Differential Calculus

Differential calculus: Limit, continuity and differentiability of

functions. Successive differentiation. Leibnitz theorem. Taylor and
Maclaurin theorem, expansion of functions in series. Indeterminate
forms. Partial differentiation, tangent, normal, curvature,
asymptotes, envelopes, curve tracing. Determination of maximum
and minimum of functions with applications.

Function y=f(x)

Def: If a variable y depends on a variable x in such a way that each

value of x determines exactly one value of y then we say that y is a
function of x and is denoted by y=f(x) Ex. y=3x+1.

A function is a mysterious machine that changes the values of x

into values of y
x y
2 y=3x+1
x7
x
The physical world is restless. There is a proverb ‘Every thing
flows’. Heat flows, current flows, fluid flows. Everything is
changing. One variable changes with respect to other variable.

Examples:
The temperature T of this room changes with time t,
T=2t+1, T=f(t)

The velocity v of a falling body changes with distance h

v= 2 gh , v=f(h)

The area A of a circle changes with the size of the radius r,

A= pr 2 , A=f(r)
The current i changes with time t,
i= sin w t, i=f(t)

The representative of all the function is y=f(x)

Classification of functions:

Algebraic functions:
Polynomial function y=x2
2
+1
Rational function y= x
x -1
Irrational function y= x2 +1

Trigonometric function y=sinx, cosx

Exponential function y=ex, 2x
Logarithmic function y=lnx, logx
Even function f(-x)= f(x) Ex. f(x)=x2 , cosx
Odd function f(-x)=-f(x) Ex. f(x)=x3, sinx
Explicit function y=f(x) Ex. y=3x+1
Implicit function f(x,y)=0 Ex. x2y3+xy+x+y=0
Periodic function f(x+d)=f(x) Ex. f(x)=sinx,
f(x+ p )=sin(x+ p )=sinx= f(x)

Representation of functions
1. Tables
2. Graphs
3. Equations y=3x+1

x 1 2 3
y 4 7 10

2
 y

o x
A function is defined for the whole x-axis
Ex. y=x2 - ¥ < x < ¥

A function is defined interval wise

ì- x x<0
ï
Ex. f ( x) = í 0 x=0
ï x x>0
î

y=x
y=-x

o x
X
Fig1

3
 Limit of a function y=f(x)
Lt f ( x) = l
x ®a

This means that f(x) is very close to the fixed number l whenever
x is very close to a

Ex. Lt x 2 = 4
x®2

This means that x2 is very close to the fixed number 4 whenever x

is very close to 2

Meaning of x ® a
When x approaches a but always remains less than a we say that x
approaches a from the left and we write x ® a - or x ® a-0

When x approaches a but always remains greater than a we say

that x approaches a from the right and we write x ® a + or
x ® a+0

x=1.5 x= 2.5
x=1.7 x= 2.3
x=1.9 x= 2.1
x=1.99 x= 2.01
x=1.999 x= 2.001
x=1.9999 x= 2.0001
………. ………..
………. ……..…
x ® 2- x ® 2+

Meaning of Lt f ( x) = l
x®a

Lt x 2 = 4
x®2

4
 x x2 x x2
x ® 2- x ® 2+
1.5 2.25 2.5 6.25
1.7 2.89 2.3 5.29
1.9 3.61 2.1 4.41
1.99 3.9601 2.01 4.0401
1.999 3.996001 2.001 4.004001
1.9999 3.99960001 2.0001 4.00040001
1.99999 3.9999600001 2.00001 4.0000400001
………. …………… ……. ………. …………….

y=x2
4
o 1 X2 3 x
X
X X X
Fig2

Lt - x 2 = 4
x®2

Lt + x 2 = 4
x®2

Lt x 2 = 4
x®2

Lt f ( x) = l
x®a -

Lt f ( x) = l
x®a +

Lt f ( x) = l
x®a

Finding limitting value/limit of a function y=f(x)

5
1) Polynomial function Lt x 2 + 3 = 7
x ®2

1
2) Lt
x®2 x - 2
=¥
sin x 0
3) Lt indeterminate forms
x®0 x 0
4) Interval wise defined functions
Ex. A function f(x) is defined as follows:
ì- x x<0
ï
f ( x) = í 0 x=0
ï x x>0
î
Find Lt f ( x)
x®0

Lf (0) = Lt - f ( x) = Lt - (- x) =0
x ®0 x ®0

Rf (0) = Lt f ( x) = Lt x =0
x ®0 + x ®0 +

Lf (0) = Rf (0) =0 \ Lt f ( x) =0
x®0

y=x
y=-x

o x
X
Fig3

Ex. A function f(x) is defined as follows:

