MATH103

Mathematics for Informatics

& Computer Science
Dr. Wassim Alexan

Lecture 4
 Lecture Outline
1. Exponential functions

2. The natural exponential, 

3. Concept and definition of a limit of a function

4. Techniques of finding a limit of a function

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 Introduction
◆ Algebraic functions are functions that can be constructed using only a finite
number of elementary operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, power and root)

◆ For example:

f (x ) = x 3 + 6 x 2 - x + 4  Polynomial function
3x-5
g(x ) =  Rational function
x4 + x - 1

h( x ) = x+2  Square root function

◆ Nonalgebraic functions are called Transcendental functions

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 Transcendental Functions

Fig. 1. An example of a transcendental function is that of a catenary, a hanging telephone line or a TV cable. (The Latin
word catena means “chain”).
(Weir, Hass, Giordano, Thomas’ Calculus, 11th Ed.)

◆ Transcendental functions include exponential functions, trigonometric

functions, hyperbolic functions, and their inverse functions

◆ In this course, we will study graphs, properties and identities of the

transcendental functions
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 Exponential Functions
◆ For any positive real number a and any real number x, we define the
exponential function as
f (x) = ax : a > 0, a ≠ 1

◆ The domain of any exponential function au equals the domain of its power u

y y
30 30

25 y=10 x 25

20 y=3 x 20
-x
y=10
15 15

10 y=3 -x 10

5 5
y=2 x
y=2 -x
x x
-2 -1 1 2 3 -3 -2 -1 1 2
Fig. 2. Graphs of some exponential functions.

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 Exercise 1
◆ For exponential functions as in the following form

f (x) = ax : a > 0, a ≠ 1

◆ What is the case when a = 1 ? What about when a = 0 ?

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 Exercise 1 Solutions
◆ 1. When a = 1

◆ a = 1  f (x ) = 1x = 1

◆ 2. When a = 0

◆ a = 0  f (x) = 0x = 0, provided that x > 0

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 Exercise 2
◆ Use the earlier discussed ideas of reflection and shifting to sketch the graph of:

◆ 1. f (x) = 4(x+2)

◆ 2. f (x) = 4x + 2

◆ 3. f (x) = 3 - 4(-x) = - 4(-x) + 3

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 Exercise 2 Hints
◆ 1. f (x) = 4(x+2)

◆ This is the graph of 4x shifted to the left by 2 units

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 Exercise 2 Solutions
◆ 1. f (x) = 4(x+2)

y y
4 70
60
3 50
40
2
30

y=4 x 1 20
y=4 (x+ 2) 10
x x
-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
Fig. 3. Graphs of f (x) = 4x and f (x) = 4x+2.

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 Exercise 2 Hints
◆ 2. f (x) = 4x + 2

◆ This is the graph of 4x shifted up by 2 units

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 Exercise 2 Solutions
◆ 2. f (x) = 4x + 2

y y
4 6

5
3
4

2 y=4 x +2 3

2
x
y=4 1
1

x x
-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
Fig. 4. Graphs of f (x) = 4x and f (x) = 4x + 2.

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 Exercise 2 Hints
◆ 3. f (x) = 3 - 4(-x) = - 4(-x) + 3

◆ The graph of 4x will be:

1. Reflected on the y–axis

2. Reflected on the x–axis

3. Shifted up by 3 units

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 Exercise 2 Solutions
◆ 3. f (x) = 3 - 4(-x) = - 4(-x) + 3

y y
4 4

3 3

2 y=-4 (-x)+3 2

y=4 x 1 1

x x
-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
Fig. 5. Graphs of f (x) = 4x and f (x) = - 4(-x) + 3.

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 Special Case: The Natural Exponential Function
◆ A very special irrational number denoted by  ≈ 2.71828 is useful in
engineering applications

◆ The function f (x) = x is called the natural exponential function

1 m
◆  = limm ∞ (1 + m) ... we will prove this later in the course

y
3.5
y= 1
3.0
2.5
2.0 1
y=(1+ )x
1.5 x
1.0
0.5
x
2 4 6 8 10
x
Fig. 6. Graphs of f (x) = 1 and f (x) = 1 + 1x  .

