BIOCHEMISTRY FOR MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE
RMT 2025
PROF. RAMELO RAMIREZ
BIOMOLECULES AND CELLS
TOPIC OUTLINE
I. The Biological Fitness of Organic
Compounds
II. The Primordial Biomolecules
III. Specialization and Differentiation of
Biomolecules
IV. Origin of Biomolecules
V. Fitness of Biomolecules
VI. Dimensions and Shapes
VII. Biomolecules, Supramolecular Structures,
and Cell Organelles
VIII. The Structural Organization of Cells
THE BIOLOGICAL FITNESS OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
 Only 27 of the 90 naturally occurring
chemical elements in the earth’s crust have
been found to be essential components in
various living organisms and the chemical
elements in living organisms are not distributed
in proportion to their occurrence in the earth’s
crust.
o 90 are naturally occurring elements
(found in earth), remaining are
synthesized in the laboratory. 27 of the
90 naturally occurring elements are
found in the human body.
o The proportion of naturally occurring
elements is not the same with what the
amount present in the living organisms.
 The four most abundant elements in living
organisms are hydrogen, oxygen, carbon,
and nitrogen which makes up about 99% of the
mass of most cells. Therefore, the compounds of
hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen possess
unique molecular fitness for the processes that
collectively constitute the living state.
o 99 % of the mass of most cells are
attributed to CHON. The remaining 1%
are trace elements – those that come in
minute amounts but are extremely
crucial.
o Mass and weight are two different
things. Mass is the amount of matter
while weight is the effect of the pull
gravity.
PROPERTIES OF THE FOUR ELEMENTS THAT MAKE
THEM BIOLOGICALLY FIT
 CHON possess a common property; they readily
form covalent bonds by electron pair sharing.
 It is not an electrostatic reaction.
 H needs 1, O needs 2, N needs 3, and C needs 4
electrons to complete their outer electron shells
and thus form stable covalent bonds. They can
react with each other to form a large number of
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different covalent compounds. Furthermore,
CNO can share either one or two electron pairs
to form single or double bonds, a capacity that
endows them considerable versatility of
chemical bonding.
 The stability of the outermost shell is
determined by the completion of the
eight electrons, except for hydrogen
which has two, in the outermost shell
known as OCTET RULE.
 Hydrogen can pair with hydrogen or the
halogen group which require only one
electron.
 Covalent Bonds are nonmetal to
nonmetal. If there’s a metal, it’s not
electron pair sharing except for
transition elements. Sharing of electrons
happens mostly in Group A (IA to 7A).
 Oxygen has 6 electrons in the
outermost shell, hence it needs two
more electrons. There are two electrons
that it can share – one electron for
hydrogen and one for another hydrogen.
When this happens, it forms the
compound H2O. The rest of the electrons,
if there are 6 and two are available for
bonding, the four are lone pairs in the
structure of oxygen.
 Nitrogen has 5 electrons in the
outermost shell, one is lone pair. It has
three available electrons for bonding. If
it bonds with hydrogen, which needs one
electron, then three hydrogens can bond
with Nitrogen forming ammonia (NH3)
 Carbon has 4 electrons in the
outermost shell. Two in Sp2 and two in
the p – orbitals. In its excited state, one
electron in s-orbital, one in px-orbital,
one in py-orbital, and one in pz-orbital.
Four electrons of carbon can be shared
with four hydrogen forming methane
(CH4).
 CHON are the lightest elements capable of
forming covalent bonds. They can form very
strong covalent bonds because the strength of
a covalent bond is inversely related to the
atomic weights of the bonded atoms.
 The lower the atomic weights of
elements bonded together, the stronger
is the covalent bond. This is the reason
why human beings, which are composed
of CHON, are strong, stable, and highly
ordered.
 Carbon atoms another and most significant
property: the capacity to bond with each
other.
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 Parent chains can come from two to
thousands of carbon atoms that can be
combined together. In simple compounds,
their names vary depending on the
number of carbon atoms (methane has one
carbon, ethane has two carbons, propane
has three carbons, etc.) Carbon’s capacity
makes it available for bonding of various
lengths.
For Example:
Hemoglobin is composed of four
hemeproteins which have long structure.
