SYLLABUS TEMPLATE FOR PAFTE PROJECT WRITE

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

Course Name The Child and Adolescent Learner and Learning Principles
Course Description Focuses on child and adolescent development with emphasis on current research and
theory on biological, linguistic, cognitive, social and emotional dimensions of
development. Further, this includes factors that affect the progress of development of
the learners and shall include appropriate pedagogical principles applicable for each
development level.
Contact Hours/Week 3 hours/week
Prerequisite None
Course Outcomes  Demonstrate an understanding of research-based knowledge in child and
adolescent development and principles of teaching and learning. PPST 1.2.1
 Articulate the rootedness of education in psychological context – CMO PSG
No. 74- s. 2017
 Demonstrate understanding of supportive learning environments that nurture
and inspire learners at each development level – PPST 2.4.1
 Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of differentiated teaching to suit
the learner’s gender, needs, strengths, interests and experiences – PPST 3.1.1
 Apply pedagogies of learning and teaching appropriate for each
developmental level.
 Choose activities and strategies that are responsive to the learners’ linguistic,
cultural, socio-economic and religious backgrounds – PPST 3.2.1

Alignment of Course Outcomes with Summative Tasks

Course Outcomes Summative Assessment Details
Tasks
 Demonstrate an Unit Test Construct a unit test that
understanding of research- will evaluate knowledge and
based knowledge in child understanding of the
and adolescent different principles of
development and learning as they relate to
principles of teaching and child and adolescent
learning – PPST 1.2.1 development.
 Articulate the rootedness Present research findings on Presentation of research
of education in recent studies on child and findings
psychological theories and adolescent growth and
principles CMO PSG development and their
implication to the teaching-
learning process, teacher-
learner relationship and child
care.

 Demonstrate Present different models and Synthesis projects

understanding of design of pedagogies of
supportive learning learning and teaching. That
environment that nurture are supportive of learners at
and inspire learners at each development level
each developmental level
– PPST 2.4.1
  Demonstrate knowledge
and understanding of
differentiated teaching to
suit the learners’ gender,
needs, strengths, interests
and experiences – PPST
3.1.
 Apply pedagogies of
learning and teaching
appropriate for each
developmental level
 Choose activities and
strategies that are
responsive to the learners’
linguistic, cultural, socio-
economic and religious
backgrounds – PPST 3.2.1
Illustrate how teaching can Synthesis projects
be differentiated for diverse
learners
Describe the developmental Synthesis projects
characteristics of learners
Present different models and
designs of pedagogies of
learning and teaching for
each developmental level
Present different models and Synthesis projects
designs of pedagogies of
learning and teaching
responsive to diverse
linguistic, cultural, socio-
economic and religious
backgrounds.

Learning Plan / Instructional Plan

Intended Learning Course Teaching-Learning Assessment and
Outcomes Content/Subject Activities Outputs
Matter
 Explain the 1. Learner-Centered  Conversation Quiz, Reflection
14 learners- Psychological Journey on the paper, research
centered Principles (LCPP) words abstract
principles “Learner-
 Advocate Centered,” and
for the use the word
of the 14 “Principles,”
principles in Class
the teaching- discussion,
learning research,
process reflection
 Identify
ways on
how to
apply the 14
principles in
instruction
as a future
teacher

 Define 2. Basic Concepts  Picture Sentence completion

human and Issues on analysis-
development Human learning in Use of graphic
 in your own Development different organizers
words 2.1 Human developmental
 Distinguish Development: stages; class Performance Task –
between the Meaning, discussion; Slide/Video
traditional Concepts and video-analysis; presentation
and life-span Approaches research
approach of abstraction, Written quiz
development reflection
 Take a 2.2. The Stages  Symbols for  Post test
research- of tasks; class  Research
based Developm discussion, abstracts
position on ent and multimedia
issue on Developm presentations;
human ental Tasks songs for the
development stages,
 Define research
development abstraction;
al tasks in reflection
your own
words
 Describe the
development
al stage
 Come up
with
research
abstracts/su
mmaries of
researches
on
development
al tasks
 Come up 2.3. Issues on  Direct  Research
with Human teaching; talk abstract
research Developm show; debate presentation
abstracts/su ent graphic
mmaries of organizers;
researches research
on child and abstraction;
adolescent reflection
development
 Take a
research-
based
position on
the three (3)
issues on
development
 Explain the 2.4. Research  Direct Values continuum
basic in Child teaching; Talk
principles of and show, graphic Research abstract
 research Adolescent organizers, presentation
 Demonstrate Developm surfing the
appreciation ent internet,
of the role of reflection,
teachers as survey
consumers questionnaires
and
producers of
development
al research

 Present
researches
on child and
adolescent
development
and make
simple
research
abstracts out
of
researches
read
 Explain each 3. Developmental  Direct Paper-and-pencil
development Theories and teaching, talk test;
al theory other Relevant show, graphic Graphic
 Draw Theories organizers, organizers;
principles of surfing the Reflection
teaching and internet,
learning reflection,
from survey
development questionnaires
al theories
 Explain 3.1 Freud’s  Reflection of Research
Frued’s Psychoanalytic life abstracts;
view about Theory experiences; Reflection paper
child direct
adolescent teaching; case
development study; virtual
 Draw museum visit;
implications research
of Freud’s abstraction;
theory to reflection
education
 Describe 3.2 Piaget’s Stages  Analysis of Research
Piaget’s of Cognitive scenarios abstracts;
stages in Development showing how Reflection paper
your own children of
words different ages
 Conduct a think and
simple demonstrate
 Piagetian reasoning;
Task direct
interview teaching;
with research
children abreaction;
 Match reflection
learning
activities to
the learner’s
cognitive
stage
Explain the 3.3 Erikson’s  Use of Erik Research
8 Stages of Psycho-Social Erikson’s abstracts;
Life to Theory of Stage Theory Reflection paper;
someone Development of use of rubric for
you care Development the e-book
about. Questionnaire;
Write a direct
short story teaching;
of your life research
using abstraction; E-
Erikson’s book of one’s
stages as life story;
frame-work reflection
Suggest at
least 6 ways
on how
Erikson’s
theory can
be useful for
you as a
future
teacher
 Explain the 3.4 Kohlberg’s  Case analysis: Research
stages of Stages of Moral Moral abstracts;
moral Development dilemmas; Reflection paper
development direct
 Analyse a teaching;
person’s research
level of abstraction;
moral reflection
reasoning
based on his
responses to
moral
dilemmas.
 Cite how the
theory of
moral
development
 can be
applied to
your work
as teacher

 Explain why 3.5 Vygotsky’s  Students will Research

Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural recall how in abstracts;
theory is Theory the past they Reflection paper
called themselves
“Socio- have
cultural” experienced
theory scaffolding in
 Differentiate learning a new
Piaget and skill; direct
Vygotsky’s teaching;
views on research
cognitive abstraction;
development reflection
 Explain how
scaffolding
is useful in
teaching a
skill
 Identify 3.6 Bronfenbrenner’s  Opening Research
factors in Ecological Theory Activity: abstracts;
one’s own Recalling Reflection paper;
life that people, places paper on
exerted and times that article/document
influence on has influenced ary analysis
one’s one’s life;
development direct
 Use the bio- teaching;
ecological research
theory as a abstraction;
framework news
to describe articles/docum
the factors entaries
that affect sharing and
child and analysis;
adolescent reflection
development
 Explain how
the learners’
linguistic,
cultural,
socio-
economic
and religious
background
are
 considered
in planning
instruction
 Determine
the special
educational
needs of
learners in
difficult
circumstanc
es,
including:
geographic
isolation,
chronic
illness,
displacemen
t due to
armed
conflict,
urban
resettlement
or disaster,
child abuse
and child
labor
practices
 Trace the 4. Pre-natal  Group Simulation –
course of Development discussion, letter writing
prenatal Group project (pretend you are
development for an a 4-mo. Old
 Explain the organized fetus; write a
most lecture on Letter to your
common prenatal mom describing
hazards to development how you are
parental for a mothers;’ developing in the
development class; womb); scoring
 Become reflection; rubric; quiz
more research; film
appreciative on prenatal
of the gift of development
life as
manifested
in an anti-
abortion
stand
 Apply Synthesis of the  Summary of
pedagogical Physical, Cognitive the key
principles in and Socio- characteristics
the emotional of pre-natal
 development Development of development;
process Pre-natal Period application of
during the pedagogical
pre-natal principles to
period the pre-natal
stage
 Trace the 5. Infancy and  Research and Written test;
physical Toddlerhood research scoring rubric;
development 5.1 Physical presentation; observation
of infants Development of pictograph; report
and toddlers Infants and questionnaire
 Identify Toddlers on Learning
factors that and
enhance / development
impede the Standards for
physical Filipino
development children from
of infants Phil. Early
and toddlers Learning and
 Present your Development
own or Standards;
others’ Lecture;
research on Graphic
the physical organizers;
development Reflection
of infant and
toddlers
 Draw
implications
of these
physical
development
al concepts
to child care,
education
and
parenting
 Trace the 5.2 Cognitive  Group Work- Quiz; Research
cognitive Development of Analysis of the presentation
development Infants and excerpts on the
of infants Toddlers biography of
and toddlers Piaget’s
 Identify Children;
factors that Laurent,
enhance / Lucienne;
impede the Jacqueline;
cognitive Lecture;
development Research;
of infants Reflection;
and toddlers Rap on
 Present an toddlers’ cog
abstract of native
others’ or development
your own
research
related to
the cognitive
development
of infants
and the
toddlers
 Draw
implications
of these
cognitive
development
al concepts
to child,
education
and
parenting
 Trace the 5.3 Socio-  Group Poetry writing /
socio- emotional discussion on Song
emotional Development of Nolte’s poem composition on
development Infants and “Children toddlers’
of infants Toddlers Learn What cognitive
and toddlers They Live”; development
 Identify Lecture,
factors that Research
enhance / presentation;
impede the child
socio- observation
emotional
development
of infants
and toddlers
 Present an
abstract of
others’ or
your own
research
related to
the socio-
emotional
development
of infants
and the
toddlers
 Draw
implications
 of the these
socio-
emotional
development
al concepts
to child care,
education
and
parenting
 Apply Synthesis of the  Summary of Synthesis and
pedagogies Physical, the key application
of learning Cognitive and characteristics project
and teaching Socio-emotional of toddlers’
appropriate Development of development
for infants Toddlers  Cite and
and toddlers explain at least
one
pedagogical
principle that
applies to the
teaching-
learning
process of
TODDLERS
 Describe the 6. Early Childhood  Group Photo essay on
physical (The Preschooler) discussion; the physical
development 6.1 Picture development of
of pre- Preschoolers’ analysis; pre-schoolers;
schoolers Physical Lecture; observation
 Identify the Development research; report; research
physical Surfing the abstracts
skills that internet for
Filipino pre- gross motor
schoolers and fine motor
can do activities for
 Identify pre-schoolers;
factors that List of pre-
enhance / schoolers’
impede the physical skills
physical from PELDS;
development observation of
of pre- children;
schoolers reflection
 Present an
abstract of a
recent
research or
conduct a
research
related to
 the physical
development
of pre-
schoolers
 Draw
implications
of these
physical
development
al concepts
to preschool
teaching-
learning
child care
and
parenting
 Describe the 6.2 Cognitive  Answering the Acrostic making
cognitive Development of the Psychosocial on pre-
development Preschoolers questionnaire; schoolers’ socio-
that takes Group emotional
place among discussion; development;
pre- Lecture; List observation
schoolers of report
 Apply preschoolers’
concepts on cognitive skills
preschoolers from PELDS;
’ cognitive Excerpt of
development Albert
in pre- Einstein’s
school biography;
teaching and Graphic
in child care. organizers;
 Take an child
informed observations
stand/positio
n on current
preschool
teaching
practices
 Explain 6.3 Socio-emotional  Answering the Acrostic making
Erikson’s Development of Psychosocial on pre-
“crisis” of Preschooler questionnaire; schoolers’ socio-
early child- Group emotional
hood, discussion; development;
initiative Lecture; List observation
versus guilt of report
 Explain the preschoolers’
development cognitive skills
of the pre- from PELDS;
schoolers’ Excerpt of
 sense of self Albert
and self- Einstein’s
esteem. biography;
 Discuss how Graphic
children organizers;
develop child
gender observations
identity
 Describe the
staged of
play and
how it
impacts
socio-
emotional
development
.
 Discuss the
different
caregiving
styles and
their effect
on pre-
schoolers
 Describe
how
significant
relationships
with parents,
siblings and
peers affect
the pre-
schooler
 Apply Synthesis of the  Write the Synthesis and
pedagogies Physical; Cognitive characteristics application
of learning and Socio- and skills of project
and teaching emotional pre-schoolers
appropriate Development of in the physical,
for Pre-schoolers cognitive and
preschoolers socio-
emotional
develop
 Describe the 7. Middle Childhood  Observing Quiz: Reflection
physical (The Primary primary school
development Schooler) children;
of primary 7.1 Physical Group
school Development of discussion;
pupils Primary Pupil Metaphorical
 State the Teaching (to
cognitive what do you
 milestones compare a
of primary primary school
school child as he/she
children develops
 Identify physically?
factors that
enhance /
impede the
physical
development
of primary
school
children
 Present an
abstract of a
recent
research
related to
the physical
development
of primary
school
pupils
 Draw
implications
of these
physical
development
al concepts
to primary
school
teaching –
learning,
child care
and
parenting
 Describe the 7.2Cognitive  Graphic Quiz; Showing
characteristi Development of organizers; cognitive
cs of Primary Schoolers Diagrams on development of
children in short and long primary school
the concrete term memory; children by way of
operational Lecture; diagrams/symbol
stage Research;
 Explain the research;
importance reflection
of
information-
processing
skills and
how they
 affect the
child’s
cognitive
development
 State the
different
cognitive
milestones
in primary
schoolers
 Identify the 7.3 Socio-emotional  Observing Report; video-
different Development of primary- analysis
characteristi Primary Schoolers schoolers
cs of during their
primary play time
school-aged (recess or
children in lunch break);
this stage of Class
development Discussion;
 Discuss the Video analysis
different Photo essay on
factors that the
affect the development
socio- of pre-
emotional schoolers;
growth of observation
the primary-
schoolers
 Apply Synthesis of the  Summary of Synthesis and
pedagogies Physical, Cognitive and the key application project
of learning Socio-emotional characteristics
and teaching development of Primary of primary
appropriate Schoolers schoolers’
for primary development;
school application of
children pedagogical
principles to
the teaching-
learning
process of
PRIMARY
SCHOOLERS
 Identify the 8. Late Childhood  Natural Designing a simple
different (The intermediate observation of exercise program for
physical Schooler) intermediate intermediate children
characteristi 8.1 Physical school which consists of
cs of Development of children; warm up activities,
intermediate Intermediate Group exercise proper, and
schoolers Schoolers discussion; cooling down or
 Discuss Lecture; quieting activity,
 ways and Research Research summary
practices
which will
aid children
in
successfully
developing
physically
 Design a
simple
exercise
program
appropriate
for
intermediate
school
children
 Examine the 8.2 Cognitive  Group Quiz; Research
cognitive Development of discussion on presentation;
characteristi the Intermediate Howard Reflection scored
c of Schoolers Gardner’s with rubric
intermediate quotation on
school intelligence;
children Lecture;
 Discuss Research
important
factors that
affect the
cognitive
development
of inter-
mediate
school
children.
 Enumerate
ways on
how
teachers can
promote
creativity in
the learning
environment
, learning
activities
and
instructional
materials
 Identify the 8.3 Socio-  Quotation on Filling out given
socio- emotional socio- graphic, organizers;
emotional Development of emotional Quiz; Reflection
 characteristi the Intermediate development
cs of Schoolers of intermediate
children in school
their late children;
childhood Sharing with
stage small group
 Determine personal socio-
the qualities emotional
of family experience as
life that a child;
affect older interview of
children’s parents re
development socio-
including emotional
changes in development
family of their
interactions intermediate
 Interview a school
parent children
regarding Lecture
their child’s
socio-
emotional
development
 Apply Synthesis of the  Summary of Synthesis and
pedagogies Physical, the key application project
of learning Cognitive and characteristics
and teaching Socio-emotional of intermediate
appropriate Development of schoolers’
for Intermediate development;
intermediate Schoolers Application of
school pedagogical
children principles to
the teaching-
learning
process of
INTERMEDI
ATE
SCHOOLERS
 Identify the 8.3 Socio-  Quotations on Filling out given
socio- emotional socio- graphic organizers;
emotional Development of emotional Quiz; Reflection
characteristi the Intermediate development
cs of Schoolers on
children in intermediate
their late school
childhood children;
stage Sharing with
 Determine small group
the qualifies personal socio-
 of family emotional
life that experience as
affect older a child;
children’s Interview of
development parents re
including socio-
changes in emotional
family development
interactions of their
 Interview a intermediate
parent school
regarding children;
their child’s Lecture
socio-
emotional
development
 Apply Synthesis of the  Summary of Synthesis and
pedagogies Physical, the key application project
of learning Cognitive and characteristics
and teaching Socio-emotional of intermediate
appropriate Development of Schoolers’
for Intermediate development;
intermediate Schoolers Application of
school pedagogies
children principles to
the teaching-
learning
process if
INTERMEDI
ATE
SCHOOLERS.
 Describe the 9. Adolescent ( The  Sharing with Simulation (Students
physical and High School the small play the roles of a
sexual Learner) group of past medical expert who
changes in 9.1 Physical personal provides wholesome
adolescents Development in experiences on advice to adolescents
 Describe High School physical and on puberty, wet
how self- Learners sexual dreams, etc. ); scored
image development; with a rubric
develops Lecture;
among teens Research
 Discuss presentation; Do a PowerPoint
causes and Reflection presentation on
solutions to physical
socio- development of
emotional adolescents to a
problems of group of adolescents;
teenagers to be scored with a
such as rubric
gender and
 identify,
autonomy
and
attachment,
peer group,
friendships,
dating,
juvenile,
delinquency,
depression
and suicide
 Present an
abstract of a
recent
research
related to
the socio-
emotional
development
of
adolescents
 Draw
implications
of these
socio-
emotional
development
al concepts
to high
school
teaching-
learning and
parenting
 Describe the 9.3 Socio-emotional  Sharing of Simulation (Students
cognitive Development of experiences on pretend to be a
development High School friendship, psychologist) to give
of Learners self-esteem, a PowerPoint
adolescents barkada, presentation to
in the light intimate same- teenagers on teenage
of Piaget’s sex friends; problems and
and intimate recommendations for
Siegler’s opposite sex healthy adolescent
cognitive friends; life; Reaction paper
development autonomy; to articles on
al theories depression and adolescents’ socio-
 Explain the suicide; Role emotional
consequence playing on development; quiz
s of the socio-
adolescents’ emotional
’ cognitive development
 development issues;
on their Lecture;
behaviour Reading
 Define articles on
overachieve socio-
ment and emotional
propose development
solutions to of adolescents
underachiev
ement
 Present an
abstract of a
recent
research
related to
the cognitive
 Developmen
t of
adolescent
 Draw
implications
of these
cognitive
development
al concepts
to high
school
teaching-
learning,
and
parenting
 Apply Synthesis of the  Summary of Synthesis and
pedagogies Physical, Cognitive the key application project
of learning and Socio- characteristics
and teaching emotional of adolescents’
appropriate Development of development;
for high High School application of
school Learners pedagogical
learners principles to
the teaching-
learning
process of
ADOLESCEN
T
Course Submission of outputs such as research summaries and reflections
Requireme
nt:
Grading Institutional
Scheme:
References
 Prepared by: Recommended by: Approved by:

