Lesson

7 Landslides and Sinkholes

What I Need to Know (Learning Objectives)

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. discuss the different geological hazards (landslide and sinkhole);

2. analyze the causes of geological hazards (landslide and sinkhole);
3. recognize signs of impending geological hazards (landslide and sinkhole);
4. interpret geological maps; and
5. apply mitigation strategies to prevent loss of lives and properties.

What I Know (Pretest)

Direction: Evaluate the truthfulness of each statement. Write T if the statement is

true and F if it is false.

_____1. A landslide is the very slow to rapid upward movement of a big bulk of soil,
debris, rock, and garbage up a slope.

_____2. A landslide happens if the driving force is equal to the resisting force.

_____3. Landslides are openings or pits in the ground surface caused by the
collapse in the ceiling of an underground cavity or space.

_____4. A sinkhole is formed due to the absence of external surface drainage when
water gathers inside; the water would just drain into the subsurface.

_____5. Sinkholes naturally occur in areas underlain by minerals and rocks that are
soluble or can be dissolved by water.

_____6. The Varnes’ system is a landslide classification that utilizes two terms: the
first term describes the material type and the second term describes the
type of movement.

_____7. Creep is an imperceptibly slow, steady, downward movement of slope

forming soil or rock.

_____8. Dissolution sinkhole is the type of sinkhole that occurs in areas where there
is little soil or vegetation over the soluble rock.

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_____9. An earthflow has a characteristic “hourglass” shape.

_____10. Hazard mapping can be done to minimize landslide risks.

_____11. All sinkholes happen in an instant.

_____12. Cover-subsidence sinkhole tend to develop abruptly and cause

catastrophic damages.

_____13. A flow starts with the detachment of soil or rock from a steep slope along a
surface on which little or no shear displacement takes place.

_____14. Landslides can be triggered by extreme rainfall, earthquakes, and human

activities.

_____15. Landslides and sinkholes happen without notice and cannot be prevented.

Key to answers on page 16

What’s In (Review)

In the previous module, you have explored the hazards that comes with
volcanic eruptions – lava flow, ashfall, pyroclastic flows, lahar, volcanic gases,
volcanic landslide, ballistic projectiles, and tsunami – and became aware of the
dangers that each hazard can cause to persons and communities. However, you
have also equipped yourself from the previous module the skills of recognizing the
signs of an impending volcanic earthquake (ground deformation, geochemical
changes, seismic activity, sensory observations, and remote sensing) and
interpreting volcanic hazard maps.

In this module, you will learn another geological hazard: landslides and
sinkholes. You will study the principles behind these hazards and how you can
handle and prepare for them. Specifically, you will discuss what landslides and
sinkholes are, analyze how they occur, and recognize signs of their presence. For
preparedness and prevention, you will also learn to interpret geological maps and
apply mitigation strategies to prevent loss of lives and properties.

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 What’s New (Activity)
f

Activity 5.1: Historical Landslides and Sinkholes

This activity will let you revisit some of the destructive landslides and
sinkholes that affected some areas in the country (or even your locality) and identify
various impacts that resulted from them.

1. Make a research online or interview older family members about 2 landslide and 2
sinkhole incidents that affected the country or your locality in the past.

2. Collect the following information: (a) location of the landslide and sinkhole, (b)
date of incidence, and (c) description of impacts. If possible, attach pictures.

3. Organize your answers using the table provided below.

Hazard Location Date Description of Impacts

Landslide

Sinkhole

4. What words do you associate with landslides? Sinkholes? Create a concept map
about the terms using the diagram provided.

