CHILD DEVELOPMENT

SHORT QUESTIONS:
1. Explain nature versus nurture?
Nature vs nurture:
Nature refers to the fact that many human characteristics are inherited. They are part of our
biological make-up. For example, most children have upright mobility (walking and running),
develop language, and learn to use simple tools. Other genetic characteristics differ from one
person to another. For example, people have different-colored hair and eyes. Some people are
tall, others are not. Also, people have different talents and skills. Such psychological traits as
temperament (for example, being shy or outgoing), aggression, and intelligence may also be
partly influenced by genes. Many characteristics develop slowly as a child matures. Within a wide
variety of environments, people develop characteristics that are part of their genetic make-up.
While Nurture refers to the influence of a person’s environments. Family, peers, schools,
neighborhoods, culture, the media, and society shape a child’s growth and development. Physical
characteristics are affected by nutrition. Mental ability is enhanced by interaction with people in a
stimulating environment. Social skills are influenced by the people around a child. Historically, the
relative influences of nature and nurture have been a source of debate among developmental
theorists. Increasingly, however, those who study development are beginning to realize that
nature and nurture are interconnected.
2. What is your opinion about modern concept of intelligent?
Modern concept of intelligence is based on two theories;
 Multiple intelligence theory.
 Triarchic theory.
The theory of multiple intelligences (Gardner, 1983, 2003) Howard Gardner redefines
intelligence. He says that human beings possess a multifaceted intelligence. Gardner argues that
intelligence is not a simple feature, but a range of skills derived from many disciplines. He
considered that the problem lies in an educational system unable to handle all these intelligences
in a classroom. In "Unschooled Mind: How Children Think and How Schools Should Teach
(1991)," as in "Multiple Intelligence. The Theory in Practice (1993), "he addresses different
learning styles and suggests that the educational system be adapted to learning styles of all
children, so that they are not forced to learn in a traditional way. Gardner argues that the problem
of academic failure is not due to student or teacher capacity, but the system of measurement
used to examine the capacity. In these volumes Gardner suggests various ways in which teachers
might use his theory to teach and assess students According to his theory, the multidimensional
construct of intelligence consists of seven distinct types of intelligences: linguistic, logical-
mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and natural. Later,
as I said above, he developed the concepts of existential and spiritual intelligence. His theory has
enjoyed international recognition and has been adopted in several schools in the U.S. and Europe
as an educational policy.
Triarchic theory of intelligence Sternberg believes that people resort to the same cognitive
processes regardless of the type and content of the problems they face. After multiple studies,
Sternberg has identified three general components involved in any type of problem solving: Meta
components, parts procurement and the performance ratio. These are information basal
processes acting on sensory information. Sternberg's triarchic theory’s objective is to specify the
mental mechanisms behind intelligent behavior. The basic concept of this theory is that selectivity,
according to the author refers to the individual decision to allocate at a certain time, cognitive
resources to priority - process some specific content of a task. It has three sub-components:
contextual theory, experience-based theory and componential. All this leads to the explanation of
intelligent behavior.
3. Differentiate b/w growth and development?
These are some points of contrast between growth and development.
Growth Development
Growth is defined as the development of a On the other hand, development is defined as
person in weight, age, size, and habits. the process wherein a person's growth is
visible in relation to the physical,
environmental, and social factors.
Growth is a process that focuses on Development focuses on both qualitative and
quantitative improvement. For instance, a quantitative refinement. For instance, a child's
child visibly grows in weight and height. IQ increases with the growing age.
Growth is limited to a certain level, i.e., a On the other hand, a person is developing
person's height grows till a certain age. every single day in terms of his/ her habits,
maturity level, IQ, etc.
Growth depends upon the cellular changes, Development is basically dependent upon
i.e., a child grows into an adult. The child organizational growth, i.e., the environment in
which a child lives or studies affect them
 undergoes many changes throughout his/ her immensely. The skill-set of a child changes in
childhood to adulthood. such an environment. For instance, a child
develops reading habits or acquires an
interest in the abacus.
Growth can be considered as physical growth On the other hand, development is considered
that is seen from one stage to another. as a gradual change in skill-sets, behavior,
habits, etc.
Growth is an external process. Development is an internal process.
Growth changes the physical changes of a On the other hand, development changes the
person. character of a person.
Growth is limited, i.e., it happens till a Development takes place throughout life, i.e.,
particular point in time. it doesn't depend upon time or age.
Growth focuses on only one aspect, i.e., an Development focuses on various aspects like
increase in the child's size. interpersonal skills, intelligence, etc.
Growth is structural. Development is considered as functional.
Growth is influenced by development. Development is not dependent upon growth.

4. Write a short note on law of learning?

Law of Learning:
E.L. Thorndike has formulated the three laws from his numerous studies and experiment, which
are as follows:

1. Law of readiness

2. Law of exercise

 law of use
 law of disuse

3. Law of effect

Law of Readiness:
This law is indicative of learner’s state to participate in the learning process. According to
Thorndike, readiness is preparation for action. Readiness does not come automatically with
maturation, according to this law when a bond is ready to act gives satisfaction and not to act
gives annoyance.

Classroom application of this law.

1. The teacher should prepare the minds of the students to be ready to accept the knowledge,
skills and aptitudes. For this, the teacher should provide opportunities for these experience in
which the students can spontaneously participate.
2. Teacher gives importance to physiological readiness. Readiness to act is indirectly linked with
the satisfaction derived from such acts.
3. Needs are to be activated in the pupils. In other words, the teachers are to arouse their capacity
to link to their everyday life. Simple and complex should be the method for teaching. Aptitude
tests should be given to the students to find out the readiness to learn.

Law of exercise:

This law is divided into two sub parts

 Law of use
 Law of disuse
With practice, the connection is strengthened, that is, more frequently a performance is
repeated, more prompt and definite it becomes.
For example : a student reads a lesson a number of times to master it or plays a musical tune a
number of times before she is able to play it easily. This is the law of use which is one of the most
common laws and is widely use in life and education.
An activity which is not used, exercised or repeated for a long time tends to be forgotten which
means that when practice is discontinued connection is weakened. This is the law of disuse.

Classroom application of this Law:

1. More and more opportunities should be given to students to use and repeat the knowledge
they get in class.
2. To maintain the connection for a longer period, review of the learnt material is necessary.
3. Practice or drill plays an important role in primary classes, especially in learning of multiplication
tables, alphabets, rhymes and word meanings.

Law of Effect:

This law explains the importance of effect or consequence or results in strengthening or

weakening of connections. This law is the law of reward and punishment activities which are
accompanied by a feeling of pleasure which meets our needs of pleasure which meets our needs,
satisfies our goals in which we are interested and more readily and effectively learnt than those
that are unpleasant and annoying.

Classroom application of this Law:

1. A pleasing environment should be created in the classroom.

2. The teacher should be sympathetic but firm. The teacher should himself or herself enjoy
working.
3. Experiences provided to the students should be satisfying and meaningful. They should be
organized in the order of increasing difficulties so that they can cope with failure and success.
4. Material should be provided in a number of ways for example – audio-visual methods should
be frequently used so that the novelty may be maintained.
5 Guidance, praise and encouragement that gives pleasure and satisfaction of knowing that he is
on the right path should be properly used.
5. What is the concept of learning?

In common the word 'learning' carries at least two meanings. There is a general one of some kind
of change, often in knowledge but also in behavior. However, learning cannot be defined merely
in terms of changes in behavior. But there is also a more intense sense of the verb 'to learn'
meaning to memorize, to learn by heart.

To say that 'learning is change' is too simple. Not all change is learning. What we usually mean
by 'learning' are those more or less permanent changes and reinforcements brought about
voluntarily in one's patterns of acting, thinking and/or feeling.

According to Ambrose.
  Learning is a process, not a product
 Learning is a change in knowledge, beliefs, behaviors or attitudes
 Learning is not something done to students, but something that students themselves do

There have been several attempts to describe the different areas of learning change. Kurst
Lewin (1935) suggested that learning changes occur

 in skills,
 in cognitive patterns (knowledge and understanding),
 in motivation and interest, and
 In ideology (fundamental beliefs)

Robert M. Gagné (1972) identified the following five domains or types of learning outcomes:

 motor skills which require practice,

 verbal information - facts, principles and generalizations which when organized into larger
entities become knowledge,
 intellectual skills - the 'discriminations, concepts and rules' that help in using knowledge,
 cognitive strategies - the way the individuals learns, remembers and thinks, the self-
managed skills needed to define and solve problems, and
 Attitudes.