Rosemay S. Jimenez

Department Head Dean

Course Name: ProfEd

Course credit: 3 units

Course Description: The child and adolescent Learners and learning Principles

Table of Content:

Part 1 Learner centered Psychological Principles

Part 2 Basic Concepts and essues on human development

Module 1 Human development: meaning, concepts, and approaches

Module 2 The Stages of Development and Developmental Tasks

Module 3 Issues on human Development

Part 3 Developmental Theories and Other Relevant Theories

Module 4 Frued’s Psychoanalytic Theory

Module 5 Piaget’s Stages of Cogitive

Module 6 Erikson’s Psyco- Social Theory of Development

Module 7 Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Module 8 Vygotsky’s Socio cultural Theory

Module 9 Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory

Part 4 Development of the learners at various Stages

Pre-Natal Period
Part 5 Infancy and Toddlerhood

Physical development of infants and toddlers

Cognitive development of infants and toddlers

CHAPTER 1

MODULE 1

Learner-Centered Psychological Principles (LCP)

A. CHAPTER OVERVIEW

The learner is the centered of instruction. The world of instruction revolves around the learner.
This module introduces you to the fourteen (14) learner-centered principles which shall be used
throughout this book as a guide in determining appropriate pedagogy for learners at different life
stages.

B. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOME (DLO)

At the end of this lesson student will be able to:

  Explain the 14 principles.
 Advocate the use of the 14 principled in the teaching-learning process.
 Identify ways on how to apply the 14 principles in instruction as a future teacher.

Learner-Centered Psychological Principles (LCP)

Advance Organizer

Motivational
Cognitive and and Affective
Metacognitive Factors (3
factor (6 principles)
principles)
14 Learner-
Centered
Principles

Individual
Developmental Difference
and Social Factors (3
Factors (2 principles)
principles)
Analysis 1

Do this activity : Before you read about the Learner-Centered Principles.

1. Examine the title “Learner-Centered Principles”. Quickly, jot down at least 10 words that
come to your mind.

2. Go back to each word and write phrases about why you think the word can be associated
with LCP.

Analysis 2

Share your responses.

I think Learner-Centered Principles focus on………

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C. DISCUSSION

LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

The Learner-Centered Psychological Principles were put together by the American Psychological
Association. The following 14 psychological principles pertain to the learner and the learning
process. The 14 principles have the following aspects:
 They focus on psychological factors that are primarily internal to and under the control
of thr learner rather than conditioned habit or physiological factors. However, the
principles also attempt to acknowledge external environment or contextual factors that
interact with these internal factors.
 The principles are intended to deal holistically with learners in the context of real-word
learning situations. Thus, they are best understood as an organized set of principles; no
principles should be viewed in isolation.
 The 14 principles are divided into those referring to (1) cognitive and metacognitive, (2)
motivational and affective, (3) developmental and social, and (4) individual
differences factors influencing learners and learning.
 Finally, the principles are intended to apply to all learners – from children, to teachers, to
administrators, to parents, and to community members involved in our educational
system.

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

 1. Nature of the learning process
The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an
intentional process of constructing meaning from information and experience.

 There are different types of learning process, for example, habit formation in
motor learning, and learning that involves the generation of knowledge, or
cognitive skills and learning strategies.
 Learning in schools emphasizes the use of intentional processes that students can
use to construct meaning from information, experiences, and their own thoughts
and beliefs.

 Successful learners are active, goal-directed, self-regulating, and assume personal

responsibility for contributing to their own learning.
2. Goals of the learning process
The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance,
can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.

 The strategic useful representations of knowledge and to acquire the thinking and
learning stratregies necessary for continued learning success across the life span,
students must generate and pursue personally relevant goals. Initially, students’
short-term goals and learning may be sketchy in an area, but over time their
understanding can be refined by filling gaps, resolving inconsistencies, and
deepening their understanding of the subject matter so that they can read longer-
term goals.
 Educators can assist learners in creating meaningful learning goals that are
consistent with both personal and educational aspirations and interests.

3. Construction of knowledge

The successful can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways.
 Knowledge widens and deeper as student continue to build links between
new information and experiences and their existing knowledge base. The
nature of these links can take a variety of forms, such as, adding to,
modifying ,, or recognizing existing knowledge or skills.
 Educators can assist learners in acquiring and integrating knowledge by a
number of strategies that have shown to be effective with learners of
varying abilities, such as concept mapping and thematic organization or
categorizing.

4. Strategic thinking
The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and
reasoning strategies to achieve complex leaning gaols.
  Successful learner use strategic thinking in their approach to leaning ,
reasoning, problem solving , and concept learning.

They understand and can use a variety of strategies to help them reach
learning and performance goals, and to apply their knowledge in novel
situations.

 They also continue to expand their repertoire of strategies by reflecting

on the methods they use to see which work well for them, by receiving
guided instruction and feedback, and by observing and or interacting
with appropriate models.

 Learning outcomes can be enhanced if educators assist learners in

developing ,applying , and assessing their strategic learning skills.

5. Thinking about thinking

Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operation

facilitate creative and critical thinking.
 Successful learner can reflect on how they think and learn, set
 reasonable learning or performance goals, select potentially appropriate
learning strategies or methods, and monitor their progress toward these goals.
 In addition, successful learner know what to do if a problem occurs or if
they are not making sufficient or timely progress toward a goal. They can
generate alternative methods to reach their goals.
 Instructional methods that focus on helping learners develop these higher
order (metacognitive) strategies can enhance student learning and personal
responsibility for learning.
6. Context of learning
Learning is influenced by environment factors, including culture, technology, and
instructional practices.
 Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Teachers play a major interactive role
with both the learner and the learning environment.
 Cultural or group influence on students can impact many educationally
relevant variables, such s motivation, orientation toward learning, and ways
of thinking.

 Technologies and instructional practices must be appropriate for learner

level of prior knowledge, cognitive abilities, and their learning and thinking
strategies.
 The classroom environment , particularly the degree to which it is nurturing
or not, can also have significant impacts on student learning.

MOTIVATIONAL AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS

7. Motivational and emotional influeces on learning
What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner’s motivation.
Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the individual states, beliefs,
interest and goqls, and habits of thinking.
 The rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals , and expectation for success
or failure can enhance or interfere with the learner’s quality of thinking and
information processing.

 Students beliefs about themselves as learner and the nature of learning have a
marked influence on motivatin. Motivational and emotional factors also influence
both the quality of thinking and information processing as well as an
individual’s motivation to learn.


8. Intrinsic motivation to learn
The learners creativity; higher order thinking ; and natural curiosity all contribute to
motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is simulated by tasks of optimal novelty and
difficulty; relevant to personal interest, and providing for personal choice and control.

 Curiosity , flexible and insingful thinking , and creativity are major indicators of
the learner ‘intrinsic motivation to learn , which is in large part of a function
meeting basic needs to be competent and to intrinsic personal control.
 Intrinsic motivation is facilitated on tasks that learners perceive as interesting
and personally relevant and meaningful, appropriate in complexity and
difficulty to the learner ‘s abilities, and on which they believe they can succeed.