 Since carbon atom may either accept or donate
four electrons to complete an outer octet, it can
form covalent bonds with four other carbon
atoms. Covalently linked carbon atoms can form
linear or branched or cyclic backbones for an
immerse variety of different organic molecules.
 The property of carbon atoms to bond
with one another to produce different
compounds lies in their hybridization.
Normally, carbon has an electronic of 1s2,
2s2, 2p2. But in its excited state,
configuration would be 1s2, 2s1, 2px1,
2py1, 2pz1 (according to Hund’s rule:
every orbital in a sublevel is singly
occupied before any orbital is doubly
occupied). This is where hybrids are
formed, based on orbitals 2s1, 2px1, 2py1,
2pz1.
3 HYBRIDS OF CARBON
- Sp – ½ S characteristics, 50 P
characteristics
- Sp2 – ⅓ S characteristics, ⅔ P
Characteristics
- Sp3 - ¼ S characteristics , ¾ P
characteristics
Where did we get it?
The orbitals of the excited state of carbon is
2s1, 2p1, 2px1, 2py1, 2pz1 – these are four orbitals
that we need to consider:
The Sp3
- 2s1 2px1 2py1 2pz1 – these are combined
to form Sp3 and this is tetrahedral in
shape and the bond it has to other is single
bond with another carbon.
The Sp2
- 2s1 2px1 2py1 ito lang yung magbabond,
but when the nucleus of two carbon atoms
joined there will be out of plane which is z
electron or 2pz. Since it is out of plane,
they can still join together, however there
will be pi bonding or sharing of electron
clouds.
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- If you look at the structure of two carbon
atoms that will be bonding together as sp2
and sp2, there is one sigma bond and one
pi bond, the pi bond is because of the
overlap of electron clouds of 2pz.
- If sp is bond to another sp, one bond
would be sigma but the spy or 2py1
orbital will also overlap.
- If 2pz and 2py overlap, there will be 2
overlapping electron clouds and that is
the other 2 pi bonds.
- In between of carbon there will be triple
bonds
- The ability to bond with others is such a
versatility, there will be change in the
kinds of elements or compounds that can
be formed.
 Carbon atoms also form covalent bonds with
oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulfur
- If these 4 combines it will have a
sustain cs if you have sulfur. If they are
combined together with other carbon,
it will lead to different compounds, for
example – if NH2 is attached that will
be the functional group. Next when
you have hydrogen they are alkanes, if
you have oxygen, a C – O bond, CHO –
they are the aldehydes, if you have
COH – they are the alcohol; a
functional group COOH – a carboxylic
acid.
 And many different kinds of functional groups
may be introduced into the structure of
organic molecules.
 Many different three – dimensional structures
can be achieved by carbon to carbon bonding
because of the tetrahedral configuration of
electron pairs around singly bonded carbon.
 No other chemical element can form
molecules of such widely different sizes and
shapes or with such a variety of functional
groups.
MOLECULAR ORGANIZATION OF THE CELL
 Precursors from the environment (mw 18 –
44)
- The lowest form of structural level.
- These are inorganic because they have
carbon dioxide, water, and ammonia
 Metabolic Intermediates (mw 50 – 250)
- Kreb cycle and Glycolysis cycle
 Building Blocks (mw 100 – 350)
- Ancestors of biomolecules
- Amino acids will come up with
proteins, monosaccharides, glucose
particularly will produce different
kinds of sugar
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PROF. RAMELO RAMIREZ
- Fatty acid + glycerol will produce o In DNA = Thymine and Cytosine
lipids  The Purines = Adenine and Guanine
- Nucleotides will produce DNA and  The sugars = α – D- deoxyribose and α – D-
RNA ribose
 Macromolecules (mw 103 – 109)  A sugar alcohol = glycerol
- They form nucleic acid, proteins,  A Nitrogenous Alcohol = Choline
polysaccharides, and lipids  A Fatty Acid = Palmitic Acid
 Supramolecular Assemblies (particle weight
106 – 109) SPECIALIZATION AND DIFFERENTIATION OF
- There are also assemblies higher than BIOMOLECULES
this, ribosome, the enzyme complex,  As living organisms evolved into more
and; highly differentiated and complex forms,
 Cells new biomolecules of greater complexity
- Contractile system in the cytoplasm of and variety are believed to have evolved
a cell, the microtubules from the primordial biomolecules.
