BEC 1103: Learning and Learners - Lecture Notes

UGANDA MARTYRS UNIVERSITY-NKOZI
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
COURSE TITLE: Learning and Learner

COURSE CODE: BEC 1103
COURSE LEVEL: Year 1 Semester 1
CREDIT POINTS: 04
CONTACT HOURS: 80
LECTURER: OYOM JOSEPH JOLLY (PhD)
UNIT ONE:
THE CONCEPT OF LEARNING AND LEARNER, PRINCIPAL CHARACTERISTICS,

ELEMENTS, STYLES AND IMPLICATION OF LEARNING
1.1 Meaning and definitions of Learning

To an ordinary person learning means acquiring skills in reading, spelling, or a trade. Yet it
means more than that! Children learn cultural values; they learn appropriate sex roles; they learn
to love and to hate and to fear and to be self-confident; they learn wants and interests and
personality traits. Therefore, any change of behavior that is a result of experience and that causes
people to face later situations differently can be called learning. Learning is an enrichment of
experience (Aggarwal,1995). In learning there is an interaction of the environment with the
learner. Psychologists differ on the concept of learning.
Several attempts have been made to define learning. Some of the important definitions are as
given comprehensively below:
To Robert M. Gagne (1970), Learning is a change in human disposition or capability which can
be retained, and which is not simply ascribable to the process of growth.
Bugelski (1956), Learning is the process of the formation of relatively permanent neural circuits
through the simultaneous activity of the elements of the circuits-to-be; such activity is of the
nature of change in cell structures through growth in such a manner as to facilitate the arousal of
the entire circuit when a component element is aroused or activated.
Woodworth, R.S. (1945), Learning is any activity that develops the individual in any respect,
good or bad and makes his behaviour and experiences different from what that would otherwise
have been.
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Joseph Jolly Joyce Oyom. Tel. +256-772957506 or +256-701702033.
Email. joswaldlyn@gmail.com
Gates, etal, (1946), Learning is the modification in behaviour to meet environmental
requirements.
Farrant, J.S. (1980), Learning is the process by which we acquire and retain attitudes,
knowledge, understanding, skills and capabilities that cannot be attributed to inherited behaviour
patterns or physical growth.
Crow and Crow (1973), Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitudes. It
involves new ways of doing things, and it operates in an individual’s attempts to overcome
obstacles or to readjust to new situations. It represents progressive change in behaviour…. It
enables him to satisfy interests to attain goals.
When you analyze the definitions of learning above and several others in books, the following
key words and phrases are clearly expressed: modification of behaviour, changes in environment,
training and practice for behaviour, motivated individual (Learner), acquisition of habits,
knowledge, and attitudes, new ways of doing things, permanent change in behaviour,
strengthening the old behaviour, readjusting to new situation, and adopting to new situation.
In general way it may be stated that learning should enable us to make the best use of the things
in the world around us. If a man has not learnt the art of living harmoniously with others, he will
find more beset with difficulties than the person who has succeeded in learning how to establish
social relations with his fellows. So, the acquisition of abilities, which enable us to adjust
ourselves in an effective manner to environment and to control it successfully, may be said to be
the aim of learning.
1.2 Principal characteristics of learning
The following are the general characteristics of learning:

i) Learning is growth. the word growth is generally associated with the body which is
growing, but through the mental growth of the learner. Although it is latent yet we
can perceive its growth. Through his daily activities the child grows both mentally
and physically. Therefore, we say that learning is growth through experience.
ii) Learning is adjustment. Learning helps the individual to adjust himself adequately to
the new situations. Children meet with new situations which demand solution.
Repeated efforts are required to react to them effectively.
iii) Learning is organising experience. Learning is not mere addition of knowledge. It is
not mere acquisition of facts and skills through drill and repetition. It is the
reorganisation of experience.
iv) Learning is purposeful. All true learning is based on purpose. Purpose plays a big part
in learning. All activities given to the child should be purposeful so that the child
should feel real urge for learning.
v) Learning is intelligent. Meaningless efforts do not produce permanent result. Any
work done mechanically is without any soul. When a child learns something
unintelligently, he is likely to forget it very soon. He does not assimilate but simply
commits to memory. Only efforts made intelligently have ever lasting effects.
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vi) Learning is active. Learning does not take place without a purpose and self-activity.
In the teaching learning process, the activity of the learner counts more than the
activity of the teacher. This is based on the principle of learning by doing which is the
basic and the best progressive methods of educating a child.
vii) Learning is both individual and social. Learning is more than an individual activity. It
is a social activity also. Individual mind is affected by the group mind consciously as
well as unconsciously as individual is influenced by his friends, relatives, classmates,
parents, family and learns from their ideas, feelings and notions.
viii) Learning is the product of the environment. Environment plays an important part in
the growth and development of the individual. Environment should be healthy and
rich in educative possibilities.
ix) True learning affects the conduct of the learner. There is a change in the mental
structure of the learner after every experience.
x) Learning takes place through trial and error. Some learning is the outcome of trial and
error.
xi) Learning depends upon insight. Lasting learning depends upon insight. Insight has
sometimes been described as the flash of understanding.
ACTIVITY: When and where does learning take place?
1.3 Goals in learning

Goals in learning can be classified in three broad categories:
i) Acquisition of knowledge. This category includes perceptions, conceptions and
associative learning.
Perception refers to the acquisition of specific knowledge about objects or events

directly stimulating the senses at any particular moment. An object comes before our
sense organs we get its sensation and attach meaning to it on the basis of our past
experience. This is called perception and the type of learning is known as perceptual
learning. For example, when a child sees a woman, sees a mother because this
woman fed him. This is based on the past experience.
Conception means the acquisition of organised knowledge in the form of general

ideas or concepts. The child gets the perception of an apple, banana, orange, and is
able to locate certain general qualities in them. On the basis of these qualities, he
forms the conception of fruit.
Associative learning corresponds to memory, both as the deliberate recall and

recognition, past experience and a habit or automatic memory due to association.
Associative learning is fundamental to all other learning.
ii) Acquisition of skills. Under this we include the sensory-motor processes like writing,
reading, musical performance, language acquisition, in its vocal aspect, art, drawing,
hand work.
iii) Acquisition of attitudes and ideas. This is present in the affective or feeling elements.
An ideal is a concept which is attached with some worthwhile value.
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1.4 Elements and Implications in Educational learning

Elements of teaching and Learning
Teaching and learning involves the process of transferring knowledge from the one who is giving
to the one who is receiving. Teaching process cannot be performed if there is one element that is
missing among the three of the teaching and learning elements. There is what we called as
elements of teaching and learning processes. These elements are necessary to be able to make
teaching and learning possible. Without one of these elements, there could be no real teaching or
learning process that will exist.
It is so important that the presence of these elements is present in the process of teaching,
considering that all of them play an important role in the system.
The elements of teaching and learning process are the teacher, the learner as well as the good
learning environment. It is being considered that learning occurs when there is established
relationship among these three elements. The teaching as well as the learning activity depends
upon how these elements works together.
The teacher is considered as the element that has the main role in the teaching-learning process.
He/she is considered as the so-called prime mover of the educational processes. Thus, he directs
the flow of the whole process. The teacher is the one that facilitates the whole process of
learning. He or she directs its flow and serve as main control of the teaching learning process.
The learners are considered as the key participant in the teaching and learning process. They are
considered as the primary subject or the main reason why the process is implemented. The
knowledge that acquired by the learners will decide if the teaching and learning objectives are
achieved. Learners vary from one another in the aspects of learning. There are those learners that
learn fast while there are those learners that learn in average or slower.
The favorable environment, participates in the teaching-learning process by providing a place

where there is a smooth flow of communication, avoiding some common barriers between the
teacher and the learner. The presence of a good environment is so much important in the
teaching and learning process. The good environment provides a smooth flow of communication
between the learners and the teachers, thus it facilitates a well-executed teaching and learning
process. A good environment is necessary for learning. The reason why we should make sure
that we should have this kind of environment, as we teach or we learn.
Implications of elements of learning

