LEARNING

THEORIES
GGGE6563: STRATEGI PENGAJARAN
DR KHAIRUL JAMALUDIN
Learning?
Human learning is
effortless if the
instruction is
aligned with how
human learn.
Human learning is
effortless if the
Humans are
material to be
naturally inclined
learned is
to learn.
interesting/
relevant
Learning is
something
humans do from
the moment of
birth to their last
any process that in days.
living organisms Human learning is
leads to permanent cyclical and not
capacity change and
which is not solely linear (Johnson,
due to biological 2019).
maturation or ageing
(Illeris 2007, p. 3).
 LEARNING:
1. behavioral changes-
knowledge,
OUTCOMES: understanding,
1. Something that is attitudes and skills
acquired by efforts 2. knowledge
2. Acquisition of (cognitive), skills
something (psychomotor) and
those related to
values and attitudes
(affective).

Learning outcomes can serve as a benchmark to measure a success of a

university. Learning outcomes as ‘being something that student can do
now that they could not do previously’ are changes in people as a result of
a learning experience (Watson 2002).

encompass a wide range of student attributes and abilities, both

cognitive and affective, which are a measure of how their
experiences have supported their development as individuals
(Bloom 1977).
What does learning mean to you?
 schools need to
develop ways to link
classroom learning to
other aspects of
students’ lives.
     
What’s best to enhance learning?
■ Students come to the classroom with preconceptions about how the world works.
If their initial understanding is not engaged, they may fail to grasp the new
concepts and information that are taught, or they may learn them for purposes of a
test but revert to their preconceptions outside the classroom.
■ To develop competence in an area of inquiry, students must: (a) have a deep
foundation of factual knowledge, (b) understand facts and ideas in the context of a
conceptual framework, and (c) organize knowledge in ways that facilitate retrieval
and application.
■ A “metacognitive” approach to instruction can help students learn to take control
of their own learning by defining learning goals and monitoring their progress in
achieving them. - predict outcomes, explain to oneself in order to improve
understanding

(Brandsford, Brown & Cocking, 2004)

So, what’s theory?

“First, theory supposes that one can express propositionally one’s

understanding of that which is to be researched into. Second, those
propositions are expressed in such a way that they can be hypothesized and put
to the test against experience. Third, the interpretation of those tests and that
experience can be examined critically by others in the light of the data. Fourth,
although it is desirable to make one’s theories as all embracing as possible, it is
often necessary to be satisfied with small-scale and rather tentative and
provisional theoretical positions. Fifth, therefore, the growth of knowledge lies in
the constant formulation of the assumptions and beliefs and in the criticism of
these in the light of evidence or their implications”

Thomas, G. (2007). Education and Theory : Strangers in Paradigms. McGraw-Hill

Education.
■ the group of predications that brings forward proposals
in order to find the reasons why events take place. In a
sense, theory is a plan that helps to realize some certain
ideas in line with previously designed plans. At the same
time, theory is a path that is taken as a basis to move and
that is followed accordingly. (Kaya, 2016).
■ A way to explain a set of facts – connecting data dots
(Johnson, p.3, 2019)
– Accepted theories connect a wide array of data dots
– These theories have been confirmed through a
variety of different types of research studies &
observations conducted over time.
 Neurologic
al LT

Learnin
g
Humanistic theorie Behavioura
LT l LT
s
(LTs)

Cognitive
LT
BEHAVIOU
RAL
LEARNING
THEORIES
Behavioural view of learning (Ivan
Pavlov)
Learning as a relatively permanent change in
behaviour/ behavioural pptentiality that occurs
as a result of experience (Hergenhahn & Olsen,
2005).

Is based on the principle of stimulus and

response.

Is rooted in the late 19th century studies - how

people behave and the emergence of the
discipline of psychology
Ivan Pavlov
■ Presented a dog with an
unconditioned stimulus
(food) would provoke an
unconditioned response
(salivating)
■ Alter: food + bell =salivate
■ Remove the food, bell =
salivate
Situation

When Karen sat for her numeracy test, she started to

panic and fled the room in tears. When the teacher
asked her what happened she explained that her mind
had gone a complete blank and she was unable to
focus on the questions. When the teacher went
through the questions with Karen face-to-face, it was
clear she knew the answers and her excellent results
in other tests demonstrated she was not afraid of
exams, but she clearly have a phobia of numeracy
tests.
Deal with someone’s fear of a subject by
removing their negative responses to
the subject.
■ Getting them to examine the root cause of their negative feelings towards
the subject
■ Making them aware of the relevance of the subject
■ Taking out the menace about failing tests by giving some easy tasks where
the individual can achieve a few successes
■ Building up the intensity of the task gradually
■ Making sure that you are generous in your praise when they complete a task
Operant conditioning (BF Skinner)
Positive
reinforcement Rat will
Rat presses Rewarded with associate lever
lever food with food and
repeat process

Negative
reinforcement
Rat will
Rat stands on Punished with associate grid
electric grid electric shock with pain &
avoid process
■ Positive reinforcement: good behavior can be encouraged by
offering rewards
■ Negative reinforcement: the like hood of poor behavior can be
discouraged through pairing it with an unpleasant consequence.