LANDSLIDE SINKHOLE

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 What Is It (Discussion)

7.1 LANDSLIDE

A landslide is the very slow to rapid downward movement of a big bulk of

soil, debris, rock, and garbage down a slope. This happens when the driving force
(the force that cause the slope to move) is greater than the resisting force (the
force that stabilize the slope and prevent movement). There would be no landslide if
the resisting force (e.g. strength of the material, lateral confining forces due to a
retaining wall) is greater than or equal to the driving force (e.g. gravity, seepage,
earthquake forces). Some of the reasons why driving force dominates are steepness
of the slope, weakness or weathering of geological materials, deforestation, too
much loading on the slope, and water leakage from utilities. It can also be triggered
by extreme rainfall which saturates the slope with water, vibrations caused by
earthquakes, and human activities.

7.2 VARNES’ CLASSIFICATION

There are several types of landslides which differ in material and movement.
The most prominent system of classifying landslides is the Varnes’ system (1978).
This landslide classification utilizes two terms: the first term describes the material
type and the second term describes the type of movement. Combining the two terms
gives classifications.

Abbreviated version of Varnes´ classification of slope movements

TYPE OF MATERIAL
ENGINEERING SOILS
TYPE OF MOVEMENT
BEDROCK Predominantly Predominantly
coarse fine
FALLS Rock Fall Debris fall Earth fall
TOPPLES Rock Topple Debris topple Earth topple
Rotational
SLIDES Rockslide Debris slide Earth slide
Translational
LATERAL SPREADS Rock spread Debris spread Earth spread

Rock flow Debris flow Earth flow

FLOWS
(deep creep) (soil creep)
COMPLEX Combination of two or more principal types of movements

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7.2.1 Types of Materials

The material type refers to the type geological material: Rock, Earth, Soil,
Mud and Debris.

Rock is a hard or firm mass that was intact and in its natural place before the
initiation of movement.

Soil is an aggregate of solid particles, generally of minerals and rocks, that

either was transported or was formed by the weathering of rock in place. Gases or
liquids filling the pores of the soil form part of the soil.

Earth describes material in which 80% or more of the particles are smaller
than 2mm, the upper limit of sand sized particles.

Mud describes material in which 80% or more of the particles are smaller than
0.06mm, the upper limit of silt sized particles.

Debris contains a significant proportion of coarse material; 20% to 80% of the

particles are larger than 2mm, and the remainder are less than 2mm.

7.2.2 Types of Movement

The distinct types of movements are Fall, Topple, Slide, Spread, and Flow.

Falls. A fall starts with the detachment of soil or

rock from a steep slope along a surface on which
little or no shear displacement takes place. The
material then descends largely by falling,
bouncing or rolling

Topples. A topple is the forward rotation, out of

the slope, of a mass of soil and rock about a point
or axis below the center of gravity of the displaced
mass.

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 Slides. A slide is the downslope movement of a
soil or rock mass occurring dominantly on the
surface of rupture or relatively thin zones of
intense shear strain.

Spreads. A spread is an extension of a cohesive

soil or rock mass combined with a general
subsidence of the fractured mass of cohesive
material into softer underlying material. The
rupture surface is not a surface of intense shear.
Spreads may result from liquefaction or flow (and
extrusion) of the softer material.

Flow. A flow is a spatially continuous movement

in which shear surfaces are short lived, closely
spaced and usually not preserved after the
event. The distribution of velocities in the
displacing mass resembles that in a viscous
fluid. It has five basic categories that differ from one another in fundamental ways:
debris flow, debris avalanche, earthflow, mudflow, and creep.

A debris flow is a moving mass of loose mud, sand, soil, rock, water and air
that travels down a slope under the influence of gravity. To be considered a debris
flow, the moving material must be loose and capable of "flow," and at least 50% of
the material must be sand-size particles or larger. A variety of very rapid to extremely
rapid debris flow is called a debris avalanche.

An earthflow has a characteristic “hourglass” shape. The slope material

liquefies and runs out, forming a bowl or depression at the head. The flow itself is
elongate and usually occurs in fine-grained materials or clay-bearing rocks on
moderate slopes and under saturated conditions. However, dry flows of granular
material are also possible.

A mudflow is an earthflow consisting of material that is wet enough to flow

rapidly and that contains at least 50% sand-, silt-, and clay-sized particles. In some
instances, for example in many newspaper reports, mudflows and debris flows are
commonly referred to as “mudslides.”