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 The Natural Exponential Function: Compound
Interest
◆ If an initial amount P of money is invested at an interest rate r compounded n
times a year, the value of the investment after t years is
r nt
A = P 1 + 
n

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 The Natural Exponential Function: Compound
Interest
◆ Compound interest is the interest paid on both the principal and the accrued
(previously earned) interest

◆ It is an application of exponential growth, given by

r nt
A = P 1 +  ,
n

where,
A = amount after t years,
P = principal value
r = annual interest rate (expressed as a decimal)
n = number of times interest is compounded each year
t = number of years

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 Example 1
◆ If $100 is deposited in a bank that pays a 5% annual interest, find the future
value of A after one year if the interest is compounded:

1.annually
2. quarterly

3. monthly

4. daily

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 Example 1 Solutions
◆ In the following calculations, P = 100, r = 0.05 and t = 1. Only n, the number
of times interest is compounded each year, changes

1. Annually compounding, n = 1
r nt 0.05 1·1
A = P 1 +  = 100 1 +  = $105 .00
n 1

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 Example 1 Solutions
◆ In the following calculations, P = 100, r = 0.05 and t = 1. Only n, the number
of times interest is compounded each year, changes

1. Annually compounding, n = 1
r nt 0.05 1·1
A = P 1 +  = 100 1 +  = $105 .00
n 1

2. Quarterly compounding, n = 4
r nt 0.05 4·1
A = P 1 +  = 100 1 +  ≃ $105 .09
n 4

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 Example 1 Solutions
◆ In the following calculations, P = 100, r = 0.05 and t = 1. Only n, the number
of times interest is compounded each year, changes

1. Annually compounding, n = 1
r nt 0.05 1·1
A = P 1 +  = 100 1 +  = $105 .00
n 1

2. Quarterly compounding, n = 4
r nt 0.05 4·1
A = P 1 +  = 100 1 +  ≃ $105 .09
n 4

3. Monthly compounding, n = 12
r nt 0.05 12·1
A = P 1 +  = 100 1 +  ≃ $105 .12
n 12

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 Example 1 Solutions
◆ In the following calculations, P = 100, r = 0.05 and t = 1. Only n, the number
of times interest is compounded each year, changes

1. Annually compounding, n = 1
r nt 0.05 1·1
A = P 1 +  = 100 1 +  = $105 .00
n 1

2. Quarterly compounding, n = 4
r nt 0.05 4·1
A = P 1 +  = 100 1 +  ≃ $105 .09
n 4

3. Monthly compounding, n = 12
r nt 0.05 12·1
A = P 1 +  = 100 1 +  ≃ $105 .12
n 12

4. Daily compounding, n = 365

r nt 0.05 365·1
A = P 1 +  = 100 1 +  ≃ $105 .13
n 365

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 Example 2
◆ If $1 is deposited in a bank that, hypothetically, pays a 100% annual interest,
find the future value of A after one year if the interest is compounded:

1.annually
2. quarterly

3. monthly

4. daily

5. hourly

6. every minute

7. every second

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 Example 2 Solutions
◆ P = 1, r = 1, t = 1, but n changes as follows,
{1, 4, 12, 365, 365 × 24, 365 × 24 × 60, 365 × 24 × 60 × 60, ...}
r nt
A = P 1 + 
n

= {2., 2.25, 2.37037, 2.61304, 2.6926, 2.71457, 2.71813, 2.71828, 2.71828 }

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 Example 2 Solutions

Fig. 7. Compounding for n = {1, 2, 4}.

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 Example 2 Solutions

Fig. 8. Compounding for various values of n.

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 The Natural Exponential Function: Compound
Interest
◆ Euler’s number, , is the base rate of growth for all continually growing
processes

 = 2.7182818284590452353602874713526624977572470937000 ...

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 Graphs of Some Functions
y

80 y=4x y= x

60
y=2 x

40

y=x 2

20

x
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 8
Fig. 9. Graphs of f (x) = 4x, f (x) = x, f (x) = x2 and f (x) = 2x.

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 Graphs of Some Functions
y

80 y=4x y= x

60
y=2 x

40

y=x 2

20

x
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 8
Fig. 9. Graphs of f (x) = 4x, f (x) = x, f (x) = x2 and f (x) = 2x.