- All large molecules are under this  Over 150 different biologically occurring
 The molecules of living organisms are ordered amino acids are known today but nearly all
into a hierarchy of increasing molecular of them are derived from the primordial
complexity as shown in the table below: amino acids.
THE CELL o 20 lang yung ginagamit na
Organelles Nucleus pagproduce ng proteins
Mitochondria  Dozens of different nucleotides and
Chloroplasts nucleotide derivatives are known, all
Golgi Bodies containing descendants of the 5 primordial
nitrogenous bases, the purines and the
Supramolecular Ribosomes
pyrimidines that will form nucleic acid.
Assemblies Enzyme Complexes
 Over 70 simple sugars are biologically
(molecular weight Contractile Systems
derived from glucose and from them a large
106 – 109 Microtubules
variety of polysaccharides are formed in
Macromolecules Nucleic Acids different organisms.
(molecular weight Proteins o Galactose and mannose are also
103 – 109) Polysaccharides included. When you combine them
Lipids makakabuo ka ng different
Building Blocks Nucleotides polysaccharides.
(molecular weight Amino Acids  There are many different fatty acids, all
100 – 350) Monosaccharides descended from one or few primordial fatty
Fatty Acids acids.
Glycerol o Palmitic Acid, Stearic Acid, Oleic Acid
Metabolic Pyruvate and Linoleic Acid – galing ito sa
Intermediates Citrate primordial fatty acids
(molecular weight Malate o Example: Sa groceries, when you see
50 – 250) Glyceraldehyde – 3 – the word omega 3 sa noodles
phosphate o Omega – 3 are essential fatty acid
Precursors from the Carbon Dioxide that are not produce by the cell but
environment Water must be taken in diet
(molecular weight Ammonia  The table below shows specialized
18 – 44) Nitrogen derivatives of some of the primordial
biomolecules.
THE PRIMORDIAL BIOMOLECULES ARGININE Ornithine
 These are the building blocks Citrulline
 The 20 amino acids: Glycine, Alanine, PROLINE 3 – Hydroxyproline
Valine, Leucine, Isoleucine, Serine, 4 – Hydroxyproline
Methionine, Threonine, Phenylalanine, 4 – Hydroxymethylproline
Tyrosine, Tryotophan, Cysteine, Proline, 4 – Methyleneproline
Aspartic Acid, Asparagine, Glutamic Acid, 4 - Ketoproline
Glutamine, Histidine, Arginine, and Lysine. LEUCINE β – Hydroxyleucine
 The Pyrimidines = Uracil, Thymine, and δ – Hydroxyleucine
Cytosine γ, δ – Dihydroxyleucine
o In RNA = Uracil and Cytosine

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PROF. RAMELO RAMIREZ
γ – Hydroxyleucine  Terpenes, which is a large class of biomolecules
Ν – Methylleucine that includes some of the vitamins, many
GUANINE 1 – Methylguanine essential oils, plant pigments, and such complex
2 – Methylguanine natural products as rubber, are all ultimately
1,2 – Dimethyguanine built from acetic acid, the major breakdown
2 – O – Methylguanine product of glucose and of fatty acids.
7 – Methylguanine  We also have secondary products of
D - GLUCOSE D – Mannose metabolism - terpenes, alkaloids. The
D – Fructose primary products of metabolism are
D – Galactose your carbohydrates and biomolecules.
N – Acetylglucosamine Terpenes, steroids, saponins, (secondary
D – Glucuronic acid product of metabolism) are also
D – Glucose – 6 – biomolecules. They identify the
phosphate secondary metabolisms in plant extracts
Ascorbic acid and these are used for certain tests like -
Inositol if pwede ba sya for test ng antidiabetic,
Sucrose etc.
D – GLUCOSE Maltose  These secondary biomolecules determine
(continuation) Lactose the medicinal properties of plants.
