. (A) 2 MHz (B) 10 MHz
(A) 100% (B) 50% (C) 12 MHz (D) 18 MHz
(C) 25% (D) 75% Q.14 What is the modulation index of an FM signal having a
Q.6 In the above question, find the frequency of signal carrier carrier swing of 100 kHz when the modulating signal has a
(A) 200000 Hz (B) 100000 Hz frequency of 8 kHz ?
(C) 150000 Hz (d) 300000 Hz (A) 12.25 (B) 6.50
Q.7 In Q.5, find the frequency spectrum of the modulated wave. (C) 8.25 (D) 6.25
(A) 299-301 kHz (B) 100-102 kHz Q.15 What should be the transmission bandwidth of an FM
(C) 198-202 kHz (D) 398-400 kHz signal with 75 kHz deviation and highest frequency of
Q.8 A T.V. tower has a height of 70m. Calculate the population modulation 15 kHz ?
covered by T.V. broadcast if the population density around (A) 160 kHz (B) 180 kHz
the tower is 1000/km2. Radius of earth is 6.4 × 106 m. (C) 150 kHz (D) 100 kHz
(A) 28.16 lakh. (B) 18.16 lakh. Q.16 What is the modulation index of an FM carrier having a
(C) 2.816 lakh. (D) 25.12 lakh. carrier swing of 80 kHz and a modulating signal of 4kHz.
Q.9 Digital signals – (A) 0.75 (B) 2.30
(i) do not provide a continuous set of values (C) 10.0 (D) 5.10
Q.17 On a particular day, the maximum frequency reflected from
(ii) represent values as discrete steps the ionosphere is 8 MHz. On another day, it was found to
(iii) can utilize binary system, and increase to 9 MHz. Calculate the ratio of maximum electron
(iv) can utilize decimal as well as binary systems. densities of the ionosphere on the two days.
Which of the above statements are true? (A) 12.66 (B) 1.266
(C) 3.124 (D) 6.145
Gyaan Sankalp 17
 Communication systems
HINTS & SOLUTIONS
EX ERCIS E - 1
Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
A C A C B A D A D D B A
Q 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
A B D B A B A D A C B B
Q 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33
A B B A B D C C B C A A
Q 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44
A C B B B C B D B A D D
Q 45 46 47 48 49
A B C A C B

(4) (B). FM because modulation index B.W. (31) (C). Because they are highly directional and coherent.
(16) (B). Modem is used to convert analog signals to digital (35) (B). Fax is machine.
signals.

EX ERCIS E - 2
Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
A D B B B B B D B B B B
Q 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
A A A A A B B C A A A A
Q 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
A D A A D A D A A D B

(2) (B). 10 kHz cannot be radiated (antenna size), 1 GHz and This loss is for 150 metre
1000 GHz will penetrate. 1000
Loss/km = – 0.458 ×  3.053 dB
2 150
 m 2  P  500  1  (0.6)   590W
(4) (B). PT  Pc 1  ; T  2  (19) (A). When carrier is suppressed the percentage saving is
 2  
1
(11) (B). B.W. of optical fibre ranges from 1013 to 1015 Hz. Psaving   66.6%
(14) (A). Frequency of radiation m2
1
 = 200 MHz = 200 × 106 Hz 2
Speed of light, C = 3 × 108 m/sec (20) (A). Vmax = 700 mV, Vmin = 200 mV
C 3  108 The modulation factor is
Wavelength of wave,     1.5m
 200  106 V  Vmin 700  200
m  max  0.55
 1.5 Vmax  Vmin = 700  200
Length of half wave dipole antenna =   0.75m
2 2 500
(16) (B). Let h be the height of a transmission tower. In percentage =  100  55.55%
900
Population density,  = 1000 km–2 = 1000 × 10–6 m–2 (22) (A). B.W. = 2 × fm = 2 × 1500 = 3 kHz.
= 10–3 m2
Frequency deviation 50
Now, d  2Rh (where R is radius of the earth) (24) (A). Carrier swing =   7.143
Modulating frequency 7
Population covered = d2 = .2hR
22 (25) (A). Carrier power Pc = 50 kW
20 × 105 = 10–3 ×  2  h  6400  103  h = 50m Modulation percentage = 80%
7
Power transmitted Pt = ?
P0 9
(18) (C). Loss in dB = 10 log P = 10 log = – 0.458 dB  m2   0.802 
1 10 Pt  Pc 1   50 1  2   66kW
 2   