◆ Note that non-decaying nature of f (x) = x2 as x < 0, as opposed to the plotted

exponential functions

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 Properties of the Natural Exponential Function
◆ For all numbers x, x1 and x2, the natural exponential x obeys the following
laws:

◆ 1. x1 · x2 = x1+x2  2 · 3 = 5

◆ 2. -x = 1 / x   -3 = 1 /  3
◆ 3. x1 / x2 = x1-x2  5 / 3 = 2
◆ 4. (x1)x2 = x1·x2  (2)3 = 6

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 The Concept of a Limit of a Function
◆ Examine the behavior of the function f (x) = x2 + x - 2, for values of x near 2

x f (x) x f (x) 6
1.9 3.710 2.1 4.310
4
1.95 3.853 2.05 4.153
1.99 3.970 2.01 4.030 2
1.995 3.985 2.005 4.015
x
1.999 3.997 2.001 4.003 -2 -1 1 2
-2
Table 1 and Fig. 10. The behaviour of f (x) as x  2.

◆ Conclusion: The value of the function f (x) = x2 + x - 2 approaches the number

4 as x approaches 2 from both sides

◆ In this case, we write: limx2 (x2 + x - 2) = 4 exists

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 Formal Definition of a Limit
◆ We say that the limit of f (x) equals L as x approaches a, if the values of f (x) are
very close to a unique number L, when the values of x are sufficiently close to a
on either side, but not necessarily equal to a

◆ In this case, we write

limxa f (x) = L, or f (x)  L as x  a

◆ Example:
limx1 (2 x + 3) = 5 exists, or 2 x + 3  5 as x  1

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 Why Study the Limit of a Function?
◆ Because sometimes limxa f (x) may exist even if f (a) is not defined!

◆ Consider the limit of each of the following 3 functions as x approaches 1, x  1

Not Defined Defined

defined differently at x = 1
at x = 1 at x = 1

Fig. 12. Graphs of different functions.

(Weir, Hass, Giordano, Thomas’ Calculus, 11th Ed.)

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 Why Study the Limit of a Function?

Not Defined Defined

defined differently at x = 1
at x = 1 at x = 1

Fig. 12. Graphs of different functions.

(Weir, Hass, Giordano, Thomas’ Calculus, 11th Ed.)

◆ Conclusion: The value of the function at x = 1 does not affect the value of the
limit
limx1 f (x) = limx1 g(x) = limx1 h(x) = 2

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 Techniques of Finding Limits
◆ Note: Some of the following techniques will be covered later on in the course!

1. Direct substitution

2. If the limit = 0 / 0 = indeterminate value, then:

sin θ
2.1. limθ0 θ = 1, which is the same rule with tan
2.2. We must cancel the zero factor (identifying common factors) by:
2.2.1. Factorizing both the numerator and denominator
2.2.2. Multiplying by a conjugate

3. Squeezing “sandwich” theorem

4. Limits at infinity

5. L’Hopital’s rule

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 1. Direct Substitution
Theorem : Limits of polynomials can be found by substitution

If P (x) = an x2 + an-1 xn-1 + ... + a0, then

limxc P (x) = P (c) = an cn + an-1 cn-1 + ... + a0.

◆ Examples:

limx2 (x2 + 3 x - 2) = 4 + 6 - 2 = 8

limx1 (2 x3 - 4 x + 1) = 2 - 4 + 1 = - 1

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 1. Direct Substitution
Theorem : Limits of rational functions can be found
by substitution if the limit of the denominator is not zero

P (x ) P ( c)
If P (x) and Q(x) are polynomials and Q(c) ≠ 0, then limxc =
Q( x ) Q( c )

◆ Example:

x2 + 3 x - 2 4+6-2 8
limx2 = =
2x-1 4-1 3

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 2. Cancellation of the Zero Factor
◆ If Q(x) is a polynomial and Q(c) = 0, then (x - c) is a factor of Q(x). Thus, if the
numerator and denominator of a rational function of x are both zero at x = c,
they have (x - c) as a common factor