In classroom:
■ Only offer rewards for good behavior
■ Only threaten punishment for bad behavior
■ Positive reinforcement has a lasting effect than negative
reinforcement (Bates, 2019).
 E
LEARNIN
G
THEORIE
S
 Based on the principle Basic understanding…
that information is actively
processed inside the mind

Behaviour modification
takes place by searching
for the relationships
thatexist between the
various bits of information
Learning is a process of
gathering all of the
relevant pieces
ofinformation together
until they begin to form a
complete picture
Grew from dissatifcation
with the behavioural
approach – behavioural
outcomes over
developing potentials.
Piaget’s Learning Theory

■ people construct knowledge as opposed to receiving it

■ Proposed four stages of development:
– Sensorimotor: learning takes place through touch & feel
– Pre-operational: ability to arrange objects logically strats to develop
– Concrete operational: ability to think logically about objects and events
starts become more structured
– Formal operational: abstract thinking & verbal reasoning starts to
develop
Schema

child develops a mental pattern to understand can use other templates or patterns, adapt it
his or her world and use it in conjunction with his or her own
schema that was constructed using their own
experiences
Adaptation processes

These allow the He called these:

transition from Equilibrium,
one stage to Assimilation and
another. Accommodation.
When the child uses the schema to deal with a new
thing or situation, that Schema is in Assimilation

Accommodation happens when the existing

Schema isn’t up to the job of explaining what’s
going on and needs to be changed.
What’s your opinion?

Mr.Harvey is using football as a way of getting young people with behavioural

issues to engage in the learning process. He organized a six-a-side competition
in which the winning team has a penalty shoot-out against each other, with a
prize for the individual winner. Danny, one of the players, suffered with
Asperger’s Syndrome. His cognitive development was below that of his peers
and he had difficulty in socializing with others. He was very passionate about
football. Mr Harvey put him in a team with some real hard knocks. His team won
the six-a-side competition and, as they lined up for the penalty shoot-out, the
hardest of the hard knocks whispered to Mr Harvey that they’d rigged it for
Danny to win. The sheer joy on Danny’s face when he scored the winning penalty
and the emotion of his mother telling Mr Harvey he'd never had friends who did
that for him before is something Mr Harvey will never forget.
How to apply Piaget’s theory:

■ Remember, people react differently to learning may not be as a result of their

age, but at what stage they are at in their cognitive development
■ some learners will flourish in group-working whereas others may need more
one-to-one support. So, balance your time so that you can cater all of your
students’ needs
■ Encourage students to learn form each other and emphasize that everyone
will have something to offer in the respect
■ Convince them that failing at something doesn’t make them a loser!
Important part is what they learn from the experience
■ Acknowledge efforts as well as achievements
Vygotsky’s Learning Theory

■ Thinking develop from outside in

■ They internalize as they interact with others
■ We learn from other people – MKOs (More
Knowledgeable Others)
■ Scaffolding:
– Build interest & engage with people
– Break a task into smaller sub-tasks
– Use MKOs to support people
– Model possible ways of completing task
which they can imitate then eventually
internalize
Critical perspective. I want to hear it
from you!
Vygotsky placed a lot of importance on the
roles of community and culture in the
learning process. What do you think about
his critics who argue that the theory does
not recognize that individuals can rise
above social norms based on their ability to
bring about personal understanding?
Bloom’s taxonomy:
theoretical framework for
learning (Cognitive)
■ Each level can be used to design questions,
activities & assignments that actively engage
students during & after the lessons.
■ Level 1-2 have fairly low levels of cognitive
engagement.
■ Level 3 and above generally have higher levels
of cognitive engagement.
AFFECTIVE
DOMAIN

The affective domain (sometimes referred

to as the feeling domain) is concerned
with feelings and emotions and also
divides objectives into hierarchical
subcategories. It was proposed by
Krathwohl and Bloom in 1964.

