Pre Final 2learning Module - Facilitating Learning

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COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION
MODULE
https://medium.com/christian-perspectives-society-and-
life/how-often-do-you-think-about-thinking-4aa6639f40e8
Facilitating Learner Centered Teaching
Prepared by:
Cathrine Mae A. Ocampo, LPT.

CTE Faculty member
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Page
Introduction 3-22
Objectives 3-22
Review of Prerequisites 4-22
Concept Map 5-22
Information Processing Theory 6-22
Basic Components of the IPT Model 6-22
Retrieving Information from the Long-term Memory 7-22
Teaching Implications of the IPT 8-22
Problem Solving and Creativity 10-22
Problem Solving 10-22
Types of Problems 10-22
Approaches to Problem Solving 11-22
Problem-solving Cycle 11-22
Barriers to Problem Solving 14-22
Creativity in Problem Solving 15-22
Transfer of Learning in Problem Solving and Creativity 17-22
Classroom Applications of Cognitive Learning Theories 18-22
Summary 20-22
Answers to Review of Prerequisites 20-22
Answer to Self-Assessment Questions 20-22
Concept Inventory 21-22
Study Questions 22-22
References 22-22
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INTRODUCTION
Nature of Information Processing

Developed by American psychologist George A. Miller, the information processing theory
(IPT) of cognitive development pertains to the study and analysis of what occurs in a person’s
mind as he or she received a bit of information (Miller, 1956). Other theories enhanced Miller’s
theory, although the different theories that followed share common assumptions (Schunk,
2012). First, information processing occurs in stages that intervene between receiving a
stimulus and producing a response. The form of information, or how it is represented mentally,
differs depending on the stage. The stages are qualitatively different from one another. Second,
information processing is analogous to computer processing. The mind receives and
represents/encodes the stimulus from the environment, processes the information, stores it,
locates/retrieves it, and gives a response to it. Learning is a change/revision in the knowledge
that has been stored by the memory.
Analyzing the way persons learn something new is important as there is a fixed pattern of
events that take place in learning something new (Miller, 1956). In explaining the concept of
chunking, Miller argued that a person could only store five to nine meaningful units in the
short-term memory.
SAQ 1-1 Why is attention essential in the learning process? Give some ways to sustain the interest of the
learners.
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OBJECTIVES
At the end of this section, you should be able to:
• explain the major features of the information processing theory;

• cite teaching implications derived from the theory; and
• identify teaching strategies that facilitate the storing and retrieving of information;
• describe problem solving and creativity;
• explain the stages/processes of problem solving and creativity;
• cite situations manifesting barriers to problem solving and creativity;
• differentiate common problem-solving strategies;
• determine the role of transfer of learning in problem solving and creativity; and
• cite classroom applications of theories related to problem solving and creativity.
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REVIEW OF
PREREQUISITES
This unit demands some prerequisite knowledge.

Please do as directed.
Activity 1. Fill the blank with a word or phrase that best completes the sentence. Write your
answer on the space provided.
1. Stimuli perceived from the environment are held temporarily and briefly at the
________.
2. The loss of the information in the memory is called _________.
3. Repeating the meaning of a word several times will keep the information at the ________.
4. Strategies using rhymes, acronyms, and configuration clues are examples of
__________.
5. Any stimulus that distracts the person, for him or her to lose the information is called
_________.
6. People who are good in narrating their memorable experiences have memory content
called ________.
7. A person who knows the answer to a question but could not immediately utter it illustrated
the phenomenon called _________.
8. Ruben can group vegetables and fruits separately. This process of grouping information is
called _______.
9. Teachers asking the learners to give a synonym of a word to define a term is an example of
_________.
10. Joe’s style of rewriting the meaning of terms in his effort to memorize them is called
__________.
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CONCEPT MAP
Identify
Look back
problems and
and learn
opportunities
Anticipate
outcomes and Define goals
act
Explore
possible
strategies
The IDEAL model of the problem-solving process.
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INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY
Basic Components of the IPT Model
The information processing theory model has three major components, namely: sensory
memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory (see Figure 10). As seen in the figure,
each has a particular function (Schunk, 2012: Woolfolk, 2016).
Sensory memory is the state in which the stimuli sensed (heard, seen, touched, smelled,
tasted) are temporarily held in mere seconds for the information to be processed further. As a
person is presented a lot of stimuli at a given time, the sensory memory served as a filter on
what to focus on. When viewing a basketball game, you can see one person focused on the one
in possession of the ball, while another one’s attention is centered on the guard’s action.
Selective attention is the individual’s ability to choose and process information while
disregarding the other stimuli or information. Schunk (2012) cited several factors that
influence attention:
1. The meaning is given by the individual to the task or information.