PALMITIC Oleic acid ORIGIN OF BIOMOLECULES
ACID Stearic acid  In the 1920’s, A. I. Oparin, a biochemist in
Lauric acid the Soviet Union, suggested that natural
Palmitoleic acid chemical and physical processes could have
Palmitaldehyde led to the spontaneous formation of simple
Stearaldehyde organic compounds, such as amino acids
and sugars, from methane, ammonia, and
 Many specialized biomolecules are extremely
water vapor, which he postulated to be
complex to see but they are so simple,
components of the primitive atmosphere.
remember where they came from? the
common ancestor- nucleotide, amino acid,  According to his theory, these gases were
glucose monosaccharides and fatty acids and activated by radiant energy of sunlight or by
glycerol that they seem to have no semblance to lightning discharges to react with each
the primordial biomolecules until research other.
proved that they arose from them. Among these  The simple organic products were
are various pigments, for example, pag maputi condensed and dissolved in the primitive
ka wala ka masyadong melanin sa katawan ocean, which gradually became enriched in
that will protect you from the sun which will a large variety of organic compounds.
cause cancer of the skin. Common Oparin postulated that the first living cell
misconception: Glutathione must be arose spontaneously from this warm,
ingested; it must not be pinapahid. Odor – concentrated solution of organic
bearing essential oils for example mass oils compounds, a view independently put
from animals, base for fragrances of the forward by J. B. S. Haldane in England. These
boys, perfume base, hormones are also views were attended by much controversy
different in terms of size and shape. and remained an untested speculation for
Hormones of boys are testosterone while the over 20 years.
hormones of females are progesterone and Discussion ni sir: (summarize)
estrogen which defines their sexual Oparin found this out and haldane
characteristics if you have hormonal independently also came up with the same
imbalance naapektuhan ang reproductive conclusion. Oparin said that “living matter is
organs, antibiotics, alkaloids, and various produced from inorganic matter – non-living
structural molecules, such as lignin of wood. matter which was acted upon through the years
 In antibiotics - be careful with this because to form organic compounds.” His theory is that
there is such a thing as AMR (Antimicrobial the gases in early earth - methane, ammonia, and
resistance), a lot of people are resistant water vapor - acted upon by lightning radiant
already to a lot of antibiotics because they energy from the sun, heat, and the cold. When
never complete the dosages that the they interact with each other, they produce
doctor asks them to drink. small compounds that fall into water and when
combined together it comes up with the first cell.

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 Why is this believable?
 It's because of Stanley Miller, who carried
out an experiment. Among the early
experiments that supported this view was
carried out by Stanley Miller in 1953. Sa
laboratory na ginawa nya, nilagay nya sa flask
ang methane, ammonia, water, and hydrogen.
He subjected mixtures of the gases methane,
ammonia, water, and hydrogen, then believed
to be predominant in the primitive
atmosphere, in a closed flask at 80 C to o intracellular conditions, called the native
electric sparking across a pair of electrodes, to
simulate lightning, for periods of a week or
more (1 to 2 weeks) pagtingin nya sa flask may
mga particles - nagcondense, nagkaroon ng
mga solid material. Then he collected and
analyzed the contents of the system, then
tested it using chromatography.
 The gas phase contained CO, CO , and N which
2 2
were evidently formed from the gases initially
introduced. In the chilled and dark colored
condensate he found significant amounts of
water – soluble organic substances, which he
separated by chromatographic methods.
Among the compounds Miller identified were
a number of ∞ - amino acids, including some
known to be present in proteins, i. e., glycine,
alanine, aspartic acid, and glutamic acid. He
also found several of the simple organic acids
known to occur in living organisms, such as
formic, acetic, propionic, lactic, and succinic
acids.
 This is the proof that Oparin and Haldane
were correct – that inorganic matter was
processed through the years to produce
organic matter.
FITNESS OF BIOMOLECULES
 Much evidence supports the concept that
the biomolecules we know today were
selected from a much larger number of
available organic compounds.
 Ample evolutionary time was available for
living organisms to have acquired the
ability to use the selected primordial
biomolecules.
DIMENSIONS AND SHAPES
 There are two classes of molecular models:
o Crystallographic
- Models show the covalent
skeleton with the correct bond
angles and lengths, but such
models do not indicate the actual
space occupied the molecule.
o Space-filling Model
- Show few details of bond angles
and distances in the backbone but
they do show the van der Waals
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contour, or surface of the
molecule.
 Three – dimensional shape and surface
topography are especially important for
macromolecules. Protein molecules usually
have only one characteristic but have three –
dimensional conformation, you can test this
conformation using xrd analysis (x-ray
diffraction analysis), mga spectrophotometer,
nuclear magnetic resonance under normal
conformation, which is indispensable for their
biological activity.