The affective domain is not usually used

when planning for maths and sciences
as feelings and emotion are not
relevant for those subjects. However,
for educators of arts and language, the
inclusion of the affective domain is
imperative wherever possible. Source:
https://teacherofsci.com/learning-theories-in-educat
n/#3_Blooms_Domains_of_Learning
 PSYCHOMOTOR
DOMAIN

•Psychomotor learning refers to

how we use our bodies and
senses to interact with the world
around us, such as learning how
to move our bodies in dance or
gymnastics.
Bloom’s digital
taxonomy
(Andrew
Churches)
SOURCE:
https://teachonline.asu.edu/201
6/05/integrating-technology-bl
ooms-taxonomy/
HUMANIS
TIC
LEARNING
THEORIES
■ Humanistic LT recognize that humans have a natural tendency to evolve,
grow, learn & develop fully (Johnson, p.107,2019)

instinctive Self-actuali
inner core zation:
that moves human’s
people innate,
Rogers toward natural Maslow
(1969) reaching progression (1968)
their full toward their
potential higher state
Humanistic learning seems to share
3 overriding tenets
Human are by their very nature evolving,
self-developing creatures – we have a
natural inclination to learn

Learning is enhanced when education

experiences alighn with these natural
desires

The goal of education should be toenable

each person to develop his/her full potential
Does our education practice
“dehumanize” students?
Students are passive
learners
Manipulation is applied to
get students to learn and
behave in an acceptable
way

Lack of focus on
creativity, imagination,
Quantification of learning
curiousity, social nature
achievements
and emotional
dimensions
Carl Rogers: facilitation
Teacher’s role:
authority/expertise to facilitate
the process of individuals
arriving at their own solutions. Being true to yourself &
not being afraid to
congruen express your feelings in
ce an effort to establish a
rapport with others

Accepting others for what

they are in a non-critical &
non-judgemental manner
respect
facilitatio
n Being willing to consider
empath issues from the other
y person’s standpoint
A good facilitation should:
(Bates, 2019)
■ Start by setting the mood and climate for the session
■ Find out what others are expecting from the session
■ Have a range of learning resources avalaible
■ Act as a flexible resource to be utilized by learners
■ Find out what learners gained
■ Be receptive to criticism and never be afraid to accept your own limitations
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

self-fulfillment Reaching full potential

esteem Self-belief & satisfaction

(reputation, respect)

affiliation Sense of belonging

(affection & love)

psychological freedom from fear

(certainty, stability,
organization)
physical Basic survival needs (food,
warmth, rest)

Source: Bates, 2019)

Supporting principles for Humanistic
Learning
(Johnson,2019)
The full spectrum
of the human
The subject experience should
matter to be included in the Schools should
Students’ learning Students learn
belearned should educational produce students
should be as best in a
be relevant to the experience who want tolearn
self-directed as non-threatening
lives or (emotions, and now how to
possible environment
personalinterests creativity, learn
of the students relationships,
imaginations &
real-life problems)
What do you think?

Maslow claimed that people can’t be motivated to

learn unless they have an inner desire to do so. Do
you agree with this?
NEUROLOGIC
AL LEARNING
THEORIES
Brainstem: regulate our
life support systems; do
not take conscious
thought.

Cerebellum: motor
control; to coordinate
movements of the
muscles and skeleton.

Cerebrum: responsible
for higher cognitive
functions - thinking,
reasoning, imagination,
decision making and
problem solving.
 Associative Learning (Donald Hebb)
Baby feels hands picking him
Baby hears footsteps Baby sees a face assemblie
up
(audio assembles) (visual assembles) (tactile assembles) s

Baby connects hearing with seeing and

feeling connectio
(synapses) ns

Friendly face + warm touch = no Unfriendly face + cold touch = association

fear of footsteps fear of footsteps s
How to apply? (Bates, 2019)

■ Accept that people learn differently; some will have a greater capacity to
organize the knowledge and thus be able to make the associations easier
than others.
■ Develop a strategy for dealing with different levels of learners in a class.
■ Use teaching resources/aids to support learning – develop meaningful
connections, see patterns and make sense of new data.
 According to Gardner…
■ Human beings have several types of intelligence that form the potential to
process information in a range of different context
■ An individual’s capacity in a particular intelligence will have a direct bearing
on the way they learn.

Therefore….
■ Be aware that students have different strengths and will react differently according to the
nature of the tasks set
■ Allow students the opportunity to tackle assignments in different ways
■ Consider taking students out their comfort zones and approach problems in ways that
might not be compatible with their preferred intelligences.
Multiple intelligences

■ Linguistic : the capacity to understand and use spoken & written language
■ Logical-mathematical : the capacity to analyze problems logically
■ Musical : the capacity to compose, perform & appreciate musical patterns
■ Bodily-kinaesthetic : the capacity to use & interpret expressive movements
■ Visual-spatial : the capacity to recognize patterns and dimensions
■ Interpersonal : the capacity to understand the intentions and desires of others
■ Intrapersonal : the capacity to one’s own feelings, fears and needs
■ Naturalistic : the capacity to recognize and categorize objects in nature
■ Existential : the capacity to tackle deep questions about meaning of life
THANK YOU