2. The similarity between competing tasks or source of information.
3. The difficulty or complexity of the task as influenced by prior knowledge.
4. The ability to control and sustain attention.
As the information held in the sensory memory is for about three seconds only, unattended
stimuli are forgotten. The information the person gave attention to is transferred to the short-
term memory.
Short-term memory serves as a temporary memory while the information is given further
processing before it is transferred to long-term memory. Information in this stage is 15-20
seconds only and can hold from 5 to 9 bits of information only at a given time. Before the
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information is transferred to long-term memory, there are two strategies involved: rehearsal
and encoding or elaboration.
Maintenance rehearsal involves repetition of the information to sustain its maintenance in

the short-term memory. The use of ABC songs and number songs serve as rehearsal strategies
among children. Meanwhile, elaborative rehearsal is the process of relation the new
information to what is already known and stored in the long-term memory to make the new
information more significant. One scheme is organization, the process of classifying and
grouping bits of information into organized chunks. For instance, memorizing the mobile
number involves grouping the 11 numbers into sets of numbers, like XXXX-YYY-ZZZ.
Arranging information into hierarchies is another scheme. For instance, flora and fauna are
grouped into phyla/divisions, classes, orders, families, genera, and species.
The use of mnemonic devices is also helpful. Mnemonic devices elaborate information in
different ways. For instance, learners are taught the acronym “ROYGBIV” to recall the red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet are the rainbow colors. To differentiate stalactite
and stalagmite found it caves, learners are taught that the “g” in stalagmite tells the calcium
carbonate deposit is located on the floor (ground), whereas the letter “c” in stalactite gives away
its location (ceiling).
Imagery is a strategy that involves the memory taking what is to be learned and creating
meaningful visual, auditory, or kinesthetic images of the information (Schunk, 2012). For
instance, it is easy to locate Apayao in the Philippine map because it looks like the bust of a
former president of the country. An example of kinesthetic imagery is associating that the left
hand on the waist illustrates a less than value; the right hand on the waist indicated a greater
than value.
The long-term memory is the storehouse of information transferred from short-term

memory. It has unlimited space. Varied contents of information are stored, namely:
1. Semantic memory is the memory for ideas, words, facts, and concepts that are not part
of the person’s own experiences. Individuals with good semantic memory include those
who know the capital of countries in the world, many word and their meanings, the order
of planets, and other facts.
2. Episodic memory includes the memory of events that happened in a person’s life,
connected to a specific time and place. An example is a student who can explain the details
of his or her most embarrassing moment (who were involved, when, where, why, and how
it happened).
3. Procedural memory accounts for the knowledge about how to do things. A student
teacher who recalls the step-by-step process of presenting the lesson to the class has
procedural memory.
4. Imagery refers to mental images of what is known. For instance, beginning readers use
configuration clues, shape, and appearance of words to help in word recognition.
Associating a familiar image to the name of a newly introduced person, like giraffe, guides
one to recall the name of Gigi, a long-necked beautiful lady.
Retrieving Information from the Long-term Memory
Retrieving information from long-term memory involves locating the information and
transferring it to the short-term memory to be used for a purpose. Studies (e.g., Bransford &
Johnson, 1972) have shown that a person remembers a lot less of the information stored in
long-term memory. The quality of how the information was stored influences its access and
retrieval.
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Retrieval of information from the long-term memory entails bringing to mind the previously
acquired information to understand some new input or to make a response. Schunk (2012)
mentioned two ways of information retrieval. One is recalling, which is either free call or cued
call. In free call, the person has to rely on the information previously learned purely by memory.
In contrast, the cued recall involves the provisions of cues and clues to the person to help in the
recall of the information. It is observed that whatever hints the person used to encode the
information, the same would likewise facilitate its retrieval. Elementary learners can recall the
letter in the alphabet if its image is accompanied by a picture of an object whose name begins
with that letter.
Recognition is another way to retrieve information. It involves providing the learners with
stimuli as choices to make a decision or judgment. In a multiple-choice test item, the difficulty
of retrieving the correct answer is reduced because the examinees have options to choose from.
Guided by their long-term memory, they would eliminate those options that are not plausible,
to eventually arrive at the correct answer.
Based on the primacy and recency effect principle, the information presented close to the start
of the experience, and those that are close to the end are most remembered by learners.
Forgetting
Forgetting is the loss of information, either in the sensory memory, short-term memory, or
long-term memory. Interference is the process that occurs when remembering certain
information hampered by the presence of other information (Woolfolk, 2016). At the sensory
memory, there are other stimuli that bombard the person. As one stimulus is just the focus at
a time, others are forgotten. In the short-term memory, as rehearsal and maintenance activities
are made, incoming new information interferes. The same phenomenon happens in long-term
memory. When new information interferes with recalling the new information, it is referred to
as retroactive interference. if the old information interferes with recalling the new
information, it is referred to as proactive interference.
In addition to interference, time decay is another factor for the loss of stored information
from long-term memory. Unused information decays and is forgotten. However, some theorists
argue that stored information in the long-term memory is never lost. To illustrate, a learner
who had a traumatic experience in learning a Mathematics skill may deliberately want to forget
the previous learning concepts. After several years, when those skills are required to learn
another subject, those concepts surface again if there is conscious effort to review them.
This situation is also related to the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon. It involved the failure to
retrieve the information, but the person is sure the information is known. The person feels that
retrieval is imminent, but there is difficulty to directly identify it at the moment.
Teaching Implications of the IPT
Following the concepts and principles associated with the IPT, Woolfolk (2016), Slavin (2018),
and Schunk (2012) recommend the following to be used in helping learners to understand and
recall what they have learned.
1. Make sure you have the students’ attention. Develop a signal that tells students to stop what
they are doing and focus on you. Make sure that students respond to the signal. Practice
using the signal.
2. Move around the room, use gestures, and avoid speaking in a monotone.
3. Begin a lesson by asking a question that stimulates interest in the topic.
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4. Regain the attention of individual students by walking closer to them, using their names,
or asking them a question.
5. Help students to separate essential from nonessential details and focus on the most
important information. Summarize instructional objectives to indicate what students
should be learning. Relate the material you are presenting to the objectives as you teach.
6. When you make an important point, pause, repeat, ask a student to paraphrase, note the
information on the board in colored chalk, or tell students to highlight the point in their
notes or readings. The use of mnemonic devices could assist learners’ retention of the
information learned.
7. Help students to make connections between new information and what they already know.
Review prerequisites to help students brings to mind the information they will need to
understand new material.
8. Provide for repetition and review of information. Using graphic organizers for rehearsals
can help.
9. Present material in a clear and organized way. Make the purpose of the lesson very clear.
Advance organizers can help.
10. Focus on meaning, not on memorization. For instance, in teaching words, help students to
associate the new words to a related word they already understand.
Experience
Recall your experiences when you want to study and review your lessons. An effort is exerted
as you try to organize lecture notes into comprehensible ones (outlines, graphic organizers,
flow charts, etc.) to facilitate recall of facts, concepts, and principles. Teaching the same
techniques to your learners could help them to achieve better.
Studies have shown that whatever learners have retained about 12-24 weeks after instruction,
they may retain forever (Schunk, 2016). Thus, it is important for teachers to integrate prior
learning to current lessons, where applicable, for learners to master and retain concepts
learned. Lessons must provide for adequate practice to attain mastery.
Moreover, even when items to be learned are not organized, people often impose organization
on the material, which facilitates recall (Matlin, 2012). Organized material improves memory
because items are linked to one another systematically. Recall of one item prompts recall items
linked to it. Research supports the effectiveness of organization for encoding among children
and adults. Moreover, instructional strategies that actively involve students in lessons
contribute to long-term retention (MacKenzie &White, 1982).
SAQ 1-1 Why are drills and exercises necessary in the teaching-learning process? Is this connected to
the concept of teaching to the point of mastery?
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Problem Solving and Creativity