 Intrinsic motivation is also facilitated on tasks that are comparable to real world
situations and meet needs for choice and control.
 Educator can encourage and support learners natural curiosity and motivation to
learn by attending to individual differences in learners perception of optimal
novelty and difficulty, relevance , and personal choice and control.

9. Effect of motivation on effort

Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort and guided
practice. Without learner’s motivation to learn ,, the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely
without coercion.
 Effort is an another major indictor of motivation to learn. The acquisition of complex
knowledge and skills demands the investment of considerable learner energy and strategy
effort along with persistence over tome.
 Educators need to be concerned with facilitating motivation by strategies that enhance
learner effort and commitment to learning and to achieving high standards of
comprehension and understanding.

 Effective strategies include purposeful learning activities, guided by practices that

enhance positive emotion and intrinsic motivation to learn, and methods that increase
learners perception that a tasks is interesting and personally relevant.
Developmental and social Factor

10. Developmental influence on learning

As an individual develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for

learning . Learning is most effective when differential development within and across
physical , intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into account.

 Individuals learn best when materials is appropriate to their development level

and is presented in an enjoyable and interesting way.

 Because individual development varies across intellectual , social, emotional, and

physical domains, achievement in different instructional domains may vary.

 Overemphasis on one type of developmental readiness such as reading readiness for

example may preclude learners from demonstrating that they are more capable in
other areas of performance.

 The cognative , emotional, and social d3evlopment of individual of learner and how
they interpret life experience s are affected by prior schooling , home , culture, and
community factors.
 Early and continuing parental involvement schooling , and the quality of language
interaction and two-way communication between adults and children can influence
these development areas.
Awareness and understanding of developmental differences among children with and
without emotional , physical or intellectual disabilities, can facilitate the creation f optimal
learning context.

11. Social influences on learning

Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and

communication with others.
 learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact and to
collaborate with others on instructional tasks.
 Learning settings that allow for social interactions, and that respect diversity,
encourage flexible thinking and social competence.

 To perform welling interactive and collaborative instructional contexts, individuals

have an opportunity for perspective taking and reflective thinking that may lead to
higher levels of cognitive, social, and moral development, as well as self-esteem.

 Quality personal relationship that provide stability, trust, and caring can increase
learners’ sense of belonging, self-respect and self-acceptance, and provide a
positive climate for learning.
  Family influences, positive interpersonal support and instruction in self-motivation
strategies can offset factors that interface with optimal learning such as negative
beliefs about competence in a particular subject, high levels of test anxiety ,
negative sex role expectation, and undue pressure.
 Positive learing climates can also help to establish the context for healthier levels
of thinking , feeling and behaving. Such context help learner feels safe to share
ideas, actively participate in the learning process, and a learning community.

Individual Differences Factors

12. Individual Differences in Learning

Learning have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that are a function
of prior experience and heredity.

 Individual are born with the develop their own capabilities and talents.
 In addition, Through learning and social acculturation, they have
acquired their own they like to learn and the pace at which they learn.
However , these preferences are not always useful in helping learners
reach their learning goals.

 Educators need to help students examine their learning preferences and

expand or modify them, if necessary.
 The interaction between learner differences and curricular and
environmental condition is another key factor affecting learning
outcomes.
 Education need to be sensitive to individual differences, in general. They
also need to attend to learner perception of the degree to which these
differences are accepted and adapted to by varying instructional and
materials.

13. Learning and diversity

Learning’ s, and socioeconomic status all can influence linguistic, cultural, and social background
are taken into account

 The same basic principle of learning, motivation, and effective

instruction apply to all learners. However, language, ethnicity, race,
belief and socioeconomic status all can influence learning. Careful
attention to these factors in the instructional setting enhance the
possibilities for designing and implementing appropriate learning
environments.
 When learners perceive that their individual differences in abilities,
background, cultures, and experience are valued, respected, and
accommodated in learning tasks and context, levels of motivation and
achievement are enhanced.

14. Standards and assessment

Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as well as
learning progress- including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment= are integral parts of
the learning process.

 Assessment provides important information to both the learner and

teacher are all stages of the learner process.
 Effective learning takes place when learners feel challenged to work
towards appropriately high goals; therefore, appraisal of the learner’s
cognitive strengths and weakness, as well as current knowledge and
skills , is important for the selection of instructional materials of an
optimal degree of difficult.

 On-going assessment of the learner’s understanding of the curricular

materials can provide valuable feedback to both learners and teacher
about progress toward the learning goals.
 Standardized assessment of the learner progress and outcomes levels
both within and across individuals that can inform various types of
programmatic decisions.
 Performance assessment can provide other sources of information about
the attainment of learning outcomes.

 Self-assessment of learning progress can also improve students self

appraisal skills and enhance motivation and self-directed learning.
Alexander and Murphy gave a summary of the 14 principles and distilled
them into five areas:

1. The knowledge base. One’s existing knowledge serves as the

foundation of all future learning. The learner’s previous knowledge
will influence new learning specifically on how he represents new
information, makes associations and filters new experiences.
2. strategic processing and control. Learners can develop skills to
reflect and regulate their thoughts and behaviour in order to learn
more effectively [metacognition].
3. Motivation and effect. Factor such as intrinsic motivation [from
within], reason for wanting to learn, personal goals and enjoyment of
learning task all have a crucial role in the learning process.

4. Development and individual Differences. Learning is a unique

journey for each person because each learner has his own unique
combination of genetic and environmental factors that influence
him.
5. Situation or context. Learning happens in the context of a society as
well as within an individual.
APPLICATION:

The application of the 14 principles will be done as you explore the succeeding modules.
For now, keep the
 14 principles in mind as you explore the rest of the modules. Always try to relate these
principles to the concepts.

You will learn, especially when you do the 5-minute non-stop writing at the end of each
module. Happy learning!!

SELF REFLECT:

From the module on learner -centered Psychological principles I REALIZED THAT……..

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 CHAPTER 2

Module 1

“Basic concepts and Issue on Human “Development

“By virtue of being born to humanity, every human being has a right to the development of his
potentialities as a human being “
- Ashley Montagu

A. OVERVIEW

Every living creature ie s called to become what it is meant to be. The caterpillar is meant
to become a butterfly; a seed into a grown herb, bush or tree; and a human baby into a mature
person, the person “who is fully alive, the glory of God” in the words of St. Irenaeus.
How this development happens is what we learn In our biology class. We have seen it to
be a fantastic process. So wonderful a process that we cant help but experience a feeling of awe
for the Power of the Force or the Principle ( theists call this Power or Force or Principle (GOD) )
behind all these.
The process of development involves beginning and endings. What was this organism
then? What will this organism be?
A number of researches of Human Development have been conducted. A lot of theories on
human development have been forwarded. Researches on human development continue as
existing theories get corrected, complemented or replaced. Up to the present several issues on
human development are unresolved and so the search for explanations continue.
In this Unit, you will be acquainted with human development as a process, the
developmental tasks that came along with each developmental stage and relevant issues that are
raised about human development.

B. DEWSIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES (DLO)

At the end of this Module students will be able to:

 define human development in your own words.

 distinguish between the traditional and life-span approach of development.
 Discuss the importance of human development

As you read this module and do the activity, you are undergoing the process and
development take place? What do experts say about development?

These are the concerns of this Module.

ACTIVITY

1. When you gave your own predictions as to the kind of child, adolescent and adult Naschielle
and Kenn may become and hypothesized on who they once were, you were referring to human
development. What then is development? Translate the meaning of development in your Mother
Tongue.

Expound on your answers.

ANALYSIS

After listening to the predictions given by each member of the group, answer the following
questions:

1. Will three-year old Kenn be able to do all that seven-year old Nachielle can do? Why or
why not?
2. Will there be anything common in the pattern of development of Naschielle and Kenn?
If yes, what?
3. Will there be differences In their development, e.g. pace or rate of development? What
and why?
4. Will the processes of development take place very fast or gradually? Expound your
answer.
5. Do you believe that Naschielle and Kenn will continue to develop even in adulthood? Or
will they stop developing in adulthood?

C. DISCUSSION

TWO APPROACHES TO HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

If you believe that Nikki and Kenn will show extensive change from birth to
adolescence, little or no change in adulthood and decline in the old age, your approach to
development is traditional .In contrast, if you believe that even in adulthood development
change takes place as it does during childhood, your approach is termed life-span approach.
What are the charactiristics of human development from a life-span perspective? Paul
Baltes (Santrock, 2002), an expert in life-span development, gives the following characteristics:
1. Development is lifelong. It does not end in adulthood. Ken and Naschielle will continue
developing even in adulthood.
2. Development is plastic. Plasticity refers to the potential for change. Development is possible
throughout the life-span. No one is too old to learn. There is no such thing as “I am too old for
that…” Neither Kenn nor Naschielle will be too old to learn something.
Aging is associated with declines in certain intellectual abilities. These declines can be prevented
or reduced. In one research study, the reasoning abilities of older adults were improved through
retraining (Willies & Schose,1994 cited by Santrock J.,2005)
3. Development is multidimensional. Development consists of biological, cognitive, and socio-
emotional dimensions.
Development as a process is complex because it is the product of biological ,cognitive and
socio-emotional processes (Santrock,2002).

Biological processes involve changes in the individuals physical nature. The brains of
Naschielle and Kenn develop. They will gain height and weight. They will experience hormonal
changes when they reach the period of puberty,and cardiovascular decline as they approach late
adulthood. All these show the common biological processes in development.
Development is relatively orderly.(http://www.cdipage.com/development.htm) Naschielle
and Kenn will learn sit, crawl then walk before they can run. The muscular control of the trunk
and the arms comes earlier as compared to the hands and fingers. This is the Proximodistal
pattern. During infancy, the greatest growth always occurs at the top-the head-with physical
growth in size, weight and future differentiation gradually working its way down from top to
bottom(for example, neck, shoulders, middle trunk and so on). This is the cephalo-caudal
pattern. These development patterns are common to Naschielle and Kenn.
Developmental takes place gradually. (http://www.cdipage.com/development.htm)
Nascielle and Kenn wont develop into pimply teenagers overnight. It takes years before they
become one. In fact,that’s the way of nature. The bud does not blossom suddenly. The seed does
not germinate overnight . While some changes occur in a flash of insight, more often it takes
weeks, months, or years for a person to undergo changes that result in the display of development
al characteristics.

Cognitive processes involve change in the individuals thought, intelligence, and language.
Naschielle and Kenn develop from mere sounds to a word becoming two words, the two words
becoming a sentence. They would move on to memorizing their first prayer, singing Bayang
Magiliw in every flag ceremony to imagining what it would be like to be a teacher or a pilot,
playing chess and solving a complex math problem. All these reflect the role of cognitive
processes in development.

Socio-emotional Processes include changes in the individuals relationships with other

people, changes in emotions, and changes in personality. As babies, Naschielle and Kenn
responded with a sweet smile when affectionately touched and frowned when displeased and
even showed temper tantrum when they could not get or do what they wanted. From aggressive
children, they may develop into a fine lady and gentleman or otherwise, depending on a myriad of
factors. They may fall in love and get inspired for life or may end betrayed, deserted and
desperate afterwards. All these reflect the role of socio-emotional processes in development.
 These biological, cognitive and socio-emotional processes are studied separately, the
effect of one process or factor on a persons development is not isolated from the other processes.
If Kenn and Naschielle were undernourished and trouble by the thought of father and mother
about to separate, they could not concentrate on their studies and consequently would fail and
drop out of school, revert to illiteracy, became unskilled, unemployed and so on and so forth. See
ho w a biological process, affects the cognitive process which in turn, affects the socio-emotional
process.

4. Development is contextual. Individuals are changing beings a changing world. Individuals

respond to and act on contexts. These contexts include the individuals biological make up,
physical environment, cognitive processes, historical, social and cultural contexts may vary and
therefore make them develop differently from each other.

5. Development involves growth, maintenance and regulation. Growth, maintenance and

regulation are three (3) goals of human development. The goals of individual vary among
developmental stages. For instance, as individuals reach middle and late adulthood, concern with
growth gets into the back stage while maintenance and regulation take the center stage.

APPLICATION:

1. State five characteristics of human development from a life-span perspective and their
implications to child care, education and parenting.

Characteristic of human development from a Education implication to child care, education

life-span perspective and parenting
1. Development is lifelong

2.

3.

4.

2. “Growth is an evidence of life” or “development is an evidence of life” what does this mean?
What does this imply to a person’s development ?

3. If your approach to human development is traditional, are the characteristics of human

development from a life-span perspective acceptable? Explain your answer.
4. Below are the principles of child development and learning; which are the bases of
Developmentally Appropriate Practice (DAP) in early childhood program for children from birth
through age 8, which were stated in the position paper of the National Association for the
Education of Young Children (2009). They affirm the characteristics of life-span development
approach we just discussed. Find out which one is a re-statement of the principles of human
development from life-span perspective in the second column.