A creep is the imperceptibly slow, steady, downward movement of slope-

forming soil or rock. Movement is caused by shear stress enough to produce
permanent deformation, but too small to produce shear failure.

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7.3 SIGNS OF AN IMPENDING LANDSLIDE

Landslides can be dangerous to you and your family. It is important to

determine when a landslide is happening. The following are the signs of landslide
activity:

• Newly cracked pavement, foundation, support walls, sidewalks

• Tilted or cracked chimney
• Doors or windows that stick or jam for the first time
• Outside walls, walkways, or stairs start pulling away from the house
• Soil moves away from the foundation
• Plumbing or gas lines develop leaks
• Bulging ground at base of slope
• Leaning fence posts or retaining walls
• Springs, seeps, or saturated soil in areas that have been typically dry
• Cracks in the ground
• Tilted tress or utility poles

If you are planning to build a house in an area, the following is a checklist that
you can use to assess landslide potential. If you have any of these signs, your house
could be susceptible to a landslide.

Have there been landslides in the area in the past?

Is the house or site on or near a steep slope?
Is there a cliff nearby?
Is the ground cracked?
Are there any old scarps on the slope?
Is there a spring, seep or ponding water close by?
Is there a drainage channel nearby?
Are there any tilted or leaning trees, fences, or utility poles nearby?
Do the trees have bent tree trunks?
Is there any sign of cracking, or patched cracks in the walls or foundations?
Is the driveway or sidewalk cracked, patched, or down dropped?
Are any retaining walls cracked, tilted or off-set?
Have any structures such as concrete steps moved away from the house?

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7.4 SINKHOLES

Sinkholes are openings or pits in the ground surface caused by the collapse
in the ceiling of an underground cavity or space. The cavern underground is formed
due to the absence of external surface drainage when water gathers inside; the
water would just drain into the subsurface. It can range anywhere between a slight
depression in the ground right up to an enormous hole reaching down several
meters. Typically, its formation is slow that little change is noticeable, but they can
also form suddenly when a collapse occurs. If it occurs in an urban setting, it can
have a dramatic effect
Sinkholes naturally occur in areas underlain by minerals and rocks that are
soluble or can be dissolved by water, such as carbonates, limestones, dolomites,
gypsum, and salt. When water from rainfall moves down through the soil and
encounters bedrock in those soluble terrain, the bedrock begins to disintegrate along
cracks and crevices in the rock, forming space or cavity. Eventually, the cracks and
crevices become large enough to start carrying off small soil particles from up above.
As these soil particles are transported, the surface of the soil above the cavity starts
to slump down slowly, and a small bowl forms on the surface of the ground. This
small depression on the surface of the ground gathers even more water, which
makes the cavity larger and washes more soil from up the surface to the hole
beneath. Sometimes, if the soil contains a large amount of clay, the cavity can
become plugged and the sinkhole may form a natural pond, holding an amount of
water.

7.4.1 Types of Sinkholes

Sinkholes occur in three different types: Dissolution sinkholes; Cover-

subsidence sinkholes; and Cover-collapse sinkholes.

Dissolution sinkhole is the type of sinkhole that occurs in areas where there
is little soil or vegetation over the soluble rock. Aggressive dissolution occurs where
flow is focused in pre-existing openings in the rock, such as along joints, fractures,
and bedding planes, or in the zone of water – table fluctuations where the ground
water is in contact with the atmosphere. They typically develop gradually.

Rainfall and surface water percolate through

joints in limestones. Dissolved carbonate
rock is carried away from the surface and a
small depression gradually forms.

On exposed carbonate surfaces, a

depression may focus surface drainage,
accelerating the dissolution process. Debris
carried into the developing sinkhole may
plug the outflow, ponding water and creating
wetlands.