Problem Solving
Ana’s food catering business has been profitable, as there is no competitor. Lately, a new
catering group was put up, offering as good services similar to hers. With the presence of the
competitor, some clients have shifted to the new provider. Anna inquires on how to sustain her
customers’ loyalty. This situation illustrates a problem.
A problem arises when there is a difference between where you are now (e.g., the presence of
Ana’s competitor) and where you want to be (e.g., Ana’s desire to sustain customer loyalty). A
distinguishing feature of a problem is that there is a goal to be reached through some action on
your part, but how to get there is not immediately apparent. There is an obstacle or a gap
between where you are now and where you want to be (Robertson, 2015). In Ana’s case, her
goal is to sustain the customer clients, but the solution is not there yet (current state).
A necessary element of a problem is the presence of an obstacle or block toward the attainment
of that goal. For this reason, problem-solving happens when an individual strives to eliminate
the obstacle that hinders the attainment of the desired goal. “If no obstacle hinders progress
toward a goal, attaining the goal is no problem” (Reese, 1994). Figure 11 illustrates the elements
of a problem scenario.
Problem solving refers to cognitive processing directed at achieving a goal for which the
problem solver does not initially know a solution method (Mayer, 2013). This definition
consists of four major elements (Mayer, 1992; Mayer & Wittrock, 2006), namely:
1. Cognitive. Problem solving occurs within the problem solver’s cognitive system and can
only be inferred indirectly from the problem solver’s behavior (including biological
changes, introspections, and actions during problem solving).
2. Process. Problem solving involves mental computations in which an operation is applied
to a mental representation, sometimes resulting in the creation of new mental
representation.
3. Directed. Problem solving is aimed at achieving a goal.
4. Personal. Problem solving depends on the existing knowledge of the problem solver so
that what is a problem for one problem solver may noy be a problem for someone who
already knows a solution method.
Types of Problems
Problems can be classified in many ways. For one, it could either be well-defined or ill-defined
problem. Robertson (2015) described a well-defined problem as one that “provides all the
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information required to solve it. “Jonassen (1997) considered it as a problem requiring the
application of a definite number of concepts, rules and principles being studied to a constrained
problem situation. The problem tells you everything you need to know to solve it or whether
you need to work out for yourself what you are supposed to do. Likewise, it tells you whether
or not there is only one answer or solution or there are many solutions.
For example, in the problem 4+3 = 7, you are certain that you are add the two numbers and
there is only one correct answer. You also know that you are 100% right or wrong. Nevertheless,
there are instances that you have everything to know to solve the problem, but you cannot still
arrive at the answer. In Mathematics, for instance, you know the MDAS (multiplication,
division, addition, subtraction) rule, but applying them may not be clear to you.
An ill-defined problem, meanwhile, is one where the initial state of the problem is given but
what the goal state looks like is not provided (Robertson, 2015). It is typically situated in and
emergent from a specific context, where an aspect or aspects of the problem scenario are not
well specified, the problem descriptions are not definite, or the information needed to solve it
is not expressed in the problem statement (Chi & Glaser, 1985). Because of this situation, there
may be many correct answers as the learners have divergent circumstances and experiences
related to the emergent context. An example of an ill-defined problem is, “You notice that the
population of your town is tremendously increasing and you are alarmed of the consequences.
What could you do? This problem is ill-defined as it is a complex problem. The solution to the
problem is multifaceted as there is an interplay of social, political, religious, and psychological
issues to consider in arriving at the solution. The solution is one town varies to another town
as their circumstances are different. Thus, there is the possibility of getting many correct
responses.
Approaches to Problem Solving
Several approaches have been advanced to explain the problem-solving abilities of individuals
(Anderson, 1996). One is the behaviorist approach, reproducing a previous behavior to solve a
problem. A person faced with a problem situation is likely to use the same solution previously
used and was effective in the past. To prepare the garden before planting, pick mattock is
traditionally used because the Crop Science teacher told it so.
In contrast to the reproductive approach advocated by behaviorists, the Gestaltist approach to