Principle - of human development (NAEYC, Characteristic implication to child care,

2009) education and parenting

a.) All the domains of development an d e.g. development is multi-dimensional.

learning-physical, social and emotional, and
cognitive – are important, and they are closely
interrelated. Children’s development and
learning in one domain influence and are
influenced by what takes place in other
domains.

b.) Many aspects of children’s learning and

development follow well documented
sequences, with later abilities , skills, and
knowledge building on those already acquired.
c.) Development and learning proceed at
varying rates across different areas of a child to
child, as well as at uneven rates across different
areas of a child’s individual functioning.
d.) Development and learning result from a
dynamic and continuous interaction of
biological maturation and experience.
e.) Early experiences have profound effects,
both commutative and delayed, on a child
development and learning; and optimal periods
exist for certain types of development and
learning to occur.
f.) Development proceeds toward greater
complexity, self-regulation, and symbolic or
representational capacities.
g.) Children develop best when they have
secure, consistent relationships with responsive
adults and opportunities for positive
relationships with peers.
h.) Development and learning occur in and
opportunities for positive relationships with
peers.
i.) Always mentally active in seeking to
understand the world around them, children
learn in a variety of ways; a wide range of
teaching strategies and interactions are
effective in supporting all these kinds of
learning.
j.) Play is an important vehicle for developing
self-regulation as well as for promoting
language, cognition, and social competence.
k.)Development and learning advance when
children are challenged to achieve at a level
just beyond their current mastery, and also
when they have many opportunities to practice
newly acquired skills.
l.) Children’s experiences shape their
motivation and approaches to learning, such as
persistence, initiative, flexibility; in turn ,these
dispositions and behaviors affect their learning
and development.

A. TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Do the following to ensure mastery of the big idea presented in this Module;

1. Fill in blanks with the correct answer.

Patterns of development:
A. The direction of growth following the Cephalocaudal
pattern is from the________________________ to the _____________________.

B. The direction of growth following the Proximodistal pattern is from

_____________________ to the _________________________.

2. Characteristic of human development from a life- Span perspective.

1.

2.

4.
3. Put C before the statement is correct and X before a wrong one.

1. Development is a pattern of change.

2. Development is either growth or decline.
3. From both traditional and life-span perspective development is lifelong.
4. In the development process, there are things that hold true to all people.
5. Individuals develop uniformly.
6. Development is predicable because it follows an orderly process.
7. Development is unidimentional.
8. Development takes place in a vacuum.
9. The effect of biological process on development is isolated from the effect of cognitive
and socio-emotional processes.
Module 2
The Stages of Development and Development Tasks

A. OVEVIEW

Learning outcome
At the end of this module the students should be able to:

 Define developmental tasks

 Describe the developmental tasks in each developmental stage.
 Come up with research abstract/ summaries of researches on developmental
tasks.

1. The stages of development and developmental tasks

 pre-natal period
 infancy
 early childhood
 middle and late childhood
 adolescence
 early adulthood
 middle adulthood
 late adulthood

2. Developmental tasks

3. Concept of developmental tasks

4. Developmental stage

5. The developmental tasks (Santrock 2002.

MODULE 3
ISSUES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

A. overview

B. Desired Learning Outcome (DLO)

At the end of this module student should be able to:

a. Understand the three issues on human development

C. Discussion

1. Issues on human development

a. “How the first Nine Month shape the rest of your life”

(Separate sheet this topic.)

NOTE:

 BE GUIDED WITH OUR RUBICS

 INCLUDE ALL REFERENCESS
 USE A4 BOND PAPER
 AVOID COPY PASTE FROM YOUR CLASSMATES
Name: ________________ Date:______________

Year/section:______________ Course:____________

Analytic criteria for students research output

Criteria 20 excellent 15 very 10 5 needs Total

(16-20 satisfactory satisfactory improvement
(11-15) (6- 10) (1-5)
80%-1000% 60%-70% 40%-50% 30% of
Information Information Information Information
about this about this about this about this
CONTENT chapter are chapter are chapter are chapter are
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submitted submitted submitted submitted
research research research research output.
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orderly packet orderly packet orderly packet or smudges.
Neatness and are and are with several
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neat with no neat with few smudges.
tears or tears or
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80%-100% of 60%-70% the 40%-50% of 30% and below

this assigned assigned work the assigned of the assigned
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Total

Prepared by: Rosemay S. Jimenez

CHAPTER 3
MODULE 1
Developmental theories and other relevant theories
 Freud’s psychoanalytic Thoery

“The ego is not master in its own house”

-Sigmund Frued

A. OVERVIEW

Frueds views about human development are more than a century old. He can be
considered the most well known psychologist because of his very interesting theory about
the unconscious and also about sexual development. Although a lot of his views were
critizised and some considered them debunked, ( he himself recanted some of his earlier
views). Frued’s theory remainsto be one of the most influential in psychology. His theory
sparked the ideas in the brilliant minds of others theorists and thus become the starting
point of many other theories. Notable of which is Erikson’s Psychosocial theory in
module 7.

B. Desired Learning outcomes (DLO)

At the end of this module student will be able to:

 Explain Frued’sviews about child and adolescent development.

 Draw implication of Frued’s theory to educate

C. DISCUSSION

As a person grows, the personality is also formed. Many Psychologist present different
a very interesting theory about personality, its components and development. Read on
and hopefully it will also somehow lead you to understand more your own personality.

Frued’s Stages of Psychosexual Development

Freud is the most popular psychologist that studied the development of personality, also
probably the most controversial. His theory of psychosexual development includes five
distinct stages. According to Freud, a person goes through the sequence of these five
stages and along the way there are needs to be met. Whether these need are met or not,
determine whether the person will develop healthy personality or not. The theory is quite
interesting for many because Freud identified specific erogenous zones for each stage of
development. These are specific “pleasure areas” that become focal points for the
particular stage. If needs are not met along the area, a fixation occurs. As an adult, the
person will now manifest behavior related to this erogenous zone.
Oral stage (birth to 18 months). The erogenous zone is the mount. During the oral stage
, the child is focused on oral pleasures( sucking). Too much or too little satisfaction can
lead to an Oral Fixation or Oral Personality which is shown in an increased focus on Oral
activities. This type of personality may be Oral receptive, that is, have a stronger
tendency to smoke , drink, alcohol, overeat or Oral Aggressive, That is with a tendency
to bite his or her nails, or use curse words or even gossip. As a result, these person may
become too dependent on others, easily fooled, and lack leadership traits. On the other
hand, they may be also fight these tendencies and become pessimistic and aggressive in
relating with people.

Anal Stage (18 month to 3 years). The child’s focus of pleasure in this stage is the anus.
The child finds satisfaction in eliminating and retaining feces. Through society
expectation particularly the parent the child’s need to work on toilet training. Let us
remember that between one year and a half to three years the child’s favorite word might
be “NO!”. Therefore a struggle might exist in the toilet training process when the child
retains feces when asked to eliminate, or may choose to defecate when asked to hold
feces for some reason. In terms of personality, fixation during this stage can result in
being ANAL RETENTIVE, an obsession with cleanliness, perfection, and control; or
anal expulsive where the person may become messy and disorganized.

Phallic Stage (ages 3 to 6)The pleasure or erogenous zone is the genitals. During the
preschool age, children become interested in what makes boys and girls different.
Preschoolers will sometimes be seen fondling their genitals. Freud’s studies led him to
believe that during this stage boys develop on the hand her mothers affections. Boys may
fear that their father will punish them for these feelings, THUS, the castration anxiety.
These feeling comprise what Freud called OEDIPUS COMPLEX. In greek mythology,
Oedipus unintentionally killed his father and married his mother Jocasta.

Psychoanalysts also believed that girls may also have a similar experience, developing
unconscious sexual attraction towards their father. This is what is referred to as the
ELECTRA COMPLEX.

According to Freud, Out of fear of castration and due to the strong competition of their
father, boys eventually decide to identify with them rather than fight them. By identifying
with their father, the boy develop masculine characteristics and identify themselves as
males and repress their sexual feeling toward their mother. A fixation at this stage could
result in sexual deviancies (both overindulging and avoidance)and weak or confused
sexual identity according to psychoanalysts.

Latency Stage ( satge 6 to puberty) Its during this stage that sexual urges remain
repressesd. The children’s focus is the acquisition of physical and academic skills. Boy
usually relate more with boys and girls with girls during this stage.
Genital stage ( puberty onwards) The fifth stage of psychosexual development begins
at the start of puperty when sexual urges are once again awakened. In the earlier stages,
adolescent focus their sexual urges towards the opposite sex peers, with the pleasure
centered on the genitals.

Freud’s Personality Components

Freud’s described the personality structure as having three components, The id, the ego
and the Superego. For each person, the first to emerge is the id, followed by the ego,
and last to develop is the superego.

While reading about the three components, use the graphic organized below to put your
notes and questions about them.

ego

id superego

One’s
personality

The id. Freud says that, a child is born with the id. The id plays a vital role in one’s
personality because as a baby, it works so that the babay’s essential needs are met. The
id operates on the pleasure principle. It focuses on immediate gratification or
satisfaction of its needs. So whatever feels good now is what it will pursue with no
consideration for the reality, logicality or practicality of the situation.

Nothing else matters to the id except the satisfaction of its own needs. It is not oriented
towards considering reality nor the needs of others. Just see how babies cry any time of
day and night! Absulotely no regard of whether mommy is tired or daddy is sleeing.
When the id wants something, it wants it now and it wants it fast!

The ego. As the baby turns into s toddler and then into a preschooler, he /she relates
more with the environment, the ego slowly begins to emerge. The ego operates using the
reality principle. It is aware that others also have needs to be met. It is practical because it
knows that being impulsive or selfish can result to negative consequences later, so it
reason and considers the best response to situations. As such, it is the deciding agent of
the personally. Although it fucntions to help the id meet its needs, it always takes into
account the reality of the situation.

The, superego, Near the end of the preschool years, or the end of the phallic stage, the
superego develops. The superego embodies a persons moral aspect. This develops from
what the parents, teachers and other persons who exert influence impart to be good or
moral. The superego is likened to conscience because it exert influence on what one
considers right and wrong.

The three components and personality adjustment

Freud said that a well-adjusted person is one who has strong ego, who can help satisfy the
needs of the id without going against the superego while maintaining the person’s sense
of what is logical, practical and real. Of course, it is not easy for the ego to do all that and
strike a balance. If the id exerts too much power over the ego, the person becomes too
impulsive and pleasure-seeking behavior takes over one’s life. On the opposite direction,
one may find the superego so strong that the ego is overpowered. The person becomes
so harsh and judgmental to himself and others action. The persons best effort to be good
may still fall short of the superegos expectations.

The ability of a learner to be well adjusted is largely influenced by how the learner was
brought up. His experiences about how his parents met his needs, the extent to which he
was allowed to do the things he wanted to do, and also how he was taught about right
and wrong, all figures to the type of personality of an individual is formed early during
the childhood years.

Topographical Model
The Unconscious . Freud said that most what we go through I our lives, emotion,
beliefs,feelings and impulses de

P within are not available to us at a conscious level. He believed that most of what
influence us is our unconscious. The Oedipus and Electra Complex mentioned earlier
were both buried down into the unconscious, out of our awareness due to the extreme
anxiety they caused. While these complexes are in our unconscious, they still influence
our thinking, feeling and doing in perhaps dramatic ways.

The CONSCIOUS. Freud also said that all that we are aware of is stored in our
conscious mind. Our conscious mind only compresses a very small part od who we are so
that , in our everyday life, we are only aware of a very small part of what makes up our
personality; most of what we are is hidden and out of reach.

The subconscious. The last part is the preconscious or subconscious . This is the part of
us that we can reach if prompted, but is not is our active conscious. Its right below the
surface , but still “ hidden” somewhat unless we reach for it. Information such as our
telephone number, some childhood memories , or the name of your best childhood
friend is stored in the preconscious.
 MODULE 2

“Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive development”

“The principle goal of education is to create men who are capable of doing new things,
not simply of repeating what other generations have done – men who are creative,
inventive and discoverers.”

JEAN PIAGET

A. OVERVIEW

Jean Piaget Cognitive Theory of Development is truly a classic in the field of educational
psychology. This theory fueled others researches and theories of development and
learning . Its focus is on how individuals construct knowledge.

B. Desired Learning outcome (DLO)

At the end of this module student will be able to;

 Describe Piaget stages in your own words.

 Conduct a simple Piagetian task interview with children.
 Match learning activities to the learners’ cognitive stage.

C. DISCUSSION

The children in the situations presented above were of different ages and so also should
apparent differences in the way they thought. They were in different stages of cognitive
development. Perhaps no one has influenced the field of cognitive development more
than Jean Piaget. As you read through this Module you will come to Understand
cognitive development of children and adolescents and also identify ways of applying
this understanding in the teaching learners.

For sixty years, Jean Piaget conducted research on cognitive development. His research
method involed observing a small number of individuals as they responded to cognitive
tasks that he designed. These tasks were later known as PIAGETIAN TASKS.

Piaget called his general theoretical framework ‘ genetic epistemo-logy’ because he was
interested in how knowledge developed in human organisms. Piget was initially into
biology and he also had a background in philosophy. Knowledge from both these
disciplines influenced his theories and research of child development. Out of his
researches, Piaget came up with the stages of cognitive development.
Piaget examined the implications of his theory not only to aspects of cognition but also
to intelligence and moral development. His theory has been applied widely to teaching
and curriculum design specially in the preschool and elementary curriculum.

Basic Cognitive Concepts

Schema Piaget used the term ‘schema’ to refer to the cognitive structure buy which
individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their environment. It is an individuals way
to understand or create meaning about a thing or experience. It is like the mind has a
filing cabinet and each drawer has folders that contain files of things he has had an
experience with. For instance , if a child sees a do for the first time , he create his own
schema of what a dog is. It has four legs and a tail. It barks. Its furry. The child then “
puts this description of a dog ‘ on file ‘ in mind.” When he sees another similar dog, he
“pulls” out of file (his schema of a dog) in hos mind, looks at the animal, and says, “four
legs, tail, barks, furry… That’s a dog!”