Elements and implications of learning may be summarised as below:
 Who is to learn? The child is to learn and therefore, his age, abilities, aptitudes and
interests may be taken note of by all those who are charged with the learning of the
child. The child must be allowed to play an active role in the learning process.
 From whom to learn? Learning is from the teacher. Therefore, a teacher must present
good models of teaching-learning.
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 Why to learn? Learning is not merely in terms of traditional 3 Rs (Reading, Writing
and Arithmetic) but in terms of 7Rs (Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, Rights,
Responsibilities and their relationships; and Recreation. Learning is for individual
good as well as for the good of the society.
 How to learn? It involves various principles of learning, methods of learning, for
instance, learning through rote memory, learning through imitation, learning through
insight, etc
 When to learn? This is concerned with motivational situations for the learner.
 Where to learn? Learning takes place in the classroom, on the playfield, in the
workshop, in the neighbourhood, etc.., school is not the only place for learning.
1.5 Types and styles of learning
Learning has been classified in a number of ways in various categories. It is very difficult to
divide learning into clear cut categories because one overlaps the other.
i) Deliberate or conscious learning. This is the learning of a skill or subject which is
again divided into two types; a) primary learning which is the learning of facts,
principles and theories about the skills or subject; b) Associated learning, this consists
of the facts and other objective materials that are learned because they are related to
the primary learning and are logically brought into the teaching-learning process.
ii) Unconscious or concomitant learning. This includes learning likes and dislikes, it is
equally important as conscious learning.
iii) Developmental learning. This is classified as academic learning, emotional,
intellectual, moral, motor, sensory and social learning.
iv) General concept of learning this includes knowledge, skills and attitude formation
learning.
v) Memorization learning. This type of learning is called committing to memory
learning. There are certain principles which if followed make memorisation easier.
Like Learning whole whereby, the child tries to memorize as a meaningful whole.
Pattern learning and use Mnemonics.
However, Farrant (1980), categorized learning into three; Affective, cognitive and Psychomotor
learning. To him, Affective learning has to do with feelings and values and therefore influences
our attitudes and personalities.
Cognitive learning is achieved by mental processes such as reasoning, remembering and recall. It
helps in problem solving, developing new ideas and evaluation.
Psychomotor learning has to do with the development of skills which require efficient
coordination between our brains and muscles, as when we read or write or carry out physical
skills such as balancing, skipping or juggling.
In summary Farrant, said all the three types of learning can either be done deductively or
inductively.
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Learning styles
For educators to serve all learners, the focus must not just be on what the learners learn but how
they learn. All learners are unique and present profound differences in learning styles.
Lieberman (1988) define Learning style as approaches to learning developed by individuals over
time. Learning styles indicate the manner in which an individual perceives, interacts with, and
responds to the learning environment. Learning styles, therefore, are the cognitive, affective and
physiological traits a learner uses to approach learning events (Jacoben, etal, 1993).
In classroom set up we have five different types of learners: imaginative, auditory, analytical,
common sense, and dynamic/Kinesthetic learners.
i) Imaginative learner, perceives concretely and processes reflectively, preferring to

learn by watching, sensing and feeling. These learners tend to ask why. They seek a
connection between their values and how learning relates to those values.
ii) Auditory learner, perceive concretely and processes reflectively when they hear. This
learner does not mind where they sit in the classroom, so long as he is able to hear the
information.
iii) Logical/Analytic learners perceive abstractly and process reflectively, preferring to
learn by asking why, and thinking. Their learning behaviours include devising
theories, seeking continuity, thinking sequentially, and being thorough and
industrious. Analytical learners enjoy the traditional classroom model because they
need to know what the expert (teacher) thinks.
iv) Common sense learners perceive information abstractly and process actively.
Pragmatic common-sense learners are able to integrate theory and practice problem-
solving process, thinking and doing. They edit reality, cut right to the heart of things.
asking the question how, they are doers who search for practical application of
knowledge.
v) Dynamic/Kinesthetic Learner perceive concretely and process actively, preferring to
learn by sensing, feeling and doing. They learn by trial and error, integrating
experience and application. Flexibility is a critical feature of their learning style.
Seeking out risks, dynamic learners desire to enrich reality.
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UNIT TWO
LEARNING PROCESS AND CLASSROOM LEARNING FACTORS
2.1 Learning process
Learning process is a sequence of mental events or conditions leading to changes in the learner.
As a sequence of events, the learning process is as follows:
i) The individual has needs and is therefore, in a state of readiness to respond.

ii) He meets a learning situation or problem. A new interpretation is required because
previously learned responses are not adequate for reaching the goal and satisfying his
need. He encounters something new or unexpected, and must search for a different
response.
iii) He interprets the situation with reference to his goals. He tries a response or
responses, which seem to satisfy his need. The way he perceives the situation and the
response he makes, depends both on his readiness and on external conditions of the
situation.
iv) If his response leads to desired goals or satisfaction, he will tend to interpret and
respond to similar future situations in the same way. If not, he keeps on trying and
interpreting until consequences are attained. The learning process is the whole
sequence.
2.2 Phases of Learning
Learning process is analogous to the functioning of the computer. The computer receives
information (input), processes the information received in the context of information that already
possesses and suggests solutions (output). In learning, the input is what is received from outside,
external stimuli and the output is the modified behaviour of the learner (New knowledge,
attitude, or skills).
Learning is an information process with numerous processes that can be analyzed at different
phases corresponding to the various stages in the information processing model. All the
processes that occur in different stages are “learning events”
Learning begins when the learners take in the stimuli from the environment through reception
and ends with the feedback that they get about their performance. Between the two events there
are several stages of internal processing of information.
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Information processing involves certain events concerned with the flow of information through
the structure of central nervous system. When the teacher receives information from the external
source, the stimuli from the environment stimulates the receptors and the stimuli is converted
through impulses to the short-termed memory and stay for short time like 20 seconds then
transferred to long-term memory. This is where the information becomes meaningful.
Meaningful learning is stored permanently.
When the information is the long-term memory,
2.3 Factors affecting learning: classroom implication
Learning is affected by the total situation. This total situation is dependent upon the number of
factors both external and internal. The external factors to the classroom situation that may have
greater effects are Heredity and the status of the home. The child’s ability to learn and rate of
learning are conditioned by heredity. Teachers can increase or reduce heredity endowment in
children. Therefore, the teachers should see that opportunities to use and develop heredity
endowment be given to children.
Physical conditions and home conditions also matter like bodily weakness, chronic illness,
malnutrition, fatigue and bad health are great hinderance to learning. Home conditions like bad
ventilation, unhygienic living, bad light, overcrowding affects the rate of learning and the general
response to the child.
Sometimes children have to walk long distance to and from the school and this also influences
learning.
Internal classroom factors affecting learning are the following:
i) Goals set before the pupils. Definite goals should be set before each child according
to the standard expected to him. Immediate goals should be set before small children
and distant goals for older ones. It must be remembered that the goals should be very
clear and the children must understand these goals.
ii) Motivational behaviour. Motivation of the children is needed in classroom
instruction. Motivation means to move or put into motion because it put in motion the
desire of the children in class.
iii) Interest. Best learning takes place when the teacher is successful in rousing the
interest of the learners. The guidance of the teacher is mainly a matter of giving right
kind of stimulus to help them to learn the right things in the right way.
iv) Attention. Attention is defined as concentration or focussing of consciousness upon
one object or an idea. Attention is the essential element in all effective learning. It is
concerned with thought, feeling and action alike. The attention of the learner must be
secured by the teacher.
v) Drill or practice. Judicious use of repetition of words, phrases, generalizations and
principles makes learning more effective and secure the attention and interest of the
learners.
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vi) Fatigue. Generally, three types of fatigues must be differentiated; muscular, sensory
and mental. The remedy to fatigue is use of varied methods and proper timetabling.
vii) Aptitude. Aptitude is a condition or set of characteristics, regarded as symptomatic of
an individual ability to acquire with training some specific knowledge, skill or set of
responses such as the ability to speak a language, to practise music.
viii) Attitude. An attitude may be defined as a tendency to react favourably or
unfavourably toward a designated class of stimuli such as persons or objects. It is a
sum total of a child’s feelings and inclinations, prejudice or bias. The attitude of the
child must be tested to find out how much inclination he has for learning an activity, a
subject or topic.
ix) Emotional conditions. Children should be praised when they show good results. This
gives them encouragement to show all the better results and they develop hope,
confidence, self-reliance and self-respect.
x) Speed, accuracy and retention. All these elements depend upon aptitude, attitude,
interest, attention and motivation of the learners.
xi) Age. Learning tasks should be in accordance with the age of the learners. We cannot
expect problem solving form an infant. As already mentioned, hierarchical levels of
learning should be kept in view.
xii) Learning activities. Learning depends upon the activities and experience provided to
learners by the teacher, as well as his discipline, methods and personality.
xiii) Testing. Individual differences of children which are the heart of effective learning
are measured by various kinds of tests. Tests indicate changes that are needed in some
aspects of the learning of the learners. The use of tests goes a long way in eliminating
great deal of subjective element of measuring pupil differences and performance.
xiv) Guidance. The need for guidance is universal. Everyone needs guidance at some time
in his life. Some need it constantly while others need it only at an interval.
UNIT THREE
MOTIVATION AND LEARNER’S MOTIVATIONAL TECHNIQUES IN LEARNING
3.1 Meaning, Definition and significance of motivation
Motivation arouses interest, interest is the mother of attention and attention is the mother of
learning. Thus, to secure learning you must first put to detention the mother, grandmother, and
the great grand mother. Motivation is the very heart of learning process. It energizes and
accelerate the behaviour of the learner. No learning is possible without motivation. The intensity
of motivation of the learner determines the effectiveness of his learning.
The word motivation is derived from the Latin word “movere” which means “to move”.
Motivation is the result of processes, internal or external to. Thus, motivation is an internal force
which accelerate a response or behaviour. At any given time, learners, other things remaining the
same, vary in the extent to which they are willing to direct their energies in the attainment of
goals, due to difference in motivation.
To have comprehensive understanding of the term motivation the following definitions have
been given:
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Atkinson, T.W. (1966) states, the term motivation refers to the arousal of tendency to act to
produce one or more effects.
Bernard, H.W. (1965) defines motivation as the stimulation of actions towards a Particular
objective where previously there was little or no attraction to that goal.
Blaise, G.M., etal. (1947) defined motivation as a process in which the learner’s internal energies
or needs are directed towards various goal objects in the environment.
Kelly, W.A. (1955) refers to motivation as the central factor in the effective management of the
learning process.
Lovell, K. (1964) said motivation in a school learning involves arousing, persisting, sustaining
and directing desirable behaviour.
Maslow, A.H (1954) explains motivation as the self-actualisation tendency is growth motivation.
Self-actualization is the development of personality which frees the person from the deficiency
problems of growth. Motivation is constant, never ending, fluctuating and complex and that is in
an almost universal characteristic of particularly every organismic state of affairs.
McDonald, F.G. (1972) considers motivation as an energy change within the person
characterized by effective arousal and anticipatory goal relations.
Functions of motivation
 To arouse interest of the learners in learning