problem solving is a productive process. Kohler’s experiments with apes underscored the role
of insight in the restructuring of a person’s representation of the problem. As the individual
ponders upon how to solve a problem, a flash of an idea comes to mind, which eventually
provides the best solution to the problem. This situation illustrates the Eureka moment, the
“moment a person realizes or solves something.” A Science student saw a rural folk using
akapulko extract (Cassia alata Linn.), locally known as andadasi (Iloko), as an antifungal
treatment. The extract was used on his face to treat tinea flava. After three days of treatment,
the extract did not only treat the main problem, but it also peeled off dead cells in the face. The
student concluded that the plant extract also has exfoliating effect.
Problem-solving Cycle
Problem solving is a complex process. It is not a single skill, but rather an overlapping of some
thinking skills, as logical thinking, lateral thinking, synthesis, analysis, evaluation, sequencing,
decision-making, research, and prediction are likely to be involved (Teare, 2006).
Metacognitive thinking, creativity, and transfer of learning interplay in the process. The
cognitive and metacognitive skills are expressed in the several models proposed to undertake
problem solving. The IDEAL model (Bransford & Stein, 1993) is adopted to explain the process
of problem solving. Figure 12 indicates the specific steps to solve a problem.
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Step 1: Identify the problem and opportunities
Problem solving initially identifies the problem or potential problems. Determining the causes
of the problem is necessary to pinpoint the major cause to prioritize in resolving the problem.
Considering problems with a positive outlook serves as opportunities to do something creative.
When problems are treated as opportunities, the result is often an unexpected solution or
intervention. It can be beneficial to actively attempt to identify problems that have gone
unnoticed. People who identify important problems and treat them as opportunities are often
among the most successful in their fields.
For instance, your parents have informed you that in the next semester you will stop for the
meantime as they are financially incapable to send you to college. It is just one semester more;
just the Practice Teaching that you need to fulfill to finish your degree. The problem is how
would you financially support your last semester in school. This dilemma is the current state of
the situation.
Step 2: Define Goals
The second aspect of the model requires you to carefully define your goals in the problem
situation. This is different from identifying the problem. For a problem situation, a group of
people could identify the existence of a general problem and agree that it represents an
opportunity but still disagree about what their goals should be. Different goals often reflect
differences in how people understand a problem. For the problem situation above, the goal is
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to continue with your college education because it is just one semester before graduation.
Another student with the same problematic situation may have a different goal. Different goals
can lead people to explore very different strategies for solving a problem.
Step 3: Explore possible strategies
This step involves looking back at your goals and finding possible strategies to solve the
problem. It entails the recall of procedural knowledge from long-term memory. As you think of
alternative ways to solve the problem, ascertain that the chosen alternative fits the goal set.
Bransford and Stein (1993) argued that even when people explicitly try to solve problems, they
often fail to use appropriate strategies. Some strategies in problem solving are very general and
apply to almost any problem, whereas there are strategies that are very specific and applicable
only to a few or limited cases.
Many strategies are suggested to make problem solving easier; however, the two main
strategies are heuristic and algorithm. Heuristic is a “rule of thumb, a mental shortcut that
works for solving a problem,” especially those about decision-making tasks. Although there is
no 100% certainty that the strategy is successful or adequate to solve the problem, it is most of
the time effective and efficient in solving the problem. Because of its efficiency, heuristic can
lessen the time to solve and can reduce cognitive load. A student who is always late to class may
use the alarm clock in the cellphone to signal it is time to wake up. It may work effectively at
times, but if one is in deep slumber, the person may not be awakened by the alarm. In another
example, a Mathematics student may know the application of the mnemonics FOIL (First
Outside-Inside Last) and can solve problem involving simple numbers, but may not be able to
answer correctly because he or she does not know the multiplication rules of signed numbers.
Besides, Newell and Simon (1972) suggested three general problem-solving heuristics for
moving from a given state to a goal state: random trial and error, hill climbing, and means-ends
analysis. Random trial and error involve randomly selecting a legal move and applying it
to create a new problem state and repeating that process until the goal state is reached. Random
trial and error may work for simple problems but is not efficient for complex ones. Hill
climbing involves selecting the legal move that moves the problem solver closer to the goal
state. Hill climbing will not work for problems in which the problem solver must take a move
that temporarily moves away from the goal as is required in many problems. The means-ends
analysis involves creating goals and seeking moves that can accomplish the goal. If a goal
cannot be directly accomplished, a sub-goal is created to remove one or more obstacles.
The second major strategy is an algorithm, the use of a series of steps to solve a problem. The
elements of an algorithm include clarity of what is to be done, defined inputs, outputs, results,
and preconditions. Computer programming is a classic example using an algorithm. The use of
“If…, then…” propositions tell the precondition for the next step to progress. If the next step
does not satisfy the condition, it will not result in the expected goal. Doing the standard
algorithms for the fundamental operations in Mathematics requires doing the same steps
repeatedly with each place value column in a give problem. For instance,
3012
+ 1224
4236
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In teaching origami (the art of paper folding), steps presented should be followed one at a time
to arrive at the correct art piece. When withdrawing money using the ATM card, one needs to
follow the electronics cues to succeed.
Step 4: Anticipate outcomes and act.
Once a strategy is selected, the person must anticipate what outcomes will likely be. The
expectation is the solution to the problem. When assured that the goal will be solved, the person
acts or implements the planned strategy. For example, a learner anticipates that the answer to
the problem 23 x 21 should be more than 400 but not 500. It should not be less than 400
because 20 x 20 is already 400. This assurance gives the person the confidence to implement
the planned strategy. When a person withdraws money through the ATM, the anticipation is