6. How intelligence is measured?

 Intelligence is the ability to think, to learn from experience, to solve problems, and to adapt to
new situations. Intelligence is important because it has an impact on many human behaviors.
 The intelligence quotient (IQ) is a measure of intelligence that is adjusted for age. The
Wechsler Adult intelligence Scale (WAIS) is the most widely used IQ test for adults.
 Brain volume, speed of neural transmission, and working memory capacity are related to
IQ.
 Between 40% and 80% of the variability in IQ is due to genetics, meaning that overall
genetics plays a bigger role than environment does in creating IQ differences among
individuals.
 Intelligence is improved by education and may be hindered by environmental factors such
as poverty.
  Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to identify, assess, manage, and control one’s
emotions. People who are better able to regulate their behaviors and emotions are also
more successful in their personal and social encounters.

7. Write a short note on pre-birth time period?

Pre-birth time period:
Prenatal development (Pre-birth time period) refers to the development from conception to birth.
Before birth, development is extremely rapid and it is mostly physiological. It consists of the growth
of all the bodily structures. The individual grows from a single germ cell to an infant of
approximately seven pounds in weight and about fifty cm in length. Neonate or the newborn (Birth
to 2 weeks) refers to the period from birth to two weeks or so. At this stage the organism goes
through a sensorimotor stage during which the purely biological organization is gradually changed
into a bio psychological organisation through contacts with the world into which he is born.
Babyhood or infancy (2 weeks to 2 years) extends from the first month to two years. This is a very
significant period. It marks the transition from purely reflexive function organism to a psychological
individual. At first the baby is completely helpless and during the first six weeks he spends most
of his time sleeping. When he is awake, however, he engages himself in active interaction with
his environment; this interaction serves to stimulate his psychological and social development.
Gradually he learns to control his muscles so that he can become increasingly self-reliant. It is in
this period that the infant gains control over his hands, trunk and legs so that he can walk and run
about, kick a ball, build a tower with cubes, gain control over bowel and bladder, learn to speak
and acquire a vocabulary of more than 200 words. All the various emotions develop and temper
tantrums start. Though he obeys limited commands and can feed himself, he also shows
tesentment against being "babied" and a growing desire to be independent. Thus, this is the
period in which he gains control over his bodily movements and he learns to speak.
8. What are the general principle of child development?
Note: (The answer is a bit lengthy as also demanded for long question)
Principles of Child Development
Some general principles influencing development in various aspects. Some of those principles
are discussed, below:
1. Development is experienced from maturation and learning: At the time of maturation the
potential trails inherited from the parents are unfolded and develop into predictable
characteristics. Children may be able to show some signs of physical skill overnight which is
possible due to maturity. "Learning is" according to Hurlock "the development that comes from
exercise and effort on the part of the individual through which the child brings about changes in
his physical structure and behavior and acquires competence in using his heredity resources." It
is very essential to provide the child with learning situations so that the potentials inherited by the
child would reach their optimum development. There is still controversy as to whether heredity or
learning contributes more for the development of the child. It would be more justified to say that it
is the interrelationship and interaction between heredity and learning which is responsible for
better growth and development of the child.
2. Child growth and development is a continuous process but proceeds at different rates:
Starting from the very moment of conception till death growth and development is continuous but
the rate of growth and development is not the same throughout the life span. We may take the
example of height and weight of a child and very well mark how the rate of growth in height and
weight fluctuates in different periods. There are periods of accelerated growth and periods of
retarded growth for every aspect. Occasionally some of the activities appear to be abrupt. Even
though not seen outwardly same activities are gradual and continuous. For example, we may
mark a child to speak something overnight but for the same he would have been trying to speak
after imitating others for a quite number of days, similarly teaching appears to be over night but it
is a continuous process starting from its development in the jaw and cutting through the gums.
Moreover, growth and development is not uniform for the entire organism. While outward organs
like feet, hands and nose reach their maximum development during adolescence the lower parts
of the face reach their development late.
3. Development proceeds from general to specific:
Looking at the movement of the fetus. It is capable of moving its whole body whereas it is
incapable of making specific responses. After birth the child gradually acquires the capacity to
move specific organs like fingers, eyeballs etc. Hence, the motor development, occurs earlier in
the structures lying close to the main axis than those in the remote areas.
4. Development pattern is similar for all.
Irrespective of heredity all children follow a similar pattern of development. A baby can't walk
before he acquires ability to stand. Similarly he must have to learn how to walk before starting to
run. It may be little different for a premature baby but after a particular stage the child may make
up and develop in the line of other children.
5. There is Correlation in Development in Most of the Traits:
According to Gesell, "The products of growth are envisaged as a fabric in which threads and
designs are visible." Especially we can mark correlation between physical and mental growth.
The child who is having good intelligence will generally have good health, aptitude and socially
desirable attitudes and interests. This view is supported by Terman who experimentally found out
that "desirable traits tend to go together."
6. Development proceeds in a downward direction.
According to this law development starts from the uppermost parts, i.e., from head region and
proceeds towards the lower parts. For example, in baby's skin sensitivity comes in the uppermost
part of the body before it appears in the lower ones.
7. Development follows pronimodistal law:
According to this law, as described above, development proceeds from nearer regions of the main
ones to the farthest ones. For instance, muscles control appears sooner in arms than in fingers.
8. Development is influenced by individual difference:
Growth and development, no doubt, follow some principles for all children but still a child follows
the pattern in his own way and at his own rate. Frank has remarked that each individual, with his
unique hardy and nurture will travel along the common highway at his own rate of progress and
will attain the size, shape, capacity and developmental status which are uniquely his own in each
stage in the life career.
9. Early development is more important and critical than the later development:
At the early stage the child is more plastic in nature and easily influenced by outside agencies.
Hence any unfavorable environmental condition at this stage may seriously damage the good
mental and physical potentials. In the later stage as the child, grows these conditions may do less
harm due to influence of learning. Hence, it is very important to guide the child properly at early
childhood period to provide him with a better growth.
10. Every child has to pass through several stages of development:
Normally there are five major stages of development for a child to pass through, such as pre-natal
period, infancy, babyhood, childhood and adolescence. The periods for these stages are almost
same for each child. In order to have normal growth, the children are to be provided with learning
experiences according to their back ground. When the development is normal at one stage it
prepares the child for normal growth in the next one. Hence a child is not to be neglected at any
one of the early stages.
11. Each stage has certain characteristic traits:
Due to individual difference among children, each stage of development of a child is influenced
by the characteristic of his own traits. Sometimes lack of proper understanding of the normal
behavior of children at different Stages and Principles of Child Development 59stages creates
friction between parents and children. Hence it is important for parents to be conscious about the
nature of individual difference in behavior and growth of different children.
12. Growth with children is both quantitative and qualitative: When a child grows in size,
improvement in some qualitative areas are also marked. For example, when a child grows
physically he takes more food. When in-take is more, he develops efficiency in digesting more
and more in order to convert more food stuff to simpler forms to be absorbed by the body. Besides
the above principles both the rates and patterns of growth of the child can also be modified and
accelerated by forces within and without. Hence to make the hereditary forces more active in
bringing normal growth, the child is to be provided with better environmental facilities and learning
experiences by elders.
9. Difference between social and moral development?
Social Development:
Man is a social being. He lives in a society with his family members for mutual benefit and safety.
A child being the future adult member has to develop the quality of a social being. Hence as
parents, teachers and adult members we have to provide the children with situations where they
can grow and develop socially. For this he has to establish proper relationship with his peers and
elders. He has to learn to live a harmonious life with the community and develop self-realization
and sense of security. He has to acquire good social habits and proper manners. Hence, to grow
as a socially desirable person, he has to observe certain social customs and behave as a part of
the society. As these children are quite young to do all these things, the elders have to design
direct and indirect programs so as to cultivate these qualities in their children. It is possible through
continuous interaction with elders’ and active participation in social functions. We have a number
of societies which differ among themselves in anticipating required manner and behavior from
their members. A child is expected to grow and develop as per norms fixed by the other society,
even though it is different from the norm fixed by the other society. This social aspect is always
relative and subject to modification as per the need of time. Even it can undergo frequent and
silent changes when felt by a majority of people. But whatever norm is fixed from time to time we
have to adjust, otherwise we may be taken as unsocial elements. When someone goes against
the law fixed by the society he is considered to be anti-social and finds no place in the society
Hence, we have to develop programs, even though games and play, storytelling and singing
songs etc. through which we can allow a child to develop socially.
Moral Development:
The Development of a Moral Sense Children are born immoral or non-moral that is, they are not
expected to have a conscience or to behave in a prosocial way. The earliest customs and rules
they learn are usually to do with safety, followed by those concerned with politeness. By school
age most are expected to have some concept of right or wrong, but few teachers of five-year-olds
 expect self-motivated social behavior. Gradually the voluntary component develops until late
adolescence by when more of less adult standards are at least expected if not always anticipated.
Summarizing work, done in the field, Philip Graham, writing in 1980, noted the following:
1. There is no clear-cut sex effect in the development of prosocial behavior. Girls may have a
greater tendency towards altruism but are less likely to display this trait because they are generally
less assertive.
2. Intelligence and high levels of achievement are related to both helpfulness and honesty.
3. Social class is not consistently related to any aspect of moral development. This one of the
very few areas where this is so.
4. Maternal warmth and good early experiences are associated with moral development. It is
possible that these lead to high self-esteem.
10. How learning can be enhanced effectively?
Learning is defined as the acquisition of knowledge or skills through study, experience, or being
taught
Effective Conditions that Enhance Learning:
1. The teacher and the Teaching Methods
2. Active Participation in Learning
3. Knowledge of the Progress learning
4. Resources/Instruments/Tools for Learning
5. Ability and Interest for Learning
6. Financial/Parental/Social and Psychological support
7. Conducive Environment for Learning
8. Theoretical and Practical Examination
1. The Teacher and the Teaching Methods
The teacher’s personality and his methods of teaching facilitate learning. A teacher’s pleasant
and friendly personalities are capable of setting student at ease at every point in time. A teacher
who presents the learning materials in an orderly, methodologically, correct manner and shows a
clear mastery of his/her subject arouses the interest and respect of his students.