◆ Examples:

x2 + x - 2 0 ( x + 2) ( x - 1)
limx1 = = ?  limx1 = limx1 (x + 2) = 3
x-1 0 x-1
2x+8 0 2 (x + 4) 2 2
limx-4 = = ?  lim x-4 = lim x-4 = -
x2 + x - 12 0 (x + 4) ( x - 3) (x - 3) 7

x+4 -2 0
limx0 = =?
x 0
x+4 -2 x+4 +2 x+4-4
limx0 · = limx0 =
x x+4 +2 x  x + 4 + 2

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 x 1 1
limx0 = limx0 =
x  x + 4 + 2  x + 4 + 2 4

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 One–Sided Limit: Motivation
◆ Consider the Heaviside (unit step) function, which is defined as

y
1.2
1.0
0, x < 0 0.8
y=  0.6
1, x ≥ 0 0.4
0.2
x
-2 -1 1 2
Fig. 13. The definition of Heaviside function (left) and its graph (right).

◆ As x  0 from the left (x < 0), we can see that y(x)  0 and thus,
limx0- y(x) = 0

◆ As x  0 from the right (x > 0), we can see that y(x)  1 and thus,
limx0+ y(x) = 1

◆ Thus, there is not a unique number that y(x) approaches as x  0

◆ Conclusion: limx0 y(x) does not exist (DNE)

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 Formal Definition of One–Sided Limit
◆ We say that the limit of f (x) equals L as x  a- (x approaches a from the left),
if the values of f (x) are arbitrarily close to a unique number L, when the values
of x are sufficiently close to a, (x < a), but not necessarily equal to a. In this
case, we write

limxa- f (x) = L

◆ We say that the limit of f (x) equals M as x  a+ (x approaches a from the

right), if the values of f (x) are arbitrarily close to a unique number M, when the
values of x are sufficiently close to a, (x > a), but not necessarily equal to a. In
this case, we write

limxa+ f (x) = M

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 Exercise 3
◆ Find
x
limx 0- y(x) and limx0+ y(x), where y(x) =
x

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 Exercise 3 Solutions
x 0
limx 0 = = Indeterminate value
x 0
◆ From the definition of the function

x
x = 1, x>0
y( x ) =
- xx = - 1, x<0

Fig. 14. The definition of a piece–wise defined function y(x) (left) and its graph (right).
(Weir, Hass, Giordano, Thomas’ Calculus, 11th Ed.)
◆ It is clear that
limx 0- y(x) = - 1 and limx 0+ y(x) = 1
◆ Conclusion:
x
limx0 y(x) = limx0 = does not exist (DNE)
x

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 One–Sided Limit: Use Cases
◆ In what cases do we need to calculate the left and right limits?

1. If f (x) is defined differently (with different expressions) around the limit study
point

2. Whenever we have a modulus, and its symmetric point is the same as the limit
study point

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 One–Sided Limit: Use Cases
1. If f (x) is defined differently (with different expressions) around the limit
study point

◆ Find the limit at x = 2 for the following function

3 - x, x<2
f (x ) =  x
2, x>2

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 One–Sided Limit: Use Cases
1. If f (x) is defined differently (with different expressions) around the limit
study point

◆ Find the limit at x = 2 for the following function

3 - x, x<2
f (x ) =  x
2, x>2
◆ Solution:
limx2- f (x) = limx 2- (3 - x) = 3 - 2 = 1

limx2+ f (x) = limx 2+ (x / 2) = 2 / 2 = 1

∴ limx2- f (x) = limx2+ f (x) = 1  limx2 f (x) = 1

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 One–Sided Limit: Use Cases
2. Whenever we have a modulus, and its symmetric point is the same as the
limit study point

◆ Find the limit at x = - 2 for the following function

x+2
f (x ) = ( x + 3)
x+2

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 One–Sided Limit: Use Cases
2. Whenever we have a modulus, and its symmetric point is the same as the
limit study point

◆ Find the limit at x = - 2 for the following function

x+2
f (x ) = ( x + 3)
x+2
◆ Solution:
x+2 - (x+3x)+(2x+2) , x < -2 -(x + 3), x < -2
f (x ) = ( x + 3) = = 
x+2 ( x +3 ) ( x +2 )
, x > -2 (x + 3), x > -2
x +2

∴ limx-2- f (x) = limx-2- -(x + 3) = - 1, and

limx-2+ f (x) = limx-2+ (x + 3) = 1

∴ limx-2 f (x) = does not exist (DNE)

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 One–Sided Limit: Example I

Fig. 15. limx 2- 4 - x2 = 0 and limx 2+ 4 - x2 = 0

(Weir, Hass, Giordano, Thomas’ Calculus, 11th Ed.)