that money will be churned out by the machine. That motivates the person to follow the steps
as cued by the machine.
Step 5: Look back and learn.
What transpired after the planned strategy to solve the problem is proof of its effectiveness. In
metacognition, this step is the evaluation of the actions or solutions implemented. If the results
give the correct answer, then the strategy used is good and effective. If the answer is wrong,
then metacognitively ask, “What went wrong?” The answers could be in the details missed
during the analysis of the problem, the inappropriateness of the heuristic or algorithm strategy,
or in the miscalculations. Realizing the errors committed along the way will make the person
understand the mistakes committed. Learning from the experience will make the person more
careful next time a similar task is given.
Barriers to Problem Solving
In the search for alternative strategies to solve the problem, the individual finds difficulty in
coming up with a potential solution because of varied reasons. Anderson (1996) listed some of
these and they are as follows:
1. Mental set. The situation when the person becomes fixated on the use of a strategy that
previously produced the right solution, but in the new situation it is not the application. In
metacognitive thinking, this is conditional knowledge. An English language learner may be
fixated on the rule that the past tense of the verb is usually formed by adding -d, -ed, to the
base form. Thus, given an irregular verb like GO, the answer given could be “goed.”
Moreover, a Mathematics learner could not get the sum of three-digit numbers that require
carrying over because he or she is fixated to the addition of numbers without carrying over.
2. Functional fixedness. This is a phenomenon when individuals fail to recognize that
objects can have other purposes, aside from the traditional use they were made for. A
learner may think that a spoon is only used for eating. However, in instances when no bottle
opener is available, a spoon is usually used to open a bottle if soda drink.
3. Failure to distinguish relevant and irrelevant information. This happens when a
situation arises during the analysis of a problem when an individual cannot discern the
relevant information needed in planning the strategy to solve a problem. When the
irrelevant information is given more emphasis in the process, it will lead to a wrong
solution to the problem. An example is a problem of what to include in a bulletin
announcement to help someone who lost a bunch of keys. Children were asked which
details to include were relevant, like where and when it was lost, how many keys were there
in the keyholder, which keys were these, who owned it, where the key holder was bought,
when it was bought. Some children may not be able to identify the relevant from the
irrelevant ones.
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Creativity in Problem Solving
As pointed out in the earlier discussion, mental set and functional fixedness are stumbling
blocks in problem solving. These obstacles hamper the consideration of new alternative ways
to solve a problem. They illustrate the lack of creativity on the part of the person. Theorists
agree that creative problem solving must be taught and encouraged among learners.
What is creativity? Plucker et. al. (2004) defined creativity as “the interaction among aptitude,
process, and the environment by which an individual or group produces a perceptible product
that is both novel and useful as defined within a social context. “The definition underscores the
role of aptitude, process, product, novelty, and use. According to Plucker et al. (2004), aptitude
represents a dynamic set of characteristics (e.g., openness, tolerance for ambiguity, flexibility
in thinking, perseverance, motivation for creativity, need for self-expression), as well as
abilities pertaining to the creative process, that can be shaped by experience, learning, and
training (Grohman & Szmidt, 2013). Others call aptitude as creative attitude.
Varied theories explain how creativity is developed (Kozbelt et al., 2010). One is the
developmental theory, which advocates that creativity develops over time (from potential
to achievement). It is mediated by an interaction of person and environment. It emphasizes the
influence of the place and family structures – the role of play and support during the
transitions.
Meanwhile, the cognitive theory of creativity states that ideational though processes are
foundational to creative persons and accomplishment. Individuals who discern remote
association, and are good at divergent/convergent thinking and conceptual combination and
metacognitive processes are likely to be more creative. The stage and componential
process of creativity point out that creative expression proceeds through a series of stages
or components. The process can have linear and recursive elements. It highlights the
importance of preparation, incubation and insight, and verification and evaluation in creative
thinking.
One of the first models of creativity was advanced by Guilford (1967). He considered creativity
as a divergent thinking act. He claimed that creativity is the result of several processes: fluency,
flexibility, originality, and elaboration. Fluency is defined as the ability to produce a great
number of ideas or problem solutions in a short period. In solving problems related to solid
wastes, a learner can give novel ideas on recycling a plastic water container more than the other
learners, which demonstrates fluency. Flexibility is the ability to simultaneously propose a
variety of approaches to a specific problem. In recycling a plastic water container, a learner can
suggest many ways of using them. It can be used as food container, wall decoration, and insect
trap, which shows that the learner has flexibility of ideas.
Meanwhile, originality refers to the ability to produce new, original ideas, as well as products.
If there is no other learner who gave the same idea or product of another learner, that idea is
original as there is only one learner who could think of it. Lastly, elaboration is the ability to
systematize and organize the details of an idea in one’s head and carry it out. If the learner
could pick one solution to solve a problem and give specific details to implement the same, he
or she is manifesting elaboration.
The creative process follows certain stages (Boden, 2002; Gabora, 2002; Sadler-Smith,
2015). It includes preparation, incubation, illumination, and verification (see Figure 13).
Page 15 of 22
Preparation is the initial stage of the creative process. It involves becoming passionate about
an idea, which motivates you to gather materials (read, observe, compare). The information
gathered seeps into your subconsciousness, eventually remaining there momentarily. The next
step is incubation, the period where you unconsciously continues to work on the idea, but
there is no active attempt to solve the problem. The mind just wanders until an idea, but there
is no active attempt to solve the problem. The mind just wanders until an idea takes form. In
the next step, illumination, a sudden idea pops out in your mind. The subconscious thoughts
find the connection with the consciousness, resulting in the AHA and Eureka moments. Once
the idea is concretized, it needs to be verified. Verification, the final stage of the creative