6
 ìx 2 x <1
ï
f ( x) = í 2.5 x =1
ï x2 + 2 x >1
î

Find Lt f ( x)
x®1

Lf (1) = Lt- f ( x) = Lt- x 2 =1

x ®1 x ®1

Rf (1) = Lt+ f ( x) = Lt+ x 2 + 2 =3

x ®1 x ®1

Lf (1) ¹ Rf (1) \ Lt f ( x)
x®1
does not exist

o x
1 X
X
Fig4

15-06-21 A

Continuity of function y=f(x)

Def: A function is said to be continuous at x=a if Lt f (x) exists,

x® a
is
finite and equal to f(a)

7
In other word f(x) is continuous at x=a if
Lt f (x) = Lt f (x) = f(a)
- +
x®a x®a

or, Lf(a)=Rf(a)=f(a)

Roughly speaking a function f is continuous if its graph can be

drawn without taking your pencil from the paper. Road is
continuous or discontinuous. Road is like a curve.

y
y=f(x)

x
o
X
y
y=f(x)

o x
X
Fig5

1. Test the continuity of the curve y=x2 +4 at x=3.

8
 y
y=x2+4

o 3 x
X
Lf(3)= x®Lt3 -
x 2 + 4 = 13 Rf(3)= x®Lt3 +
x 2 + 4 = 13 f(3)=13
Lf(3)=Rf(3)=f(3)
The function is continuous at x=3

1
2. Test the continuity of the curve y= at x=1.
x -1
1 1
Lf(1)= xLt =-¥ Rf(1)= Lt+ =¥ f(1)= ¥
®1 -
x -1 x ®1 x - 1

1
y=
x -1 y

0 1 x

Limit does not exist at x=1

The function is not continuous at x=1

9
3. Test the continuity of the curve y=f(x) at x=0.
ì- x x<0
ï
f ( x) = í 0 x=0
ï x x>0
î

Lf (0) = Lt - f ( x) = Lt - (- x) =0
x ®0 x ®0

Rf (0) = Lt f ( x) = Lt x =0 f (0) =0
x ®0 + x ®0 +

Lf(0)=Rf(0)=f(0)

The function is continuous at x=0

y=x
y=-x

o x
Fig6 X
4. Test the continuity of the curve y=f(x) at x=1.
ìx 2 x <1
ï
f ( x) = í 2.5 x =1
ï x2 + 2 x >1
î
Lf (1) = Lt- f ( x) = Lt- x 2 =1
x ®1 x ®1

Rf (1) = Lt+ f ( x) = Lt+ x 2 + 2 =3 f(1)=2.5

x ®1 x ®1

Lf (1) ¹ Rf (1) ¹ f (1)

The function is not continuous at x=1

10
 y

o x
1 X
X
Fig7

16-06-21BC

Differentiability of a function y=f(x)

Dy y + Dy - y f ( x + h) - f ( x) f ( x + h) - f ( x)
= = =
Dx x + Dx - x x+h-x h
dy Dy f ( x + h) - f ( x )
= Lt + = Lt +
dx h®0 Dx h®0 h
f ( x + h) - f ( x )
Rf ¢(x) = Lt +
h ®0 h

y
(x+ Dx ,y+ Dy )
(x,y) Dy
Dx
y=f(x) f(x+h)
Dx =h X
o x x+h x
X
11
 Fig8

Dy y - ( y - Dy ) f ( x) - f ( x - h) f ( x - h) - f ( x)
= = =
Dx x - ( x - Dx) x - ( x - h) -h
dy Dy f ( x - h) - f ( x )
= Lt - = Lt -
dx h ®0 Dx h ®0 -h
f ( x - h) - f ( x )
Lf ¢(x) = Lt -
h ®0 -h

y
(x,y)
(x- Dx ,y- Dy ) Dy
Dx y
f(x-h) f(x)
Dx =h
o x-h x x
Fig9 X

For any point x=a

dy f ( a - h) - f ( a )
Lf ¢(a ) = = Lt
dx
h ®0 -
-h
dy f ( a + h) - f ( a )
Rf ¢(a ) = = Lt +
dx h ® 0 h

If Rf ¢(a) = Lf ¢(a) we say that function is differentiable at x=a and it

is equal to f ¢(a)

1. Test the differentiability of the function y=f(x) at x=0 where

ì- x x<0
ï
f ( x) = í 0 x=0
ï x x>0
î

f (0 - h) - f (0) f (-h) - f (0)