◆ The function y = 4 - x2 is defined on a closed interval [a, b] = [- 2, 2]

◆ At the point x = - 2 we can only calculate the right limit, while at the point
x = 2 we can only calculate the left limit

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 One–Sided Limit: Example II

Fig. 16. Graph of a function y = f (x).

(Weir, Hass, Giordano, Thomas’ Calculus, 11th Ed.)

◆ At x = 0 :
limx0+ f (x) = 1,

but limx0- f (x) and limx0 f (x) DNE.

The function is not defined to the left of x = 0.

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 One–Sided Limit: Example II

Fig. 16. Graph of a function y = f (x).

(Weir, Hass, Giordano, Thomas’ Calculus, 11th Ed.)

◆ At x = 1 :
limx1- f (x) = 0, even though f (1) = 1,

limx1+ f (x) = 1,

The right–and left–hand limits are not equal. Thus, limx1 f (x) = DNE.

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 One–Sided Limit: Example II

Fig. 16. Graph of a function y = f (x).

(Weir, Hass, Giordano, Thomas’ Calculus, 11th Ed.)

◆ At x = 2 :
limx2- f (x) = 1,

limx2+ f (x) = 1,

limx2 f (x) = 1, even though f (2) = 2.

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 One–Sided Limit: Example II

Fig. 16. Graph of a function y = f (x).

(Weir, Hass, Giordano, Thomas’ Calculus, 11th Ed.)

◆ At x = 3 :
limx3- f (x) = limx3+ f (x) = limx3 f (x) = f (3) = 2

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 One–Sided Limit: Example II

Fig. 16. Graph of a function y = f (x).

(Weir, Hass, Giordano, Thomas’ Calculus, 11th Ed.)

◆ At x = 4 :
limx4- f (x) = 1, even though f (4) ≠ 1,

limx4+ f (x) and limx 4 f (x) DNE.

The function is not defined to the right of x = 4.

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 One–Sided Limit: Example II

Fig. 16. Graph of a function y = f (x).

(Weir, Hass, Giordano, Thomas’ Calculus, 11th Ed.)

◆ At every other point c in [0, 4], f (x) has a limit f (c)

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 Infinity as a Limit: Case I
◆ Trying to find the limit of f (x) = 1 / x by direct substitution results in 1/0
1 1
limx0 = =?
x 0
◆ By inspecting the graph of this function, we realize that its limit as x
approaches zero DNE, because of the following
1 1
limx0+ = +∞ and limx 0- = -∞
x x

Fig. 17. The graph of y = 1 / x. (Weir, Hass, Giordano, Thomas’ Calculus, 11th Ed.)

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 Infinity as a Limit: Case II
◆ Trying to find the limit of f (x) = 1 / x2 by direct substitution results in 1/0
1 1
limx0 = =?
x2 0

◆ By inspecting the graph of this function, we realize that its limit as x

approaches zero is infinity from both directions
1 1
limx0 + = +∞ and limx 0 - = +∞
x2 x2

Fig. 18. The graph of y = 1  x2. (Weir, Hass, Giordano, Thomas’ Calculus, 11th Ed.)

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 Important Remarks
2
+ x, if x ≥ 0
1. x = x = 
- x, if x < 0

2. u2 = u , where u is a function of x, i.e. u(x)

+(x - 5), if x ≥ 5
3. x-5 = 
-(x - 5) if x < 5

+(2 x + 3) if x ≥ - 23
4. 2x+3 =
-(2 x + 3) if x < - 23
x -1
5. f (x ) = x +2 can be simplified as

x+2-3 x+2 3 3
f (x ) = = - =1-
x+2 x+2 x+2 x+2

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