Title:

TENSILE TEST

1
ABSTRACT

Tensile test is the most widely used test to identify and determine the tensile properties, by
measuring the applied force acted on the specific sample (pulling) just before the specimen is
in fracture state. Different types of materials can be tested in this experiment to identify their
own behavior. Mild steel is used as the specimen in this experiment. Steps need to be
followed accordingly. Specimen is measured before the tensile test starts, this is done to spot
the difference occur visually. Through the test, the stress and strain are calculated from the
data obtained. Stress-strain graph is plotted and some of the results are calculated to
determine the percentage error in between theoretical and experimental values.

2
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………………1

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES…………………………………………………….....4

1.0INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………….5

2.0 OBJECTIVES…………………………………………………………………………...5

3.0 THEORY………………………………………………………………………………...6

4.0 APPARATUS…………………………………………………………………………....8

6.0 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE……………………………………………………10

6.0 TABLE OF RESULTS…………………………………………………………………11

7.0 RESULTS ANALYSIS...................................................................................................12

7.1 FADHILAH BINTI MOHD HANAPIAH…………………………………...12

7.2 MOHAMED ANIQUE BIN MOHAMED AZIYEN………………………...16
7.3 MOHAMAD NASMAN BIN MOHD NIZAM……………………………...19

8.0 DISCUSSION…………………………………………………………………………..20
8.1 FADHILAH BINTI MOHD HANAPIAH…………………………………...20
8.2 MOHAMED ANIQUE BIN MOHAMED AZIYEN………………………...22
8.3 MOHAMAD NASMAN BIN MOHD NIZAM……………………………....24
9.0 CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………………....25
9.1 FADHILAH BINTI MOHD HANAPIAH…………………………………...25
9.2 MOHAMED ANIQUE BIN MOHAMED AZIYEN………………………...26
9.3 MOHAMAD NASMAN BIN MOHD NIZAM……………………………….27
10.0 REFERENCES …………………………………………………………………....28
10.1 FADHILAH BINTI MOHD HANAPIAH………………………………....28
10.2 MOHAMED ANIQUE BIN MOHAMED AZIYEN……………………...29
10.3 MOHAMAD NASMAN BIN MOHD NIZAM…………………………...29

11.0 APPENDICES …………………………………………………………………….....30

3
List of Tables

Table 1 : Table of Results 11

Table 2 : Table of Result Analysis 14

Table 3 : Differences between Actual and Experimental Value 22

List of Figures

Figure 1 : The Stress-Strain Relationship Curve 7

Figure 2 : Vernier Callipers 8

Figure 3 : Tensile Test Machine 8

Figure 4 : Rectangular Specimen 8

Figure 5 : Extension Gauge 9

Figure 6 : Load Gauge 9

Figure 7 : Picture of Mounted Specimen 10

Figure 8 : The Set Up of Apparatus 10

4
1.0 Introduction

Tensile test or known as Uniaxial tensile test is actually a fundamental and common
engineering test to achieve material parameters. These important parameters obtained
from the standard tensile testing are useful for the selection materials for any applications
required.

Even though there are several important mechanical properties of a material can be
determined from the tensile test, this test is conducted generally to determine the
relationship between the stress and strain of the specimen. In order to perform a tensile
test, a specimen of a material is made into a standard shape and size. The specimen has
constant rectangular cross section with widen ends, thus the failure will not arise at the
grip of the specimen.

Prior to testing, two small marks must be placed at the specimen’s uniform length.
Measurements will be taken from both the specimen’s initial cross sectional area, and the
gauge length distance between the two small marks. Testing machine such tensile test
machine is used to stretch the specimen at very slow, constant rate until it fails. Optical
device called an extensometer is used to measure the elongation of the specimen.

The plot of the results of the experiment will construct a curve known as stress-strain
diagram. From this curve, four different manners in which the material behaves
depending on the amount of strain induced in the material.