 Complex physical methods, particularly x –
ray diffraction analysis, are required to
establish the precise conformation of
biological macromolecules. Indeed, charting
the three – dimensional structure of
macromolecules by x – ray analysis and
correlating their structure with their
biological activity are major objectives of
biochemistry and molecular biology.
BIOMOLECULES, SUPRAMOLECULAR
STRUCTURES, AND CELL ORGANELLES
 The size and shape of biomolecules are of
crucial importance in another way. The
dimensions, shape, and properties of the
simple building – block biomolecules must
determine the dimensions and properties of
macromolecules, whose shape and surface
topography must in turn determine how they
fit together to form supramolecular structures,
which in turn determine the structure of the
organelles and ultimately the cell itself.
 An example of the effect of the size, shape, and
properties of a small building block
biomolecule can influence the size, shape, and
biological behavior of an entire cell is the
human genetic disease, sickle cell anemia. The
hemoglobin of patients differ slightly in
composition to normal hemoglobin as the
result of a genetic mutation: two molecules of
glutamic acid in normal hemoglobin are
replaced by two molecules of valine in the
sickle cell hemoglobin. This slight change alters
the structure of sickle cell hemoglobin
molecules so that it “stacks” improperly with
neighboring molecules. This defect in turn
causes a profound change in the shape of the
RBC which assumes the shape of a sickle, or a
crescent, whereas normal RBCs are flat disks.
As a consequence, sickled RBCs tend to
aggregate in small blood vessels, blocking the
circulation, and causing other serious
disturbances.
o Example: Sickle Cell Anemia is a type of
genetic disease. The normal shape of rbc is
ovoid. If two amino acids were replaced
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(sometimes kasi nagrereplace dun sa cell)
this will cause it to deviate from its ovoid
shape and will become crescent or sickle
shape. When it attains this sickle shape,
habang papunta sa capillary will block the
capillary - not allowing other red blood cells
to easily pass through and if the blood cells do
not pass through the red blood cells there
would be a lack of oxygen on the other side of
the plant.
o In human person - you will see bakit anemic
ito, bakit kulang sa oxygen? It’s because the
sickle cell does not allow the rbc to flow freely
to the areas in the body where oxygen is
needed.
THE STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION OF CELLS
 Structural Organization of Prokaryotic
Cells
CELL WALL & CELL MEMBRANE
 MOLECULAR COMPOSITION:
- The cell wall contains a rigid framework
of polysaccharide chains cross – linked
with short peptide chains. Its outer
surface is coated with
lipopolysaccharide. The pili, not found in
all bacteria, are extensions of the cell
wall.
- The cell membrane contains about 45%
lipid and 55% protein; the lipids form a
continuous non – polar phase. Infoldings
of the cell membrane are called
mesosomes

PROPERTIES AND FUNCTIONS
-
The cell wall protects bacteria against
swelling in hypotonic media. It is porous
and allows most small molecules to pass.
Some of the pili are hollow and serve to
transfer DNA during sexual conjugation.
- The cell membrane is a selectively
permeable boundary which allows
water, certain nutrients, and metal ions
to pass freely. Enzymes responsible for
conversion of nutrient energy into ATP
are located in the membrane.
NUCLEAR ZONE
 MOLECULAR COMPOSITION:
- The genetic material is a single
chromosome of double – helical DNA 2
nm in diameter and about 1.2 mm long,
which is tightly coiled.
 PROPERTIES AND FUNCTIONS
- DNA is the carrier of genetic information.
During division, each strand is replicated
to yield two daughter double – helical
molecules. From one strand of DNA the
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genetic message is transcribed to form
messenger RNA.
RIBOSOMES
 MOLECULAR COMPOSITION
- Each E. coli cell contains about 15,000
ribosomes. Each ribosome has a large
and small subunit. Each subunit contains
about 65% RNA and 35% protein.
 PROPERTIES AND FUNCTIONS
- Ribosomes are sites of protein synthesis.
Messenger RNA binds in the groove
between the subunits and specifies the
sequence of amino acids in the growing
polypeptide chains.
STORAGE GRANULES
 MOLECULAR COMPOSITION
- E. coli and many other bacteria contain
storage granules that are polymers of
sugars. Some bacteria contain granules
of poly – β – hydroxybutyric acid.
