LIGHTING DESIGN

LECTURE 1: PRINCIPLES AND PHYSICS OF LIGHT (PART 1)

GENERAL
Building envelop is the medium of interaction with the external environment. It acts both as a barrier
and filter; blocking out undesired elements (heat, rain, dust etc) and letting through the desirable
(light heat etc)
Vision is the most important of the senses particularly in communication with the external world.
Light is a prerequisite for seeing. Can be produced artificially or be available from natural sources
(free of charge)

NATURE
Narrow band of electromagnetic radiation whose wavelength is between 380nm – 780nm (figure 1).
A heated body emits radiation. Up to 1500K, wavelengths are longer than 780nm – this is perceived
as radiant heat. Beyond 1500k, the radiation becomes visible and its colour is a function of its
temperature. Colour can thus be defined by this colour temperature (CT). Examples:
1500K - orange
3000K - yellow – white (incandescent lamp)
6000K - solar emissions
24000K - clear blue sky

Radiation spectrum: from radio waves in km (x 105) to cosmic rays (x 10-15)

Wavelength also determines color (figure 2) – white light contains all visible wavelengths
Spectral sensitivity varies with color (figure 3) - greatest is around 550nm (yellow)

Types of receptors in the retina of the human eye are:

1. Photopic vision - 6.5M cones that perceive color
2. Scotopic vision – over 100M rods that perceiver B&W

Speed of light in different media – travels in straight lines in homogeneous media.

▪ vacuum/air – 2.998 x 108
▪ water – 2.249 x 108
▪ glass – 1.982 x 108
Like all wave motion, the relationship between velocity, frequency and wavelength applies
Velocity (c) = wavelength (λ) x frequency (f ) = 3 x 10-8 m/s
TRANSMISSON
Concept of transparent, opaque and translucent
Transparent – transmits large part of incident light
Opaque – no light transmitted through, only shadows cast behind such objects
Translucent – transmit part of incident light but break its straight path scattering it in all
directions creating diffuse light
Governing equation: r + t + a = 1
- Reflectance (r)
- Absorbance (a)
- Transmittance (t)
For opaque objects t = 0 and thus r + a = 1

REFELCTION
▪ Specular (plane mirror glass effect) – parallel light rays remain parallel after reflection.
Rules of geometrical optics apply. E.g.
1. angle of incidence is the same as angle of reflection
2. reflected rays diverge from a convex mirror
3. reflected rays converge from a concave mirror

▪ Diffuse – light reflected from a matt surface. In reality a mix of both specular and
diffuse reflections occur giving raise to semi-diffuse or spread; depending on the
relative magnitude of each.
Reflectance varies with different materials and color of light (wavelength)

Neutral reflection – occurs when the wavelength composition of incident light is not changed by
reflection.
Selective reflection – other materials are selective in reflectance and may absorb certain
wavelengths of the incident light; the reflected thereby showing a color effect.
LIGHTING DESIGN
LECTURE 2: PRINCIPLES AND PHYSICS OF LIGHT (PART 2)

COLOR AND LIGHT

The Three Colour Theory of Light – distinguishes Red, Blue and Green as primary colours. These three
colours add up to white.
The colour of light depends on the source but can also be produced by filters and pigments. In
both cases the light would have to be continuous spectrum white (not a sum of primary colours)
to reveal all colours in order to produce good colour rendering.

Color pigments are selective absorbers, their color resulting from a subtractive process. For
example:
Pigment absorbs reflects
Yellow absorbs blue; reflects red, yellow, green
Blue absorbs red and yellow; reflects blue, green
Yellow/Blue absorbs 3 colors above; reflects only green

A surface painted Red appears Red because it absorbs everything else and reflects only the Red
component. A mix of all kinds of pigments results in black, as it absorbs all wavelengths. Whereas
no mixture of pigments can result in white as there will always be some absorption.