2.0 Objectives
i) Determine the tensile properties subjected to tensile loading
ii) Indentify types of fractures under tensile loading
iii) Validate the data between experimental and theoretical values

5
3.0 Theory

Tensile test is done to determine the tensile properties of a material. From the tensile test,
we can determine a few properties which are highly needed in order to construct or build
something such a new building, bridges and so on. The tensile properties are modulus of
elasticity, elastic limit, elongation, proportional limit, and reduction in area, tensile
strength, yield point, yield point and other tensile properties. Tensile test is done in on
the specimen by applying forces that are outwards from each other or tension forces while
measuring the elongation of the specimen by increasing the magnitude of the applied
force.

The product of a tensile test which are the load and elongation are then converted into a
stress over strain curve. From the graph all the data needed can be taken and analyse
easily. Below is a normal stress strain curve.

Figure 1 : The Stress-Strain Relationship Curve

6
Modulus of elasticity or known as the Young’s Modulus is gotten by getting the slope of the
graph. The Yield Strength or elastic limit is observed as the highest point stress on the slope.
Whereas, ultimate tensile stress is the highest value of stress the material can withstand
before breaking apart. The curve also gives an imaginary look on the specimen. In an elastic
deformation the specimen will contract to its original state. After the elastic limit, the
specimen will undergo a plastic deformation and it will occur on the entire cross area of the
specimen. After reaching the ultimate stress it can withstand, a stress point will start forming
on the specimen which leads to the necking process. As all of the applied tensile force starts
to concentrates on the stress point of the specimen it will finally fracture as the specimen
can’t withstand the force applied to it.

Related formula used in this experiment:

1. Stress, σ

F
σ = , where F is the force and A is the area.
A

2. Strain ,ε

l f −l 0
ε=
l0
, where l f = Final length l o = Initial Length

Extension
= Initial length

Actual value−Experimental value

3. Percentage error (%) = x 100
Actual value

7
4.0 Apparatus

Vernier calliper

Figure 2 : Vernier Callipers

Tensile test machine

Figure 3 : Tensile test machine

Rectangular specimen

Figure 4: Rectangular specimen

8
 Extension gauge

Figure 5: Extension Gauge

Load gauge

Figure 6 : Load Gauge

5.0 Procedure

9
 1) The length of the specimen is measured by using Vernier calliper
2) The thickness and width of the specimen is also measured
3) The specimen is mounted to the jaw grip of tensile test machine

Figure 7 : Picture of mounted specimen

4) The extensometer is placed on the vertical flat of inner jaw

Figure 8 : The set of apparatus

5) The load anchor is turned in anticlockwise direction

6) Step 5 is repeated for rate
7) The final length is measured
8) All of the reading and measurements are recorded