 To direct interest of the learners in learning
 To initiate interest among the learners in learning
 To sustain interest of the learners in learning
 To energize, activity of the learners in learning
 To arouse, accelerate, direct and sustain the behaviour of leaners
 To arouse tendency to act and produce results by the learners
 To release the tension of the learners.
3.2 Levels and types of motivation
Levels of motivation
There are four levels in the development of motivation, each level characterized by its own type
of reinforcement.
In the first level, reinforcement is concrete and bodily. It is direct satisfaction of physiological
need.
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In the second level, reinforcement is concrete but external involving tangible rewards such as
prizes or intangible rewards like affection or belongingness to a group.
The third level involves abstract but external reinforcement like esteem of others, being well-
thought by others, etc.
The final level involves active concern for self-actualization, reinforced by abstract and internal
reinforcers such as self-concept.
As a teacher you are expected to keep in mind all these levels of development of motivation
while dealing with children.
Types of motivation
There are two types of motivation; Extrinsic/External and Intrinsic/Internal motivation. Extrinsic
facilitates the intrinsic motivation greatly. External motivation is based on the use of rewards and
punishments. Intrinsic motivation is that which is aroused in the learning process itself. It arises
out of the interests of the learners which are related to their attempts to solve their own problem.
It is admitted that intrinsic motivation is by far the best type of motivation because it is
accompanied by a pleasantness which flows out to other related activities and that is desirable.
3.3 Motivation, hierarchical needs and learning implication
There are five basic categories of needs that influences motivation: physiological, safety, love,
esteem, and self-actualization. According to Abraham Maslow theory of motivation, what
motivates human beings are those needs that can be organized into hierarchy (levels). This
hierarchy ranges from more concrete needs such as food and water to abstract concepts such as
self-fulfillment. To Maslow, when a lower need is met, the next need on the hierarchy becomes
our focus of attention. Higher needs in the hierarchy begin to emerge when people feel they have
sufficiently satisfied the previous need.
Fig. 3.1: Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs
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Physiological
These refer to basic physical needs like drinking when thirsty or eating when hungry. According
to Maslow, some of these needs involve our efforts to meet the body’s need for homeostasis; that
is, maintaining consistent levels in different bodily systems (for example, maintaining a body
temperature of 98.6°).1
He considered physiological needs to be the most essential of our needs. If someone is lacking in
more than one need, they’re likely to try to meet these physiological needs first. For example, if
someone is extremely hungry, it’s hard to focus on anything else besides food. Another example
of a physiological need would be the need for adequate sleep.
Safety
Once people’s physiological requirements are met, the next need that arises is a safe
environment. Our safety needs are apparent even early in childhood, as children have a need for
safe and predictable environments and typically react with fear or anxiety when these are not
met. Maslow pointed out that in adults living in developed nations, safety needs are more
apparent in emergency situations (e.g. war and disasters), but this need can also explain why we
tend to prefer the familiar or why we do things like purchase insurance and contribute to a
savings account.
Love and Belonging
According to Maslow, the next need in the hierarchy involves feeling loved and accepted. This
need includes both romantic relationships as well as ties to friends and family members. It also
includes our need to feel that we belong to a social group. Importantly, this need encompasses
both feeling loved and feeling love towards others.
Since Maslow’s time, researchers have continued to explore how love and belonging needs
impact well-being. For example, having social connections is related to better physical health
and, conversely, feeling isolated (i.e. having unmet belonging needs) has negative consequences
for health and well-being.
Esteem
Our esteem needs involve the desire to feel good about ourselves. According to Maslow, esteem
needs include two components. The first involves feeling self-confidence and feeling good about
oneself. The second component involves feeling valued by others; that is, feeling that our
achievements and contributions have been recognized by other people. When people’s esteem
needs are met, they feel confident and see their contributions and achievements as valuable and
important. However, when their esteem needs are not met, they may experience what
psychologist Alfred Adler called “feelings of inferiority.”
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Self-Actualization
Self-actualization refers to feeling fulfilled, or feeling that we are living up to our potential. One
unique feature of self-actualization is that it looks different for everyone. For one person, self-
actualization might involve helping others; for another person, it might involve achievements in
an artistic or creative field. Essentially, self-actualization means feeling that we are doing what
we believe we are meant to do. According to Maslow, achieving self-actualization is relatively
rare, and his examples of famous self-actualized individuals include Abraham Lincoln, Albert
Einstein, and Mother Teresa.
How People Progress Through the Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow postulated that there were several prerequisites to meeting these needs. For example,
having freedom of speech and freedom of expression or living in a just and fair society aren’t
specifically mentioned within the hierarchy of needs, but Maslow believed that having these
things makes it easier for people to achieve their needs.
In addition to these needs, Maslow also believed that we have a need to learn new information
and to better understand the world around us. This is partially because learning more about our
environment helps us meet our other needs; for example, learning more about the world can help
us feel safer, and developing a better understanding of a topic one is passionate about can
contribute to self-actualization. However, Maslow also believed that this call to understand the
world around us is an innate need as well.
Although Maslow presented his needs in a hierarchy, he also acknowledged that meeting each
need is not an all-or-nothing phenomenon. Consequently, people don’t need to completely satisfy
one need in order for the next need in the hierarchy to emerge. Maslow suggests that, at any
given time, most people tend to have each of their needs partly met—and that needs lower on the
hierarchy are typically the ones that people have made the most progress towards.
Additionally, Maslow pointed out that one behavior might meet two or more needs. For example,
sharing a meal with someone meets the physiological need for food, but it might also meet the
need of belonging. Similarly, working as a paid caregiver would provide someone with income
(which allows them to pay for food and shelter), but can also provide them a sense of social
connection and fulfillment.
3.4 Techniques for the development of motivation in learners in the class
Learners in the classroom learning need constant motivation from the teachers so that optimum
use of their talent may be made for their development. The needs are the basis of motivation.
Therefore, the techniques the teachers employ to arouse and maintain motivation will be
successful only in so far as they made them perceive that progress is being made towards need-
satisfaction. Since differ in regards to specific needs according to their personality, background,
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and behavioural patterns, teachers will have to vary their motivational skills and employ them
judiciously, avoiding being to rigid and strict.
The following are the important techniques to develop motivation in learners in class:
i) Attractive physical and environmental conditions. The teachers should first attend to
the physical conditions of the classroom. There should be no distracting factors in and
around the classroom like noise, strong light and some undesirable scenes.
ii) Sublimation of innate impulses. Most of the behaviour of young children is directed
by their innate impulses. Curiosity, construction, self-assertion, submission,
pugnacity and hoarding are some of their most powerful drives which form the basis
of all kinds of their activities. The teacher should encourage the children to learn by
construction and creating things.
iii) Stimulus variation by the teacher. Children have short attention span so the teachers
vary stimulus and his behaviour. Some common teacher behaviour in the classroom
that fall under variation are: movement, gestures, postures, sensory focus and speech
pattern (moderation of the voice)
iv) Reinforcement: Praise and Blame. These can be positive or negative, Verbal or non-
verbal. For example, teacher’s friendly movements towards the learners and looks,
say words like good! fair, Excellent, correct, etc.
v) Rewards and punishment. Rewards can either be material or symbolic and
psychological all these enhances and satisfies child’s safety and belongingness and
needs.
vi) Pleasure and pain. According to the oldest theory of behaviour, pleasant experiences
which give satisfaction are sought after and painful experiences are avoided by an
individual. The teacher must provide pleasant and satisfying experience to the
learners so that they are motivated for further learning.
vii) Attainable goals. There should be a goal to be reached in every lesson or activity. The
goals must be made clear to the learners.
viii) Experience of success. Experience of success motivates a child to continue an
activity. Regular experience of success throughout all the phases of learning
motivates the child to learn.
ix) Competition and co-operation. Competition is a spur to activity. But competition on
individual basis is likely to be unequal and therefore, threatening of some of the
learners. Cooperation provides motivation since it provides social situation to learners
when they find satisfactions of their acceptance and belonging needs.
x) Knowledge of progress. Pupil’s knowledge of their progress of how well they are
moving towards their goals is a very effective form of motivation. It also helps them
put greater efforts. Individual progress chart not only inform the child as to how he is
doing but also keeps the child involved in learning activity.
xi) Novelty. The striving towards self-actualization makes pupils search for new and the
different. Field trips, excursions, dramatics, sports, literary activities satisfy the
pupil’s needs for self-actualization by providing them opportunities. But for their
safety needs require that they should know before hand when and how the new
experience will be provided.
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xii) Individual differences of the children. Children have different interests and
capabilities. All the children can not be motivated alike for all the lessons or activities
at all times. It is the duty of the teacher to discover the interests and capabilities of the
children in is class to motivate them accordingly.
xiii) Active involvement of the learners. Learners must be involved actively in the lessons
and activities.
xiv) Linking with environment. For example, from daily life and the subject matter should
be closely related.
xv) Use of learning aids. Relevant aids, if used judiciously are very helpful in the
development of motivation among the learners.
xvi) Teaching skills. The teaching skills of the teacher influence motivation. It is not easy
to give an exact number of teaching skills involved in motivating learners in the class.
xvii) Teacher’s own motivation and interest in teaching. The teacher must be interested in
what he is teaching and in the children whom he is teaching. If he is not interested in
the work himself, he can never motivate the class.
UNIT FOUR
TEACHING-LEARNING PROCESS
4.1 Meaning and Significance of the teaching-learning process
Meaning
Teaching-learning has four aspects: teacher, learner, learning situation and learning process. The
teacher creates the learning situation for the learner. The process is the interaction between the
learner and the teacher. Teaching and learning relationship or interaction may be explained with
the help of a diagram.
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Learning Teacher development
Learner Process
Fig. 4.1: Teaching-learning process and teacher-taught interaction
Teaching-learning process is a mean through which the teacher, the learner, the curriculum and
other variables are organised in a systematic manner to attain pre-determined goals and
objectives. It implies that all the various elements of teaching learning situation have to be
brought into an intelligible whole. The learner’s activities and elements need to be harmonized,
these includes: learners and their individual differences, the methods of teaching, the material to
be taught, classroom conditions, teaching aids, questioning and answering, practical skills
discussions and many others.
Teaching-learning process is influenced by the totality of the situation. It is fruitful and