Assimilation The is the process of fitting a new experience into an existing or previously
created cognitive structure or schema. If the child sees another dog, this time a little
smaller one, he would make sense of what he is seeing by adding this new information ( a
different- looking dog) into his schema of a dog.

Accommodation This is the process of creating one schema . If the same child now sees
another animal that looks a little bit like a dog, but somehow different. He might try to
fit it into his schema of a dog, and say, “ Look mommy , what a funny looking dog. Its
bark is funny too! Then the mommy explains, “that’s not a funny dog. That’s a goat!”
with mommys further discriptions, the child will now create a new schema, that of a goat.
He now adds a new file in this filing cabinet.

Equilibration. Piaget believed that people have a natural need to understand how the
world workability and find the order, structure, and predictability in their life.
Equilibration is achieving proper balance between assimilation and accommodation.
When our experiences do match our schemata (plural of schemata) or cognitive,
structures, we experience cognitive disequilibrium. This means there is a discrepancy
between what is understood. We then exert effort through assimilation and
accommodation to establish equilibrium once more.

Cognitive development involves a continuous effort to adapt to the environment

in terms of assimilation and accommodation. In this sense, Piagets theory is similar in
nature to other constructivist perspectives of learning like Bruner and Vygotsky.

Piagets Stages of Cognitive Development

 Stage 1 – Sensori- motor Stage. The first stage the corresponds from birth to
infancy. This is the stage when a child who is initially reflective in grasping, sucking and
reaching becomes more organized in his movement and activity. The term sensori-motor
focuses on the prominence of the senses and muscle movement through which the infant
comes to learn about himself and the world. In working the children in the sensori-motor
stage, teacher should aim to provide a rich and stimulating environment with appropriate
objects to play with.

Object permanence. This is the ability of the child to know that an object still
exist even when out of sight. This ability is attained in the sensory motor stage.

Stage 2. Pre-Operational Stage- The pre-operational stage covers from about

two to seven years old, roughly corresponding to the preschool years. Intelligence at this
stage is intuitive in nature. At this stage the stage, the child can now make mental
representation and is able to pretend, the child is now ever closer to the use of symbols.
This stage is highlighted by the following:

Symbolic Function – This is the ability to represent objects and events. A symbol
is a thing that represent something else. A drawing, a written word, or a spoken word
comes to be understood as representing a real object like a real MRT train. Symbolic
function gradually develops in the period between 2 to 7 years. Riel, a two-year old may
pretend the she is drinking from a glass which is really empty. Though she already
pretends the presence of water, the glass remains to be a glass. At around four years of
age, however, Nico, may, after pretending to drink from a glass remains to be a glass
into a rocket ship or a telephone. By the age of 6 or 7 the child can pretend play with
objects that exist only in his mind. Enzo, who is six, can pretend play with objects that
exist only in his mind. Enzo, who is six can do a whole ninja turtle routine without any
costume nor “props.” Tria, who is seven can pretend to host an elaborate princess ball
only in mind.

Egocentrism. This is the tendency of the child to only see his point of view and
to assume that everyone also has his same point of view. The child cannot take the
perspective of others. You see this in five year old boy who buys a toy truck for his
mother’s birthday. Or a three year old girl who cannot understand why her cousins call
her daddy “uncle” and not daddy.

Centration. This refers to the tendency of the child to only focus on one aspects.
For example, when a child is presented with two identical glasses with the same amount
of water, however, once water from one of the glasses is transferred to an obviously taller
but narrower glass, the child might say that there is more water in the taller glass. The
child only focused or “centered” only one aspect of the new glass is also narrower. The
child only centered on on the height of the glass and excluded the width and
determining the amount of water in the glass.

Irreversibility. Pre- Operational children still have the inability to reverse their thinking.
They can understand that 2 + 3 is 5, but cannot understand that 5-3 is 2.

Animism. This is the tendency of children to attribute human like traits or characteristics
to inanimate objectives. When at night , the child asked, where the sum is , she will
reply, Mr. sun is asleep

Transductive reasoning . This refers to the pre –operational childs type of reasoning
that is neither inductive nor deductive. Reasoning appears to be from particular to
particular e.i., if A causes B, the B CAUSES a.

Stage 3. Concrete Operational stage. THIS stage is characterized by the ability of the
child to think logically but only in terms of concrete objectives. This covers
approximately the ages between 8-11 years or the elementary school years. The
concrete operational stage is marked by the following:

Decentering. This refers to the ability of the child to perceive the different features of
objectives and situations. No longer is the child focused or limited to one aspect or
dimension. This allos the child to be more logical when dealing with concrete objects and
situation.

Reversibility. During the stage of concrete operations, the child can now follow that
certain operational can be done in reverse. For example, they can already comprehend the
commutative property of addition, and that subtraction is the reverse of addition. They
can also understand that the ball of clay shaped into a dinosaur can again be rolled back
into a ball of clay.

Conservation. This is the ability to know that certain properties of objects like number,
mass volume, or area do not change even if there is a change in appearance. Because of
the development of the child ability of decentering and also reversibility, the concrete
operational child cab now judge rightly that the amount of water was in shorter but wider
glass.The children progress to attain conservation abilities gradually being a pre-
conserver.

Seriation. This refer to the ability to order or arrange things in a series based on one
dimension such as weight ,volume or size.

Stage 4 formal operational stage In the final stage of formal operation covering ages
between12 to 15 years, thinking becomes more logical. They can now solve abstract
problem and can hypothesize. This stage is characterized by the following:
Hypothetical reasoning .. This is the ability to come up with the different hypothesis
about a problem and to gather and weight data in order make a final decision or
judgment. This can be than in absence of concrete objects. The individual can now deal
with” what if “ questions.

Analogical reasoning . This the ability to perceive the relationship in one instance and
then use that relationship to narrow down possible answer in another similar situation or
problem. The individual in the formal operations stage can make an analogy.

Deductive reasoning This is the ability to think logically by applying a general rule to a
particular instance or situation.

From piaget’s findings and comprehensive theory, we can derive the following
principle:

1. Children will provide different explanations og reality at different stage of

cognitive development.
2. Cognitive development is facilitated by providing activities or situation that
engage learner and required adaptation(i. e., assimilation and accommodation).
3. Learning materials and activity should involve the appropriate level of motor
or5 mental operation for a child of given age : avoid asking students to perform
tasks that are beyond their current cognitive capabilities.
4. Use teaching method that actively involve students and present challenges.
 MODULE 3

“Kohlberg’s Stage of moral Development”

Right action tends to be defined in terms of general individual right and standars
that have been critically examined and agreed upon by the whole society.

- Lawrence Kohlberg

A. OVERVIEW

Individuals, when confronted by situations where they need to make moral decision,
exercise their own ability to use moral reasoning. Lawrence Kohlberg was interested in
studying the development of moral reasoning . He based his theory on the findings of
piaget in studying cognitive development. Our ability to choose right from wrong is tied
with our ability to understand and reason logically.

B. DesiredLearning outcomes(DLO)

At the end of this module student will be able t6o:

 Explain the stages of moral development.

 Analyze the persons level of moral reasoning based on his responses to moral
dilemmas.
 Cite how the theory of moral development can be applied to your work as a
teacher later on.

C. DICUSSION

ABSTRACTION AND GENERALIZATION

Lawrence Kohlberg build on Piaget’s wok , and set the groundwork for the present
debate within psychology on moral development. Like Piaget, He believed that children
from ways of thinking through their experiences which include understanding of moral
concepts such as justice, right equality and human welfare. Kohlberg followed the
development of moral judgment and extended the ages covered by Piaget, and found out
that the process of attaining moral maturity took longer and occurred slower than Piaget
had thought.

If Piaget designed specific Tasks ( Piagetian Tasks ) to learn about the cognitive
development of children, Kohlberg utilized moral dilemmas( Kohlberg Dilemmas). From
his research. Kohlberg identified six stages of moral reasoning grouped into three major
levels. Each level represents a significant change in the social- moral reasoning or
perspective of the person.

Kohlberg’s Theory of moral Development

According to Kohlberg, Moral development occurs in six stages:

Level Stage Description

Preconventional Level
Moral reasoning is based on the
consequence/ result of the act, not
on the whether the act itself is good
or bad.
Punishment / Obedience.
One is motivated by fear of punishment.
1 He will act in order to avoid punishment.

Mutial benefit. One is motivated to act by

2 the benefit that one may obtain later. You
scratch my back, I’II scratch yours.

Conventional Social approval.

Moral reasoning is based on the
conventions or norms of society.
This may include approval of
others, law and order.
One is motivated bt what others expect in
behaqvior- good boy., goodirl. The person
3 acts because he/ she values how he / she
will appear to others. He /she gives
importance on what people will think or
say.
 Law and order
Post- conventional
4 One is motivated to act in order to uphold
Moral reasoning is based on law and order. . the person will follow the
enduring or consistent principles. It law because it is the law.
is not just recognizing the law , but
the principle behind the law.
Social Contact
5 Laws that are wrong can be change. One
will act based on social justice and
common good.
Universal principles
This is associated with the development
6 of one’s conscience . Having a set of
standards that drives one to possess moral
responsibility to make societal changes
regardless of consequences to oneself .
Example of persons are Mother Teresa,
Martin Luther King, Jr.

Module 4

CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNER

“DEVELOPMENTAL THEOTIES AND OTHER RELEVANT

THEORIES”

1. Erikson’s Psycho Social Theory of Development

 “Healthy children will not fear life if their elders have integrity enough
no to fear death.”

- Erik Erikson

A. OVERVIEW

B. Desired Learning outcomes ( DLO)

At the end of this module you should be able to:

 Explain the 8 Stage of life to someone your care about.

 Write a short story of your life using Erikson’s stages as framework.
 Suggest at least 6 ways on how erikson’s theory can be useful for you as a
future teacher.

C. DISCUSSION

1. 8 stages of life

MODULE 5

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

“Right action tends to be defined in terms of general

individual rigths and standards that have been critically
examined and agreed upon by the whole society”

-Lawrence Kolhbergs

A. OVERVIEW

B. Desired learning outcome (DLO)

At the end of this module student would be able to:

  Explain the stages of moral development
 Analyze a person’s level of moral reasoning based on this responses to moral
dilemmas.
 Cite how the theory of moral development can be applied to your work as teacher
later on.

MODULE 6

Vygotsky’s Socio- cultural theory

“What a child can do in cooperation today, tomorrow she/ he will be able to do

alone”

- Lev Vygotsky

A. OVERVIEW

B. Desired Learning outcome (DLO)

 At the end of this module, you should be able to:

 Explain why Vygotsky’ theory is called “ Socio- cultural” theory

 Explain how scaffolding is useful in teaching skill.
 Differentiat Piaget and Vygotsky’s views on cognitive development.

C. DISCUSSION

1. Piaget and Vygotsky’s views

MODULE 7

Bronfen Brenner’s Ecological Theory

“Children need people in order to become human”

-Urie Bronfebrenner

A. OVERVIEW

B. Desired Learning outcome (DLO)

At the end of this module, you should be able to:

 Describe each of the layers of bronfenbrenner’s bio-Ecological model

  Identify factors in one’s own life that exerted influence on one’s
development.
 Use the bio-Ecological theory as a framework to describe the factors that
affect a child and adolescent development.

C. DISCUSSION

Chapter 4

PRE- NATAL DEVELOPMENT

MODULE 1

A. OVERVIEW

B. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOME (DLO)

At the end of this module, you would be able to:

 Trace the course of the pre-natal developmental process that you went through.
 Explain the most common hazards to pre-natal development
 Become more appreciative of the gift of life manifested in an anti-abortion stand.

C. DISCUSSION
 CHAPTER 5

INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD

MODULE1
Physical Development of Infants and Toddlers

“ A baby is God option that life should go on.”

-Carl Sandburg,

A. Overview

We have just traced the developmental process before birth. We shall continue to trace the
developmental process by following the infants or a baby who is just born up to when he reaches
age 2. The period that comes after pre-natal or antenatal stage is infancy which, in turn, is
followed by toddlerhood. Infancy and toddlerhood span the first two years of life.

B. Desired Learning outcome (DLO)

At the end of this Module, students well be able to:

 Trace the physical development that you have gone through as infants and toddlers.
 Identify factors that enhance/ impede the physical development of infants and toddlers.
 Present your own or other research on the physical development f infants and toddlers.
 Draw implication of these principles and processes to child care education and parenting.
Analysis

Guide question

1. What do you notice about the size of the head in relation to the other parts of the body as
a person grows older?
2. Does the physical development begin from the top or below? From the side to the center?

C. Discussion

Cephalocaudal and proximodistal patterns

As you learned in unit 1, module 1, the cephlocaudal trend is the postnatal growth from
conception to 5 months when the head grows more the the body. This cephalocaudal tend of
growth that applies to the development of the fetus also applies in the first month after birth.
Infants learn to use their upper limbs before their lower limbs. The same patterns occurs in the
head area because the top parts of the head- the eye and brain- grow faster than the lower parts
such as the jaw.

The proximodistal trend is the pre-natal growth from 5 months to birth when the fetus
grows from the inside of the body outwards. This also applies in the first months after birth as
shown in the earlier maturation of muscular contor of the trunk and arms, followed by that of the
hands and fingers. When referring to motor development, the proximodistal trend refers to the
development of motor skills from the center of the body outwards.