2. Active Participation in Learning

Students learn better by doing (practicing) rather than by listening passively. Active participation
can take the form of debates, class assignments, sports, drama, oral answering of questions in
class, and so on.
Active participation boosts learning by 25% because it is a great tool to retain knowledge for a
long term.
3. Knowledge of the Progress of Learning
Every perfect knowledge is acquired through a procedure, pattern, or criteria with the progression
from preliminary stages/level to the zenith/professional stages. These stages are the process of
learning, and it is a good condition to be considered for learning to be effective.
4. Resources/Instruments/Tools for Learning
These resources might be personal, social, and technical resources. The personal resources
include adequate capacity such as intelligence and temperament to learn the material presented;
sufficient prior knowledge and ample motivation to learn. The social resources include support
from home and friends while the technical resources consist of finance, materials, equipment, and
relevant experience. Again, the learner must take advantage of these resources and
opportunities.
5. Ability and Interest for Learning
Ability and interest must be present to facilitate learning. Health plays an important role in
learning. Healthy children learn more effectively than unhealthy children. Children who suffer from
malnutrition do not grow well. Stunted growth affects the total development including intellectual
powers.
6. Support for Learning
It is simply impossible for learning to take place in the absence of financial, parental, social, and
psychological support from parents, teachers, fellow learners, and the society at large. This is the
process of providing the necessary assistance to make the learning process to be more effective.
Simply put, support for learning is a condition that enhances learning effectively.
7. Conducive Environment for Learning
A conducive environment is a great factor to be considered for effective learning to take place.
The conducive environment for learning simply means the nature of the environment that learning
is taking place.
8. Theoretical and Practical Examination
Practical evaluation/examination in learning is highly necessary for an effective acquisition of
knowledge. This is a moment when the Teacher accesses the works given to the learners, to
figure out the strength and weaknesses, and make possible corrections. However, the theoretical
and practical evaluation/examination condition the learner to discover the progress he/she has
made over time, and this will enable the learner to figure out his/her strength and weaknesses.
LONG QUESTIONS:
Q1. Differentiate b/w growth ………….. Child development?
(Write answers of short Q3 and Q8)
Q2. How Islamic ……….. Children?

