Solar Energy Vol. 35. No. 2, pp. 167-173, 1985 0038-092X/85 $3.00 + .

00
Printed in the U.S.A. ~ 1985 Pergamon Press Ltd.

DIRECT MEASUREMENT AND ANALYSIS OF

THERMOSIPHON FLOW~

A. I. KUDISH. P. SANTAMAURA-~and P. BEAUFORT§

Solar Energy Laboratory, Department of Chemical Engineering, Ben-Gurion University of The
Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel

(Received 31 May 1984; accepted 11 January 1985)

Abstract--The thermosiphon flow rate has been measured directly by adapting a simple and well-
known laboratory technique, a constant level device, to a solar collector operating in the thermosiphon
mode. The measurements were performed as a function of thermosiphon head and inlet temperature.
The thermosiphon flow rate data were correlated both with the temperature change across the solar
collector (A T) and the global insolation rate. The minimum A T threshold value, necessary to initiate
thermosiphon flow in the morning was determined as a function of thermosiphon head and the cor-
responding thermosiphon pressure heads were observed to be invariable. The thermosiphon flow data
were utilized to construct a standard efficiency test curve, thus showing that this technique can be
applied for testing collectors in the thermosiphon mode. The instantaneous collector efficiency was
also determined as a function of time of day.

1. INTRODUCTION them. We have isolated the solar collector and have

developed a relatively simple technique for direct
Thermosiphon solar D H W systems are the most
measurement of thermosiphon flow.
widely used of all man-made solar energy thermal
convension devices, the reason being that they are
cost competitive with the alternative conventional 2. DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENTAL SYSTEM
energy D H W systems available in many regions of
The experimental technique used in this study
the world. There are today in excess of 600,000 such
differed from those used previously in that the ther-
units operating in Israel[l], which are capable of
mosiphon flow rate was measured directly. This
supplying, in most cases, about 70% of a consum-
was possible since we isolated the solar collector
er's annual D H W requirement.
by eliminating the storage tank. Thermosiphon flow
The performance of thermosiphon systems has
was simulated by means of a constant level device
been investigated extensively, both experimentally
attached to the inlet pipe of the solar collector (Fig.
and analytically, by numerous researchers[2-12]. A
1). The constant level device consisted of an outer
comprehensive review on this subject has been pub-
cylinder (height 30 cm, diameter 14 cm) open on
lished recently[13]. In particular, the flow rate of
top to the atmosphere and closed at the bottom. The
the heat exchange fluid, almost exclusively water,
bottom plate had two holes drilled for (1) a ~ in.
has intrigued many investigators. Due to its nature,
fitting flush with its outer surface for connecting it
viz., a very low pressure head, thermosiphon flow
to the collector inlet pipe, and (2) an adjustable fit-
is amenable only with difficulty to measurement by
ting for insertion of the internal drain pipe (2 in.).
the standard laboratory flow rate measuring de-
Soldered onto the cylinder surface 20 cm above the
vices. It can be measured accurately only by those
bottom plate was a a in. inlet tube for mains (make-
techniques that do not add any flow resistance to
up) water. The latter was maintained in all cases
the system. Thermosiphon flow has been measured
- 5 cm below the water surface in the cylinder so
previously by indirect techniques such as dye
that the kinetic energy or the make-up water would
injection[4], thermal dissipation tracing[7], laser
be dissipated radially. The water level in the con-
Doppler anemometer[8, 9] and rate of change of
stant level device was set equal to that in the outlet
storage tank temperatures[12].
pipe from the collector (i.e. h3) by fine adjustment
In all the previously reported studies, thermo-
of the height of the internal drain pipe. The flow
siphon flow was investigated on a complete D H W
rate of the mains water entering the constant level
system comprised of solar collector(s), storage tank
device was adjusted to exceed (by - 5 0 % ) the max-
and the auxiliary plumbing connections between
imum measured thermosiphon flow rate, thereby
ensuring a constant water level on the inlet side of
+ Presented, in part, ASES Annual Meeting, Minne- the system. Thus, the hydrostatic pressure across
apolis, MN June (1983). the solar collector was maintained equal to zero and
Current address: 181 Dunvegan Rd.. Toronto, On-
tario, Canada. any flow measured was caused by the thermosiphon
§ Current address: Gen. Dibbetslaan 83, 5623 JM Eind- pressure head only. The solar collector in this study
hoven, The Netherlands. operated in a single-pass mode, which is typical of

167
168 A. I. KUDISH et al.