Lf ¢(0) = Lt - = h®Lt0 = - ( - h) - 0 =-1
h ®0 -h -
-h -h

12
Rf ¢(0) = Lt +
f (0 + h) - f (0)
= Lt + f (h) - f (0) = h - 0 =1
h ®0 h h ®0 h h

Lf ¢(0) ¹ Rf ¢(0) f ¢(0) does not exist The function is not

differentiable at x=0

y=x
y=-x

o x
X
Fig10

2. Test the differentiability of the function y=f(x) at x=1and 2

where

ì
ïx 0 < x £1
ï
f ( x) = í 2 - x 1<x £ 2
ï 1
ïx - x 2 x>2
î 2

at x=1

f (1 - h) - f (1) 1- h -1 -h
Lf ¢(1) = Lt - = Lt - = Lt - =1
h ®0 -h h ®0 -h h ®0 - h

f (1 + h) - f (1) 2 - (1 + h) - 1 -h
Rf ¢(1) = Lt + = Lt + = Lt + =-1
h ®0 h h ®0 h h ®0 h
Lf ¢(1) ¹ Rf ¢(1) f ¢(1) does not exist The function is not
differentiable at x=1

13
at x=2

f (2 - h) - f (2) 2 - ( 2 - h) - 0 h
Lf ¢(2) = Lt - = h®Lt0 = =-1
h ®0 -h -h
-
-h
1 1
2 + h - ( 2 + h) 2 - 0 - h - h2
f (2 + h) - f (2) 2 2
Rf ¢(2) = Lt + = h®Lt0+ = h®0
Lt + =
h ®0 h h h

Lt + -1- 1 h =-1
h ®0 2

Lf ¢(2) = Rf ¢(2)
The function is differentiable at x=2
f ¢(2) = -1

y=x

o x
1 2 X
X

Fig11

3. Test the differentiability of the function y=f(x) at x=1 where

ìx 2 x <1
ï
f ( x) = í 2.5 x =1
ï x2 + 2 x >1
î

f (1 - h) - f (1) (1 - h) 2 - 2.5
Lf ¢(1) = Lt - = h®Lt0
h ®0 -h -
-h

14
 1.5 - 2h + h 2 1.5
= Lt - = Lt - ( - + 2 - h )= - ¥
h ®0 -h h ®0 h
f (1 + h) - f (1) (1 + h) 2 + 2 - 2.5
Rf ¢(1) = Lt + = Lt +
h ®0 h h ®0 h
0.5 + 2h + h 2 0.5
= h®0
Lt + = h®0
Lt + ( + 2 + h )= ¥
h h
Rf ¢(1) and Lf ¢(1) do not exist therefore f ¢(1) does not exist. The
function is not differentiable at x=1

o x
1 X
X
Fig12

1. Find the limit and test the continuity and differentiability of the
function at x=0.
Give a rough sketch of the curve

ì- x x<0
ï
f ( x) = í 0 x=0
ï x x>0
î

Find Lt f ( x)
x®0

Lf (0) = Lt - f ( x) = Lt - (- x) =0
x ®0 x ®0

Rf (0) = Lt f ( x) = Lt x =0
x ®0 + x ®0 +

15
Lf (0) = Rf (0) =0 \ Lt f ( x) =0
x®0

Test the continuity at x=0

Lf (0) = Lt f ( x) = Lt (- x) =0
- -
x ®0 x ®0

Rf (0) = Lt f ( x) = Lt x =0
x ®0 + x ®0 +

f (0) =0

Lf (0) = Rf (0) = f (0)

f (x) is continuous at x=0

Test the differentiability at x=0

f (0 - h) - f (0) f (-h) - f (0) - ( - h) - 0
Lf ¢(0) = Lt = Lt = =-1
h ®0 -
-h h ®0 -
-h -h
f (0 + h) - f (0) f (h) - f (0) h - 0
Rf ¢(0) = Lt - = h®Lt0- = =1
h ®0 h h h

Lf ¢(0) ¹ Rf ¢(0) f ¢(0) does not exist The function is not

differentiable at x=0

y=x
y=-x

o x
X
Fig13

Prove that every differentiable function is continuous. Show by

an example that the converse is not true.

16
Proof:
Let f(x) be differentiable at x=a that is
f ( a + h) - f ( a )
f ¢(a ) = Lt exists
h ®0 h
or, h®0 Lt [ f (a + h) - f (a )] = Lt hf ¢(a )
h ®0

Lt [ f (a + h) - f (a )] = 0
h ®0

Lt f (a + h) = f (a )
h ®0

a+h=x

Lt f ( x) = f (a )
x®a

Lt f (x) = Lt + f ( x) = f (a )
x®a - x®a

Hence f(x) is continuous at x=a

The converse is not true which is shown by an example

ì- x x<0
ï
f ( x) = í 0 x=0
ï x x>0
î
Continuity at x=0
Lf (0) = Lt f ( x) = Lt (- x) =0
- -
x ®0 x ®0