permanent if the total situation is related to the life situations. Teachers can play an important
role in facilitating learning when they consider the needs of the learners.
Teaching-learning process is a mean whereby society trains its young ones in a selected
environment (usually the school) as quickly as possible to adjust themselves to the world in
which they live.
Significance
If the teaching-learning process is effective, then the child is able to make the best use of the
things in the world around him. If the child has not learnt the rt of living harmoniously with
others, he will find himself beset with more difficulties than the person who has learnt how to
establish social relations with his fellows. So, the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values and
attitudes which enable us to adjust ourselves in an effective manner to the environment may be
said to be the aim of teaching-learning.
4.2 Importance Aspects of The Teaching-Learning Process
Teaching and learning are interlinked. We can not think of teaching without learning. The
teacher teaches and the learners learn. Teaching is not a vacuum. Therefore, to make teaching-
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learning sound and effective, we must look into its various aspects very carefully and critically.
The following are chief aspects:
i) Command, planning and organisation of the subject matter or content and activities.
Successful teaching-learning process depends on the thoroughness of knowledge of
the subject matter to be taught by the teacher and the soul of effective teaching
learning is good command of the subject matter. Next is the aspect of presenting the
subject matter to the class which includes organisation and use of the methods and
technology for teaching.
ii) Class control and discipline. Appropriate class control and discipline is one of the
most important characteristics of a successful teacher. A good teacher is one who can
control his class not through fear or high handedness but by virtue of his interest in
the learner, good command on the subject matter and the ability to present
interestingly and effectively.
iii) Psychology of learners. It must be realized by the teacher that all his knowledge of
the subject matter, his ability to present it methodically and effectively and his ability
to control the class situation ably. A teacher must understand his learners and
encourage them by taking into consideration their interests, abilities, aptitudes and
limitations. An ideal teacher is always humble, sincere, honest, tolerant, and patient in
dealing with learners.
iv) Evaluation. Evaluation has an important place in the teaching learning process. A
teacher should carefully evaluate his learners to find out how they can make more
progress. He may use a variety of methods for his purpose. Self-evaluation by both
the teacher and the learner is very important.
4.3 Teaching-Learning and Evaluation
Teaching remains central to learning and evaluation. There is interrelatedness between teaching
objectives (ends), learning experiences (means) and evaluation (evidence of what is taught and
learnt).
Evaluation is the process of determining the extent to which the objective is achieved; the
effectiveness of the learning experience provided in the classroom; and how well the goals of
teaching have been accomplished.
In evaluation one has to know where the learners were at the beginning if changes to occur is to
be determined. One need to obtain a record of changes in learners by using appropriate methods
of appraisal. Further, one also has to judge how good the changes are in the light of the evidence
obtained.
Thus, evaluation comes in at the planning stage when the teaching objectives are identified; at
every point of learning it attempts to discover the effectiveness of the learning situation in
evoking the desired changes in learners. In fact, evaluation is integrated in the whole task of
teaching and learning. Its purpose is to improve learning not merely to measure achievement
4.4 Teaching- Learning and improvement

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It is worth to bear in mind that learning is what learners do, teaching is what the teachers does
and that improvement in teaching can only be demonstrated if there is consequential
improvement in learning. On the other hand, improvement in learning may occur for reasons that
have nothing to do with teaching. For example, learners are able to spend more time in the
library and gain better and become more motivated.
It follows that in any learning situation, learners may learn correctly what the teacher taught
incorrectly or may learn incorrectly what the teacher taught correctly. For proper learning, the
learners beside their past personal experiences, they are expected to learn by emulating their
teachers.
4.5 Teaching Operations and Learning Operations
Teaching operations and learning operations are interlinked. Nevertheless, teaching operations to
be successful must take into consideration the learning operations needed to accomplish the
teaching objectives which themselves are based on the learning objectives.
Learning operation are under:
 Discrimination of stimulus situation

 Response or cognition
 Assimilation of relationship between specific elements of the situation and the response.
 Developing application and control over the environment.
 Definite behavioural changes
Teaching operations may be enumerated as under:
 Presentation of stimulus in a specific control

 Bringing suitable responses by organising appropriate learning experiences.
 Elucidation and elaboration
 Setting up drill and review exercises for fixing up the behaviour in the repertoire of
learning.
 Evaluating learning outcomes.
4.6 African Traditional Teaching-Learning Process and Modern Teaching – Learning

Process.
Modern teaching-learning process assigns an important place to learner-activity. It calls for a

child-centered approach. the most distinctive feature of modern society is its science-based
technology which has been making a profound impact not only on the economic and political life
of our countries but also on its educational systems. The changes that occur as a result of the
impact are broadly described as “modernization”
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This modernization has affected teaching learning process in many ways. The recent changes in
the concept of teaching-learning process have led to the development of newer areas of
educational endeavours.
In traditional society the aim of teaching learning was the preservation of the accumulated stock
of knowledge. But the modern society, the main aim of teaching learning is the acquisition of
knowledge alone. It is the awakening of curiosity, the stimulation of creativity, the development
of proper interests, attitudes and values and building of essential skills such independent study.
Teaching learning process has to serve as a powerful instrument of social, economic and cultural
transformation of the society. Teaching learning process is conditioned by nature and demands of
the society to which the learner should get adapted and attuned. One of the main aims of
teaching learning in the modern society is to keep pace with the advancement of knowledge and
skills.
For a pretty long period, the teaching learning process has been by and large, a process
dominated by the institution of professional teachers. Now the process is to be replaced to a great
extent by a process in which the individual learner is expected to take up challenges through an
inevitable intellectual revolution. The intellectual revolution has been set in by forces of
hardware technologies at low cost, socialization process due to interdependence. Besides,
projects, farms, factories, markets, excursions and play grounds will become classrooms in the
new teaching learning process.
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UNIT FIVE
APPROACHES, PRINCIPLES AND MAXIMS OF TEACHING AND THEIR