CONSTANTLEVEL
B

TOUT

h2 h3

TIN ~ - - F
h~
t
Fig. I. Schematic diagram of experimental simulated thermosiphon system.

most Israeli thermosiphon D H W systems. A some-
what different application of such a single-pass
thermosiphon system has been reported re-
cently[14].
The direct measurement of the thermosiphon
flow rate was accomplished by simply collecting the
solar heated water effluent from the solar collector
in a graduated cylinder during a prescribed time in-
terval (usually 1 min.). The inlet and outlet water
temperatures to and from the solar collector were
monitored continuously by means of type T (cop-
per-constantan) thermocouples inserted into 4-mm
copper tubing probes and connected to a multipoint
recorder (Chino) (see Fig. 1). The inlet and outlet
legs (viz. auxiliary plumbing) of the solar collector
were insulated with glass wool molded shells, which
were wrapped with aluminum laminate. The latter
flow rate. The rate of thermosiphon flow was meas-
ured periodically throughout the day during the
sunshine hours.
The threshold AT (i.e. Tout - Ti,) values nec-
essary for the initiation of thermosiphon flow in the
morning, corresponding to the different thermo-
siphon heads studied, were also determined. This
was achieved by continuously monitoring the inlet
and outlet temperature to and from the solar col-
lector. The threshold A T value corresponds to the
instant when thermosiphon flow is initiated and is
evidenced graphically when the inlet temperature
drops to the main's water temperature and the out-
let temperature rises rapidly (cf Fig. 2). The meas-
I

prevented external heat gain via solar radiation.

The global insolation was measured at the tilt 12 I

angle of the solar collector (i.e. 30°) by means of an I

Eppley pyranometer, Model PSP, connected to a I :j ,.S:"

calibrated recorder (Cole-Parmer). The latter pro-
vided us with instantaneous insolation values nec-
essary for calculating instantaneous solar collector IC I

efficiencies. Toui
The solar collector used in this study was a stan- v

-- b

dard Israeli commercial type. It consists of eight ~- L~ 9

in.-O.D, copper tube risers connected to two l~-in.- I

O.D. copper tube leaders. The solar absorption sur- 8 ii

face being of a honeycomb structure, viz. aluminum
I

fins spaced at 4-ram intervals perpendicular to the f

riser tubes. Its overall dimensions are 220 x 95 x

10 cm (aperture area = 1.89 m 2) and it is intended - - i !

to operate in conjunction with a 120-1 storage tank. 6 I I I

The thermosiphon head was altered by raising 20 40 60 80
(lowering) both the constant level device and the
TEMPERATURE (°C)
outlet pipe by the same amount (i.e. the overall
length of the auxiliary plumbing, vertical pipes, was Fig. 2. Experimental plot of temperature vs time for Sept.
17, 1982 (h3 - h~ = 1.98 m). Arrow indicates the rapid
changed). This enabled us to study the effect of the temperature change corresponding to initiation of ther-
height of the thermosiphon head (h3 - h~) on the mosiphon flow.
 Direct measurement and analysis of thermosiphon flow 169