Color filters can produce colored light by a subtractive process involving materials with high but
selective transmittance of light. They reflect and absorb most of the other wavelengths
transmitting only the specified narrow band.
Colors are subtracted from white light which contains all the colors (primary colors are Red,
Green and Blue). Subtractive colors are Cyan (Red), Magenta (Green) and Yellow (Blue)
Filtering is a subtractive process and therefore the composition of incident light is important.

Applications of subtractive color

Paint pigments – paint colours are mixed according to subtractive principles.
Coloured photographs – All colour transparencies and prints are finally comprised of different
densities of three basic dies; Cyan, Magenta and Yellow

Colored lights from different sources can be mixed to give a resultant color whose wavelength is
the sum of the wavelength ranges of the individual components. This is an additive process.
Complimentary colors add up to from white light. E.g. Red/Green; Yellow /Blue
Additive primary colours
R +G +B = White
R +G = Yellow
G +B = Cyan (sky blue)
R +B = Magenta (purple
Applications of additive color
Stage lights – by overlapping strong beams of different colour; the resultant colour on the
illuminated surface follows the rules of additive colour
Display screens – LCD, LED and Plasma technology form a matrix of sub-pixels which are grouped
in trios of GBR. Each is controlled by a separate electronic signal so that the colour strength can
be varied o create different colours.
Colour printing – some printing processes produce a mosaic of colored ink dots on paper which act
in an additive manner when viewed.

MUNSELL SYSTEM

PHOTOMETRIC QUANTITIES
Solid Angle ω – the symbol is ω. Light radiates in 3D. The space around a point is divided into
solid angles. The SI unit of solid angles is the steradian.
One steradian is that solid angle at the centre of a sphere which cuts an area on the surface
equivalent to the size of its radius squared (see figure 1).
The total solid angle around a point is 4π steradians

Intensity – symbol is I. It is the intensity of a light source measured in candelas (cd). This also
applies to an illuminated surface.

Flux – symbol is F. It is the rate flow of light energy measured in Lumens (lm). 1 lumen is the flow
of light emitted by a source with 1cd intensity within a solid unit angle (ω). 1cd from a point
source emits 12.56 lm in all directions. The relationship is
I = F/ ω

Illuminance – symbol is E. It is the amount of flux falling on unit area measured in lux (lm/m2).
It is also defined as the density of luminous flux reaching a surface. Common Illuminance levels
range from 50 lux for low domestic lighting to 50000 lux for bright sunshine (0.1lux for
moonlight). The mathematical relationship is
E = F/A
Recommended light levels are measured in terms of Illuminance. Example: -
Casual seeing 100
Rough task with large detail 200
Ordinary task, medium detail 400 general office work
Fairly severe, small detail 600 drawing office
Severe prolonged, small detail 900 fine assembly
Very severe, prolonged fine detail 1300 – 2000 gem cutting etc
Exceptionally severe, minute detail 2000 – 3000 instrument/watch making

Worked Example:
A light source has a mean spherical intensity of 100cd. One quarter of the total flux emitted from the source falls at
right angles onto a surface measuring 3.0m x 0.7m. Calculate
a) Total luminous flux given by the source
b) Illuminance produced on the surface

A
I = 100cd, ω = 4π
Using the formula I = F/ ω or F =Ixω
F = 4π x 100
Total Flux F = 1,256.64lm

B
Using the formula E = F/ A and given that A =3.0 x 0.7 = 2.1m2
= 1,256.64 / 2.1
Illuminance E = 150 lux

Luminance – symbol is L. It is the measure of brightness of a surface. Units are derived in

different ways:
1. If a light source has intensity of 1 cd and a surface area of 1m2, its luminance is 1 cd/m2
2. If a completely reflecting surface (r – 1.00) has an illumination of 1 lux, its luminance
is 1 asb (apostlib)
1 cd/m2 = 3.14asb

LIGHTING REQUIREMENTS
Adequacy
Adequacy of lighting is a quantitative requirement that depends on the visual task. Visual efficiency
reduces with age. You should therefore provide generally better lighting for elderly persons.
There are reference tables that give the minimum recommended illuminance for different visual
tasks.