Source: Land Subsidence in the United States, USGS, Public domain

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 Cover-subsidence sinkhole tends to develop gradually where the covering
sediments are permeable and contain sand.

Source: Land Subsidence in the United States, USGS, Public domain

Cover-collapse sinkhole tend to develop abruptly and cause catastrophic

damages. They occur where the covering sediments contain significant amounts of
clay.

Source: Land Subsidence in the United States, USGS, Public domain

7.5 SIGNS OF A SINKHOLE

Typically, sinkholes form slowly over many months or years. It is the last
stage of the sinkhole formation, which is the formation of the hole at the very surface,
that occurs suddenly. The following are the signs that might indicate a sinkhole.

• Fresh cracks in the foundations of houses and buildings

• Cracks in interior walls
• Cracks in the ground outsides
• Doors or windows become difficult to open or close
• Rapid appearance of a hole in the ground
• Muddy or cloudy well water
• Depressions in the ground
• Trees or fence posts that tilt or fall
• Previously buried items becoming exposed as the ground sinks
• Vegetation that wilts as essential water is drawn away by the sinkhole
• Formation of small ponds as rainfall accumulates in new areas
• Circular pattern of ground cracks

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7.6 GEOHAZARD MAPS

You have learned that landslides and sinkholes bring corresponding hazards
that can do harm to persons and properties For years, geologists and other experts
have been observing these geological hazards. From the scientific analysis and
observation of the past occurrences, impacts, and site conditions, experts have
produced accurate and detailed maps showing the areas where landslides and
sinkholes are likely to happen and the severity of the expected impact such areas
will experience. Such geohazard maps are useful for the purposes of designing safe
infrastructures, planning appropriate land usage, and preparing emergency
mitigation and response. These are important to assess the level of exposure of an
area and its safety. If an area is identified to be exposed and vulnerable, response
and mitigation efforts can be done, and further damage can be prevented.

A geohazard map has the basic parts: (i) Map Title – indicates what the map
is all about, (ii) Legend – indicates details and meaning of the symbols used, (iii)
Scale – helps determine distances, (iv) Orientation Compass, and (v)
Coordinates.

Earthquake hazard maps are available in your community’s Disaster Risk

Reduction and Management Council. You can also access online the DOST-
PHIVOLCS site and DENR-MGB site. For MGB website, you can follow the following
steps: Go to http://www.mgb.gov.ph Click on the icon on the top left hand-side of the
MGB webpage for GEOHAZARD MAPS. This will bring you to
http://gdis.denr.gov.ph/mgbpublic/ which will show a map of the Philippines with
squares superimposed on top. Click on the square containing the city or municipality
where the school is located in. This action will download the map in jpeg format.

7.7 PRECAUTIONARY AND SAFETY MEASURES

The following are activities your household can do to reduce the likelihood of
a landslide:

• Minimize irrigation on slopes

• Make sure water and sewer lines do not leak
• Avoid removing material from the base of slopes
• Avoid adding material or excess water to the top of slopes
• Drain water from surface runoff, down-spouts, and driveways well away from
slopes and into storm drains or natural drainages
• Plant ground cover with deep roots on slopes
• Build retaining walls at the base of the slope
• In debris/mud flow prone areas, in valley bottoms or on fans at the mouths of
canyons, contact qualified professionals to determine how to best build
channels and/or deflection walls to direct the flow around buildings (keeping
in mind your neighbors)

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 In order to minimize landslide risks, the following can also be done in your
community:

• Hazard mapping
• Public information
• Engineering intervention measures or slope protection measures (benching,
retaining walls, riprap, gabion walls, shotcrete, drainage, erosion-control
coconets, and erosion control vetiver grass)
• Early warning systems

What’s More (Enrichment Activity)

Activity 7.2: Recognizing Signs of Landslide

This activity will let you practice spotting signs that might indicate an
impending landslide or sinkhole.

1. Examine the picture provided. Try to identify the warning signs of an impending
landslide. Write your answers on an answer sheet.