6.0 Table of Results

10
Extension (m) Load (kN)

0.0002 0.275

0.0004 0.675

0.0006 0.925

0.0008 0.925

0.0010 0.925

0.0012 0.925

0.0014 0.925

0.0016 0.925

0.0018 0.925

0.0020 0.925

0.0022 0.925

0.0024 0.925

0.0026 0.925

0.0028 0.925

0.0030 0.925

0.0032 0.925

0.0034 0.900

0.0036 0.850

0.0038 0.825

0.0040 0.650

Table 1 : Table of Results

11
7.0 Results Analysis

7.1 FADHILAH BINTI MOHD HANAPIAH 2013219814

Sample Calculation

Length = 3 x 10−03

Width =1 x 10−03

Area = 3 x 10−06

Load or force = 0.275 kN

Initial Length, l 0 = 0.043 m

a. Stress, σ

F
σ =
A

0.275 kN
= −06
3 x 10

= 91.67 MPa

b. Strain ,ε

l f −l 0
ε=
l0

Extension
= Initial length

0.0002
=
0.043

= 0.0047

c. Modulus of elasticity, E = The slope of the graph of stress against strain

y 1− y 2
E=
x 1−x 2
225−91.67
= 0.0093−0.0047

= 28.98 GPa

12
d. Yield stress

F
σ =
A
0.720 kN
=
3 x 10−06
= 240MPa

e. Ultimate stress

F
σ =
A
0.925 kN
= −06
3 x 10
= 308.34 MPa

Actual value−Experimental value

Percentage error (%) = x 100
Actual value

Modulus of Elasticity
210G−28.98 G
Error, % =
210 G
X 100 = 86.2 %

Yield stress
250 M −240 M
Error, % =
250 M
X 100 = 4.0 %

Ultimate stress
400 M −308.34 M
Error, % =
400 M
X 100 = 22.95%

13
 Extension Load (kN) Stress (MPa) Strain
(m)
0.0002 0.275 91.67 0.0047

0.0004 0.675 225.00 0.0093

0.0006 0.925 308.34 0.0140

0.0008 0.925 308.34 0.0186

0.0010 0.925 308.34 0.0233

0.0012 0.925 308.34 0.0279

0.0014 0.925 308.34 0.0326

0.0016 0.925 308.34 0.0372

0.0018 0.925 308.34 0.0419

0.0020 0.925 308.34 0.0465

0.0022 0.925 308.34 0.0511

0.0024 0.925 308.34 0.0558

0.0026 0.925 308.34 0.0605

0.0028 0.925 308.34 0.0651

0.0030 0.925 308.34 0.0698

0.0032 0.925 308.34 0.0744

0.0034 0.900 300.00 0.0791

0.0036 0.850 283.34 0.0837

0.0038 0.825 275.00 0.0884

0.0040 0.650 216.67 0.0930

Table 2 : Table of Analysis of Results

14
 The Graph of Load (kN) against Extension (m)
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
Load

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.0005 0.001 0.0015 0.002 0.0025 0.003 0.0035 0.004 0.0045
Extension

The Graph of Stress against Strain

350 Ultimate Stress
Necking
300

250 Yield Stress

200 Fracture Point

Stress

150

100 Slope of the graph( Elastic Modulus)

50

0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
Strain

15
 7.2 MOHAMED ANIQUE BIN MOHAMED AZIYEN 2013879068

Stress (MPa) versus Strain (x10-3)

300

250
Stress (MPa)

200

150

100

50

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Strain (x10-3)

16
Sample Calculation

Area, A

Area = Width X Height

Area = (0.3 X 10-2) X (0.1 X 10-2)

Area = 3.6 X 10-6 m2

Stress, 

F
=
A

0.675 X 10−3
=
3.6 X 10−6

 = 187.5 MPa

Strain, 

Elongation−Original
=
Original

1.8 X 10−3
=
4.3 X 10−2

 = 41.86 X 10-3

Modulus of Elasticity, E

y 2− y 1
Slope =
x 2−x 1

( 256.94−76.38 ) X 106
Slope =
( 13.95−4.65 ) X 10−3

Slope = 20.3828 X 109 Pa

17
Yield Stress, 

F
=
A

0.925 X 10−3
=
3.6 X 10−6

 = 256.94 Mpa

Percentage error, %

Actual−Theory
Young Modulus, E = X 100
Actual

20.3838−210
Young Modulus, E = X 100
210

Young Modulus, E = 90.29%

Actual−Theory
Yield Stress,  = X 100
Actual

256.94−250
Yield Stress,  = X 100
250

Yield Stress,  = 2.78%

Actual−Theory
Ultimate Stress,  = X 100
Actual

256.94−400
Ultimate Stress,  = X 100
400

Ultimate Stress,  = 35.77%

18
7.3 MOHAMAD NASMAN BIN MOHD NIZAM 2012572865

Sample Calculation.