IMPLICATIONS TO LEARNING
There are several instructional methods and approaches available for the teacher to
choose. Pre-school teachers employ different learning approaches based on their beliefs
about learning and others on the basis of their training. The most important approaches to
young learners’ learning are child-centered, play and integrated approaches.
5.1 Play and Learning
Play is a spontaneous pleasurable activity that children engage in. it can also be any
leisure-oriented activity in which the child engages for enjoyment, fun and amusement.
Play is a common activity among young children due to its diverse functions. It forms an
integral part of a child’s learning domains. When play is used as a learning strategy, the
teacher manipulates the environment and provides materials that stimulate or provoke
relevant play activities for the achievement of defined objectives, development and
acquisition of set concepts, skills, and attitudes. Essentially, play entails integration of
various senses; consequently, there is a high retention of what is learnt.
To benefit from play, children should be given the opportunity to engage in free
discussion, choose their own materials, set their rules and time in order to widen their
knowledge. Through play, it is easy to evaluate the performance of the individual child
and sustain interest since children naturally like play. Further more, play opens up shy
children as they are free with their counterparts.
Children’s play enhances the development of creative thinking while reducing

egocentrism through sharing of materials. It also enhances holistic development of the
child. As children play, tension and stress in learning is reduced. It is spontaneous and
children readily play in many environments making learning enjoyable. This way,
children build their self-esteem and develop independence.
Principles of play in learning
i) Play is based on the principle that learning takes place through doing.
ii) It based on the principle that learning takes place in an environment of freedom.
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iii) It is based on the principle that learning should be adapted to life situations and
not to books
iv) It is based on the principle that the method should be suited to the needs and
interest of the learner.
v) It is based on the principle that the child should be freed from authoritarianism.
vi) It is based on the principle that the child should themselves take upon the
responsibility of learning and progress in studies.
vii) It is based on the principle that ample opportunity should be provided to children
for self-expression.
5.2 Child-centred approaches of teaching and its implication to Learning
Child-centered approach of teaching is defined as an educational theory or system that

emphasises the child/learner and his individual characteristics as central in conducting
instruction instead of focusing on the subject matter, external authority, and educational
requirements. In child-centered approach the aim is the development of the total
personality of the child; all program is activity-based with different strategies; the pace of
learning is based on the needs and abilities of the learners; in teaching-learning process
the teacher is a facilitator in learning and development; and discipline is achieved through
the maintenance of positive human relationship between the teacher and the learner.
Implications of child-centered approach
i) The child is the agent in his own learning. Out of the three components of a
learning situation; the child, the teacher and environment, pride of place is to be
given to the child. He must become the most important agent in his learning. It
means that curriculum must be thought of in terms of activities and experiences
which appeal most to the child.
ii) Children learn best when they are active. When we consider the child n agent in
his own learning, we must provide for him to be active. The medium of learning
is the activities undertaken by the child. Learning takes place through a
continuous process of interaction between the learner and his environment.
iii) Knowledge or information is not the goal. Self-actualization is the goal.
Personality and character are more important than the subject matter. To possess
all the knowledge of the world and lose one’s own self is awful fate in education.
iv) Child-centered approach is more psychological than logical. It emphasises the
process rather than the product.
v) Child-centered approach gives freedom to the child under the creative and
sympathetic direction of the teacher.
vi) One single exposure to an experience does not affect all the necessary
coordination of the physical and mental faculties of a child to preserve the net
value of exposure. Hence, there must be repetitive exercises and drills to give a
certain knowledge and the efficiency and tenacity of a skill and value. It is here
the child becomes the trainee and the teacher becomes a trainer or the child an
educand and the teacher an educator.
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vii) A child is a unique being and can function only by remaining in the world in
which it has a specific role to play. The teacher’s role is to help the child to
conform to its unique role, both in its spirit, habitual values, choices and
consistent behaviour patterns.
viii) The child’s sense of wonder and astonishment and his natural curiosity lead to a
learning process which should be encouraged by teachers.
Roles of the teacher in child-centered education
 Motivating the children

 Developing trust and confidence in children’s capacity to learn.
 Becoming as a resource for creating meaningful learning experiences.
 Accepting the individual and the group.
 Participating as a member of the group in guiding learning.
 Becoming sensitive to the child’s needs and interacting in a way that would
provide a sense of feeling and security.
 Recognizing and reinforcing the individual contribution.
Activity: Discuss the limitations of child-centered Education in this

contemporary world.
5.3 Integrated approaches of Learning
This an approach whereby the learner brings together prior knowledge and experiences to
support new knowledge and experiences. By doing this, learners draw on their skills and
apply them to new experiences at a more complex level. All other approaches like child-
centered, teacher-centered, play-way, to mentioned are combined together to enable
learners learn well. It is considered to be the best approach of learning to young children.
In this approach, learners are taken through a variety of learning experiences using the
thematic approach. they are engaged in different activities that relate to different activity
areas or subjects based on a certain theme. In other words, a given a theme can run
through different activity areas in a well-organized manner. Also, different activity areas
are taught together under one theme in order to help children develop concepts, skills and
desirable attitudes.
Characteristics of integrated approach of learning in ECD
 It is at the pace of the learners and all learning activities are incorporated in one
theme.
 It is a continuous approach since themes run through all planned activities for a
given period of time, cutting across all the activity areas.
 Display of materials and the arrangement of learning areas or corners portrays the
theme learned during a particular time.
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 The teacher is flexible in the choice of themes, learning activities and in the
planning process to enable the integration to be smooth.
 The teacher considers children’s abilities, age and the interests before planning for
the learning activities in each theme.
 Th teacher is always aware of the different knowledge, concepts, skills and
attitudes to be developed in learners in different activity areas.
5.4 Principles of teaching and its implications
The educators and philosophers have emphasised certain principles of teaching which the
teachers are expected to bear in mind for making their teaching effective, efficient and
inspirational. The principles are classified as psychological and general principles of
teaching.
Psychological principles of teaching
i) Principle of activity or learning by doing. Children are active by nature and any
process or method that is not based upon the learner activity is not in accord with
the progressive educational theories. The child is considered as a hero in the
drama of education. So, the first principle is to keep the class active.
ii) Principle of play-way. This principle is closely related to the principle of learning
by doing. According to Froebel, play the chief activity of childhood. Because it
gives joy, freedom, contentment, and inner and outer peace. This implies that a
spirit of play way should prevail in the classroom work.
iii) Principle of motivation. The teacher will do his best to motivate all learners in the
lesson. Motivation arouses the learners’ interests and once they are motivated they
are willing to concentrate and work.
iv) Principle of self education. The best teaching is enabling the child learn by his
own efforts. Teachers must only trigger the imagination of their learners.
v) Principle of individual differences. No two children are the same. Teaching to be
effective must cater for individual differences in children.
vi) Principle of goal setting. A definite goal must be set before each child according
to the standard expected of him. Short-term or long-term or intermediate goals
should be set before small children and distant goals for older ones. These goals
must be very clear that the learners can understand.
vii) Principle of stimulation. Burton has said, teaching is the stimulation, guidance,
direction and encouragement of learning. So, as a teacher your guidance matters a
lot to the child’s learning.
viii) Principle of association. Thorndike points out that things we want to go together,
should be put together. Many different things or ideas which we want to go
together should be associated with each other. This make learners understand their
relationship.
ix) Principle of readiness. This principle is indicative of learner’s state of mind to
participate in the teaching-learning process. Readiness is preparation for action. A
teacher must be alive to this principle.
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x) Principle of effect. This principle states that a response is strengthened if it is
followed by pleasure and weakened if followed by displeasure.
xi) Principle of exercise or repetition. According to it, the more a stimulus induced
response is repeated, the longer it will be retained. Other things being equal,
exercise strengthens the bond between situation and response. Conversely a bond
is weakened through failure to exercise it. Thus, the principle has two sub-parts,
the principle of use and principle of disuse.
xii) Principle of change and rest. Psychological experiments in learning have
demonstrated that fatigue, lack of attention and monotony can be overcome by
making appropriate provision for change, rest and recreation. While framing the
time table it is kept in view that subjects and activities are provided in such a way
that the learner do not experience boredom and fatigue. Usually two consecutive
periods of a subject are not provided in a class.
xiii) Principle of feedback and reinforcement. Learning theories point out that the
immediate knowledge of the results and positive reinforcers in the form of praise,
grade, certificates, token money and other incentives can contribute to make the
task of learning enjoyable.
xiv) Principle of training of senses. Senses are said to be the gateways of knowledge.
The power of observation, discrimination, identification, generalization and
application can only be appropriately developed through the effective functioning
of senses.
xv) Principle of group dynamics. Under the influence of group behaviour, appropriate
changes in the behaviour of the members of the group can take place. Individuals
composing the group think and feel as the group feels, do as the group does. A
suitable climate for group dynamics is to be created in the classroom
environment.
xvi) Principle of creativity. Opportunities should be provided to the learners to explore
things and events and find cause-effect relationships. This principle envisages that
every learner possesses some element of creativity which must be explored and
developed to the maximum extent.
xvii) Principle of correlation. Correlation of learning task should be established with
the craft, physical and social environment.
General principles of teaching
Successful teaching necessitates that the teacher comes down to the level of the learners
and at the same time assists them in rising above it. However, the principles to be
followed depend on the age of the learners, the subject or learning activity to be given. A
part from the psychological principles, the general principles of teaching are the
following:
i) Principle of definite goals or objectives. Goals of teaching-learning must be very