Source: DRRR Teaching Guide

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 Activity 5.4: Exploring Geohazard Maps

This activity will let you explore the parts of a geohazard map of your
community and familiarize its contents.

1. Secure a copy of your municipality’s Landslide Hazard Map. You can either
email/chat your barangay hall personnel or access DENR-MGB website
(http://www.mgb.gov.ph). Your teacher may also opt to provide you one.

2. Examine the map. Identify where the basic parts are.

3. What are the different colors used to distinguish different areas in the map? What
does each color mean regarding the susceptibility of an area for a specific
hazard? For each hazard and level of susceptibility, what actions should someone
in a particular area take during periods of intense rain?

4. Organize your answers using the following table.

Color Implication
Rain-induced
landslide

Flood-prone areas

What I Have Learned (Generalization)

Complete the following sentences with your learnings in this module.

• I have learned the different geological hazards: landslides and sinkholes.

A landslide is __________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________.
While a sinkhole is ______________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________.

• I have learned to analyze the causes of geological hazards (landslide and

sinkhole). A landslide usually happens if ____________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
A sinkhole occurs if _____________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

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 • I have learned to recognize signs of impending geological hazards (landslide
and sinkhole). The warning signs of an impending landslide include _______
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________.
While for an impending sinkhole, the signs to recognize include __________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________.

• I have also learned to interpret geological maps. Geological maps are

important because ______________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________.

• I have also learned to apply mitigation strategies to prevent loss of lives and
properties brought about by geological hazards. To prevent being affected by
landslide, the things to be done include ______________________________
_____________________________________________________________.
Meanwhile, to prevent and prepare for sinkholes, the things to be done
include _______________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________.

What I Can Do (Application)

Activity 7.4: Identifying Types of Landslides

This activity will let you identify various types of landslides using Varnes’
system of classification.

1. Browse 6 news articles or videos about recorded incidents of landslides.

2. Fill in the table with the required information.

Location Date Description Varnes’ Classification

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 Activity 7.5: Interpreting Geohazard Maps

This activity will let you interpret a geohazard map of your community and
assess the possible impacts. You will focus on assessing how prone your area is to
landslides.

1. Secure a copy of your municipality’s Landslide Hazard Map. You can either
email/chat your barangay hall personnel or access DENR-MGB/DOST-PHIVOLCS
website. Your teacher may also opt to provide you one.

2. Examine the map. Focus on assessing your barangay’s exposure to landslide.

3. Identify and mark the following in the map: (a) your house, (b) barangay hall, (c)
schools, (d) hospitals/clinics, (e) public markets, and (f) important infrastructures
(gymnasiums, bridges, covered courts, etc.).

4. What is the topography of your area? Where are the areas of low, moderate, and
high susceptibility to landslides? How about flooding?

5. Use the table provided to organize you answers to no. 4.

Hazard Areas of High Areas of Moderate Areas of Low

Susceptibilities Susceptibilities Susceptibilities
Rain-induced
Landslide
Flooding

6. Based on your findings, make a narrative report about your barangay’s general
level exposure to landslide.

Activity 7.6: Family Evacuation Plan

After learning all the geological hazards and their impacts, it is important to
prepare yourself and your family for such catastrophes. This activity will let you
prepare an evacuation plan for your home.

1. Examine your house. Sketch a schematic diagram of your house and determine
the possible areas for evacuation. Be sure to include a title, labels, and legend.

2. Share your output to your family and discuss further mitigation strategies to
prevent loss of lives and properties in case of geological hazards.

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 Assessment (Posttest)
Direction:

Evaluate the truthfulness of each statement. Write T if the statement is true and F if it
is false.

_____1. All sinkholes happen in an instant.

_____2. An earthflow has a characteristic “hourglass” shape.

_____3. Hazard mapping can be done to minimize landslide risks.

_____4. A landslide happens if the driving force is equal to the resisting force.

_____5. Landslides and sinkholes happen without notice and cannot be prevented.

_____6. Landslides can be triggered by extreme rainfall, earthquakes, and human

activities.