process, involves working with the idea into a form that can be tested and, once proven, it could
be communicated to others.
Research conducted by Calubaquip (2013) illustrated the creative problem solving. One time,
she heard from a fellow teacher about the parents’ personal experience about the potency of
cat’s whiskers or balbas pusa (Orthosiphon aristatus Linn.) as antihypertension treatment. As
it sounded interesting to her, she read more about the plant and the use of its extract. She
wondered about what other studies could be made out of the plant extract. At this stage, she
was in the preparation stage.
Page 16 of 22
While thinking of a novel use for the balbas pusa extract, she was informed by the fellow teacher
after two weeks that not only did her blood pressure stabilize, but she also observed that there
were intestinal worms in her stool. This phase was the incubation stage.
As Calubaquip was intrigued, a bright idea came to her mind. Balbas pusa cannot only act as
antihypertension but also be an antihelminthic. This is the illumination stage as she realized
about the possibility of using the plant extract to expel internal parasites. Following the idea,
she planned using swine as experimental animals to prove the antihelminthic potency and
efficacy of the plant extract, a study for her master’s degree in chemistry. This is the
verification stage of the creative problem-solving process.
Transfers of Learning in Problem Solving and Creativity
Problem solving is made easier if the learner can retrieve declarative knowledge, procedural
knowledge, and conditional knowledge from the long-term memory. If the problem-solving
task requires convergent answers, problem solving can be quite easy if the learner has mastered
algorithm techniques. Nevertheless, even if the problem-solving tasks require divergent
thinking, if there have been experiences in the past that enabled the learner to answer such
task, solving them could be successfully done.
The phenomenon that past experiences in solving problems are carried over or used in solving
new problems is referred to as the transfer of learning. Transfers of learning are categorized
into the following:
1. Near transfer and far transfer. When learners apply their knowledge and skills in
situations and contexts that are very close to those in which the learning occurred, it is near
transfer. When learners perform a skill in a context very much different from the context it
was learned, it is far transfer (Johnson, 1995). Learners find it easier to add three-digit
numbers after they have learned the lesson (near transfer). However, they find difficulty
employing the same skill when the task is transformed into a word problem solving (far
transfer).
2. Positive and negative transfer. When learners can use their prior knowledge or
experience in solving a new problem situation, it is a positive transfer. When the previous
learning or skills obstructs the acquisition of a new skill or the solving of a problem, it is
negative transfer. Using a new model of the same brand of Android mobile phone is easy
as the features are most likely the same (positive transfer). However, when a new phone
using IOS technology is bought, there will be difficulty in using it the first time (negative
transfer).
3. Vertical transfer and lateral transfer. When learners use their learning at a lower
level to perform a higher level of cognitive task, vertical transfer occurs. It is the goal of the
spiral progression in the K to 12 curriculum. When learners use the same skill to solve a
related but different problem of the comparable level of difficulty after learning it, lateral
transfer happens. For example, Ruben finds it easy to add five-digit numbers as he has
mastered adding numbers with or without carrying over in the previous grade (vertical
transfer). Likewise, Ruben relies on his knowledge of finding ratios in Mathematics in
acquiring the skills of finding the seed germination rate in a Science laboratory task (lateral
transfer).
4. Neutral or zero transfer. This happens when past learning or prior experience does not
enhance or hinder the acquisition of a new skill or in the solution of a problem.
In the transfer of learning, Glass and Holyoak (1986) stated that “the problem-solving process
involves several aspects from which three major facets tend to emerge: the solver’s
representation of the problem, the solver’s background experiences, and the solver’s
understanding of the problem.” They explained that the learner begins the problem-solving
process as soon as enough information about the problem space is generated to gain an
Page 17 of 22
understanding of the problem. The process involves associating concepts from previous
experiences to solve a similar problem. The learner is prompted by the potential answer when
he or she recognizes similarities between the previous experience and the new task.
Several theories explain how learning is transferred from one situation to another (Woolfolk,
2017). The theory of identical elements by Thorndike maintains that the quality of transfer
depends on the identical elements that are common in both past and new situations. If the
content, method, goal, and attitude in the two situations are similar, the transfer is facilitated.
The theory of generalization, developed by Judd, states that skills learned are transferrable
to other situations. It argues that if the learner has fully understood the lesson and mastered
the competency, there is a greater likelihood that such skill can be transferred to a similar
situation. Meanwhile, the theory of configuration, anchored on Gestalt psychology,
emphasizes the important role of perception in the transfer of learning. It argues that what is
learned in one situation can be shifted directly to another situation only when similarity in
content, method, or attitude of the two situations is perceived by the learner.
Classroom Applications of Cognitive Learning Theories
Teachers can benefit from the teaching principles associated with cognitive learning theories.
Along with problem solving, Woolfolk (2017) recommended the following:
1. Ask students if they understand the problem. Let them separate relevant from irrelevant
information. Test their awareness of the assumptions. Encourage them to visualize the
problem by diagramming or drawing it. Ask them to explain the problem to someone else.
2. Encourage attempts to see the problem from different angles. Suggest several different
possibilities yourself, and then ask students to offer some. Give students practice in taking
and defending different points of view on an issue.
3. Let students think; do not just hand them solutions. Offer individual problems as well as
group problems, so that each student has the chance to practice. Give partial credit if
students have good reasons for “wrong” solutions to problems. If students are stuck, resist
the temptation to give too many clues. Let them think about the issue overnight.
4. Help students to develop systematic ways of considering alternatives. Tell them to think
out loud as they solve problems. Ask: “What would happen if?” Keep a list of suggestions.
5. Teach heuristics. Encourage them to use analogies to solve problems.
In teaching creativity, Woolfolk (2017) also recommended the following strategies in teaching
learners:
1. Accept and encourage divergent thinking. Reinforce attempts at unusual solutions to