clear to the teachers and the learners. The goals keep the teacher and the learners
on the track. Definiteness of the goals helps in planning, executing and evaluating
every step, phase or act of the teaching-learning process.
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ii) Principle of child-centeredness. The entire teaching endeavour is for the child.
Therefore, it is essential that teaching strategies should cater for the aptitude,
interest and abilities of the learners.
iii) Principle of linking with life. Teaching can never be performed in a vacuum. It is
always a social context. In the teaching of all the school subjects or learning
activities, examples from everyday life should be given their due place.
iv) Principle of active involvement and participation of learners. Teaching-learning
is a two-way traffic. Traditional teaching was almost teacher-centered. There was
little scope for the involvement of the learners. The teacher taught and the learners
listened to him passively. The new teaching emphasises that the learners must
actively participate in the whole process of teaching-learning.
v) Principle of cooperation. Classroom environment becomes lively when the
teacher and the taught work in union, helping each other in carrying out the task
of teaching and learning. All stakeholders must have common interest.
vi) Principle of remedial teaching. All learners do not learn with the same speed and
accomplishment. Some lag behind and need extra coaching. The teacher has to
find out where the fault lies and think for positive measures. He may have to
arrange remedial or compensatory or extra teaching.
vii) Principle of creating conducive environment. Physical as well as social
environment of the classroom plays a vital role in motivating the learners.
Arrangement of light and furniture should be properly attended to. There should
be proper discipline and order. The teacher should be sympathetic and firm.
viii) Principle of planning. Planning determines the quality of success of any task.
Planning in teaching involves the preparation of the notes, provision of teaching
aids, and working out strategies to be adopted in the delivery of the learning
activities.
ix) Principle of effective strategies. Teaching process to be effective must adopt
proper means, strategies and tactics. A teaching strategy is a generalized plan for
lesson which includes structure, desired learning behaviour in terms of goals of
instruction and an outline of planned tactics necessary to implement the strategy.
x) Principle of flexibility. Strategies should serve as guides for effective teaching.
Strategies may have to be changed if the classroom situations warrant.
xi) Principle of variety. A variety of teaching aids and strategies should be adopted to
motivate and sustain the interests of the learners. Variety serves as a great tonic
for creating fresh environment and checking boredom and lethargy.
Other principles that have been discussed in the psychological principles but applicable to
general principles are: principles of activity and individual differences.
5.5 The maxims of teaching and the learner
Maxims of Teaching are the universal facts found out by the teacher on the basis of
experience. They are of universal significance and are trustworthy. The knowledge of
different maxims helps the teacher to proceed systematically. It also helps to find out his
way of teaching, especially in the early stages of teaching. They quicken the interest of
the learners and motivate them to learn. They make learning effective, inspirational,
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interesting and meaningful. They keep the learners attentive to the teaching-learning
process. The following are different maxims of teaching:
I) Proceed from Known to Unknown: This maxim assumes that the learner knows
something. We are to increase his knowledge and widen his outlook. We have to
interpret all new knowledge in terms of the old. It is said that old knowledge
serves as a hook on which the new one can be hung. Known is trustworthy and
unknown cannot be trusted. So, while teaching we should proceed from known
and go towards unknown. For example, while teaching any lesson, the teacher can
link the previous experiences of the child with the new lesson that is to be taught.
II) Proceeds from Simple to Complex: Class-room teaching is formal where the
teacher tries to teach and the learners try to learn things. In this process of
teaching-learning, the teacher should see that simple things are presented first to
the learners. That way they will start taking interest. Once they become interested,
thou gradually complex type of things can also be learnt by them. By learning
simple things, they feel encouraged and they also gain confidence. On this basis,
they become further receptive to the complex matter. On the other hand, if
complex types of things are presented to the learner first, he becomes, upset, feels
bored and finds himself in a challenging situation lot which he is not yet ready
being immature and unripe. Gradually more difficult items of learning may be
presented to the learners. It will smoothen teaching being done by the teacher and
make learning convenient and interesting for the students. For example, in a
lesson on nature study, a child will understand the concept of a flower first and
there after other parts. Similarly, while teaching sentences of English, simple
sentences should be taught first and complex type of sentences may be taken
afterwards.
III) Proceeds from concrete to abstract. Concrete things are solid things and they
can be touched with five senses. But abstract things can only be imagined. So, it is
rather difficult to teach children about abstract things. The students are likely to
forget them soon. On the other hand, if we teach the students with the help of
concrete objects, they will never forget the subject matter. For example, when we
teach counting to the learners we should first examine concrete nouns like, laptop,
book, Pen etc. and then proceed to digits and numbers. The stars, the moon, the
sun etc. being taught first whereas the abstract thing: like a planet, satellites etc.
should be taught afterwards.
IV) Proceeds from Analysis of synthesis: Analysis means breaking a problem into
its convenient parts while synthesis means the grouping of these separated parts
into one complete whole. A complex problem can be made simple and easy by
dividing into different parts. “Analysis is the approach for understanding and
synthesis is for fixation.” Analysis of a sentence’ is taught to learners, that helps
the learners to understand the different parts of a sentence. Later on, the synthesis
of sentences should be taught.
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V) Proceeds from Particular to General: While teaching, the teacher should, first
of all, take particular statements and then on the basis of those particular cases,
generalization should be made. Suppose the teacher is teaching Present
Continuous Tense while Teaching English, he should, first of all, give a few
examples and then on the basis of those that make them generalize is that this
tense is used to denote an action that is going on at the time of speaking.
VI) Proceeds from Empirical to Rational: Empirical knowledge is based on

observation and firsthand experience. II is particular concrete and simple. We can
see, feel and experience it on the other hand; rational is based on our arguments
and explanation. The stage of arguments is the last whereas seeing things or
feeling them is the first stage. Empirical is fewer general statements whereas
rational is more general statements. So, the safe approach in teaching is that we
should proceed from empirical to rational. It is a journey from less mental
maturity to more mental maturity.
VII) Proceeds from Induction to Deduction; Induction means drawing a conclusion

from a set of examples whereas deduction is its opposite. The teacher should
proceed from induction to deduction. For example, in English, while teaching the
conversion of active voice into passive voice, the teacher should first convert a
few sentences of active into the passive voice and on the basis of those conclude
the general rule for a conversation of active voice in to passive voice.
VIII) Proceeds from Psychological to Logical. While teaching, the teacher should first
keep in mind the interest, aptitudes, capacities, development level etc. of the
children during the selection of subject matter and then on to its logical
arrangement. In teaching English, the structures are selected as per the needs and
requirements of the learners and then arranged in a logical way. The
psychological appeal of the thing is more important at the early stages. Then the’
logic behind it should be seen.
IX) Proceeds from Actual to Representative. For teaching excellently, actual

objects should be, shown to the children as far as possible. It gives them concrete
learning which is more desirable. The learners are able to retain it in their minds
for quite a long time. Especially in the lower classes, first-hand information to the
learners impresses them a good deal. Representative things in the form of
pictures, models; etc. should be used for the grown-ups or the seniors who are
already familiar with the actual objects. For example, the teacher should show the
elephant, the camel, the horse, the railway station, the post office etc. and thereby
he should make them understand about these things. The representative of these
things in the form of pictures or models may be used at later stages.
X) Proceeds from Near to far. Every child is able to learn well in the surroundings
to which he belongs. So, the child should be acquainted fully with his immediate
environment. Gradually he may be taught about those things which are far from
his immediate environment. This principle, if kept in view, will smoothen the
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leaching-learning process considerably. Thus, the child should be taught the
home, followed by the street, the bazaar, the school and then the distant
environment of the city to which he belongs. In the same way, acquaintance with
the city should lead to acquaintance with the village, the District, the Division, the
State and then the Country as a whole. This type of teaching will be incremental
and will be step by step learning. The textbook writer who writes books for the
small children should also place the different chapters in his bookkeeping in view
this principle. Then only his book will stand better chances of approval by all
concerned.
XI) Proceeds from Whole to Part. In teaching, the teacher should try to acquaint the
child with the whole lesson first and then the different portions of it may be
analyzed and studied intensively. This principle
holds good while teaching a thing to the small children. At the early stages, the
child loves to speak full sentences because in daily life situations, full sentences
are used. The child should be given a full sentence. Then he may have full
familiarity with the different words contained in that sentence. Later he may have
the knowledge of words. Then he will have the knowledge of different letters
forming the words. Suppose a poem is to be taught to the students. They should
be acquainted with the full poem first. Gradually they may be asked to grasp the
poem stanza by stanza. In the case of average learners, their first attempt may be
on full stanza, taking it as a whole and then to the different lines con I. lined in the
stanza as parts. It will help the teacher to teach better and the learners to learn
things conveniently.
XII) Proceeds from Definite to Indefinite. In teaching, definite things should be

taught first because the learner can easily have faith in them. Then afterwards he
should give the knowledge of indefinite things. Definite things, definite rules of
grammar help the learner to have good knowledge. Gradually he can be taught
about indefinite things
Note: The maxims are meant to be our servants and not masters. They
are interrelated and should be kept in view that learners differ in their
aptitudes, capacities, interests, mental and physical make ups. Therefore,
different maxims suit different situations and children. They must be used
judiciously.
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UNIT SEVEN
ASSESSING AND EVALUATING LEARNING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD

EDUCATION
7.1 Meaning and definition of Assessment and Evaluation
Assessment and Evaluation are two different concepts with a number of differences between
them starting from the objectives and focus. Before we go into details about these differences
that set assessment and evaluation apart, let us first pay attention to the two words themselves.
According to the Webster Dictionary (2017), Assessment means appraisal; and Evaluation is
estimation or determining the value of something. So, these processes are used in the field of
education very often to test the quality of teaching and learning processes. That is done to let the
educational institutions find out what more can be done to improve the education offered by
those educational institutions.
7.2 What is Assessment