FLOW RATE VS DELTA T H=O 7M A . F l o w rate a n d a T

200
The results for the correlation between the ther-
ca 180 ill I "_.
mosiphon flow rate and A T are shown in Fig. 3 for
,~o m m
it .,.
(h3 - h2) = 0.7 m and in Fig. 4 for ( h 3 - h 2 ) =
140 • i l
ml 0 m. The former is also representative of the data
._J 120 ~o I
f o r ( h 3 - h 2 ) = 0.35 and 1 m in that two distinct
I00 • oe •
flow rate ranges, a high and low, were observed.
LId 8C • •
<~ They corresponded to the time of day the meas-
60
urements were performed. The high range was
[g 40 •
© measured during the time period 10:00-14:00 (solar
20 •
LL time) and the flow rate was observed to be fairly
o i i
55 45 55 constant. During this time period the range of/x T
TOuT-TIN ( DEG £ ) values measured was quite narrow (see Fig. 3) and
the global insolation rate was also relatively con-
Fig. 3. T h e r m o s i p h o n f l o w r a t e vs A T f o r (h3 - h2) = 0.7
stant. The low flow rate range corresponded to
m. • 10:00-14:00; • <10:00 and >14:00.
those measurements performed either prior to 10:00
or after 14:00. During these time periods both the
urements were performed for four values of ( h 3 - range of A T values measured and the global inso-
hi), viz. 1.98, 1.68, 1.33, and 0.98 m. lation rate were changing (increasing for < 10:00 and
The experimental system was adapted, by the decreasing for >14:00). The data in this range are
addition of heating tape and powerstat, for meas- therefore scattered. The average thermosiphon
urement of the collector efficiency curve while op- flow rates in the high range are reported in Table 1
erating in the thermosiphon mode. In general, col- for ( h 3 - h 2 ) = 0 . 3 5 , 0 . 7 0 a n d 1 m .
lector efficiency tests are performed in the forced The results for ( h 3 - h 2 ) = 0 m are distinct from
circulation mode. The heating tape was wrapped the others in that there appears to be a linear cor-
around the inlet pipe (vertical section) and then in- relation between the thermosiphon flow rate and
sulated. The instantaneous efficiency was calcu- AT. The measurements in this case were all per-
lated from the inlet and outlet temperatures, in- formed during the time period 10:00-14:00. (The
stantaneous insolation and measured flow rates. reason for this will be discussed in section 4). The
The inlet temperature was varied by means of the measurements in the case of ( h 3 - h2 = 0 m were
powerstat to which the heating tape was connected. also performed as a function of the collector inlet
temperature range. The linear correlation between
thermosiphon flow rate and A T for five different Ti,
3. R E S U L T S
ranges are listed in Table 2. The relatively poorer
The measured thermosiphon flow rate data were correlation factor for the lowest reported T~, range
analyzed by attempting to correlate them to the may be explained by the fact that the corresponding
temperature increase across the collector (i.e. A T measurements were performed in the winter ( N o v . -
= Tout - Tin) and to the instantaneous global in- Dec. 1982), whereas the other four sets were meas-
solation rate, in the different thermosiphon heads ured in the summer (July-Aug. 1983). The former
studied. being less amenable to outdoor measurements (i.e.

FLOW RATE VS DELTA T H=OM

I00 -

90-
80-
Z
70-

..J 60-
ill •

v 50-
LU 40-
H-
<~ El • •

135 :.'50-

20~-
0 I0
_J
ii
0 I I I
55 65 75 85

TOU T - TIN (DEG .C)

F i g . 4. T h e r m o s i p h o n f l o w r a t e vs A T f o r (h~ - h2) = 0 m .
170 A. I. KUDISH et al.

Table 1. A v e r a g e t h e r m o s i p h o n flow rate v s (h3 - h2) days are not as clear and wind gusts are much more
during the time period 10:00-14:00 frequent).

(h3 - h2) A v e r a g e t h e r m o s i p h o n flow rate

B. F l o w rate and global insolation
(m) (ml/min.m 2) The correlation between the thermosiphon flow
0.35 85.0 _+ 15.5 r a t e a n d t h e g l o b a l i n s o l a t i o n w a s o b s e r v e d to b e
0.70 157.1 _+ 16.6 l i n e a r in all c a s e s s t u d i e d . T h e r e s u l t s f o r (h3 - h2)
1. 177.3 +_ 20.6
= 0 . 7 m a r e s h o w n in Fig. 5. T h e l i n e a r c o r r e l a t i o n s
f o r all c a s e s a r e r e p o r t e d in T a b l e 3.