problems, even if the final product is not perfect. Offer choices in topics for projects or
modes of presentation (written, oral, visual or graphic, using technology).
2. Tolerate dissent. Ask students to support dissenting opinions. Make sure that
nonconforming students receive an equal share of classroom privileges and rewards.
3. Encourage students to trust their judgment. When students ask questions that you think
they can answer, rephrase or clarify the questions and direct them back to the students.
Give ungraded assignments from time to time.
4. Emphasize that everyone is capable of creativity is some form. Avoid describing the feats
of great artists or inventors as if they were superhuman accomplishments. Recognize
creative efforts in each student’s work. Have a separate grade for originality on some
assignments.
5. Provide time, space, and materials to support creative projects. Here are some examples:
collect “found” materials for collages and creations – buttons, stones, shells, paper, fabric,
beads, seeds, drawing tools, clay-and try flea markets and friends for donations. Have
mirrors and pictures for drawing faces.
Page 18 of 22
6. Be a stimulus for creative thinking. Use class brainstorming sessions whenever possible.
Model creative problem solving by suggesting unusual solutions for class problems.
Encourage students to delay judging a particular suggestion for solving a problem until all
the possibilities have been considered.
7. Capitalize on new technology. Ask the students to use free apps to create visual maps of
ideas and share their ideas with others.
To promote the transfer of learning, the following teaching-learning strategies are helpful
(Woolfolk, 2017):
1. Keep families informed about their child’s curriculum so they can support their learning.
At the beginning of units or major projects, send a letter summarizing the key goals, a few
of the major assignments, and some common problems that students have in learning the
material for that unit. Ask parents for suggestions about how their child’s interests could
be connected to the curriculum topics.
2. Give families ideas on how they might encourage their children to practice, extend, or apply
what they learn from school. This strategy promotes a near transfer of learning. Ask family
members to include their children in some projects that require school learning.
3. Show connections between learning in school and life outside of school. Ask families to talk
about and show hoe they use the skills their children are learning in their jobs, hobbies, or
community involvement projects.
4. Partner with families in practicing learning strategies. Focus on one learning strategy at a
time. Ask families to simply remind their children to use a particular strategy for a
homework that week.
Identify the term described in the statement. Write your answer on the space
SAQ 1-10 provided before each item.
________1. The production of something novel and useful to address a problem in life.
________2. The ability to use prior learning to solve problems in another context.
________3. The ability to overcome a hindrance to arrive at a specific goal.
________4. The situation in which a learner focuses on the traditional strategy used to
unsuccessfully solve a problem requiring another solution.
________5. The ease in using a skill learned to a similar situation when it was learned.
________6. It refers to the number of details a learner can provide to explain a novel solution
to a problem.
________7. The strategy the learner uses when he applies established steps or procedures in
solving a problem.
________8. The stage in creativity in which a novel idea suddenly pops in out of the blue.
________9. That theory which explains that solving a problem is merely repeating the
strategy found useful in the past for a similar problem.
________10. The scheme in the K to 12 curriculum wherein skills taught across the grade
levels are of graduated complexity.
Page 19 of 22
SUMMARY
Learners have differences in learning, owing to the variances in their ways to solve problems,
their levels of creativity, and their ability to transfer their learning to new contexts. Studies have
shown that these skills can be taught and enhanced. Many students experience difficulties in
solving applied physics problems. A study tested the effectiveness of PhysHint, a student-
controlled computer program that supports students in developing their strategic knowledge
in combination with support at the level of content knowledge (Pol et al., 2008). The program
allows students to ask for hints related to the episodes involved in solving a problem. Data
revealed that the program succeeded in improving strategic knowledge by allowing for more
effective practice time for the student (practice effect) and/or by focusing on the systematic use
of the available help (systematic hint-use effect).
If creativity is one of the desired learning goals, then teacher capacity is pivotal in teaching for
creativity (Tan et al., 2016). Meanwhile, Davies et al. (2012) identified from a vast creativity
literature that pedagogical practice is one of the key environment features in molding student
creativity. Among the practices found are: designing learning tasks that are novel to stimulate
students’ respect atmosphere; open dialogue; and collaborative activities.
A study on the value of transfer of learning (Brion & Cordeiro, 2018) indicated that most of the
transfer of learning happen in areas not requiring mindset and behavioral changes. The
facilities in which the training took place, the facilitators’ dispositions and knowledge, the
adequacy of the materials, as well as the testimonials and certificate of completions enhanced
the transfer of learning.
ANSWER TO REVIEW OF
PREREQUISITES
The students are obliged to submit original work for assessment. All paper works are to be
authentic written outputs of students. Committing plagiarism will be subjected to disciplinary
actions which are duly stated in the student manual.
ANSWER TO SELF-
ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
The students are obliged to submit original work for assessment. All paper works are to be
authentic written outputs of students. Committing plagiarism will be subjected to disciplinary
actions which are duly stated in the student manual.
Page 20 of 22
CONCEPT INVENTORY
General Instructions
This inventory is designed to find out how well you understand the concepts presented in this
module. Each item consists of one or two-word concepts that are parts of this module.
This inventory is not a test. There are no right or wrong answers.
Make sure that you understand all the directions before you begin.
Read each item carefully. Indicate on the answer sheet how well you think you understand each
concept by using the numerical system below.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
On the answer sheet, write:
5 – If you think you understand the concept well enough to explain it clearly to someone else.
4 – if you think you understand the concept but not well enough to explain it to someone else.
3 – if you think you have a fair but not good understanding of the concept.
2 – if you are not sure what the concept means.
1 – if you feel that you do not understand the concept at all.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
UNIT 1. CONCEPT
INVENTORY
Name of Student: ______________________________________________