Hieght and weight

 Its normal for the newborn babies to drop 5to 10 percent of their body weight within a
couple of weeks of birth. That is due to tha baby’s adjustment to neonatal feeding. Once
they adjust to sucking, swallowing and digesting, they grow rapidly.
 Breasfed babies are typically heavier than battle-fed babies through tha first six months.
After six months, breastfed babies usually weight less than bottle-fed babies.
 In general, an infants length increases by about 30 percent in the first five months.
 A baby’s weight usually triples during the first year but slows down in the second year
of life.
 Low percentage are not a cause for alarm as long as infants progress along a natural curve
of steady development

Brain development

 Among the most dramatic changes in the brain in the first two years of life are the
spreading connection of dendrites to each other. Remember neurons, dendrites, axon,
synapses?
Myelination or myelinization,- the process bi which the axons are covered and insulated by
layers of fat cells, begins prenatally and continues after birth. The process of myelination or
myelinization increases the speed at which information travels through the nervous system.

 At birth, the newborn’s brain is about 25 percent of its adult weight. By the second
birthday, the brain is about 75% of its adult weight.
 Shortly after birth, a baby’s brain produces trillion more connections between neurons
that it can possibly use. The brain eliminates connections that bare seldom or never used
(santrock 2002). The infants brain is literally waiting for experience to determine how
connection are made.

Motor development

Along this aspect of ,motor development, infants and toddlers begin from reflexes, to gross motor
skills and fine motor skills.

Reflexes

 The newborn has new basic reflexes which are, of course automatic, and serve as survival
mechanism before they have the opportunity to learn. Many reflexes which are present at
birth will generally subside within a few months as the baby grows and matures.
 There are many different reflexes. Some of the most common reflexes that babies have
are:

Sucking Reflexes- The sucking reflex is initiated when something touches the roof of an
infants mouth. Infants have a strong sucking reflex which help to ensure they can latch
unto a bottle or breast. The sucking reflex is very strong in some infants and they may
need to suck on a pacifier for comfort.

Rooting Reflex- The rooting reflex is most evident when an infants cheek is stroked. The
baby responds by turning his or her head in the direction of the touch and opening their
mouth for feeding.

Gripping Reflex- Babies will grsp anything that is placed in their palm. The strength of
this grip is strong, and most babies can suppost their entire weight in their grip.

Curling reflex- When the inner sole of a baby’s foot is stroked, the infants resfond by
curling his or her toes. When the outer sole of a baby’s is stroked, the infants will
respond by spreading out their toes.

Startle/ Moro Reflex- Infants will respond to sudden sound or movement bu throwing
their arms and legs out, and throwing their heads back. Most infants will usually cry
when startled and proceed to pull their limbs back into their bodies.
 Galant Reflex- The gallant reflex is shown when an infants middle or lower back is
stroked next to the spinal cord. The baby will respond by curving his or her body
towards the side which is being stroked.

Tonic Neck Reflex- The tonic neck reflex is demonstrated in infants who are placed on
their abdomens. Whichever side the childs head is facing, the kimbs on that side will
straighten, while the opposite limbs will curl. (http//www.mamashealth.
com/child/inreflex.asp)

Application

1. Observe one 1) 0-6 months infants; 2) 7-12 months infants; 3) 13 -18 months infants and 4)
19-24 months old infant. Refers to “ what Infants and toddlers Can Do Physically”

Based in the Philippines early Learning and Development Standards (ELDS) formulated by the
child and welfare Council now merged with Early Childhood Care and Development ECCD. Put
a check( √) on those items that you observed the infants/ toddler demonstrated.

A Summary of what Infants and Toddlers Can Do Physically

Domain : Physical Health , Well-Being and Motor Development

PHYSICAL HEALYH

Standards1: The child demonstrates adequate growth (weight, height, head circumference).

Standards 2: The child has adequate sensory system to participate in daily activities.

0-6 months

 Startless to loud sounds

 Visually follows a moving object from side to side
 Visually follows a moving object up to down
 Reacts to pain by crying
 Withdraws or cries when in contact with something hot

7-12 months

 Reacts with pleasure when he /she smells something nice

 Reacts by making a face when he/ she smells something foul

Standards3: The child has adequate stamina to participate in daily activities.

 Pushes and/or pulls moderately heavy object (e.g. chairs, large boxes)
 Walks without tiring easily

13-18 months

 Plays without tiring easily, able to keep pace with playmates

  Participate actively in game, outdoor play and other exercises

19-24 months

 Sustain physical activity ( e. g. dancing, outdoor, games) for at least 3-5 minutes.

MOTOR SKILLS DEVELOPMENT (GROSS MOTOR SKILLS)

Standards1: The child shows control and coordination of body movements involving large muscle
groups.

 Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/ or performed
by a child on the specified age?

0-6months

 Holds heads steady

 Moves arm and legs equally to reach at dangling object
 Rolls over
 Starting to crawl but not yet very good at this.

7-12 months

 Sits alone steadily without support

 Cheeps or crawls with ease as a primary means of moving around
 Stands without support
 Squats from a standing position with ease
 Bends over easily without falling
 Walks with one hand held

13-18 months

 Walks without supports

 Walks backwards
 Walk up the stairs with hand held, 2 feet on each step.
 Jumps in place
 Kicks a ball but with little control of direction
 Throws a ball but little control of direction
 Runs without tripping or falling
 Moves with music when he hears it
 Can move body to imitate familiar animals

19-24 months

 Walks up the stairs with alternating feet, without help

 Kicks a ball with control of direction
  Throws a ball with control of direction
 Throws a ball with control of speed

MOTOR SKILLS DEVELOPMENT ( FINEMOTOR SKILLS)

Standars1: The child can control and coordinate hand and finger movements.

Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/ or preformed by a
child on the specified age?

0-6 months

 Hands open most of the time

 Bring both hands together towards dangling objects
 Uses either hand interchangeably to grasp object
 Grasps Object with the same hand most of the time ( hand preference emerging).

7-12 months

 Pulls toys by the string

 Bangs 2 large blocks together
 Pick up objects with thumb and index fingers
 Grasps and transfers objects from hand to hand

13-18 months

 Puts small objects in/ out of container

 Unscrew lids
 Unwraps Candy/ food
 Scribbles spontaneously

19-24 months

 Colors with strokes going out of the lines

PERSONAL CARE AND HYGIENE (ACTIVITIES OF DAILY LIVING)

Standards 1: The child participates in basic personal care routines

Basede on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/ or performed by a
child on the specified age?

0-6 months

 Sucks and swallows milk from breast/ bottle

 Begins to take complementary or semi-solid foods by the end of 6 months

7-12 months
  Holds a feeding bottles by himself
 Helps hold cup for drinking
 Chew solids foods well
 Feeds self with finger foods
 Scoops with a spoon with spillage

13-18 months

 Feeds self with assistance

 Feeds self using finger to eat rice/viands with spillage
 Feeds self using spoon with spillage
 No longer drinks from feeding bottle
 Take a bath with assistance
 Removes shoes/ sandals
 Brushes teeth after meals with assistance from adult
 Washes and dries hands under adult supervision
 Washes and dries face with the assistance of adult

19-24 months

 Gets drinking for self unassisted

 Removes loose sando
 Removes socks
 Inform caregiver of the need to urinate so he/she can he brought to the comfort room
 Goes to the designated place to urinated but sometimes wets his/her pants
 Brushes teeth after meals with adults supervision
 Washes and dries face under adult supervision
FINAL TERM

MODULE 2
Cognitive development of infant and toddlers

“infant and toddlers are born ready to learn. They learn through listening, trying out
sounds, tasting foods and exploring their environments in countless ways everyday.”

-Kahlil Gibran-

A. OVERVIEW

Cognitive development in infancy refers to development in the way a baby thinks. This includes
his/her language, communication and exploration skills. Examples of cognitive activities include
paying attention, remembering learning to talk, interacting with toys and identifying faces.

B. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOME (DLO)

At the end of this module student well be able to:

 1. Trace the cognitive development of infants and toddlers.

2. Identify factors that enhance/impede the cognitive development of infants and toddlers.

3. Draw implications of cognitive development concepts to child care, education and

parenting.

C. DISCUSSION

Sensorimotor Stage

 An analyze of the 6 sub stages of the sensorimotor stage of Piaget’s cognitive

development shows that development begins from reflexes behaviors to more refined and
more coordinated activities. Cognitive development of infants evolves in orientation from
becoming focused on themselves to becoming object or world-oriented, from one that is
action –based to one that is mentally –based from one that does not involve much of
coordination of scheme to one involving intentionality novelty and curiosity and from a
thinking that is purely sensorimotor to a symbolic one.
 Piaget’s sub stages are term circular because the adaptive behavior to the world involves
repeated actions. Circular reaction are attempt to repeat an event that the baby likes.
Circular reaction serve as the building blocks for intelligence (Pasek, P and Golincoff, R,
2003).
 Primary circular reactions are oriented toward the infants own body, Whereas secondary
circular reactions are aimed toward the environment including others. Here is an example
of a primary circular reaction: At first, by accident, the baby gets her thumb in her mouth.
But she doesn’t know how to do it again. She waves her hand around and, after many
attempts, eventually succeeds in doing it again. Gradually, she learns how to do it at will.
 Secondly circular reactions are repetitive actions that involve recreating events which 4-
10 month old babies observe outside of their own bodies, such as making their mobile
crib shake by kicking their legs.
 Tertiary circular reactions, seen from approximately 10 to 18 months, is when a baby
does things over and over again, just a little differently each time. E.g. when a baby
seems to enjoy drooping the spoon over and over again in many different ways, a proof
of the reaction of novel variation in events. Piaget described the body at this stage as the
scientist when parents don’t understand their child behavior, they see this act as abusive
and get frustrated.
 From dropping the spoon many times in many different ways the baby discovers of
pattern object fall down—not up. They create the patterns with their repetitive actions
and then evaluate them. Babies are born pattern seekers.
(Pasek, k and r. Golinkoff).

 Acquiring the sense of object permanence is one of the infants most important
accomplishments, according to Piaget’s. object performance is the understanding that
objects continue to exist even when the object bare not immediately perceptible through
 the senses. Before the infants acquisition of the snse of object permanence, the principles
that applies is “ out of sight, out of mind.

There are some criticisms of Piaget’s theory on cognitive development. One criticism from other
developmental theories is his fundamental assumption that cognitive development occurs in fixed
sequence of discontinuous spurts across task domains.

Learning and remembering

Do infants learn and remember?

Yes! Pavlov’s classical conditioning and skinners operant conditioning have been proven to apply
to infants. we’ll ask you to research on researchers that proves it.

All of as experience infantile amnesia, the inability to recall events that happened when we were
very young. ( Spear, 1979). Generally we can remember little or nothing that has happened to us
before the age of about 5 years, and it is extremely rare for someone to recall many memories
before age 3 years, reports of childhood memories usually involve memories of significant event.

LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

From day one, infants appear to be programmed to tune in to their linguistic environment with
her specific goal of acquiring language. Infants clearly have remarkably acute language learning
abilities even from an early age.( marcus vijayan. Bandi Rao and vishton, 1999; Pinker, 1997,
1999 cited by sternberge, Robert, 2003)

Within the first year of life , we human seen to process through the following stages in producing
language (Sternberg 2003)

1. Cooing , which comprises largely vowel sounds

2. Babbling, which comprises consonant as well as vowel sounds; to most peoples ears, the
babbling of infants growing up among speaker from different language group sounds
very similar.
3. One –word utterances; these utterances are limited in both the vowel and the consonant
they utilize( Ingram , 1999 cited by Sternberg).
4. Two –word utterances and telegraphic speech.
5. Basic adult sentence structure ( precent by about 4 years) with containing vocabulary
acquisition.

The infant utters his /her word-followed by one or two more, and soon after yet a few more.
The infants uses these one word utterances termed HOLOPHRASES to convey intentions, desires
and demands. Usually, the words are nouns describing familiar object that the child’s observes
(e.g. book, ball, baby) or want(e.g. Mama, Dada)

By 18 months of age , children typically have vocabularies of 3 to 100 words (siegler, 1969)
because the young child’s vocabulary is very limited at this point in the development process, the
child overextends the meaning of words in his/her exesting lexicon to cover things and ideas for
which a new word is lacking. For example the general term for any kind of four-legged animal
may be ‘doggie.’ In linguistic this is called OVEREXTENSION ERROR.

Gradually, between 1.5 and 2.5 years of age, children start combining single words to produce
two-words utterances. these two-words or three word utterances with rudimentary syntax but
with articles and prepositions missing are referred to as telegraph speech.

Voluntary expands rapidly, more than tripling from about 300 words at about 2 years of age to
about 1,000 words at about 3 years of adult syntax and language structure ( Sternberg 2003)

It is a clear that no toddler blossom all of a sudden into one capable of telegraphic speech . as
the 5 stages above show, the babbling , to one- word utterances, to two- r three- words
utterances or even more but without articles and preposition thus called telegraphic speech.

LANGUAGE ACQUISITION DEVICE (LAD)

Noam Chomsky ( 1965-1972) noted linguist ,claims that humans have an innate language
acquisition device (lad) Tis lad is a “metaphorical organ that is responsible for language
learning . just as a heart is designed to pump blood this language acquisition device is
preprogrammed to learn, whatever the language community children find themselves in.”