Table 2. Linear correlation b e t w e e n t h e r m o s i p h o n flow C. Collector efficiency and time o f day

rate and A T for ( h 3 - hD = 0 m T h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s c o l l e c t o r e f f i c i e n c y w a s cal-
culated as a function of time of day by simply ap-
T~n range Correlation plying
(°C) y = mx + b a factor

18-26 y = 2.0x - 86 0.81 "q = thCvA T/G, (1)

29-35 y = 3.6x - 150 0.90
35-39 y = 4.3x - 152 0.95 w h e r e ~q is t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s e f f i c i e n c y ; & , t h e t h e r -
40-44 y = 4.6x - 142 0.91
48-53 y = 5.8x - 152 0.93 m o s i p h o n f l o w r a t e ( m l / m i n . m 2 ) ; Cp, t h e h e a t c a -
pacity of water (KJ/kg.°C); and G, the instantaneous
ay - t h e r m o s i p h o n flow rate (ml/min.m2); x - AT global insolation rate (KJ/min.m2). The results for
(°C) (h3 - h2) = 0.35 a r e r e p o r t e d in Fig. 6 a n d t y p i f y

Table 3. Linear correlation between t h e r m o s i p h o n flow rate and

global insolation rate

(h3 - h2) Tin Range

(m) (°C) y = mx + b a Correlation factor

1 -- y = 4.2x - 66.5 0.88

0.70 -- y = 4.1x - 74.9 0.97
0.35 -- y = 2.6x - 58.1 0.94
0 18-26 y = 2.4x - 73.4 0.81
0 29-35 y = 3.2x - 73.7 0.98
0 35-39 y = 3.2x - 68.8 0.96
0 40-44 y = 3.2x - 73.6 0.92
0 48-53 y = 4.6x - 140.3 0.88

a y - t h e r m o s i p h o n flow rate (ml/min.m2); x - global insolation rate

( K J / m i n . m 2)

FLOW RATE VS INSOLATION H=O7M

20O

180

160 .U
140
Ld
I-- 120

rY I00

8O
0 60
/
%
LL
4O

2O

0 I I I I I
20 SO 40 50 60 70

INSOLATION ( K J / M I N * M * ~2)
Fig. 5. T h e r m o s i p h o n flow rate vs global insolation rate for (h3 - h2) = 0.7 m.
 Direct measurement and analysis of thermosiphon flow 171

EFFICIENCY VS TIME H =0 5 5 M

>.-
¢.D ,,,¢,, • . • • • ,~
Z
LLI 3 . /v \ . \

13_ 2 /~ ~..~
LL
LLI

0 I I I I I I, I
9 tO II 12 13 14 15 16

TIME (HR)

Fig. 6. Instantaneous collector efficiency vs time for (h~ - h2) = 0.35 m.

those for all cases. The instantaneous collector ef- ciency testing of solar collectors in the thermo-
ficiency increases with increasing thermosiphon siphon mode (in which they are intended to operate)
head [viz. ( h 3 -- hj)]. This is expected; since rh as opposed to the widely used forced circulation
increases more rapidly, then A T decreases with in- mode of testing. The results are presented graphi-
creasing thermosiphon head. Also the early morn- cally in Fig. 7 and the linear regression curve for
ing (<10:00) efficiency values are greater than the these data is
late afternoon (>14:00) values and that the latter
decrease quite rapidly. It is of interest to note that ( T i n - Tamb)
the maximum instantaneous efficiency (i.e. the "q = FR('ra)e - FRUL (2)
G
range) decreases with increasing values of Tm (see
Table 4). This is caused by the increased temper- where FR('ra)e = 0.79, FRUL = 22.4 W/m2'°C and
ature gradient (Tin - Tamb) and consequent faster the correlation factor = 0.95.
rate of heat loss.