18 Gyaan Sankalp
 Communication systems
EX ERCIS E - 3
Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
A C A A A B A C A C A A
Q 12 13 14 15 16 17
A A A D B C B
(1) (C). Frequency deviation, f = 25 kHz (10) (A). For total internal reflection of sky waves, the refrac-
Frequency of modulating signal, fm = 5 kHz tive index of the ionosphere should be less. If f > fc, the
refractive index will increase. By this waves will just pass
f 25
Modulation index, mf  f  5  5 without reflection taking place.
m (14) (D). Given : Carrier swing = 100 kHz, fa = 8 kHz
Carrier swing = 2 × f = 2 × 25 kHz = 50 kHz f
(2) (A). Given : Total BW = 100 kHz, fa max = 5 kHz From the defining equation, mf 
fa
Any station being modulated by a 5 kHz signal will produce
an upper-side frequency 5 kHz above its carrier and a lower- First determining f,
side frequency 5 kHz below its carrier, thereby requiring a Carrier swing 100  103
bandwidth of 10 kHz. Thus, f    50 kHz
2 2
Number of stations accommodated
Now substituting into the equation for mf,
Total BW 100  103
= = 50  103
BW per station 10  103 mf   6.25
8  103
Number of stations accommodated = 10 stations.
(3) (A).  = 12000 Hz, m = 1000 Hz (15) (B). Frequency deviation, f = 75 kHz
Highest frequency of modulation, fm = 15 kHz
 1200
Modulation index, m v    1000 = 1.2000 The bandwidth occupied by the spectrum, BW = 2nfm,
m where n is the highest order of the significant sideband.
16 However, approximate expression for spectrum bandwidth
(4) (A). Maximum voltage of AM wave, Vmax   8mV ,
2
4  f 
Minimum voltage of AM wave, Vmin   2mV is BW = 2 (1 + mf ) fm = 2 1  f  f m
2  m
V  Vmin 8 2 6
ma  max =   0.6 = 2 (f  f m ) = 2 (75 + 15) = 180 kHz.
Vmax  Vmin 8  2 10
(16) (C). Carrier swing - 80 kHz.
(5) (B). Modulating signal amplitude Em = 30 Frequency deviation
Carrier wave amplitude EC = 60
Carrier swing 80kHz
Em 30     40kHz
Modulation index , m v  E  100  60  100  50% 2 2
C
Now, modulation index
(6) (A). Frequency of audio signal 200 Hz
Frequency of carrier wave 200000 Hz. frequency deviation  40kHz
(7) (C). Lower side band
m ; m    4kHz  10
modulating frequency m
LSB = C – n = 20000 – 2000 = 198000 Hz = 198 kHz (17) (B). The critical frequencies are
The upper side band frequency C = 8 MHz and C' = 9 MHz
LSB = 200000 + 2000 = 20200 Hz = 202 kHz Suppose the maximum electron densities of two days are
(8) (A). Height of antenna h = 70m, Nmax and N'max. The critical frequency it given by
Radius of earth = 6.4 × 106 m.
Population density C  9 N max ........ (1) so C  9 N max
 ........ (2)
= 1000 km–2 = 1000 × 10–6 /m2 = 10–3/m2 Dividing eq. (2) by eq. (1)
The distance covered by the transmission is
2
d  2Rh or d2 = 2Rh C  N max
 
N max    9
2

Area covered = d2  or N   C      1.266

C N max max  C   8
Population covered= d2 × Population density
= 3.14 × 2Th × 10–3 = 3.14 × 2 × 6.4 × 106 × 700 × 10–3
N max

= 28.16 × 105 = 28.16 lakh. So, N  1.266
(9) (C). Decimal system implies continuous set of values. max

Gyaan Sankalp 19