Area=( 3 ×10 ) m × ( 1 ×10 ) m=3 × 10 m

−3 −3 −6 2

3
0.900× 10
Stress= −6
=300 MPa
3 ×10

675
Yield stress= =225 MPa
3 ×10−6

925
Ultimate stress= −6
=308.33 MPa
3× 10

' 308.33e6−225e6
Youn g s Modulus= =18.11 GP a
[0.0139−( 9.30× 10 ) ]
−3

19
8.0 Discussion
8.1 FADHILAH BINTI MOHD HANAPIAH 2013219814

The tensile properties of the specimen subjected to tensile loading can be

described from the graph of stress against strain which is plotted based on the
result of the experiment. The properties are the elastic modulus (E), yield stress ¿ ¿
), ultimate stress (σ u ¿ .When the specimen is subjected to tensile loading, the
graph has a linear line which defined the proportional limit at 225 Mpa. This
proportional limit explained the linear elastic behaviour within the elastic region.
The elastic modulus (E) which also represents the slope of the linear line on the
stress-strain diagram is calculated based on the result. The slight increases in
stress above the elastic limit lead to the breakdown of the material and cause it to
deform permanently. This behaviour is called yielding. The yield stress taken
based on the graph is 240Mpa. After yielding has ended, the strain hardening
occurred resulting in a curve that rises continuously but becoming flatter until it
reaches the ultimate stress at 308.34 Mpa. After reaching the ultimate stress, the
stress decreasing and the cross-sectional area begins to decrease in a localized
region of the specimen, instead of over its entire length. This behaviour is called
necking since a ‘neck’ is formed as the specimen elongated further. Then the
specimen is fractured after the stress decreasing to 216.67 Mpa (Fracture stress).

By looking the lines the graph of load torque against the angle of twist plotted
based on the result of the experiment, it does obey the Hooke’s Law. This
specimen exhibit initial linear elastic behaviour, whereby stress is proportional to
strain defined by Hooke’s law. However, there are differences between the actual
and experimental value of the stress. The young modulus of elasticity has big
differences between both values. The value of elastic modulus (E) calculated is
28.98 Gpa where as the theoretical value is 210 Gpa.On the other hand, the

20
experimental value of stress at the yield point is 240 Mpa while the actual value is
250 Mpa . The experimental value for ultimate stress is 308.34Mpa while the
actual value is 400Mpa.

The percentage error the elastic modulus is about 86.2%.This high percentage
error indicates that there are big differences between the experimental value and
the actual value. In addition, the percentage error for yield stress and ultimate
stress are 4% and 22.95% respectively. These might happened due to some error
while conducting the experiment. Parallax error could happen while taking the
reading of the torque or vernier calliper which could result in less accurate data. In
fact, the equipment is very sensitive. Any movement on the table where is the
equipment is set up could caused a small changes on the reading of the gauge.
Other than that, the specimen used is quite old. The material composite of the
specimen might have changed a bit and lead to small differences in the properties
of the specimen.

For the specimen tested on the experiment, the fracture shows that the
specimen exhibits extensive plastic deformation which is known as necking before
it fractured. The ductile fracture indicates the ultimate failure of tough ductile
materials loaded in tension. The specimen “pulls apart” and leaves a rough
surface. This shows that there is absorption of a large amount of energy on the
specimen before fracture. The ductile material is often chosen by the engineers for
design because this kind of materials are competent of absorbing shock or energy
and if they happen to overloaded, they will likely show signs of large deformation
before failing.

21
 8.2 MOHAMED ANIQUE BIN MOHAMED AZIYEN 2013879068

Table 3 : Differences between Actual and Experimental Values

Theory Actual Percentage Error
Young’s Modulus 210 Gpa 20.3838 Gpa 90.29
Yield Stress 250 Mpa 256.94 Mpa 2.78
Ultimate Stress 400 Mpa 256.94 Mpa 35.77

The table represent the data calculated based on the experiment done. From the raw data that
was obtained, a graph of stress versus strain was plotted. From the graph, we can obtain the
Young’s Modulus of steel as the material used is steel which 20.3838 GPa. There’s a huge
amount of error, which is at 90.29 %. The yield stress obtain is 256.94 MPa which is gotten
at the highest peak of the slope of the graph. The percentage error is quite small which is at
2.78 %. The ultimate stress, which is the highest value of stress that the material can
withstand is at 256.94 MPa. The value differs with the theoretical value of ultimate stress of
steel at 35.77 %.