Rf (0) = Lt f ( x) = Lt x =0
x ®0 + x ®0 +

f (0) =0

Lf (0) = Rf (0) = f (0)

f (x) is continuous at x=0

Differentiability at x=0
f (0 - h) - f (0) f (-h) - f (0)
Lf ¢(0) = Lt = h®Lt0 = - ( - h) - 0 =-1
h ®0 -
-h -
-h -h

17
 f (0 + h) - f (0)
Rf ¢(0) = Lt - = h®Lt0- f (h) - f (0) = h - 0 =1
h ®0 h h h

Lf ¢(0) ¹ Rf ¢(0) . f ¢(0) does not exist. f (x) is not differentiable at x=0.

dy
Meaning of
dx
1. Geometrical meaning

dy
=tan q =slope of the tangent to the curve y=f(x) at any point (x,y)
dx
where q is the angle made by the tangent with the positive x-axis

2. Mathematical meaning
y = f (x) y + Dy = f ( x + Dx) Dy = f ( x + Dx) - f ( x)
dy Dy f ( x + Dx) - f ( x)
= Lt = Lt
dx Dx®0 Dx Dx®0 Dx
dy f ( x + h) - f ( x )
= Lt , h = Dx
dx h®0 h

dy
If y=x2 find
dx
dy ( x + h) - x 2
2
= Lt = Lt 2x+h=2x
dx h®0 h h ®0

dy dy dy
Ex.If y=x2 find at x=3, =2x, at x=3, =6
dx dx dx

dy
=instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x
dx
Dy
=average rate of change of y with respect to x
Dx

at x=3, y=9
at x=3.5, y=12.25
Dy = 3.25 Dx = 0.5

18
Dy 3.25
= =6.5
Dx 0.5

at x=3, y=9
at x=3.1, y=9.61
Dy = 0.61 Dx = 0.1
Dy 0.61
= =6.1
Dx 0 .1

at x=3, y=9
at x=3.01, y=9.0601
Dy = 0.0601 Dx = 0.01
Dy 0.0601
= =6.01
Dx 0.01

at x=3, y=9
at x=3.001, y=9.006001
Dy = 0.006001 Dx = 0.001
Dy 0.006001
= =6.001
Dx 0.001

at x=3, y=9
at x=3.0001, y=9.00060001
Dy = 0.00060001 Dx = 0.0001
Dy 0.00060001
= =6.0001
Dx 0.0001

at x=3, y=9
at x=3.00001, y=9.0000600001
Dy = 0.0000600001 Dx = 0.00001
Dy 0.0000600001
= =6.00001
Dx 0.00001

at x=3, y=9
at x=3.000001, y=9.000006000001
Dy = 0.000006000001 Dx = 0.000001

19
Dy 0.000006000001
= =6.000001
Dx 0.000001

Dy dy
Lt =6 =6
Dx ®0 Dx dx

3. Physical meaning
s=ut+ 1 ft2 s=16t2
2
ds
Ex.If s=16t2 find the velocity at t=3, v= =32t, at t=3,
dt
ds
=96
dt

ds
=instantaneous rate of change of s with respect to t=
dt
instantaneous velocity
Ds
=average rate of change of s with respect to t = average velocity
Dt

s=16t2

t=1 s=16

t=2 s=64

t=3 s=144
t=3.01 s=144.9616
t=3.1 s=153.76

20
 t=3.5 s=196
fig14

at t=3, s=144
at t=3.5, s=196
Ds = 52 Dt = 0.5
Ds 52
= =104
Dt 0.5

at t=3, s=144
at t=3.1, s=153.76
Ds = 9.6 Dt = 0.1
Ds 9.76
= =97.6
Dt 0. 1

at t=3, s=144
at t=3.01, s=144.9616
Ds = 0.9616 Dt = 0.01
Ds 0.9616
= =96.16
Dt 0.01

at t=3, s=144
at t=3.001, s=144.096016
Ds = 0.096016 Dt = 0.001
Ds 0.096016
= =96.016
Dt 0.001

at t=3, s=144
at t=3.0001, s=144.00960016
Ds = 0.00960016 Dt = 0.0001
Ds 0.00960016
= =96.0016
Dt 0.0001

at t=3, s=144

21
at t=3.00001, s=144.0009600016
Ds = 0.0009600016 Dt = 0.00001
Ds 0.0009600016
= =96.00016
Dt 0.00001

Ds ds
Lt
Dt ®0 Dt
=96 =96
dt
Ds Ds
Average vel.= s = 144 =48 = 104 = 97.6 ................
t 3 Dt Dt
ds
Instantaneous vel. at t=3 is =96
dt

If functions are the flesh and blood of calculus then limit is its
life.

22