D. Thermosiphon threshold A T values 4. A N A L Y S I S OF THE RESULTS

The minimum magnitude of A T (threshold value) A. Thermosiphon flow rates

required to initiate thermosiphon flow in the morn-
ing was measured, as described in section 2, as a
function of the thermosiphon head. The average
values are reported in Table 5. These results will
be further analyzed in section 4.
E. Standard efficiency test
The data from the measurement of thermosiphon
flow rate as a function of Tin were utilized to con-
struct a standard efficiency curve for the case of
(h3 - h2) = 0 m. It is important to note that these
measurements were performed over a period of
about 5 weeks and not under the stringent restric-
tions (viz. climatic conditions) required for such
testing. It is our purpose to show that this experi-
mental technique can be used for standard effi-
The experimental system, on which the ther-
mosiphon flow measurements were performed, dif-
fered from those studied previously [2-12], the
present one being an open system. We have
adapted the analytical approach first used by
Close[2] to the conditions prevalent in our system,
viz. no storage tank, and it is significantly simpli-
fied. The thermosiphon head equation (cf eqn (11)
in [2]) reduces to
hr = ½(Sin - - Sout)(h3 - hi), (3)
where S is the specific gravity. Utilizing the para-
bolic relationship between specific gravity and tem-
perature[2], rather then the linear one assumed in

Table 5. Threshold AT and thermosiphon pressure head

Table 4. Maximum instantaneous efficiency range as a values as a function of the thermosiphon head
function of inlet temperature range
(h3 - hi) (h3 - h2) AT pghT
Tin R a n g e (m) (m) (°C) (kg/s 2"m)
(°C) "q.... Range
1.98 1 12.7 + 0.6 63.2
29-35 0.46-0.54 1.68 0.70 15.5 _+ 0.6 59.2
35-39 0.44-0.52 1.33 0.35 19.1 +_ 0.3 59.6
40-44 0.44-0.50 0.98 0 33.3 _+ 3.5 59.3
48-53 0.41-0.49 pghr = 60.3 -+ 1.9
172 A.I. KUDISHet al.

Io[-
07!

0.50 , "~"

025-

0 I I I I 1
O[ 012 015 04 05

(Tin -Tomb)/G [°C/(KJ/ml.m,n)]

Fig. 7. Standard efficiency test curve for (h3 - h2) = 0 m.

eqn (3), we arrive at
hr = Ti, - Tout (2AT - B)(h3 - hl),
2 transit between the Tou, probe position and the pipe
where A = - 1.25 × 10 -6, B = 5.83 x 10 -5 and
= (Tin + Tom)/2. (The temperature units for eqn
(4) are °F as per the parabolic equation fit for the
specific gravity in [2]).
The thermosiphon flow through the collector
was analyzed by means of applying Bernoulli's
equation between A and B, on Fig. 1, i.e.
PA + gZAPA + - ~ DA
v~ _ v~
= PB Jr- gZBPB "~- T OB -~ E l~'i T
where P is the pressure; Z, height above reference;
p, density; V, linear velocity; and F, friction factor.
In our system Pa = PB, ZA = ZB, and VA = 0 (i.e.
in the constant level device). Thus eqn (5) reduces
to
factor (i.e. the sum of the individual section friction
factors adjusted by the continuity equation, p~ VIA~
(4) = p2V2A2). The fluid temperature does not vary in
outlet (B) due to both the insulation and its rela-
tively short residence time. Thus, the value of 9B
corresponds to that at T = Tou t and the value of V8
is the volumetric flow rate measured divided by the
outlet pipe cross-sectional area. We have utilized
the continuity equation to calculate the linear flow
rate within the various sections of the experimental
system. The temperature (density) was assumed
constant within the inlet and outlet legs of the solar
collector. The temperature within the riser was as-
sumed to increase linearly and the density as per
the parabolic relationship in [2]. The friction factor,
skin and fittings, was determined for each section
Pi, (5)
of the system. The values for the thermosiphon
pressure head and overall system friction factor
were inserted into eqn (7) which was then solved
for VB. The agreement between the calculated and
experimental values was about 10%, which is quite
satisfactory considering the lack of precision in de-
termining friction factors for any particular system.