_____7. Creep is an imperceptibly slow, steady, downward movement of slope

forming soil or rock.

_____8. Cover-subsidence sinkhole tend to develop abruptly and cause catastrophic

damages.

_____9. A landslide is the very slow to rapid upward movement of a big bulk of soil,
debris, rock, and garbage up a slope.

_____10. Sinkholes naturally occur in areas underlain by minerals and rocks that are
soluble or can be dissolved by water.

_____11. Dissolution sinkhole is the type of sinkhole that occurs in areas where
there is little soil or vegetation over the soluble rock.

_____12. Landslides are openings or pits in the ground surface caused by the
collapse in the ceiling of an underground cavity or space.

_____13. A sinkhole is formed due to the absence of external surface drainage when
water gathers inside; the water would just drain into the subsurface.

_____14. A flow starts with the detachment of soil or rock from a steep slope along a
surface on which little or no shear displacement takes place.

_____15. The Varnes’ system is a landslide classification that utilizes two terms: the
first term describes the material type and the second term describes the
type of movement.

Key to answers on page 16

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 Additional Activities

Activity 7.7: My Mini Landslide and Sinkhole Models

This task will let you create your own small-scale landslide and sinkhole
models that would serve as your information-education campaign material later as
you share your learnings in this lesson to your family and community.

1. Using the available resources, make your own mini models of a landslide and a
sinkhole. You can use whatever materials as long as you are able to demonstrate
and show what landslides and sinkholes are. Be sure to have accuracy, creativity,
durability, and resourcefulness in your output. Let the rubrics be your guide.

Accuracy -------------------- 9pts

Resourcefulness ---------- 9pts
Durability -------------------- 7pts
Creativity --------------------- 5pts
TOTAL ---------------- 30pts

Answers to Questions

PRETEST
F 15) T 10) T 5)
T 14) T 9) T 4)
F 13) T 8) F 3)
F 12) T 7) F 2)
F 11) T 6) F 1)

POSTTEST
T 15) T 10) F 5)
F 14) F 9) F 4)
T 13) F 8) T 3)
F 12) T 7) T 2)
T 11) T 6) F 1)

- END OF MODULE -

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REFERENCES

Bagtasa, G., Dinanala, J. D., Morante, K. A., Villegas, M. M., and Zarco, M. A.
Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction (Teaching Guide for Senior High
School). Quezon City: Commission on Higher Education, 2013.

Burns, S.F., Harden, T.M., and Andrew, C.J. “Homeowner’s Guide to Landslides.”
Accessed May 24, 2020. http://www.oregongeology.org/sub/landslide/
homeowners-landslide-guide.pdf

Byrd, D. “What Causes Sinkholes?” 2013. Accessed May 24, 2020.

http://earthsky.org/earth/what-causes-sinkholes

Dianala, J. D., Aurelio, M., and Tan, C. Disaster Reduction and Risk Management –
Core Reader. Philippines: Department of Education-Bureau of Learning
Resources, 2017

Peckely, D.C., and Bagtang, E.T. Rain-induced Landslide Susceptibility: A

Guidebook for Communities and Non-experts. 2009. Accessed May 24, 2020.
http://drh.edm.bosai.go.jp/files/4f010574fadd691b2b04e620fe3912553ef74ae/
LandslidesGuidebook.pdf

Sinkhole.org. “Learn About Sinkholes: Types of Sinkholes.” Accessed May 24, 2020.
http://www.sinkhole.org/facts4.php

U.S. Geological Survey. “Landslide Preparedness.” 2013. Accessed May 24, 2020.
http://landslides.usgs.gov/learn/prepare.php

Varnes, D.J., “Slope Movement Types and Processes.” in Landslides Analysis and
Control. Transportation Research Board Special Report 176, edited by
Schuster, R.L and Krizek, R.J., 11-33 Washington: National Academy of
Sciences, 1978

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