Every Muslim wants to have pious children who are useful for the family, society and nation. In
Islam, the Qur’an does not only contain instructions about the relationship between humans and
their Gods, but also regulates the relationship between humans and others (hablum min Allah WA
hablum min al-nâs), and even the relationship between humans and their natural surroundings.
Meanwhile, children are a mandate given by Allah SWT who must be educated in order to become
pious human beings (Sholeh, 2018). Education is one of the assets and foundations of life towards
a better civilization, especially in this modern life, with increasingly sophisticated technology. How
is it possible that Islam and the Indonesian nation will progress if the younger generations of
successors do not have morals and good social emotional skills (Hayati & Mamat, 2014).
Therefore, it needs special attention from parents and teachers in educating children so that
they continue to develop in social, technological and religious terms (Mulyani, 2014). In the
Qur’an, there are many teachings that contain the principles of how a child can properly socialize
with both family and friends. Allah says in Q.S. al-Baqarah verse 195: Meaning: "And infuse (your
treasure) in the way of Allah, and do not drop (yourself) into destruction with your own hands, and
do good. Indeed, Allah loves those who do good." Islam strongly recommends that its adherents
have a caring nature for others or in other terms it is said to be social piety. To lead to social piety
it is necessary to have education from an early age. Because whether a nation is advanced or
not depends on its education pattern and the environment. However, the reality is that there are
a lot of social disparities in everyday life. One example of a social case is bullying. This social
case is a risk factor for children until they are adolescents (Ahyani & Astuti, 2018). Imam Al-
Ghazali argues: "Children are a mandate and responsibility of their parents, their pure pure soul
is an expensive jewel that is modest and free from carvings and images. Children may accept
every carving and tend to what is inclined to them" (Rohaty Mohd. Majzub in Hayati & Mamat,
2014). Some of the forms of social behavior that develop in early childhood are based on the
foundations laid in infancy. Children develop various forms of behavior in social situations. The
form of children's behavior in social situations, namely: social behavior which includes
cooperation, competition, generosity, desire for social acceptance, sympathy, empathy,
dependence, friendly, not egocentric, imitating, and attachment. Meanwhile, non-social behavior
includes insubordination, aggression, quarrels, taunts and bullying, pretentious power,
egocentricity, prejudice, and gender antagonism. Parents and teachers should carry out
various appropriate stimulations so that children's socialization with the environment can
develop optimally (Hurlock in Widiastuti, 2015). In the context of education, the involvement of
parents is very important, not only in the scope of funding. Parents' involvement includes all
actions, starting from speaking procedures, behavior and support towards making it easier to
guide quality learning for children's education. Before writing this article the authors conducted a
study of several articles on children's social development. The purpose of this study is to examine
the relationship between parenting and social emotional development in early childhood. The
results also showed a significant relationship between parenting and children’s social emotional
development. In this case, it can be said that the greater the role of parents, the better the
children's social emotional development. Furthermore, research conducted by Hayati (2016). The
research objective was to describe the life of a divorced couple and the impact on children’s
development, especially social emotional. The results showed that all respondents experienced
various disorders after the divorce, both from a psychological perspective such as withdrawal
from the environment, socio-economic disorders such as difficulty in providing for a living and
difficulties in child care. In addition, divorce also has a negative impact on children's social
emotion development. Most children experience difficulties in developing self-concept, difficulty
in controlling emotions, unable to build good relationships within the environment and with peers.
Other research was conducted by Yulisetyaningrum (2019. The purpose of this study was to
determine the relationship between gender, number of siblings, parental education, parental
income, family type and family parenting with the social emotional development of pre-school
age children in Kramat Village, Dempet District, Demak Regency. The results and conclusions in
the study indicate that there is a significant relationship between gender, number of siblings,
parental education, parental income, family type and family parenting with the social emotional
development of pre-school children with a p value of <0.05. Based on the above article, there is
a difference with the topic of this research, where the first article emphasizes parenting with
children's social emotional development, the second article emphasizes the influence of divorced
families on children's social emotional development, and the third article emphasizes
parental education, income. Parents, family type, family parenting style, the influence of gender
and the number of siblings on the social emotional development of pre-school age children.
Meanwhile this article discusses the social emotional development of children in an Islamic
perspective. The benefits of this research are that we can analyze how children's social
emotional development in an Islamic perspective, how the role of parents in educating and guiding
children so that they can interact well, can be accepted by the environment in everyday life and
there are no victims of bullying, or become the perpetrator, because it is clearly prohibited by
Islam. Children’s Social Emotional Development in Islam Social development is closely related to
emotional development, although each of them has its characteristics. Social emotional
development is a development that involves relationships and interactions with others through
the feelings that a person expresses towards others and the ability to develop social and
controlling behavior in terms of emotions (Wardany & Jaya, 2017; Tusyana & Trengginas,
2019). Davison argues that all emotions are social. The cause of emotions from our world of
relationships cannot separate them, because social interactions drive emotions. The stronger the
emotional connection to another person, the stronger the reciprocal power (Goleman in Radliya
et al., 2017). This is also expressed by al-Ghazali "Treat others with treatment that you will surely
like if the treatment is provided to you, because indeed a person's faith will not be perfect before
he loves for his brother anything he loves for himself” The information above shows that a person's
faith will not be perfect until he treats his brother as he treats himself. Something he likes for
himself, he will also feel happy if something is owned by his brother. Conversely, if he does
not feel happy about something, then he is also not happy about something happening to
his brother (Al-Ghazali, 1964; Al-Ghazali, 2006). In this case. Al-Ghazali mentioned the stages of
children's social emotional development based on the concept of tamyiz (the stage where the
child already has the ability to distinguish good and right) and baligh (adult).
1. First Stage: Birth to 7 Years According to al-Ghazali, the first stage starts from birth to 7 years
old. At this stage, it is very good for teaching ethics to children. At this age, the education of
children can be done through providing stimulus, imitation and response because the child's
cognitive development has not been perfect. For example, the stimulus given by parents is the
habituation of praiseworthy behaviors, how to eat and share food with other people. Stimulus is
given by parents in the form of proper and correct eating procedures, eating using the right hand,
reciting DOA before eating, and giving something using the right hand. When we want to give
food, give proper food because however when we give something that is not good, how do we
feel when in the position of the person we feed the food. When the stimulus is given, the child will
imitate and display a response to the same way of eating and always share with the environment
as demonstrated by both parents. Stimulus must be done repeatedly so that it will be recorded in
the minds of children so that they get used to doing something right.
2. Second Stage: 7-15 Years old at the age of 7 and over, the child has reached the tamyiz
stage, that is, the stage of the child already has the ability to distinguish between good and bad
things. In this case, parental supervision must be increased. At the age of 7-15 years,
children's cognitive development is better even though their development is not yet perfect.
In this phase, the children are able to think in concrete terms. Children can understand when
parents provide explanations why children are encouraged to behave well and are prohibited from
behaving badly. However, in the second stage of development, there is still a process of imitation.
Therefore, education with repetition and habituation is carried out continuously. In this phase the
child must be taught everything that is ordered and prohibited by Allah SWT. They should practice
what has been learned such as prayer, Ramadan fasting, and socialize well like help in kindness
and others. Besides that, they also need to be instilled in fear with despicable actions such as
betraying, lying, doing heinous acts, stealing, avoiding unclean food and other despicable actions.
When growing up children from an early age are accustomed to adab and other praiseworthy
deeds, age of adulthood, children are used to good things and know the meaning behind all the
knowledge and habits taught by their parents. According to al-Ghazali, if the child's growth is
healthy, then such an explanation when he reaches adulthood (adulthood) will definitely affect,
penetrate and stick firmly in his heart. Likewise, if the child's growth is not healthy, the child will
get used to spending his time saying dirty words, behaving badly, being greedy in food, and
arrogant and unable to accept the above explanation. It is clear that from an early age, parenting,
education, nurturing, supervision, habituation and the social environment must really be
considered by parents, because a child is created with the ability to accept good and bad. His
parents made him tend toward one of the two. In the second stage, children already have the
ability to think and their reasoning abilities are more developed. Al-Ghazali called it the tamyiz
stage. In Piaget's concept, children are aware that rules and laws are created and in judging an
action. One must pay attention to the intentions of the perpetrators and also the consequences
(Santrock in Anggraini, 2020). In addition, the second stage of development is also very close to
the stage of moral development, namely conventional morality. According to Kohlberg, at this
level, individual internalization is medium (Santrock in Anggraini, 2020). Conventional morality is
also a stage related to assessing the rules that exist in society. This means that children are aware
of the obligation to implement existing norms and maintain the importance of the existence of
norms. 3. Third Stage: 15 Years and above Age 15 years and over is the age of adulthood in a
child. This means that at the age of 15, the child should already have knowledge, understanding
and commendable behavior habits. Because this praiseworthy behavior is always repeated
and accustomed to in the first and second stages. The praiseworthy behavior is inherent so
that the child has a spontaneous response, has an understanding and thought about the
consequences of every action, that what is done is a self-concept as a servant of God so that
each behavior is adjusted to Islamic law and has become a character, so that the child will always
have a commendable character.
Third Stage: The third stage is the result of the formation of the first and second stages. In this
third stage, the role of reasoning begins to disguise. It does not mean that it is not important or
non-functional, but rather that when there is a stimulus, the response is in the form of a
permanent and spontaneous response. This is because of habituation from an early age, so that
the child has praiseworthy behavior that has become a character in him. In Western literature,
the concept that is close to character in morals is known as the four component model of
morality. The four aspects are moral sensitivity, moral judgment, moral motivation and moral
character. The moral character seems close to the concept of akhlak in Islamic psychology
(Anggraini, 2020)
The Role of Family in Children’s Social Emotional Development in Islam Emotional social
development is a process of learning to adapt, to understand circumstances and feelings when
interacting with people in their environment, whether parents, siblings, peers or other people
in their daily life (Zulkifli in Yulisetyaningrum, 2019). In this case, the growth and development of
children is influenced by many factors, including mother's education, mother's work, father's
education, developmental stimulation and environmental factors of the child (Wulandari et al.,
2017). Al-Qur'an instructs mankind to always look after and educate children properly, as Allah
says: Meaning: “O you who believe! Protect yourself and your family from the fires of hell, whose
fuel is people and stone; guardian angels are harsh, and harsh, who do not disobey God against
what He commanded them and always do what is commanded.” Imam Al-Ghazali affirmed that
"Children are a mandate and responsibility of their parents, their pure soul is an expensive jewel
that is modest and free from carvings and images and he may accept every carving and tend to
what is inclined to him" (Hayati & Mamat, 2014). Based on the explanation, family plays an
important role in providing educators to children. What is meant by family is the smallest unitary
element consisting of a father, mother and several children. Each of these elements has an
important role in fostering and enforcing the family, so that if one of these elements is lost, the
family will be shaken or less balanced. The relationship between mother, father, and child serves
as a milestone in all relationships that an individual will establish throughout his life (Hall in Jasmi
et al., 2012). The relationship between parents and teachers also plays an important role in the
progress of children in the educational process, both in intellectual and psychological aspects.
Parents are responsible for educating children in the overall process of child development, both
intellectual development by providing scientific facilities and support, as well as psychological
development by being a protector for a child (Kadir et al., 2015; Tahir & Larmar, 2020). One of
the hadiths of the Prophet explains (Jasmi et al., 2012) that Ayyub bin Musa from his father from
his grandfather that Rasulullah S.A.W. said: "There is nothing more important that can be given
by a father than good manners (morals)." (Al-Tirmidhi). The hadith above shows how important
family is in educating a child. Because in the current era of revolution 4.0, moral education
must continue to be improved. Because the family function as expressed by Friedman (Hayati,
2016) is as follows:
1. Affective function. Family is a place to teach everything that can prepare family members to
relate to other people.
2. Socialization function, namely a place to develop and train children so that their social life is
good. Before leaving home, children are able to build social relationships with other people
outside the home.
3. Reproductive function, namely a place to maintain generations and maintain family
continuity.
4. Economic function, namely a place to meet family needs economically and develop
individual abilities to increase income in order to meet family needs.
5. The health maintenance function, which is appropriate for maintaining the health of family
members in order to maintain high productivity.
Q3: What is concept ………………..learning?
(Concept of learning from short answers)
Factors leading Learning:
Learning is a process that is both cognitive and social. It is cognitive because it requires paying
attention, seeing, thinking, analyzing, interpreting, and finally providing meaning to the seen
occurrences. Learning is also a social process since we live in a society and are therefore
susceptible to the feelings and experiences of the world with which we interact, and these
experiences shape our ideas, conceptions, and knowledge of the world.
Every person is unique, and our capacity and desire for learning have varied tremendously. When
we look at the people in our house, we can see that each one has a certain talent. While one child
excels in academics and receives excellent marks/grades, another youngster excels in athletics
and wins gold medals in all sports and games. Even if we examine our talents, we may see that
we excel at some activities while failing miserably at others.

Learning is heavily impacted and mediated by two types of factors: personal and environmental.
Motivation, ability, and interests are examples of personal elements. Environmental issues have
societal, economic, and cultural implications. These two elements work together in the same
system. Both personal and environmental elements occur in the context of the environment.
1. Intelligence:
There is no commonly recognized definition of intelligence. So, intelligence is defined in terms of
operations. It is the ability to solve problems, think, reason, relate to others, deal with emotions,
develop interests, have a sense of right and wrong, and live in line with our circumstances. The
capacity to solve problems and create commodities that society values is characterized as
intelligence. It is argued that people have several bits of intelligence that operate from different
areas of the brain and that the idea of a single intellect is thus erroneous. He also contended that
different persons possessed varying combinations of the various bits of intelligence.
2. Aptitude:

Aptitude is a person’s innate ability to perform a task. Some youngsters are naturally gifted in
mathematics, while others must put in a lot of effort to succeed. Some youngsters are born with
the capacity to sketch and paint, while others excel in sports and activities.

An aptitude test is used to assess a person’s ability to do a certain profession. Aptitude tests are
also used to determine a child’s capacity to execute numerical crunching, verbal thinking, and
spatial abilities, and to determine which of these he or she will acquire readily.