As stated above, and according to Brown, (1990) Assessment refers to a related series of
measures used to determine a complex attribute of an individual or group of individuals. This
involves gathering and interpreting information about learner’s level of attainment of learning
goals.
Assessments also are used to identify individual learner’s weaknesses and strengths so that
educators can provide specialized academic support, educational programming, or social
services. In addition, assessments are developed by a wide array of groups and individuals,
including teachers, district administrators, universities, private companies, state departments of
education, and groups that include a combination of these individuals and institutions.
29
In classroom assessment, since teachers themselves develop, administer and analyze the
questions, they are more likely to apply the results of the assessment to their own teaching.
Therefore, it provides feedback on the effectiveness of instruction and gives learners a measure
of their progress. As Brown (1990) maintains, two major functions can be pointed out for
classroom assessment: One is to show whether or not the learning has been successful, and the
other one is to clarify the expectations of the teachers from the learners.
Assessment is a process that includes four basic components:

i) Measuring improvement over time.
ii) Motivating learners to study.
iii) Evaluating the teaching methods.
iv) Ranking the learners' capabilities in relation to the whole group evaluation.
Why Assessment is Important
First and foremost, assessment is important because it drives learners learning (Brown 1990).
Whether we like it or not, most learners tend to focus their energies on the best or most
expeditious way to pass their ‘tests.’ Based on this knowledge, we can use our assessment
strategies to manipulate the kinds of learning that takes place. For example, assessment strategies
that focus predominantly on recall of knowledge will likely promote superficial learning. On the
other hand, if we choose assessment strategies that demand critical thinking or creative problem
solving, we are likely to realize a higher level of learner’s performance or achievement.
In addition, good assessment can help learners become more effective self-directed learners
(Darling, Hammond 2006). As indicated above, motivating and directing learning is only one
purpose of assessment.
Well-designed assessment strategies also play a critical role in educational decision-making and
are a vital component of ongoing quality improvement processes at the lesson, course and/or
curriculum level.
Types and Approaches to Assessment
Numerous terms are used to describe different types of learner’s assessment. Although somewhat
arbitrary, it is useful to these various terms as representing dichotomous poles (McAlpine, 2002).
Formative <---------------------------------> Summative
Informal <---------------------------------> Formal
Continuous <----------------------------------> Final
Process <---------------------------------> Product
Divergent <---------------------------------> Convergent
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Formative vs. Summative Assessment
Formative assessment is designed to assist the learning process by providing feedback to the
learner, which can be used to identify strengths and weakness and hence improve future
performance. Formative assessment is most appropriate where the results are to be used
internally by those involved in the learning process (learners, teachers, curriculum developers).
Summative assessment is used primarily to make decisions for grading or determine readiness
for progression. Typically, summative assessment occurs at the end of an educational activity
and is designed to judge the learner’s overall performance. In addition to providing the basis for
grade assignment, summative assessment is used to communicate students’ abilities to external
stakeholders, e.g., administrators and employers (Darling-Hammond, 2006).
Informal vs. Formal Assessment
With informal assessment, the judgments are integrated with other tasks, e.g., lecturer feedback
on the answer to a question or preceptor feedback provided while performing a bedside
procedure. Informal assessment is most often used to provide formative feedback. As such, it
tends to be less threatening and thus less stressful to the student. However, informal feedback is
prone to high subjectivity or bias.
Formal assessment occurs when students are aware that the task that they are doing is for
assessment purposes, e.g., a written examination. Most formal assessments also are summative in
nature and thus tend to have greater motivation impact and are associated with increased stress.
Given their role in decision-making, formal assessments should be held to higher standards of
reliability and validity than informal assessments (McAlpine 2002).
Continuous vs. Final Assessment
Continuous assessment occurs throughout a learning experience (intermittent is probably a more

realistic term). Continuous assessment is most appropriate when learner’s and/or instructor’s
knowledge of progress or achievement is needed to determine the subsequent progression or
sequence of activities (McAlpine 2002). Continuous assessment provides both learners and
teachers with the information needed to improve teaching and learning in process. Obviously,
continuous assessment involves increased effort for both teacher and student. Final (or terminal)
assessment is that which takes place only at the end of a learning activity.
It is most appropriate when learning can only be assessed as a complete whole rather than as
constituent parts. Typically, final assessment is used for summative decision-making. Obviously,
due to its timing, final assessment cannot be used for formative purposes.
Process vs. Product Assessment
31
Process assessment focuses on the steps or procedures underlying a particular ability or task, i.e.,
the cognitive steps in performing a mathematical operation or the procedure involved in
analyzing a blood sample. Because it provides more detailed information, process assessment is
most useful when a student is learning a new skill and for providing formative feedback to assist
in improving performance (McAlpine 2002).
Product assessment focuses on evaluating the result or outcome of a process. Using the above
examples, we would focus on the answer to the math computation or the accuracy of the blood
test results. Product assessment is most appropriate for documenting proficiency or competency
in a given skill, i.e., for summative purposes. In general, product assessments are easier to create
than product assessments, requiring only a specification of the attributes of the final product.
Divergent vs. Convergent Assessment
Divergent assessments are those for which a range of answers or solutions might be considered
correct. Examples include essay tests. Divergent assessments tend to be more authentic and most
appropriate in evaluating higher cognitive skills. However, these types of assessment are often
time consuming to evaluate and the resulting judgments often exhibit poor reliability.
A convergent assessment has only one correct response (per item). Objective test items are the
best example and demonstrate the value of this approach in assessing knowledge. Obviously,
convergent assessments are easier to evaluate or score than divergent assessments.
Unfortunately, this “ease of use” often leads to their widespread application of this approach
even when contrary to good assessment practices. Specifically, the familiarity and ease with
which convergent assessment tools can be applied leads to two common evaluation fallacies: The
Fallacy of False Quantification (the tendency to focus on what’s easiest to measure) and the Law
of the Instrument Fallacy (molding the evaluation problem to fit the tool) (McAlpine 2002).
Approaches to Assessment
In approaches to assessment, two central tendencies emerge which are relevant to language as
subject. One places emphasis on the assessment of learning where reliable, objective measures
are a high priority. The focus here is on making summative judgements which in practice is
likely to involve more formal examinations and tests with marks schemes to ensure that the
process is sound (McAlpine 2002). An alternative approach is to change the emphasis from
assessment of learning to assessment for learning, implying a more formative approach where
there is much more emphasis on feedback to improve performance. The approach here might be
through course work and portfolio assessment in which diverse information can be gathered
which reflects the true broad nature of the subject (McAlpine 2002).
4. Between Assessment and Evaluation
32
After collecting data from learners there is then the need for assigning learners with numbers or
others symbols to a certain characteristic of the objects of interest according to some specified
rules in order to reflect quantities of properties. This is called measurement and can be attributed
to learners’ achievement, personality traits or attitudes.
Measurement then is the process of determining a quantitative or qualitative attribute of an

individual or group of individuals that is of academic relevance.
A test will serve as the vehicle used to observe an attribute whether in a written test or an
observation or an oral question or an assessment intended to measure the respondents' knowledge
or other abilities. Then if the test is the vehicle then the test score is the indication of what was
observed through the test and can also be quantitative and qualitative in nature.
A good test should possess not only validity and reliability but also objectivity, objective
baseness, comprehensiveness, discriminating power, practicability, comparability and also
utility.
Objectivity is when a test is to be said objective if it is free from personal biases in interpreting
its scope as well as in scoring the responses. It can be increased by using more objective type test
items and the answers are scored according to model answers are provided. Objective baseness is
that a test should be based on pre-determined objectives. And a test setter should have definite
idea about the objective behind each item (Shohamy 1993).
Comprehensiveness is that the test should cover the whole syllabus, due importance should be
given all the relevant learning materials, and a test should cover all the anticipated objectives.
Validity is the degree to which test measures what it is to measure.
Reliability is of a test refers to the degree of consistency which it measures what is intended to
measure. A test may be reliable but need not be valid. This is because it may yield consistent
scores but these scores need not be representing what is exactly measured what we want to
measure (Shohamy 2001).
Discriminating power of the test is its power to discriminate between the upper and lower groups
who took the test. The test should have different difficulty level of questions.
Practicality of the test depends on administrative, scoring, interpretative ease and economy.
Comparability is when a test possesses comparability when scores resulting from its use can be
interpreted in terms of a common base that has a natural or accepted meaning.
Then lastly the utility, a test has utility if it provides the test condition that would facilitate
realization of the purpose for which it is mean.
Educators believe that every measurement device should possess certain qualities. Perhaps the
two most common technical concepts in measurement are reliability and validity (Weir 2005).
33
Any kind of assessment, whether traditional or "authentic," must be developed in a way that
gives the assessor accurate information about the performance of the individual. At one extreme,
we wouldn't have an individual paint a picture if we wanted to assess writing skills. A test high
validity has to be reliable also for the score will be consistent in both cases. A valid test is also a
reliable test, but a reliable test may not be a valid one (Shohamy 2001).
7.3 EVALUATION
What is Evaluation
Evaluation is determining the value of something. So, more specifically, in the field of education,
evaluation means measuring or observing the process to judge it or to determine it for its value
by comparing it to others or some kind of a standard (Weir & Roberts, 1994). The focus of the
evaluation is on grades. It is rather a final process that is determined to understand the quality of
the process. The quality of the process is mostly determined by grades. That is such an
evaluation can come as a paper that is given grades. This type of paper will test the knowledge of
each student. So, here with the grades, the officials come try to measure the quality of the
programme.
Furthermore, Evaluation is comparing a learner's achievement with other learners or with a set of
standards (Howard & Donaghue 2015). It refers to consideration of evidence in the light of value
standards and in terms of the particular situations and the goals, which the group or individuals
are striving to attain. Evaluation designates more comprehensive concept of measurement than is
implied in conventional tests and examination. The emphasis of evaluation is based upon broad
personality change and the major objectives in the educational program.
Components of Evaluation
Evaluation can, and should, however, be used as an ongoing management and learning tool to
improve learning, including five basic components:
i) Articulating the purpose of the educational system.