This means that we, human seems to beogically preconfigured to be ready to acquire language.
Indeed, children seem to have a knack for acquiring an implicit understanding of the many rules
of language structure ,as well as for applying those rules to new vocabulary and new contexts.
This partly explain why children are said to learn language fast.

Profesor Laura- Ann Pepito of Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire and her
colleages conducted a resent study that conducted that “ by 5 month of age, babies are already
specializing by using the left side of their brains for language sounds and the right side for
expression emotion….. wwe all speak out from the right side of our mouth.. Babies babble out
from the right side of their mouths.

The right side of the body is controlled by the left side of their brain while the left side of the
body is controlled by the side of the brain ( connection in the brain are contralateral or crossed).
Babies use the right side of their mouth for babbling, then babbling is a language function
controlled by the left side of the brain.

Application

Observe one 1) 0-6 months infant; 2) 7-12 months infant; 3) 13-18 month infant and 4) 19-24
month old infants. Refer to “ what infants and Toddlers Can do Cognitively” from childhood
Care and Development. Put a check (√ ) on those items that you observe the infants/ toddler
demonstrated.

2. Share your observation in class.

A. What did you observe that they can do? Cannot do? WHY SO?
A summary of what infants and Toddlers Can Do Cognitively

Domain: Langauge, Pre-reading and Pre-Math Language ( receptive language)

Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observe on and/ or performed by a child
on the specified age?

 Watches primary caregiver intently as she speak to him/ her

7-12 month

 Understands “no”

Points to family member when 0-6 month

 asked to do so.

13-18 month

 Points to 5 body parts on him/herself when asked to do so

 Follows one-step instructions without need for gestures

19-24 month

 Points to 5 named pictured objective when asked to do so.

LANGUAGE ( EXPERIENCE LANGUAGE)

STANDARDS : The child is able to sue words and gesture to express his thought and feelings.

Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/ on performed by a
child on the specified age?

0-6 month

 Make gurgling. Cooing, babbling or other vocal sounds

 Uses gesture

7-12 months

 Repeats sounds produced by others

 Says meaningful words like papa, mama, to refer to specific persons.

13-18 months

 Speaks in single words

 Says “ yes” and “ no” appropriate
 Responds to simple question with single words
19-24 months

 Uses pronouns
 Uses possessive Pronouns
 Says what he/she wants without accompanying this with gesture.

PRE-READING AND PRE-MATH (MATCHING)

Standards 1.1: The child is able to match identical objects, colors, shapes, symbols.

Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/ or performed by ba
child on the specified age?

7-12 months

 Able to match 2 identical objects( e. g. 2 spoons, 2 balls).

19-24 months

 Counts from 1 to 5 with errors, gaps, or prompts.

Domain: Cognitive Development.

ATTENTION AND ACTIVITY LEVEL

Standards 1: The child is able to sustain attention and modulate his activity at afe-experience
level.

0-6 months

 Looks steadily at novel stimuli ( e.g. rattle, dangling toy)

7-12 months

 Examines properties of toys for several minutes by handling these( e. g. pulling apart)
 Loks with interest at picture books

13-18 months

 May be distracted but responds when made to re-focus

 Module - 3

SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF INFANTS AND TODDLERS

A. OVERVIEW

Simply put, socio-emotional development has something to do with the development of a

person’s ability to master one’s emotions and the ability to relate to others. It necessarily includes
temperaments attachments and social skills.

B. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOME (DLO)

In this Module , challenge yourself to:

  Describe the socio-emotional development of infants and toddlers
 Identify factors that enhance /impede the socio-emotional development of infants and
toddlers
 Present an abstract of others or your own research related to the socio-emotional
development of infants and toddlers.
 Draw implication of socio-emotional development concepts to child care,

C.DISCUSSION

The Formative Years

Much has been said about the importance of the first three years in human development. They are
so –called the formative years that is why, parents and caregivers at this stage of human
development play a significant role in the development of infants and toddlers.

As the poem “ children learn what they live “ expresses, the kind of home and school
environment that parent and teachers produce determines to a very great extent the quality of the
development of children.

Let us discuss those element that have something to do the with the wholesome socio-emotional
development of children.

Attachment

 For healthy socio-emotional development, the infants needs to establish an enduring

emotional bond characterized by a tendency to seek and maintain closeness to a specific
figure, particularly during stressful situation. This is the social phenomenon of
attachment.
 According to Dr. John Bowley, the father of attachment theory, the beginnings of
attachment occur within the first 6 months of a baby’s life with a variety of built-in
signals that baby uses to keep her caregiver engaged. The baby cries, gazes into her
mother’s eyes, smiles, etc. In the next few month, the baby develops in her degree of
attachment to her parents. She smiles more freely at them that at any stranger whom she
seldom sees. This is what Bob Greene must have experienced.
 The key to a good start in the socials development of the baby is a lot of responsive
interaction with the baby.( K. Pasek and R. Golinkoff, 2003 ) . Babies thrive on social
interaction when it is in response to their social beds.
 Babies seems to let us know when they wants to interact or not. The timing of the
caregivers response to the baby is important.
  Other relevant and interesting research finding cited by K.Pasek and R. Golinkoff, (2003)
in their book “ Einstein Never Used Class cards” are given below:
 What is absolutely central to babies emotional well-being is not so much
feeding but the consistent involvement of caregivers. Being fed by your
mother is not what attached you to her. It is consistent, close nurturing
that matters in early relationships.
 Children ho have good attachment relationships as infants make better
adjustment in a number of areas in future life. But remember, having a
good attachment in infancy gives you a great start but can’t carry you
through life. You have to be treated sensitively and responsibly as you
grow up if you are to develop favorably.
 Infants attach to more than one caregiver and they are development
emotional relationships with multiple caregiver at once.
 Even when children are in child care for more than 30 hours per week,
the family contributes more to child’s social and cognitive well- being
than does the child care arrangement. Parents matter and children are
attached to parents even when children are in child b care.
 Parent and caregivers help children regulate their emotion’s by working
with them and by serving as their models.

Temperament

1. Another facto related to the infants socio- emotional development is temperament.

Temperament is a word that “captures the Ways that people differ, even at birth, in such
thing as their emotional reactions, activity level, attention span, persistence, and ability to
regulate their emotion” ( K. Pasek and R. Golinkoff 2003). Every baby experiences
personally to objects, events, and people is a reflection of his individual temperament.
2. Researchers Thomas , Chess and Birth described nine different temperament categories
( Honig 2010, secure relationships: Nurturing infant- toddlers Attachments in early care
settings)

These include:

 Activity level
 Mood threshold for distress
 Rhythmicity
 Intensity of response
 Approach-withdrawal
 Distractibility
 Adaptability
 Persistence

To determine a child ‘s temperament. do the following observations:

ACTIVITY LEVEL –Some babies are placid or inactive. Other babies thrash about a lot and, as
toddlers, are always on the move. At this stage, they must be watched carefully.

THE MOOD – Some babies are very smiley and cheerful. Although securely attached
emotionally to their teachers, others have a low-key mood and look more solemn or unhappy.

Child’s threshold for distress. Some babies are very sensitive. They become upset very easily
when stressed. Other babies can more comfortably wait when they need a feeding or some
attention.

THE RHYTHMIC OF CHILDREN. Some babies get hungry or sleepy on a fairly regular and
predictable basis. Other babies sleep at varying times, urinate or have bowel movements at
unpredictable times. And get hungry at different times. They are hard to put on a schedule,

THE INTENSITY OF RESPONSE IN EACH BABY W hen a baby’s threshold for distress
has been reach, some babies act restless . Others act cranky or fret just a little. Still others cry
with terrific intensity or howl with despair when they are stressed. They shriek with delight and
respond with high energy when reacting to happy or challenging situations.

Approach to new situation. Some infants are very cautious. They are wary and fearful of new
teachers, being placed in a different crib, or being taken to visit a new setting. other infants
approach new persons, new activities, or new play possibilities with zest and enjoyment.

Distraction some children can concentration on a toy regardless of surrounding bustle or noise
in a room. Others are easily distracted.

Adaptability of each child some children react to strange or difficult situations with distress, but
recover fairly rapidly. Others adjust to new situations with difficulty or after a very long period.

Child’s attention span some children have a long attention span. they continue with an activity
for a fairly long time.

Others flit from one activity to another.

 Based on these temperament traits, psychiatrist alexander. Thomas and Stella Chess
studied babies’ temperament and clustered temperament into 3 basic types: 1) the easy
child; 2) the difficult child; and 3) the slow- to- warm- up child and those that did not fall
under any of the 3 basic types. The “ easy child’” easily readily establishes regular
routines, is slow to accept new experiences and tends to react negatively and intensely to
new things while the “ slow-to warm—up-child’s” shows mild, low-key reactions to
environmental changes, is negative in mood, and adjust slowly to new experiences.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF EMOTIONS

Here are the milestone of the baby and the toddler’s emotional development and social
development.:

Early infancy ( birth-six months)

  It is not clear whether infants actually experience emotions, or if adults, using adult facial
expressions as the as the standard, simply superimpose their own understanding of the
meaning of infant facial expressions.
 Between six and ten weeks, a social smile emerges, usually accompanied by other
pleasure-indicative actions and sounds, including cooing and mounthing. This social
smile occurs in response to adult smiles and interactions.

As infants becomes more aware of their environment, smiling occurs in response to a wider
variety of context. They may smile when they see a toy they have previously enjoyed. laughter,
which begins at around three or four months, requires a level of cognitive development because it
demonstrates that the child can recognize incongruity. That is, laughter is usually elicited by
actions that deviate from the norm , such as being kissed on the abdomen or a caregiver playing
peek- a- boo. Because it foster reciprocal interactions with others, laughter promotes social
development.

LATER INFANCY MONTHS (7-12)

 During the last half of the first year, infants begin expressing fear, disgust, and anger
because of the maturation of cognitive abilities,. Anger, often expressed by crying, is a
frequent emotion expressed by infants. Although some infants respond to distressing
events with sadness, anger is more common.
 Fear also emerges during this stage as children become able to compare an unfamiliar
event with what they know, unfamiliar situations or objects often elicit fear responses in
infants. One of the most common is the presence of an adult stranger, a fear that begins to
appear at about seven months. A second fear of this stage is called separation anxiety.
Infants seven to twelve months old may cry in fear if the month or caregiver leaves them
ia an unfamiliar place.

Socialization of emotion begins in infancy. It is thought that this process is significant in the
infant’s acquisition of cultural and social codes for emotional display, teaching them how to
express their emotions, and the degree of acceptability associated with different types of
emotional behaviors.

Toddlerhood years (1- 2)

During the second year, infants express emotions of shame or embarrassment and pride. These
emotions mature in all children and adults contribute to their development.

Emotional understanding

During this stage of development, toddlers acquire language and are learning to verbally express
their feelings. This ability rudimentary as it is during early toddlerhood, is the first step in the
development of emotional self-regulation skills.

In infancy, children largely rely on adults to help them regulate their emotional states. If they are
uncomfortable they may be able to communicate this stage in crying, but have little hope of
alleviating the discomfort o their own.
Erikson’s Psychosocial theory

The first two stages ( of the 8 stages of a persons psychosocial development) apply at the periods
of infancy and toddlerhood, that is why they are discussed below.

HOPE: TRUST VS. MISTRUST ( INFANTS 0TO 1 YEAR)

 Psychosocial crisis: trust vs. mistrust

 Virtue: hope

The first stage of Erik Erikson’s center around the infants basic needs being met by the parent.
The infant depends on the parents, especially the mother, for food, suustenance3, and comfort.
The child relative understanding of world and society come from the parents and their interaction
with the child. If the parent expose the child to warmth, regularity, and dependable affection the
infant’s view of the world will be one of trust. Should the parents fail to provide s secure
environment and to meet the child’s basic need a sense of mistrust will result. ACCORDING TO
Erik Erikson, the major developmental task in infancy is to learn whether or not other people,
especially primary caregivers, regularly satisfy basic needs.

Will: Autonomy vs. shame & doubt ( Toddlers, 2 to 3 years)

 Psychosocial crisis: Autonomy vs. shame & doubt

 ,main question: {“ can I do things myself or must I always rely on others?
 Virtue: will
 As the child gains control over eliminative functions and motor abilities, they begin to
explore their surroundings. The parent still provide a strong base of security from which
the child can venture out to assert their will. The parents patience and encouragement
help foster autonomy in the child. Highly restrictive parents however, are more likely to
instill in the child a sense of doubt and reluctance to attempt new challenges.

As they gain increased muscular coordination and mobility, toddlers become capable of satisfying
some of their own needs. They begin to feed themselves, wash and dress themselves, and use the
bathroom. If caregivers encourage self-sufficient behavior, toddlers develop a sense of autonomy
– a sense of being able to handle many problems on their own. But if caregivers demand too
much too soon, refuse to let children perform tasks of which they are capable ,or ridicule early
attempts at self- sufficiency, children may instead develop shame and doubt about their ability to
handle problems.

APPLICATION

A summary of what toddlers and infants can do socio-emotionally

Domain: social and emotional development

SUB-DOMAIN: EMOTIONAL ( EMOTIONAL EXPRESSION)

STANDARDS: 1.1 THA CHILDS EXPRESSES DIFFERENT BASIC EMOTIONS

BASED ON YOUR EXPERIENCE, ARE THESE INDICATORS GENERALLY OBSERVED

ON AN/ OR PERFORMED BY A BCHILDS ON THE SPECIFIEDAGE?