All of the errors are contributed from parallax error, human error and material
faulty. The readings might have not been taken at the right angle therefore, changing
the value of the reading by a small difference. Human errors are basically the
students delaying the time taken to take the readings and inconstant force applied in
turning the test machine. Material faulty can also contribute to the errors as the
composite of the material might have change because of rust or any other unwanted
material proving a stress point on the specimen. Furthermore, our obtained data
shows that the specimen does not follow the theoretical stress versus strain graph as
our yield stress and ultimate stress is the same. Yield stress should indicates the
highest stress that it can withstand to remain in an elastic deformation, meanwhile
ultimate stress will indicates the highest stress it can withstand before falling apart or
in this case it will break. Thus, there might have been errors conducted to leads to
this data obtained.

22
Correction method can be done to obtain a smooth and precise data. The experiment
can be repeated a few times and the data will be added up and the average value is
taken. On the other hand, a supervisor for the experiment can be present to make sure
the student are doing the experiment correctly and to supervise the experiment as the
students are mostly new to the machine used in the experiment. Furthermore, the
tensile test could be done in a different manner such as using a computed tensile test
machine which will eliminate human errors as all the data are calculated and taken by
the computer.

Lastly, the type of fracture is a ductile failure as it is shown by the stress

versus strain graph. By observing the stress versus strain graph, we can see the
different part of the graph which is elastic deformation and plastic deformation. Only
ductile material shows elastic and plastic deformation zone meanwhile brittle material
shows small or no plastic deformation. Furthermore, the specimen shows that a
necking process occurs which a reduction of cross-sectional area on the specimen.
Thus, it is concluded that the specimen undergoes ductile failure.

23
8.3 MOHAMAD NASMAN BIN MOHD NIZAM 2012572865

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0
0.00E+00 2.00E-02 4.00E-02 6.00E-02 8.00E-02 1.00E-01

GRAPH 1 : Stress Strain Graph

Graph above shows stress strain that was plotted based on the result of the
experiment. At a stress of 91.67MPa where the load is 0.275kN, the strain shown is
4.65e-3 m. Strain started to increase as the load acted on the specimen increased. At
the extension of 6e-4 m and above, the load remains constant, 0.925kN. At the point
where strain is 0.0791m, the value of stress is decreased with respect to the previous
stress, which is 300MPa. The load is kept on applied on the sample, until the sample
is in fracture state. The strain before the sample is in fracture state is 0.0930m at the
stress of 216.67MPa. In comparison with theoretical stress strain graph, the graph
above is slightly different as there are some errors that might occur during the
experiment. Parallax error is the main concern as it affects the experimental values.
Theoretical stress-strain graph shows that there is an ultimate strength right before the
sample is necking and into a fracture state, but the graph 1 above shows that there is
constant values of stresses before the sample is fractured. Young’s Modulus of
Elasticity calculated based on the result is 18.1GPa, which 91.37% errors compared to
the theoretical Young’s Modulus, 210GPa. The ultimate stress calculated is
308.33MPa, while yield stress is 225MPa.

24
25
9.0 Conclusion

9.1 FADHILAH BINTI MOHD HANAPIAH 2013219814

The result of the tensile test for the specimen does obey the Hooke’s Law. Thus,
the specimen is concluded to exhibit initial elastic behaviour, whereby stress is
proportional to strain. The torsion properties such ultimate stress, yield stress,
necking, proportional limit and elastic modulus can be obtained from the graph
plotted based on the result of the tensile test. The specimen also proven to be a
ductile material since it shows sign of ductile fracture and necking just before it
fracture. In addition, the experimental results could be improved by conducting
the experiment in carefully manner in order to reduce the percentage error. In
conclusion, the objective of the experiment to determine the tensile properties
subjected to tensile loading, identify types of fracture surface under tensile loading
and validation between the experimental value and the actual value of shear
modulus were successfully achieved.