v~ v~ B. Thermosiphon threshold values

gZ(Pa - 9n) = --~ PB + ~ F,-~- p,. (6)
A priori, it is reasonable to assume that the mag-
nitude of the thermosiphon pressure head required
The term in the left-hand side of eqn (6) is the ther- to initiate thermosiphon flow in the morning should
mosiphon pressure head which can be substituted be constant, since it must overcome what may be
for by use of eqn (4), viz. termed the system inertia.It Thus, the increase in
the threshold A T values (cf Table 5) with decrease
v~ v~ in the thermosiphon head was as expected, since
gpBh~ = T OB + (~, F;) T OR, (7)

If The change in the overall system skin friction factor

where B corresponds to the conditions at the col- with the change in the length is negligible relative to the
lector outlet, and F~ is the overall system friction overall system friction factor.
 Direct measurement and analysis of thermosiphon flow
they should be inversely proportional if the ther-
mosiphon pressure head is, indeed, invariable. This
was verified by calculating the corresponding ther-
mosiphon pressure heads, using the left-hand side
of eqn (7), and the results are presented in Table 4,
column 4. The standard deviation (-3.2%) is quite
small considering the uncertainty involved in de-
termining the threshold temperatures (cf. Fig. 2).
The constant thermosiphon pressure head is evi-
dence of the accuracy of our technique of insuring
that the fluid levels (inlet and outlet) were equal (i.e.
zero hydrostatic pressure head) prior to measuring
the thermosiphon flow rate.
C. Solar collector efficiency
The increase in efficiency with increasing ther-
mosiphon head is an important consideration when
dealing with single-pass systems. In practice, while
there is a minimum thermosiphon head necessary
to prevent reverse thermosiphon flow during the
night, the thermosiphon head is generally deter-
mined by where the system is positioned and its
aesthetic and architectural interaction with its sur-
roundings.
The commencement of thermosiphonic flow is
also a function of thermosiphon head, in that the
greater (other parameters being constant) the ear-
lier the onset of thermosiphon flow and consequent
solar energy conversion. This is because the greater
the thermosiphon head the lower the threshold A T
value required to overcome system inertia. Thus,
both system efficiency and total daily hours of op-
eration are proportional to the thermosiphon head.
This explains why the onset of flow in the case of
(h3 - h2) = 0 was relatively late, i.e. after 10:00.
5. CONCLUSIONS
1. We have shown how a very simple and well-
known laboratory technique can be adapted to
measure the rate of thermosiphon flow directly
and thereby be used to perform standard effi-
ciency tests on solar collectors operating in the
thermosiphon mode.
2. The thermosiphon flow rate was found to sta-
bilize during the mid-day hours as did the A T
values across the solar collector. The exception
to this observation was in the case of (h3 - h2)
= 0, where the correlation between thermo-
siphon flow and A T was linear, independent of
Ti, values. The latter may be a result of the
greater sensitivity of the thermosiphon flow to
A T since the thermosiphon pressure head is rel-
atively low.
173
3. The correlation between thermosiphon flow
and global insolation rate was observed to be
linear for all cases studied.
4. The thermosiphon pressure head required to in-
itiate flow in the morning was shown to be
constant.
5. The friction factor analysis of the system ver-
ified the experimental technique.
Acknowledgement--The authors wish to express their
gratitude to the International Association for the Ex-
change of Students for Technical Experience (IAESTE)
for enabling two of us (P.S. and P.B.) to participate in this
research project.
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