Suitability
Suitability of lighting on the other hand is a qualitative requirement. The main considerations are: -
• Colour rendering – ability of a light source to reveal the color appearance of surfaces. It is
measured by comparing appearance of objects/surfaces under the light source with their
appearance under a reference light source e.g. daylight
Colour rendering index (Ra) – lecture 4

• Colour appearance – of an environment is associated with mood and expected atmosphere.

It defines/describes the psychological and aesthetic effects of a luminous environment. And
either accentuates or counteracts the architectural character of a space.

• Directional quality – must suit both functional and psychological requirements of a visual
task. Directionality is required where 3D modeling is required as shadows will reveal form and
texture. Diffuse light on the other hand is adjudged more pleasant but will cast no shadows
often resulting in a flat or even eerie atmosphere.

Illumination Vector –the quantity of light from a specified direction e.g. horizontal illumination

Scalar Illuminance – the total Illuminance caused by light from all directions including reflected
light

Vector / Scalar Ratio – is the measure of the directional strength of light at a given point. A VSR
of 3.0 indicates lighting with very strong directional quality e.g. spot lights or sun light while a
VSR of 0.5 e.g. diffuse light

• Glare – next lecture 3

LIGHTING DESIGN
LECTURE 3: PRINCIPLES AND PHYSICS OF LIGHT (PART 3)

ILLUMINATION
Visual Efficiency – the purposes of lighting is twofold: -
1. practical – facilitate performance of visual tasks
2. artistic – to create certain/desired emotional effects
In practical terms visual efficiency depends on lighting and it is measured using three facets
namely; visual acuity, contrast sensitivity and visual performance.

VISUAL TERMINOLOGY
Visual Field – the total extent in space that can be seen when looking in a given direction. For
the average person it extends 180deg horizontally and 120deg vertically. The central field is
limited to 2deg while the immediate background extends to 40deg.

Contrast – the difference in brightness or colors between two parts of the visual field

Adaptation – the process occurring as the eyes adjust to the relative brightness or color of
objects in the visual field. The eyes also adjust to the average luminance of the visual field. If
the contrast is large, it may lead to loss of ability to see less luminous areas (under exposure) or
discomfort caused by the bright areas (over exposure).

Visual Acuity – also referred to as the sharpness of vision. It is the ability to distinguish
between details that are very close together. This ability increases as the amount of available
light increases. It is measured as the reciprocal of visual angle and is expressed in minutes.
“A small increase at a low level of illuminance produces a large improvement in acuity whereas a similar
increase at higher levels of illuminance is barely noticeable”.

Contrast Sensitivity (CS) – is measured as the ratio of the least perceptible luminance
difference to the lower of the two luminances. Thus: -
CS = (L2 – L1)/L1 x 100%
In good lighting conditions, luminance differences as low as 1% can be perceived whilst in
poor lighting conditions, surfaces with up to 10% luminance difference could be perceived as
equal.

Visual Performance – the time required for seeing. Visual performance reduces with
increased illuminance
GLARE
Glare is the discomfort or impairment of vision caused by an excessive range of brightness in
the visual field. It can be caused by lamps, windows, painted surfaces – bright in comparison
with adjacent surfaces. This type of glare is also known as contrast glare.
Two types exist: -
1. Disability glare – that lessens ability to see detail, may not necessarily result in visual
discomfort. E.g. excessive reflections from a shiny white paper when reading.
2. Discomfort glare – causes visual discomfort without necessarily lessening ability to
see detail. E.g. Unshielded light bulb. Amount of discomfort depends on angle of view
and type of location. When direction of view is fixed on a given visual task, then glare
caused by lighting issues will be more pronounced. Discomfort glare occurs when the
luminance ratio:
Lmax / Lmin > 15
Glare can also be direct caused by the source itself or indirect caused by reflective illuminated
surfaces.
Saturation Glare – saturation glare occurs when the average illuminance of the visual field is
in excess of 25,000cd/m2 e.g. a white sandy beach in full sunlight.
Reflected Glare – for example reflected glare is caused by a lamp behind operator of a
computer or bright sunlight through a window behind the PC operator falling onto the screen.