ii) Identifying and collecting relevant information.
iii) Having ideas that are valuable and useful to learners in their lives and
professions.
iv) Analyzing and interpreting information for learners.
v) Classroom management or classroom decision making.
Well-run classes and effective programs are those that can demonstrate the achievement of
results. Results are derived from good management.
Good management is based on good decision making. Good decision making depends on good
information. Good information requires good data and careful analysis of the data. These are all
critical elements of evaluation.
Functions of evaluations
34
Evaluation refers to a periodic process of gathering data and then analyzing or ordering it in such
a way that the resulting information can be used to determine how effective teaching or program
is, and the extent to which it is achieving its stated objectives and anticipated results (Howard &
Donaghue (2015).
Teachers can and should conduct internal evaluations to get information about their programs, to
know who passes and who fails so that they can make sound decisions about their practices.
Internal evaluation should be conducted on an ongoing basis and applied conscientiously by
teachers at every level in all program areas.
In addition, all of the program's participants (managers, staff, and beneficiaries) should be
involved in the evaluation process in appropriate ways. This collaboration helps ensure that the
evaluation is fully participatory and builds commitment on the part of all involved to use the
results to make critical program improvements.
Principles of Evaluation
There are some principles to consider when evaluating the classroom activities. They are as
below:
i) Effective evaluation is a continuous, on-going process. Much more than

determining the outcome of learning, it is rather a way of gauging learning over
time. Learning and evaluation are never completed; they are always evolving and
developing.
ii) A variety of evaluative tools is necessary to provide the most accurate assessment
of students' learning and progress. Dependence on one type of tool to the
exclusion of others deprives students of valuable learning opportunities and robs
you of measures that help both students and the overall program grow.
iii) Evaluation must be a collaborative activity between teachers and students.
Students must be able to assume an active role in evaluation so they can begin to
develop individual responsibilities for development and self-monitoring.
iv) Evaluation needs to be authentic. It must be based on the natural activities and
processes students do both in the classroom and in their everyday lives. For
example, relying solely on formalized testing procedures might send a signal to
children that learning is simply a search for “right answers.”
Assessment vs. Evaluation
Depending on the area of study, authority or reference consulted, assessment and evaluation may
be treated as synonyms or as distinctly different concepts. In education, assessment is widely
recognized as an ongoing process aimed at understanding and improving student learning.
Assessment is concerned with converting expectations to results. It can be a process by which
information is collected through the use of test, interview, questionnaire observation, etc. For
35
example, having learners to write on a given topic or do a project and the teacher collects
information, this is what we mean here by assessment.
Evaluation on the other hand, is recognized as a more scientific process aimed at determining
what can be known about performance capabilities and how these are best measured. Evaluation
is concerned with issues of validity, accuracy, reliability, analysis, and reporting. It can therefore
be seen as the systematic gathering of information for purposes of decision-making, using both
quantitative methods (tests) and qualitative methods (observations, ratings and value judgments)
with purpose of judging the gathered information. In other words, when the teachers receive
written assignment from learners, some kind of correction and/or response and a possible mark
will be given. Thus, we are in presence of evaluation.
However, assessment and evaluation are similar in that they both involve specifying criteria and
collecting data/information. In most academic environments, they are different in purpose,
setting criteria, control of the process, and response. For example, an instructor can use the
results of a midterm exam for both assessment and evaluation purposes. The results can be used
to review with the learner’s learning activity material related to common mistakes on the exam
(i.e. to improve student learning as in assessment) or to decide what measurement or grade to
give each learner (i.e. to judge learner’s achievement in the learning activity as in evaluation).
Key Differences Between Assessment and Evaluation
The significant differences between assessment and evaluation are as discussed below:
i) The process of collecting, reviewing and using data, for the purpose of
improvement in the current performance, is called assessment. A process of
passing judgment, on the basis of defined criteria and evidence is called
evaluation.
ii) Assessment is diagnostic in nature as it tends to identify areas of improvement.
On the other hand, evaluation is judgemental, because it aims at providing an
overall grade.
iii) The assessment provides feedback on performance and ways to enhance
performance in future. As against this, evaluation ascertains whether the standards
are met or not.
iv) The purpose of assessment is formative, i.e. to increase quality whereas
evaluation is all about judging quality, therefore the purpose is summative.
v) Assessment is concerned with process, while evaluation focuses on product.
vi) In an assessment, the feedback is based on observation and positive & negative
points. In contrast to evaluation, in which the feedback relies on the level of
quality as per set standard.
vii) In an assessment, the relationship between assessor and assessee is reflective, i.e.
the criteria are defined internally. On the contrary, the evaluator and evaluatee
share a prescriptive relationship, wherein the standards are imposed externally.
viii) The criteria for assessment are set by both the parties jointly. As opposed to
evaluation, wherein the criteria are set by the evaluator.
36
NOTE: An effective, goal-oriented, teaching-learning sequence contains clearly understood
objectives, productive classroom activities, and a sufficient amount of feedback to make
learners aware of the strengths and weaknesses of their performances. Assessment and
evaluation are related to both instructional objectives and classroom learning activities and are
indispensable elements in the learning process. They are useful for gathering data/information
needed into various interests. The data can be used to make decision about the content and
methods of instruction, to make decisions about classrooms climate, to help communicate
what is important, and to assign grades. Among other techniques to do evaluation and
assessment, the teachers can use tests to evaluating and assessing, starting from the small one,
incorporating evaluation into the class routine, setting up an easy and efficient record-keeping
system, establishing an evaluation plan, and personalizing the evaluation plan.
37

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UGANDA MARTYRS UNIVERSITY-NKOZI

COURSE TITLE: Learning and Learner

THE CONCEPT OF LEARNING AND LEARNER, PRINCIPAL CHARACTERISTICS,

1.1 Meaning and definitions of Learning

1.2 Principal characteristics of learning

The following are the general characteristics of learning:

ACTIVITY: When and where does learning take place?

1.3 Goals in learning

Perception refers to the acquisition of specific knowledge about objects or events

Conception means the acquisition of organised knowledge in the form of general

Associative learning corresponds to memory, both as the deliberate recall and

The favorable environment, participates in the teaching-learning process by providing a place

Implications of elements of learning

1.5 Types and styles of learning

i) Imaginative learner, perceives concretely and processes reflectively, preferring to

LEARNING PROCESS AND CLASSROOM LEARNING FACTORS

2.1 Learning process

i) The individual has needs and is therefore, in a state of readiness to respond.

2.2 Phases of Learning

When the information is the long-term memory,

2.3 Factors affecting learning: classroom implication

Internal classroom factors affecting learning are the following:

3.1 Meaning, Definition and significance of motivation

 To arouse interest of the learners in learning

3.2 Levels and types of motivation

3.3 Motivation, hierarchical needs and learning implication

Fig. 3.1: Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs

Love and Belonging

How People Progress Through the Hierarchy of Needs

3.4 Techniques for the development of motivation in learners in the class

4.1 Meaning and Significance of the teaching-learning process

Fig. 4.1: Teaching-learning process and teacher-taught interaction

Teaching-learning process is influenced by the totality of the situation. It is fruitful and

4.2 Importance Aspects of The Teaching-Learning Process

4.3 Teaching-Learning and Evaluation

4.4 Teaching- Learning and improvement

4.5 Teaching Operations and Learning Operations

Learning operation are under:

 Discrimination of stimulus situation

Teaching operations may be enumerated as under:

 Presentation of stimulus in a specific control

4.6 African Traditional Teaching-Learning Process and Modern Teaching – Learning

Modern teaching-learning process assigns an important place to learner-activity. It calls for a

APPROACHES, PRINCIPLES AND MAXIMS OF TEACHING AND THEIR

5.1 Play and Learning

Children’s play enhances the development of creative thinking while reducing

Principles of play in learning

5.2 Child-centred approaches of teaching and its implication to Learning

Child-centered approach of teaching is defined as an educational theory or system that

Implications of child-centered approach

Roles of the teacher in child-centered education

 Motivating the children

Activity: Discuss the limitations of child-centered Education in this

5.3 Integrated approaches of Learning

Characteristics of integrated approach of learning in ECD

5.4 Principles of teaching and its implications

Psychological principles of teaching

General principles of teaching

i) Principle of definite goals or objectives. Goals of teaching-learning must be very

5.5 The maxims of teaching and the learner

VI) Proceeds from Empirical to Rational: Empirical knowledge is based on

VII) Proceeds from Induction to Deduction; Induction means drawing a conclusion

IX) Proceeds from Actual to Representative. For teaching excellently, actual