Name of School: _______________________________________________
Address: ____________________________________________________
_____ 1. Sensory memory

_____ 2. Short-term memory
_____ 3. Maintenance rehearsal
_____ 4. Elaborative rehearsal
_____ 5. Long-term memory
_____ 6. Semantic memory
_____ 7. Episodic memory
_____ 8. Forgetting
Page 21 of 22
_____ 9. Interference
_____ 10. Retroactive interference
_____ 11. Proactive interference
_____ 12. Time decay
_____ 13. Teaching Implications of the IPT
_____ 14. Problem Solving
_____ 15. Cognitive, Process, Directed, Personal
_____ 16. Types of Problems
_____ 17. Ill-defined problem
_____ 18. Approaches to Problem Solving
_____ 19. Problem-solving Cycle
_____ 20. Transfer of Learning in Problem Solving and Creativity
STUDY QUESTIONS
* Use short sized-bond paper for your answer.
Explain in a 10-sentence paragraph the interrelationships among problem

solving, creativity, and transfer of learning. Cite at least two arguments to
elucidate your answer.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
REFERENCES
Calubaquib, J.B. (2013). Orthosiphon aristatus (BI.) Miq. (Balbas Pusa) extract as
anthelmintic. IAMURE International Journal of Science and Clinical Laboratory, 4(1).
Retrieved from http://ejournals.ph/form/cite.php?id=2745
Chi, M.T.H. & Glaser, R. (1985). Problem solving ability. In R.J. Sternberg (Ed.), Human
Abilities: An Information Processing Approach. New York: W.H. Freeman.
Davies, D., Jindal-Snape, D., Collier, C., Digby, R., Hay, P., Howe, A. (2012) Creative learning
environments in education: A systematic literature review. Thinking Skills Creativity, 8, 80-91.
Page 22 of 22

Pre Final 2learning Module - Facilitating Learning

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MISSION OUR LADY OF LOURDES FOUNDATION VISION

Facilitating Learner Centered Teaching

Cathrine Mae A. Ocampo, LPT.

Review of Prerequisites 4-22

Concept Map 5-22

Information Processing Theory 6-22

Basic Components of the IPT Model 6-22

Retrieving Information from the Long-term Memory 7-22

Teaching Implications of the IPT 8-22

Problem Solving and Creativity 10-22

Problem Solving 10-22

Types of Problems 10-22

Approaches to Problem Solving 11-22

Problem-solving Cycle 11-22

Barriers to Problem Solving 14-22

Creativity in Problem Solving 15-22

Transfer of Learning in Problem Solving and Creativity 17-22

Classroom Applications of Cognitive Learning Theories 18-22

Answers to Review of Prerequisites 20-22

Answer to Self-Assessment Questions 20-22

Concept Inventory 21-22

Study Questions 22-22

Nature of Information Processing

At the end of this section, you should be able to:

• explain the major features of the information processing theory;

This unit demands some prerequisite knowledge.

The IDEAL model of the problem-solving process.

INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY

Basic Components of the IPT Model

1. The meaning is given by the individual to the task or information.

Maintenance rehearsal involves repetition of the information to sustain its maintenance in

The long-term memory is the storehouse of information transferred from short-term

Retrieving Information from the Long-term Memory

Teaching Implications of the IPT

Problem Solving and Creativity

Approaches to Problem Solving

In contrast to the reproductive approach advocated by behaviorists, the Gestaltist approach to

Step 1: Identify the problem and opportunities

Step 2: Define Goals

Step 3: Explore possible strategies

Step 4: Anticipate outcomes and act.

Step 5: Look back and learn.

Barriers to Problem Solving

Creativity in Problem Solving

Transfers of Learning in Problem Solving and Creativity

Classroom Applications of Cognitive Learning Theories

1. Accept and encourage divergent thinking. Reinforce attempts at unusual solutions to

________3. The ability to overcome a hindrance to arrive at a specific goal.

This inventory is not a test. There are no right or wrong answers.

On the answer sheet, write:

2 – if you are not sure what the concept means.

1 – if you feel that you do not understand the concept at all.

Name of Student: ______________________________________________

_____ 1. Sensory memory

* Use short sized-bond paper for your answer.

Explain in a 10-sentence paragraph the interrelationships among problem

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