ILLUMINATION
Inverse Square Law of Illumination
Illumination from appoint source varies with the squares of the distance.
A source of I candela units emits a total flux of 4 π I lumens. At a distance d this flux will be
distributed over a sphere of radius d i.e. a surface area of 4 π d2
Thus illumination at a distance d is:
E = 4 π I / pd2 = I/d2
This is known as the inverse square law of illumination and it applies when the illuminated
plane is perpendicular to the direction of light.
Illumination from an infinitely large luminous surface e.g. the sky does not vary with distance

Worked Example:
A lamp has a luminous intensity of 1200cd and acts as a point source. Calculate the Illuminance produced on
surfaces at the following positions
a) 2M from the source
b) 6M from the source

I = 1200cd, d1 = 2m; d2 = 6m
Using the formula E = I/ d2
• At 2m E1 = 1200 / 2x2
= 300lux

• At 6m E2 = 1200 / 6x6
= 33.33lux
Light Meters
Photometer – compares the intensity of a given light source with the intensity of a known source
using the principle of Inverse Square Law. The distances between the given and known light
sources are each adjusted until they give the same Illuminance to the photometer.
I1 / d12 = k = In / dn2
Where I1 is the intensity of a known light source at distance 1
In is the intensity of the subject light source at distance n

Photocell Light Meter (Lux Meter) – is an instrument that directly measures the Illuminance on a
surface. The electrical resistance of selenium changes with exposure to light and this property
is used in an electrical circuit in the light meter. The meter maybe calibrated in lux

Cosine Law of Illumination

When the plane is tilted the same flux is distributed over a larger surface area, thus the
illumination is reduced. The reduction is proportionate to the cosine of the angle of incidence.
Eβ = En x cosβ
= I/d2 x cosβ (substituting En from above)
Where: Eβ is illumination on a plane tilted by β degrees
En is illumination on a normal plane
β is the angle of incidence
When β = 90o then cosβ = 1 and Eβ = En

The cosine law affects more practical lighting requirements as it is always difficult to get
perpendicular illumination in most points. For lamps on the point directly beneath the lamp
receives luminous flux a right angels. The same applies to sunlight as the solar radiation strikes
the earth’s surfaces at different angles especially at higher latitudes.
The area of surface illuminated by an angular light beam maybe calculated by the relationship: -
A = An / cosβ

Worked Example:
A lamp acts as a point source with a mean spherical intensity of 1500cd. It is fixed 2M above the center of a
circular table which has a radius of 1.5m. Calculate the Illuminance produced at the edge of the table ignoring
reflected light.

I = 1500cd, E =?
Using triangulation d2 = 2.02 + 1.52 = 6.25
d = 2.5m
Cosβ = Adj/Hyp
= 2 / 2.5 = 0.8
Substituting, E = I/d2 x cosβ
= 1500/6.25 x 0.8
= 192 lux
Scalar Illumination
Normal lighting conditions refer to illumination on a working plane also referred to as ‘planar’
illumination. Limitation is that it does not describe all the luminous qualities of a space. The
illumination on the work plane might be adequate, but vertical surfaces could remain dark.
Scalar illumination (or mean spherical illumination) refers to the average illumination received
on a surface of a sphere from all directions. It is denoted Es and measured in lux. It measures
the total quantity of light regardless of its direction

Other topics to cover

▪ Vector/scalar ratio
▪ Illumination Quality
▪ Glare Index – Lecture 6 Artificial Lighting