26
9.2 MOHAMED ANIQUE BIN MOHAMED AZIYEN 2013879068

27
9.3 MOHAMAD NASMAN BIN MOHD NIZAM 2012572865

In this experiment, where there are differences in between theoretical and

experimental values. As the values calculated, the yield stress is 225MPa and ultimate
stress is 308.33MPa. The Young’s Modulus is 18.11GPa where it is above 90% of
error with respect to the theoretical ones, which is 210GPa. In order to reduce
percentage of error of Young’s Modulus, a lot of consideration need to be taken.
Parallax and systematic errors need to be avoided. Those 3 of tensile properties are
determined. The fracture type is ductile fracture. Referring to the objectives, all of
those are achieved.

28
10.0 References

10.1 FADHILAH BINTI MOHD HANAPIAH 2013219814

1. Hibbeler, R. C. (2013). Mechanics of Materials (Ninth Edition - SI Edition).

Singapore: Pearson Education South Asia Pte. Ltd.

2. Beer, F.P., Jr. Johnston E.R., DeWolf J.T. & Mazurek D.F. (2009). Mechanics Of

Materials (Fifth Edition In SI Units). Singapore: McGraw-Hill Companies.

3. Gere, J. , Goodno, B. (2012). Mechanics of materials (Eighth Edition). United

States : Cengage Learning.

4. Pennstate University. “Stress-Strain Diagram and Necking” ,

http://www.esm.psu.edu/courses/emch13d/design/animation/Fnecking.html (Accessed,
15th April 2014)

5. “ Stress and Strain Relationship” ,

http://fp.optics.arizona.edu/optomech/references/OPTI_222/OPTI_222_W4.pdf (Accessed
15th April 2014)

29
10.2 MOHAMED ANIQUE BIN MOHAMED AZIYEN 2013879068

1. J. P. Den Hartog (2012), Advanced Strength Of Materials, Courier Dover

Publications
2. P. N. Chandramouli (2012), Fundamentals Of Strength Of Materials, Phi Learning
Pvt. Ltd
3. Prakash D.S. Rao (2011), Strength Of Materials: A Practical Approach, Volume 1,
Universities Press
4. William Nash, Merle Potter (2010), Schaum's Outline Of Strength Of Materials,
Fifth Edition, Mcgraw Hill Professional
5. James Ambrose (2011), Simplified Mechanics And Strength Of Materials, John
Wiley & Sons

10.3 MOHAMAD NASMAN BIN MOHD NIZAM 2012572865

1. http://www.materialsengineer.com/CA-ductbrit.htm
2. http://www.sciencedaily.com/articles/t/tensile_strength.htm

30
11.0 APPENDICES

Yield Ultimate free breaking

Density
Material strength strength length
(g/cm³)
(MPa) (MPa) (km)

ASTM A36 steel 250 400 7.85 3.2

Steel, API 5L X65 448 531 7.85 5.8

Steel, high strength alloy

690 760 7.85 9.0
ASTM A514

Steel, prestressing strands 1650 1860 7.85 21.6

Piano wire   2200–2482  7.8 28.7

Carbon Fiber (CF, CFK) 5650  1.75

High density polyethylene (HDPE) 26–33 37 0.95 2.8

Polypropylene 12–43 19.7–80 0.91 1.3

Stainless steel AISI 302 – Cold-rolled 520 860  

Cast iron 4.5% C, ASTM A-48 - 172 7.20 2.4

Titanium alloy (6% Al, 4% V) 830 900 4.51 18.8

31
 Yield Ultimate free breaking
Density
Material strength strength length
(g/cm³)
(MPa) (MPa) (km)

Aluminum alloy 2014-T6 400 455 2.7 15.1

Copper 99.9% Cu 70 220 8.92 0.8

Cupronickel 10% Ni, 1.6% Fe, 1%

130 350 8.94 1.4
Mn, balance Cu

Brass approx. 200+ 550 5.3 3.8

Spider silk 1150 (??) 1400 1.31 109

Silkworm silk 500 - - 25

Aramid (Kevlar or Twaron) 3620 - 1.44 256.3

UHMWPE 20 35 0.97 400

Bone (limb) 104–121 130 - 3

Nylon, type 6/6 45 75 - 2

Table 4: yield strength and ultimate

strength of certain elements

32