3. Goals:

Setting objectives will help us find our way. Our motivation is influenced by the sort of goals we
establish. If we set urgent goals, such as passing an exam, our learning is only transient, and we
quickly forget everything after the exam.

Setting long-term ambitions, such as becoming a doctor or an IAS officer, can help a student
achieve new heights and contribute positively to life. Goals are proportionate to improvements in
learning and performance. It assists in directing our attention to the learning at hand, increasing
our persistence in the learning at hand, and assisting us in adopting new and alternative tactics
when old strategies fail. There are three sorts of goal orientations that will assist us in
understanding student learning and performance. They are learning objectives, performance
objectives, and work avoidance objectives. A person with a learning goal will have the intention
to understand a concept or issue regardless of performance, which means that mistakes are
irrelevant because the intention is to learn or improve. The primary goal of the performance is to
appear competent in the eyes of others.
Learners who create performance objectives are continuously striving to win, to be the best, and
to outwit their peers. There will be pupils who do not want to study or outperform their peers;
instead, they wish to avoid effort. These pupils finish their courses swiftly and with little effort.
These pupils are focusing on their avoidance skills.

4. Self-Concept (also known as self-esteem, self-image, and self-efficacy):

Self Esteem refers to a person’s entire subjective assessment of his value. The importance that
a person place on themselves. Self-Image: This relates to one’s own opinions of oneself — one’s
strengths and talents, as well as one’s faults and limits.

“I’m brilliant in math and English but terrible at geography,” for example. Self-esteem: this
is a self-evaluation that a person forms after engaging with the subject for some time. Self-
Efficacy: This is a person’s belief in their ability to do tasks. This is about a person’s confidence
in his capacity to achieve or complete a task.

5. Motivation:

Motivation is an internal condition that stimulates and sustains conduct. Intrinsic motivation and
extrinsic motivation are the two forms of motivation. Motivating an adolescent entails encouraging
him or her to use his or her inner resources, feeling of competence, self-esteem, and autonomy.

6. Locus of control:

The locus of control is a person’s belief about what causes good or negative outcomes in their
life. Example: A student with a high internal locus of control feels that their work and talents
influence their grades. As they learn about their weaknesses, these pupils alter their study
techniques. A student with a strong external locus of control feels that their exam outcomes are
mostly determined by fate or chance.

7. Maturation and readiness to learn:

There is always a suitable period for each individual to efficiently learn a certain ability. This proper
period happens only when a person’s physical and intellectual development has evolved
sufficiently to allow them to notice and deal with an issue.
For example, if a teenager is given project management skills, he may be unable to retain the
information since his mental development has not progressed sufficiently. Maturity is defined as
a semi-permanent change in an individual caused by biological aging, whether cognitive,
emotional, or physical.

8. Aspirational Level:

The lever of aspiration relates to how far and where individuals set their attainment objectives and
targets. It is decided by our previous successes and failures. For instance, if success or failure is
ascribed to internal sources, success would result in pride, desire, and learning. Failure results in
a low degree of desire and learning. If a person believes he has control over his learning, he is
considered to have a high level of ambition because he chooses to pursue more challenging
activities and exerts more effort.

9. Learning Approaches:

Every person learns differently. Another name for learning style is learning preferences. The way
a person processes knowledge is also influenced by his or her learning style. Some students
adopt a deep processing method that focuses on understanding the underlying meaning, while
others use a surface processing strategy that concentrates on memorizing. A person’s learning
style (or preferences) may also be related to his or her preference for utilizing his or her senses.
Some examples are visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learners.

10. The media:

All media are essentially delivery media since they deliver, i.e., transmit information from the
sender to the recipient. The learner is a receiver and consumer of information delivered through
media. Print media and non-print media are the two major kinds of media.

The term “print media” refers to text or printed materials. It is cost-effective and has historically
been utilized for instructional tools. However, technology is neither the only nor the best medium
for delivering education. Non-print media, often known as contemporary electronic media, have
distinct characteristics that, in some situations, allow learning far faster than print media. This aids
in meeting a variety of learning objectives more efficiently than printed material.
Certain non-print media forms and delivery mechanisms can help pupils study more effectively.
These emotions energize pupils and inspire them to engage in the teaching-learning process. As
a result, media may help kids learn better, but appropriate media use necessitates the application
of well-developed media-specific abilities. If these talents are not adequately developed, the
message may be misconstrued or received, accepted, and reacted to uncritically.

Conclusion

Any discussion of learning seeks to uncover the elements that influence it, whether these aspects
are psychological, socio-cultural, school-related, or linked to the teaching-learning process.
Intelligence, motivation, self-concept, attitude, interests, learning styles, emotions, and so on are
all important psychological elements influencing learning. Similarly, socio-cultural aspects
influencing learning include family, home environment, neighborhood, community, peer-group,
and so on.

Similarly, school climate, school regulations, physical infrastructure, co-curricular activities,

teaching approach used, methods of learning, learning media used, and so on are some of the
school-related elements that have a major influence on student learning. To moderate the learning
process, these numerous elements interact in various ways and combinations. It is quite difficult
to separate any of these characteristics from the others. You must have comprehended how each
of these components is conceptualized and understood, as well as its susceptibility to individual
variation and link to learning.

Q: 4 a) Factors Affecting learning:

Two factors that influence learning are;

1. Factors Associated with Leaner

2. Factors Related to Learning Process!

I. Factors associated with learner:

Learner is the focal point in any learning. Without learner there cannot be learning.

The following are some of the factors associated with learner:

1. Motivation:
It is the most important factor influencing the learner. If the learner has no motivation to learn, any
amount of force will be futile. More the motivation better will be the learning. In addition to
motivation, the learner should have a definite goal. It will direct the individual appropriately and
help him to achieve the goal.

2. Readiness and will power:

This is just like motivation. If the learner is ready to learn, he will develop motivation to learn.
Along with readiness a strong willpower is also essential to overcome hurdles and problems.
Readiness will help to develop a positive attitude in learner.

3. Ability of the learner:

This refers to the level of intelligence, creativity, aptitude and such other abilities necessary for
learning.

Intelligence enables the learner to learn better and understand things and relationship between
them. It includes both general and specific intelligence related to specific area of learning.

4. Level of aspiration and achievement:

Learning depends upon the level of aspiration to achieve. If the aspiration level is high, the learner
will work hard and achieve more. However, the aspiration level should be in accordance with the
ability of the learner.

Otherwise, it may affect negatively leading to feelings of inferiority. At times the learner may not
realize his ability and keep low level of aspiration resulting in low achievement, which is also a
tendency to be rectified.

5. Attention:
Learner must learn to concentrate his attention on learning. Attentiveness helps to grasp learning
material. Distraction of attention affects learning.

6. General health condition of the learner:

The general health includes the physical and mental health of the learner. The learner should
have good physical health. Organic defects like blindness, myopia, hypermetropia, deafness,
paralysis, mutism, severe handicappedness, etc., will affect learning. Problem in sense organs
will lead to improper perception. Chronic illnesses may lead to fatigue and lack of interest.
In addition to physical health, the mental health of learner is also important. Adjustment problems,
minor mental problems like worry, anxiety, stress, and inferiority complexes will affect learning.

7) Maturation of the learner:

Maturation and learning go hand in hand. We learn things only according to maturity of our body.
For example, a child of 6 months cannot learn to ride a bicycle even after vigorous training,
because it requires muscular or physical maturity.

Factors related to learning material:

The nature of learning material is also important. The meaningful material can be learnt better
and more quickly than meaningless material. Because understanding of lessons create interest
in the learner. In addition to meaning, the simple material can be learnt better than the complex
material.

II. Factors Related to Learning Process:

1. Methods of learning:
Effective learning depends upon the methods of study also. There are certain methods which
save the energy and time of the learner. These are called ‘economic methods of learning’. They
are:

a. Part v/s whole method:

Smaller and shorter lessons may be learnt at a stretch-called whole method. If the material is too
lengthy, it must be divided into parts, so that it will be easy for learning. After reading in parts the
learnt material should be connected or associated with each other.

b. Spaced v/s un-spaced method:

Learning continuously without gap leads to interference in memory called inhibition. Hence, it is
always advisable to keep small interval between each reading.

c. Recitation v/s repetition:

Just repetition of lessons becomes rote learning in which chances of forgetting are more. In
recitation the learner will check the weak points which may be forgotten and put more emphasis
on those points. This process will help to overcome missing of points from the memory.

2. Over learning:
It is experimentally proved that over learning helps better learning and memory.
3. Knowledge of results as feedback:
It is essential to know the amount of material grasped, so that changes may be made in process
of learning. Knowledge of results refers to getting feedback by means of testing, examination,
interview, etc.

4. Good physical atmosphere:

Sufficient light and ventilation, calm and clean place, normal temperature, some minimum
furniture will help learning processes.