 PROPERTIES AND FUNCTION
- When needed as fuel, these polymers are
enzymatically degraded to yield free
glucose or free β – hydroxybutyric acid.
CYTOSOL
 MOLECULAR COMPOSITION
- The soluble portion of the cytoplasm is
highly viscous; the protein
concentration is very high, exceeding
20%.
 PROPERTIES AND FUNCTION
- Most of the proteins in the cytosol are
enzymes required in metabolism. The
cytosol also contains metabolic
intermediates and inorganic salts.
 Structural Organization of Eukaryotic
Cells
CELL MEMBRANE
 MOLECULAR COMPOSITION
- The cell coat of hepatocytes is flexible
and sticky. It is composed of acid
mucopolysaccharides, glycolipids, and
glycoproteins.
- The plasma membrane is about 9 nm
tick and contains about equal amounts of
lipids and proteins; the lipids are
arranged in a bilayer. It contains a
greater variety of lipids than bacterial
membranes
 PROPERTIES AND FUNCTION
- The adhesive properties of cell coats are
specific and play an important role in
cell – cell recognition and thus tissue
organization.
- The plasma membrane is selectively
permeable. It contains active – transport
systems for Na+ and K+, glucose, amino
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acids, and other nutrients, as well as a organelles, is decomposed to form water
number of important enzymes. and oxygen.
NUCLEUS LYSOSOME
 MOLECULAR COMPOSITION  MOLECULAR COMPOSITION
- The nucleus, about 4 – 6 µm in diameter, - Lysosomes are single membrane
is surrounded by a perinuclear envelope. vesicles, 0.25 – 0.5 µm in diameter,
The DNA within is combined with containing hydrolytic enzymes, such as
histones and organized into ribonuclease and phosphatase.
chromosomes. The nucleolus is rich in  PROPERTIES AND FUNCTION
RNA. - Lysosomes function in the digestion of
 PROPERTIES AND FUNCTION materials brought into the cell by
- During mitosis, chromosomes undergo phagocytosis or pinocytosis. They also
replication of their DNA and separation serve to digest cell components after cell
into daughter chromosomes. death.
MITOCHONDRION ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
 MOLECULAR COMPOSITION  MOLECULAR COMPOSITION
- There about 800 mitochondria in each - The endoplasmic reticulum consists of
hepatocyte. They are globular and a little flattened, single membrane vesicles
over 1 µm in diameter, occupying about whose inner compartments, the
20% of the cytoplasmic volume. Their cisternae, interconnect to form channels
outer and inner membranes differ in throughout the cytoplasm. The rough –
lipid composition and in enzymatic surface portion is studded with
activity. The matrix is rich in enzymes. ribosomes, which are larger than those
 PROPERTIES AND FUNCTION of prokaryotes.
- The mitochondria are the power plants  PROPERTIES AND FUNCTION
of the cell, where carbohydrates. Lipids, - Proteins synthesized by the adhering
and amino acids are oxidized to CO2 and ribosomes cross the membrane of the
H2O by molecular oxygen, and the endoplasmic reticulum and appear in
energy set free is converted into the the intracisternal space, which forms a
energy of ATP. The enzymes of electron highly ramified channel for intracellular
transport and energy conversion are transport to the periphery of the cell.
located in the inner membrane. Protein synthesis by unattached
GOLGI COMPLEX ribosomes also occurs, as in
 MOLECULAR COMPOSITION prokaryotes.
- The Golgi complex consists of flattened,
single membrane vesicles, which are
often stacked. Small vesicles arise
peripherally by a pinching off process.
Some become vacuoles in which
secretory products are concentrated.
 PROPERTIES AND FUNCTION
- The Golgi apparatus functions in the
secretion of cell products such as
proteins, to the exterior. It also helps to
form the plasma membrane and the
membranes of the lysosomes.
MICROBODY (PEROXISOME)
 MOLECULAR COMPOSITION
- Microbodies are single membrane
vesicles about 0.5 µm in diameter. They
contain catalase, D – amino acid oxidase,
urate oxidase, and other oxidative
enzymes often present in crystalline
arrays.
 PROPERTIES AND FUNCTION
- Microbodies participate in the oxidation
of certain nutrients. Hydrogen peroxide,
the reduction product of oxygen in these

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