Q4. b) Life before birth:

The life of a human being begins at fertilization (or conception), when a sperm cell fuses with an
oocyte (egg) to produce a new human organism. This individual is called a zygote at the one-cell
stage of development, an embryo through the first eight weeks, and a fetus from eight weeks until
birth. Each of us was once a zygote, embryo, and fetus, just as we were once infants, toddlers,
and adolescents. All of these terms refer to stages in the life of a member of the species Homo
sapiens.
Here are some of the milestones of human prenatal development. These dates are measured
from the time of fertilization rather than from the last menstrual period (the dating method typically
used during pregnancy), which occurs about two weeks earlier.
Conception: A new member of the human species begins. The zygote has a complete and
unique set of 46 chromosomes (23 from each parent), the entire genetic blueprint. He or she
needs only a suitable environment and nutrition in order to develop himself or herself through the
different stages of human life.
6 days: The developing embryo, called a blastocyst at this stage, begins attaching to the wall of
the mother’s uterus.
17 days: Blood cells have developed.
19 days: The eyes start to develop.
20 days: The foundation of the nervous system has been laid.
18-21 days: The heart begins to beat.
28 days: 40 pairs of muscles have developed along the trunk of the new individual; arms and
legs are forming.
30 days: Regular blood flow exists within the vascular system; the ears and nasal passages have
begun to develop.
6 weeks: The skeleton is complete and reflexes are present. The child has measurable brain
waves.
7 weeks: The baby has the appearance of a tiny infant, with fingers, toes, and ears.
8 weeks: All organs are functioning—stomach, liver, kidney, brain—and all systems are intact.
9-10 weeks: The baby squints, swallows, and retracts his or her tongue.
11-12 weeks: The baby sucks his or her thumb and inhales/exhales amniotic fluid.
16 weeks: The mother may begin to feel her child’s movements. The baby grasps with hands,
swims, kicks, and turns somersaults
18 weeks: The vocal cords are working.
20 weeks: A wealth of evidence indicates that, at least by 20 weeks, unborn children can
experience pain. In the fifth and sixth months, the child responds to outside stimuli, including
music and voices.
22 weeks: Babies today are usually capable of surviving outside the womb (with assistance) at
22 weeks post-conception (24 weeks from the last menstrual period). They can often survive even
earlier. This is called viability.
38 weeks: The unborn child dramatically increases in size and weight during the second half of
pregnancy until birth at about 38 weeks (40 weeks from the last menstrual period).

Birth, of course, is not the end of human development. The baby continues to grow and develop
in the months, years, and decades to follow. The life of every human being is a continuum
beginning at conception and proceeding (if all goes well) through the embryonic, fetal, infant,
child, adolescent, and adult stages.

Q5: Briefly………………. Concept?

What is the John Dewey Theory?

John Dewey is one of the big names in the history of educational theories. John Dewey was
influential in countless fields and had lots of ideas concerning educational reform. His collection
of views, philosophies and radically different ideas on education have been combined in the John
Dewey theory.
In many countries, the modern educational system looks the way it does thanks to John Dewey.
His approach to schooling was revolutionary for his time and proves to be fundamentally important
for modern education to this day. John Dewey probably gained the most publicity thanks to his
role in the studies into progressive education.
Progressive education in essence is a vision of education that emphasizes the necessity of
learning by doing. According to the John Dewey theory, people learn best through a hands-on
approach.

As a result, the philosophies and views of John Dewey are placed in the educational philosophy
of pragmatism.

John Dewey Theory of learning by doing

John Dewey and other pragmatists are convinced that students or other persons who are learning
must experience reality as it is. From John Dewey’s educational point of view, this means that
students must adapt to their environment in order to learn.
The John Dewey Education Theory shows that the great thinker had the same ideas about
teachers. His view of the ideal classroom had many similarities with democratic ideals. Dewey
posits that it isn’t just the student who learns, but rather the experience of students and teachers
together that yields extra value for both.

Reformation of the Educational System

Children learn better when they interact with their environment and are involved in the school’s
learning plan, according to John Dewey.

He rejected most of the theories that were popular at the time, such as behaviorism, and
dismissed these as being too simplistic and insufficiently complex to describe learning processes.
In those days, at the end of the 20th century, it was assumed by many people that children were
passive recipients of knowledge. The John Dewey theory, however, directly opposes this.

Dewey argued that education can only truly be effective when children have learning opportunities
that enable them to link current knowledge to prior experiences and knowledge.

This was a ground-breaking idea in those days. Particularly the part related to experience
learning, where children come into contact with their environment, was revolutionary.

Educational Experiment John Dewey

The above shows that John Dewey was a great advocate of progressive educational reform. He
was convinced that the educational system was flawed and that it should focus on learning by
doing.

He and his wife Harriet therefore started their own experimental primary school: the University
Elementary School. It was part of the University of Chicago, and the goal was to test his own
theories. His wife was fired however, as a result of which Dewey resigned.
Over 25 years later, in 1919, Dewey founded The New School for Social Research in collaboration
with his colleagues Charles Beard, James Harvey Robinson and Wesley Slain Mitchell. This too
was a progressive, experimental school that encouraged the free exchange of ideas in the field
of arts and social sciences.

His revolutionary ideas soon bore fruit. In the twenties of the previous century, Dewey gave a
lecture on educational reform in schools all over the world. He was very impressed by experiments
in the Russian school system.

This taught him that students particularly had to focus on interactions with the present. The John
Dewey theory, however, doesn’t reject the value of learning about the past.

John Dewey Theory Applied in the Classroom

Particularly in those days, between the two world wars, it was common that desks were set up in
rows in the classroom and the students wouldn’t leave their chair all day. This was what John
Dewey meant with the fact that children were viewed as passive recipients of knowledge.

They really had no say in the learning process whatsoever and they certainly couldn’t indicate
whether they liked to learn more on a specific subject. John Dewey was also very clear about how
things could be improved.

These ideas are no longer radical today, but at the beginning of the previous century, his view of
education clashed with the policy and view of most schools.

Interdisciplinary Curriculum

The John Dewey theory recommends an interdisciplinary curriculum, or a curriculum that focuses
on connecting multiple subjects where students can freely walk in and out of classrooms.
In this way, they pursue their own interests, and build their own method for acquiring and applying
specific knowledge. In this setting, the teacher has a facilitating role. According to John Dewey,
the teacher should observe the student’s interests, follow the directions, and help them develop
problem-solving skills.

As stated, it was common in those days that the teacher stood in front of the group of students
and provided information all day long.

The students’ task was to absorb the information and test this in the form of an exam or other
written test. John Dewey’s ideal describes an entirely different function of the teacher.

According to Dewey, the teacher should only provide background information and have the
students work together in groups on the concept. This should start conversation and discussion,
and give rise to valuable collaboration. Although the written exam would continue to play an
important role, particularly presentations, projects and other evaluation techniques are used to
keep track of the progress.
John Dewey & Psychology

During his period at the University of Michigan, John Dewey published two books: Psychology,
and Leibniz’s New Essays Concerning the Human Understanding.
Although he was still a philosophy professor there, he and his colleagues began to reformulate
psychology, emphasizing the mind and behavior. The ideas on psychology in the John Dewey
education theory
also differ strongly from the standards at that time.

Their new psychology style, called functional psychology, focused on action and application. They
reasoned that it went against the traditional concept of stimulus-response.

Although he didn’t deny the existence of stimulus and response, he didn’t agree that these were
separate, individual events. He developed the idea that there is a certain form of coordination that
enhances stimulation through past results.

John Dewey’s Vision of Democracy and Society

John Dewey believed that democracy is an ethical ideal and not just a political structure. He
considered participation rather than representation as the essence of democracy.
Furthermore, he insisted on the interaction and harmony between democracy and the scientific
method. He saw an increasingly larger and critical research community, drawing on their
pragmatic principles and convictions.

The Role of Women in Society

John Dewey also had a controversial view of the role of women in society for his time. He was
convinced that the woman’s place in society was determined by a woman’s environment rather
than by biology. He noted that women are perceived based on their gender too much.

According to the John Dewey theory, this gender qualification must be removed. Subsequently,
the view of women will change, because the generalizations’ about women have turned out to be
incorrect.

Q6: Blooms taxonomy:

Introduction

Bloom’s taxonomy was developed to provide a common language for teachers to discuss and
exchange learning and assessment methods. Specific learning outcomes can be derived from
the taxonomy, though it is most commonly used to assess learning on a variety of cognitive levels.
The table below defines each cognitive level from higher- to lower-order thinking.

The goal of an educator’s using Bloom’s taxonomy is to encourage higher-order thought in their
students by building up from lower-level cognitive skills. Behavioral and cognitive learning
outcomes are given to highlight how Bloom’s taxonomy can be incorporated into larger-scale
educational goals or guidelines. The key phrases can be used (e.g., Example Assessments) to
prompt for these skills during the assessment process.

Knowledge
Comprehension
Application
Analysis
Synthesis
Evaluation
Learning Outcomes
Learning outcomes are what you want your students to learn, either as a result of a specific lesson
or on the grander, more general scale of the entire course. Learning outcomes target knowledge,
skills, or attitudes for change. Bloom’s taxonomy specifically targets these by seeking to increase
knowledge (cognitive domain), develop skills (psychomotor domain), or develop emotional
aptitude or balance (affective domain). Learning outcomes might be identified by someone
outside the teacher, such as state-wide or departmental standards. The taxonomy provides a
basis for developing sub-goals and assessment methodology to meet these goals. It is important
to note that learning outcomes are goals, and are not the activities performed to achieve those
goals. Outcomes can be categorized into broad, global outcomes that may take many years to
achieve and provide direction for education, educational goals that guide curriculum development
over the weeks or months it takes to complete a specific course, and instructional goals that
narrowly focus on the daily activities, experiences, and exercises used in a specific lesson plan.

Objective Builder Tool

For applications specific to a course, the Center for Distributed Learning has developed an
objective builder tool to help craft the language for measurable learning outcomes.

Applications of the Taxonomy

Taxonomies are developed to provide a framework for organizing a continuum along an

underlying structure. For example, languages may be classified as Romantic, Germanic, etc.
based on their underlying grammatical structure and origin. Bloom’s taxonomy primarily provides
instructors with a focus for developing their course learning outcomes. There are a number of
reasons why a teacher would want to use Bloom’s taxonomy. Initially, it can be used to increase
one’s understanding of the educational process. Teachers can see and understand complex
cognitive development and how lower-level skills build into higher-order thinking (e.g., recalling
facts and comprehending previous problems allows a student to apply their experience to similar
problems). Using this understanding facilitates the prioritizing of material and can steer the
organization of lessons to maximize class time. For example, lower-level skills (e.g., memorizing
factual knowledge) can be developed before higher-level skills are introduced (e.g., analysis of
relationships). Current educators frequently face a confusing array of standards and curriculum
requirements. Bloom’s taxonomy offers a guiding framework for breaking these criteria down into
accessible chunks which can be used to direct day-to-day lesson plans and can be easily
compared to their own goals for the class. Just as different levels require different instructional
delivery methods, they also require different assessment methods. Bloom’s taxonomy can be
used as a checklist to ensure that all levels of a domain have been assessed and align
assessment methods with the appropriate lessons and methodologies. In this way, the taxonomy
also makes it easier for you to maintain consistency between assessment methods, content, and
instructional materials and identify weak areas.

Update to Bloom’s Taxonomy (2001)

Originally, Bloom’s taxonomy was one-dimensional with an exclusive focus on the knowledge
domain. The current updated version developed by Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) reorganizes,
and highlights the interactions between, two dimensions: cognitive processes and knowledge
content. Anderson and Krathwohl identify two reasons for updating the original handbook. They
emphasize a refocusing of educational outcomes back to the original handbook, which was ahead
of its time and can still offer assistance to modern educators and to incorporate new findings in
psychology and education into the framework. In their revision, cognitive processes are presented
as verbs and the knowledge content are presented as nouns. Along with exchanging the levels
of Evaluation and Synthesis (which they rename to Creation), Anderson and Krathwohl redefine
the knowledge dimension to include four types:

 Factual Knowledge: Basic elements of a discipline that a student must know and be able
to work with to solve problems including basic terminology and specific details and
elements.
 Conceptual Knowledge: Interrelationships between basic factual knowledge that
demonstrate how elements work together, for example, classifications and categories,
principles and generalizations, and theories, models, and structures.
 Procedural Knowledge: How something is done including the methods of inquiry, skills,
algorithms, techniques, and methods needed to investigate, apply, or analyze information.
 Metacognitive Knowledge: Awareness and knowledge of one’s own cognition including
strategies for learning, contextual and conditional knowledge about cognitive tasks, and
self-knowledge.

Q7: Philosophy of Idealism:

Idealism is based on the notion that reality is grounded in human consciousness. The primary
idea behind idealism as a philosophy is that what a person perceives to be reality is based on the
workings of the individual's mind. Learn more about what idealism means and review some
examples of this interesting perspective.

What Is Idealism?

Idealism is is a metaphysical philosophical system that suggests objects do not have any standing
that exists beyond the extent to which they are perceived by the conscious mind. In other words,
what a person understands to be reality reflects the workings of their mind. In idealism, reality
doesn't exist independent of the mind, but rather is dependent on the mind.

Since the mind is an aspect of reality that cannot be directly observed, that means that idealism
is metaphysical in nature. The word metaphysical can be used to refer to abstract reasoning.
Idealism is considered to be a metaphysical system because it seeks to explain reality in the
context of abstract reasoning that takes place inside a person's mind.

Practical Examples of Idealism in Everyday Life

While you may not have really considered what idealism means from a philosophical perspective
before, chances are that you have said or been told things that reflect this perspective.

 You've probably heard someone say that a person who is inherently honest tends to
assume others are telling the truth, while someone who is inherently dishonest tends to
assume that others are lying. This illustrates the idea that a person's perception of reality
is based on how their own mind works.
 The phrase "perception is reality" is one that you've probably heard or said many times.
Someone in a high-level job might think that they have outstanding leadership skills.
However, in fact, that's really up to the employees' perceptions. If employees don't see
their manager as a good leader, then that's their reality.
 If you've ever watched the early episodes of a televised singing competition, you've
probably witnessed some really poor singers on the show. Why did they try out if their
singing is so bad? Chances are that in their own minds, they have fabulous voices and
are surprised to find themselves on the blooper reel.
 The saying "mind over matter" is another one that provides an example of idealism in
everyday life. The idea behind that saying is that if you believe something to be true and
focus on that, then ultimately it will come to reflect your reality.
  When a person engages in negative self-talk, they can perceive themselves as failures,
leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy. Or, they can choose to focus on an ideal to which they
aspire such that it comes to represent reality to them, whether or not it matches how others
perceive them.

The idealistic view suggests that people view the world through the lens of their own mind,
ultimately creating the perceived reality in which they exist.

Philosophical Idealism Examples to Consider

The idealism philosophy approach can take many forms, as evidenced by the following examples.
What they all have in common is the core notion that reality is a product of the mind.

 Absolute idealism - The philosophy of absolute idealism began with Georg Wilhelm
Friedrich Hegel. It suggests that thought and being must have their own sense of identity
for the mind to interact with the world. People relate to the world not because it is different
from the mind, but because it is of the same substance.
 Actual idealism - The actual idealism philosophy posits the idea that actually perceiving
the world around you is what truly defines reality. It is perception, rather than other acts of
the mind, such as creativity and imagination, that determine what is real.
 Biological idealism - Arthur Schopenhauer is behind the philosophy of biological
idealism. It suggests that what is useful for an organism to believe might differ greatly from
the way things actually are. In other words, the way organisms understand their
environment is what is most important to living things.
 Monistic idealism - The approach of monistic idealism asserts that matter is not the
makeup of everything that exists, but rather everything that exists does so solely within
and because of consciousness. In other words, this approach to idealism posits that the
only objective thing in the universe is consciousness.
 Objective idealism - In objective idealism, there is only one perceiver. That individual is
the one who is perceiving things. This form of idealism accepts that actual things exist,
which is a concept in Realism, which is the opposite of idealism. However, it rejects that
the mind is a result of material objects or the physical world.
 Platonic idealism - Otherwise known as Platonism, Platonic idealism is the form of
idealism that posits that certain ideal forms, such as the absolutes of morality and justice,
 are not dependent on the world or consciousness in order to exist. Instead, they function
as overarching ideals independent of all other existence.
 Subjective idealism - The philosophical concept of subjective idealism is also known as
immaterialism or empirical idealism. This philosophy suggests that only minds truly exist.
It is the opposite of materialism, which is a philosophical approach that posits that the only
thing that truly exists is material.
 Transcendental idealism - Transcendental idealism suggests that the mind shapes the
world around it, rather than the opposite. It posits that human experience is similar to the
appearance of things, as opposed to the notion that observation is a way of seeing things
simply as they are.
 Christian Science idealism - In Christian Science, idealism refers to the belief that the
only thing that God is "the divine mind," which creates the reality through which the ideals
of followers are created. It is the belief that everything known to man is simply a result of
the ideas that spring forth from the mind of God.

Idealism and Human Existence

While the practical idealism examples listed may seem more relevant to you than the
philosophical examples, they are all related. There are many different approaches to the overall
philosophical system of idealism. In all of these examples, it's clear that idealism emphasizes the
role of the mind on the reality of the human experience.

Now that you're familiar with idealism, learn more about philosophy as a body of knowledge. Start
by exploring examples of logical reasoning. Next, explore examples of fallacies in everyday life.
Armed with the knowledge of logic and fallacies, you'll be ready to take an even deeper dive into
the world of philosophy.

Q8: Summative Assessment:

What is a Summative Assessment?

Summative assessment is a type of course evaluation that happens at the end of a training or
program. It is the process of assessing the student’s knowledge, proficiency, and performance by
comparing what they know with what they should have learned.
Unlike formative assessment that evaluates the student as he or she engages in the learning
process, summative assessment is all about measuring outcomes using predefined standards or
benchmarks. Summative evaluation only directly monitors the student’s ability but does not pay
attention to how the student uses knowledge to solve practical problems.

One of the most common examples of summative assessment is the end-of-semester college
examinations. For these examinations, the college professors select questions that touch on
different topics in the course curriculum. Students are asked to respond to these questions within
a specific period of time.

The structure of summative assessment makes it difficult for the instructor to provide one-on-one
feedback on the student’s performance. Summative assessment methods are high stakes which
means they have a high point value. The results are usually defining; for instance, it can determine
whether a student passes the course, gets a promotion, or secures an admission.

Characteristics of Summative Assessment

Validity

Summative assessment measures a student’s competence in a specific subject matter in line with
the learning goals and objectives of the course or training. For instance, a science course will use
experiments and other practical tests to evaluate a student’s knowledge at the end of the course.

Reliability

Summative evaluation is a standardized method of knowledge-based assessments. It has well-

defined processes that reveal the student’s competence in a field. These processes produce
accurate and consistent results when they are used in similar contexts.

Practicality

Summative evaluation has a flexible process that is practical and scalable. It is well-aligned and
this makes it easy for the instructor to implement it as part of a training.

Ethical
Summative assessment respects clear teaching and learning boundaries. Before the instructor
implements any summative assessment methods in the classroom, he/she must obtain informed
consent from the students.

Easily reported

Since the key element of summative assessment is to evaluate what someone has learned up to
that point in time, it always ends in having a concise summary of the outcomes of the assessment.
This allows the teacher to compare the student’s current performance with past performances,
external standards, and other learners.

Variety

Summative evaluation prompts students to exhibit skills and demonstrate knowledge in different
ways.

Other things you should have in mind when it comes to summative assessment are:

1. It takes place at the end of a defined learning period such as a training or program.
2. It is limited to the information that was shared during the course or training. Summative
assessment does not test students on what they have not been taught.
3. Summative assessment aligns with the learning goals and objectives of the course.
4. Summative assessment certifies a student’s competence in a specific subject matter.
5. It is used for one clearly identified purpose.

Examples of Summative Assessment

End-of-term Examination

A final examination or assessment is one of the most common methods of classroom evaluation.
Examinations have a simple framework—the teacher curates relevant questions and the students
respond to these questions within a timeframe.

Instructors conduct examinations as some sort of final knowledge review of the program.
Examinations test the students’ knowledge of the subject matter and they produce quantitative
results that help you to grade your students and know how well they have performed.
To eliminate the workload that comes with paper assessment, you conduct the evaluation via an
online test platform, examination software, or create a quiz on Form plus. The examination
questions can be close-ended, open-ended, or a mixture of both; depending on the type of data
you want to gather in the end.

In-class Chapter Tests

These are mini-examinations that happen at the end of a topic or section of training. They are
used to determine how well a student understands key chapter concepts and help them prepare
for the final examination at the end of the course. Quizzes, midterm assessments, and practice
tests are common examples of chapter tests.

Standardized Admission Tests

These tests qualify candidates for a specific program; for instance, IELTS and TOEFL are
standardized English-proficiency exams that demonstrate a candidate’s competency in the use
of the language. These tests are organized on a large scale and they make use of explicit scoring
criteria for grading.

Creative Portfolio

Instead of an end-of-term examination, ask students to build a creative portfolio. A creative

portfolio showcases the student’s creativity, knowledge of the coursework, and how they have
uniquely applied that knowledge.

Depending on the learning areas, a student’s portfolio can include images, infographics, and small
to medium-length texts like essays or one-pagers. As the learners build their portfolios, they also
have the opportunity to reflect on how much they have learned.

Add the file upload field to your Form plus form to receive portfolio submissions from your
students. Students can submit files of any type and size including images, multiple document
formats, and spreadsheets, in the file upload field.

Oral Tests

Oral summative assessments are used to get real-time and spontaneous responses from learners
at the end of a course. The instructor can embrace structured, semi-structured, or unstructured
interview methods to grade the students and evaluate their overall performance. Students may
also partake in oral classroom presentations.

The type of interview method you choose determines the kinds of questions you will ask during
the process. A structured interview follows a defined conversational sequence that dictates its
questions and structure.

Semi-structured and unstructured interviews embrace flexibility. In a semi-structured interview,

the instructor can veer off the conversational sequence and ask spontaneous questions.
Unstructured interviews do not follow a defined conversational sequence—the instructor can ask
questions as they come, within the course’s context.

Hands-on Performance Tasks

These simple and creative tasks allow students to put their knowledge to work. Hands-on
performance tasks are practical, straightforward and help the instructor to assess the students’
abilities directly.

The instructor can ask students to solve a jigsaw puzzle and as they do this, she observes how
they put a specific skill to work in the tasks. If you want to assess your students’ counting and
pattern skills, you may observe how they play around with colored bricks or cotton balls.

Group Projects

Getting students to execute tasks within small groups is a great way to test their knowledge. After
a training on teamwork and conflict resolution, for instance, you should group the students, assign
a task and watch how they create frameworks and solve a specific problem.

Book Reports

Book reports are creative summaries that demonstrate a student’s literary skills. These reports
show how students highlight the main points of a book using the reading and analytical skills
discussed in the training or program.

Students do not have to submit their summaries using paper forms. Create a Form plus online
submission form and send out a prefilled link to everyone. This way, you can receive and organize
submissions without worrying about too much paper.
Formal Essays

Formal essays allow students to demonstrate their level of knowledge about a subject matter.
Essay writing is a useful skill that communicates one’s idea and understanding of a concept. Ask
your students to write essays on the core topics and themes discussed in class.

Students can explain a concept, argue for or against a subject matter or simply narrate their
learning experience as descriptive prose.

If you want to reduce the clutter that comes with stacking lots of papers, use Formplus to collect
the essays. Ask learners to turn in their essays as file uploads in your online submission form or
they can write the essays right in the form’s long-text field.

Observation

This is a common method of summative assessment used in early childhood education. The
instructor incorporates 1 or more standard activities into the student’s playtime and then observes
how the learners engage in the activity.

Observing students’ behaviors during playtime gives you a birds-eye view of how well they have
assimilated knowledge from a previous lesson or class session. As you observe them, you need
to make notes on any changes you notice. Write your observations down on a piece of paper or
list them in a spreadsheet.

The complete observer method and participant as observer method are the common types of
observation used for summative evaluation. In the complete observer method, the teacher
observes the students from a distance; removing the instructor from the participants’
environment.

The participant by observer method is what you’ll find in many classrooms and learning contexts.
The teacher already has a relationship with the students and she interacts with them as they
demonstrate their knowledge.

Advantages of Summative Assessment

 1. The summative assessment determines the effectiveness of a course and the teaching
method. This is measured in terms of how well the student mirrors his knowledge on his
or her responses to the questions.
2. It is a standard method of tracking a student’s academic performance over a period of
time.
3. Summative assessment is an important part of the formal grading system. The results
from summative assessments are often used to determine whether a student moves from
one academic level to the next.
4. It helps the instructor to identify and address learning gaps. Summative assessment
reveals the student’s weakness and this gives the teacher enough context and information
to review their methods.
5. It boosts self-evaluation because the students reflect on their goals as they take part in
summative assessment.
6. Summative assessment improves the teaching and learning environment. It helps the
students and instructions to align their goals and achieve desired outcomes.

Disadvantages of Summative Assessment

1. Measuring a student’s performance against a standard benchmark can trigger

demotivation and low self-esteem. This happens when the student’s performance isn’t up
to par with the benchmark.
2. It does not provide an accurate reflection of the student’s knowledge or learning.
3. Students can develop anxiety as they prepare for the single year that can make or mar
their academic progress. Anxiety, fear, and nervousness affect the student’s
performance.

Conclusion

In this article, we have looked at the characteristics of effective summative assessments plus
common examples you can adopt for student evaluation in the classroom. Summative
assessment is best described as a diagnostic evaluation method used at the end of an
instructional unit.
Summative assessment is a great way to ensure that students have a full grasp of the different
ideas discussed in a course or program. When combined with other methods of course evaluation
like formative assessment, it creates a balanced evaluation of both progress and performance.