0-6 months

 Cries different ways to express different needs

 Likes playing with water
 enjoys going to the park.

7-12 months

 has a favorites

13-18 months

 laughs when happy or amused

 cries when sad, angry or scared
 shows varying degrees or intensities of various emotions

Standards 1.2: The child demonstrate ability to self regulate feeling/ emotions and follows
schedules as well as rules and regulations.

0-6 months

 Stops crying almost immediately when needs is met.

 Eventually gets used to an irritating experience.

13-18 months

 Able to stop an undesirable behavior or activity when instructed to do so.

 Can follow simple rules.

19-24 months

 Can wait his /her turn

 Shows ability to contain one’s expression of anger or frustration when source is removed
 Tries to control his tears when in pain or scared.
 CHAPTER - 6
Early childhood (The preschooler)

MODULE 1

Preschooler Physical Development

A. OVERVIEW

The preschooler years is commonly known as “ the years before formal Schooled
begins.” it roughly covers 3-5 years of age . Although it is known as the years before formal
school, it is by no way less important than the grade school years. The preschool years is very
important as it is lays foundation to later development. At this stage preschoolers achieves many
developmental milestone . As such , pre service teachers who might be interested to teach and
care for preschoolers need to be acknowledge about them to be truly an intentional and
effective teacher.

This module on physical development of preschoolers focus on the acquisition of gross and fine
motor skills , artistic, expression, proper nutrition and sleep , and what teachers and caregivers
should do to maximize the preschoolers development.

B. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOME (DLO)

At the end of this lesson student well be able to:

 Describe preschool children’s physical growth.

 Identify the different gross and fined motor skills.
 Draw implications of these concepts on physical development on teaching preschooler.

ACTUVITY:

Think about the physical characteristics of preschoolers. Put a caption on a picture. You
can search on Google to expound your knowledge.

C. DISCUSSION

From the activity, you were able to see a glimpse of preschooler’s physical development. They
love to move, They enjoy being active. They are also interested to work with their finger, like
with blocks. They have more balanced stance than toddlers . Read on and you will learn more
about the typical development of preschoolers , the important concern and issues, and how
teachers and caregivers can help maximize the preschoolers “ growth and development.

BIG IDEAS ABOUT THE PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PRESCHOOLERS

1. There are significant changes in physical growth of preschoolers

2. The preschoolers physical development is marked by the acquisition od gross and the
motor skills .
3. Preschoolers can express themselves artistically at a very important for the preschoolers,
4. Proper nutrition and the right amount of sleep are very important for the preschoolers.
5. Caregiver and teachers can do a lot in maximizing the growth and development of
preschoolers.
6. Preschoolers with special needs in inclusive classroom can thrive well with the
appropriate adaptation made in the classroom, materials and activities.
 SIGNIFICANT CHANGES IN PHYSICAL GROWTH

Physical growth increases in the preschool years, although it is much slower in pace than in
infancy and toddlers. At around 3 years of age, preschoolers move , from the remaining baby –
like feature of the toddlers toward a more slender appearance of a child. The trunk, arm and legs
become longer.

The center of gravity refers to the point at which body weight is evenly distributed . Toddlers
have their center of gravity at a high level, about the chest level. This is why they have
difficulty doing sudden movements without falling down . preschoolers on the other hand , have
their center of gravity at a lower level, right about near the belly bottom. This gives them more
ability to be stable and balanced than the toddler. The preschooler moves from the unsteady
stance of toddlers to a more steady bearing. They no longer “ toddle” that wobby way that
toddlers walk. This also allows the preschoolers to move more “ successfully” than the toddlers .
Some say that the later part o the preschooler years at around 5 to 6 is the best time to begin
learning skills that require like riding a bike or shaking. By the time child reaches three years
old, all primary deciduous, or what are also called “ baby or milk teeth are already in place.
The permanent teeth which will begin to come out by age six are also developing. The
preschoolers years are therefore a time to instill habits of good dental hygiene.

Gross and fine motor development

GROSS MOTOR development refers to acquiring skills that involve the large muscle.
These gross motor skills are categorized into three: Locomotor, non Locomotor, and
manipulative skills.

LOCOMOTOR SKILLS are those that involve going from one place to another , like walking
, running climbing, skipping, hopping, creeping.

NON –LOCOMOTOR ones are those where the child stays in place , like bending stretching ,
turning and swaying.

MANIPULATIVE SKILL are those that involve projecting and receiving objects, like
throwing striking bouncing catching.

Preschoolers are generally physically active. Level of activity is highest around three and
become a little less as the preschooler gets older. Preschoolers should be provided with a variety
of appropriate activities which will allow them to used their large muscle. Regular physical
activity helps preschoolers build and maintain healthy bones, muscles and joints, control weight
and build lean muscles, prevent and increase capacity for learning.

Fine motor development – refers to acquiring the ability to use the smaller nuscles in the arm,
hands and finger purposefully. Some of the skills included here are picking, squeezing, pounding,
and opening things, holding and using a writing implement. It also involves self-help skills like
using the spoon and fork when eating, buttoning, zipping, combing and brushing.
 Different environment provides different experiences with fine motor skill. For example the
availability of information and communication technology in largely urban areas makes younger
and younger children proficient in keyboarding and manipulation of the mouse and the use of
smart phones and tables. While other children use their fine motor skills in digging in soil,
making toys out of sticks, can and bottle caps. Still other, enjoy clay, play dough, and finger
paint.

By the end of the preschool years most children manage to hold a pencil with their thumb
and finger, draw pictures, write letters, use scissors, do stringing and threading activities. They
can also do self-help skills like eating and dressing up independently. Significant progress in fine
motor skills can be expected of preschoolers especially if they are aptly supported and
appropriate activities are provided for them.

Handedness, or the preference of the use of one hand over the other, is usually
established around 4 years of age. Earlier than this , preschoolers can be observed to do tasks
using their hands interchangeably. We can observe a preschooler shifting the crayon from left to
right and back again while working on a coloring activity.

Preschooler artistic development

At the heart of the preschooler years is their interest to draw and make other forms of
artistic expressions. This form of fine motor activity is relevant to preschoolers. Viktor
Lowenfeld –studied this and came up with the stages of drawing in early childhood:

Stage 1. Scrbbling stage. This stage begin with large zig- zag lines which later become circular
marking. Soon discrete shape are drawn. The child may start to name his/her drawing towards the
end of this stage.

Stage 2. Preschematic stage. May already include early representations ( this also becomes very
significant when we discuss about cognitive development).At this point adults may be able to
recognize the drawings. Children at this stage tend to give the same names to their drawings
several times. Drawings usually comprise of a prominent head with basic elements. Later, arms
legs, hands and even facial features are included.

Stage 3. Schematic stage. More elaborate scenes are depicted. Children usually draw from
experience and exposure. Drawing may include house, trees, the sun and sky and people. Initially,
they may appear floating in air but eventually drawing appear to follow a ground line.

Everyone who observes a preschoolers go through these stages of drawing would surely say one
thing: that the preschooler drew the same drawing maybe a hundred times! Reprtition is the
hallmark of early drawing. One wonders if the supply of scratch papers, crayons and pens will
ever be enough. Adult should remember to have a neat supply of these or they will find the
preschoolers ‘ drawing on the furniture and walls! This affgords the preschooler opportunities to
gain mastery of the fine motors skills involved.
 Also important to remember is that the preschoolers representations or drawing doe not
only involve fine motor skills, but also cognitive skills. Children’ drawing allow us to have a
glimpse of how they understand themselves and the world around them.

Preschoolers’ Nutrition and Sleep

The kind of nutrition a preschooler gets has far-reaching effect on his physical growth
and development. The preschooler’s nutritional status is the result of what nutritions he or she
actually takes in checked against the nutritional requirement for his her age. Obviously, having
too much or to little both have their negative effects. Here in our country, we can see the extreme
of preschoolers not having enough food and those on the other end of the extreme where we find
preschoolers who are not just over weight but obese. The celebration of the nutrition month every
july is aimed at advocating for proper nutrition. Each year a theme is put forth to advocate good
nutritional habits while government programs on giving out fortified bread. Milk and even
noodles aim to address malnutrition among children.

A QUICK LOOK AT WHAT PRESCHOOLERS CAN DO : ( PHYSICAL SKILLS)

This bulleted kist of preschoolers’ physical skills is lifted from the physical domain component
of the Philippine early learning and development standards . this set of standards was based on a
study commissioned by UNIDEF and the child welfare council. This is now adopted for use by
the early childhood care and development council.

GROSS MOTOR: 36-48 MONTHS

 Hops 1to 3 steps on preferred foot

 Skips ( with alternating feet
 Jump and turns
 Stands on one leg without falling for at least 5 seconds
 Throws a ball overhead with control of direction
 Throws a ball overhead with control of speed
 Kicks a ball with control of speed

FINE- MOTOR SKILLS:

36-48 MONTHS

 Consistently turns pages of a picture or story book one page at a time, looking at pictures
with interest.
 Purposefully copies diagonal lines
 Purposefully bisects a cross
 Purposefully copies square
 Purposefully copies a triangle
 Cuts with scissors following a line

49-60 months
  Copies a simple pattern of different basic shapes
 Draw a human figure ( head eyes, mouth trunk, arm m legs) without prompts.
 Draws a house without prompts using geometric forms
 Colors with stroke staying within the line

PERSONAL CARE AND HYGIENE SKILLS

36-48 MONTHS

 Pours from pitcher without spillage

 Feeds self using spoon without spillage
 Dresses without assistance except for buttoning and tying laces
 Puts on socks independently

49-60 month

 Feeds self using finger without spillage

 Prepares own food
 Dresses without assistance, including buttoning and tying
 Wipes/cleans him/herself after a bowel movement
 Brushes teeth after meals without having to be told
 Washes and dries face independently without having to be told
 Takes a bath independently without having to be told

THE ROLE OF CAREGIVERS IN THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE

PRESCHOOLER

Optimum physical development of preschoolers is largely influenced by the supportive caregivers

( parents and teachers) who provide a stimulating environment and appropriate activities for the
children.

FOR ALL PRESCHOOLERS:

A. Engage preschooler children in simple games that involve running and walking.
B. Provide them with toys for catching and throwing such as soft large balls and
bean bags.
C. Have balancing activities for preschooler. Use low balance beams and lines on
the classroom floor or play ground. Montessori schools have blue or red lines on
their preschool classroom floors.
D. Allow opportunities for enough and tumble play like in grassy area or soft mats.
Keen observation and monitoring is , of course expected to keep them safe from
injury.
E. Ensure that preschoolers get enough rest and sleep. Setting a routine for bed
times is ideal.
 F. Model good eating habits to preschoolers .encourage more fruits,
vegetables ,water and fresh juice, rather than processed goods, sugary snacks and
sodas.

FOR THREE-YEAR-OLDS

A. Encourage development of hand-eye coordination by providing large buttoms or old

beads to string on a shoe lace.
B. Play ball. Show children how to throw, catch and kick balls of different sizes.
C. Show children how to hop like a rabbit, tiptoe like a bird, waddle like a duck, slither like
a snake, and run like a deer.
D. Encourage free expression in art projects. Avoid asking”what” children are drawing.
Three- year-olds may not know or care, but simply enjoy the process of drawing.
E. Provide a variety of art experiences. Make play dough. Create cllahes from magazine
pictures fabric, wallpaper, and newsprint. Encourage children to experiment with new
media like wire and cork, soda straws, string, or yarn. Teach children to mix different
colors with paint.

FOR FOUR-YEAR-OLDS

I. Encourage physical development. Play follow the leader. Pretend to walk like various
animals.

M. Set up an obstacle course indoors with challenges such as crawling, climbing, leaping,
balancing and running across stepping stones.

N. Encourage walking with a beanbag on the head.

FOR FIVE-YEAR-OLDS

O. Encourage body coordinating and sense of balance by playing” follow the leader” with
skipping, galloping , and hopping. skip or jump rope to music, teach folk dances and games
provides a balance beam, a tree for climbing, and a knotted rope suspended from a study frame.

P. Teach sack-walking and “twist-em,” ” statue”, or freeze” games to provide an outlet

for their driver for physical activity.

Q. Play games that can teach right and left directions, like “ hokey and pokey”, Loob -
loo,” and “Simon Says.

R. help children learn to use a pair of scissors by letting them cut out coupons.
 CHAPTER 7
MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
(THE PRIMARY SCHOOLER)

MODULE 1
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMARY SCHOOLERS

A. OVERVIEW
Physical development involves many different factors: height, weight, appearance, visual ,hearing
and motor abilities. Primary school children undergo many different changes as through this stage
of development. This could be caused by different factors, both natural and environmental.

B. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES (DLO)

At the end of this module student well be able to:

 Describe the different physical characteristics of early school-aged children in your own
words.
 Enumerate ideas on how you can apply the concepts in this module in the teaching-
learning process.
 Discuss several ways on how to encourage an age-appropriate active physical lifestyle to
primary school children.

C. DISCUSSION

Abstraction

Physical growth during the primary school years is slow but steady. During this stage, physical
development involves:1.having good muscle control and coordination,2. Developing eye-hand
coordination,3. Having good personal hygiene and 4. Being aware of good safety habits.

In this development stage, children will have started their elementary grades, specifically their
primary years – grades 1-to 2.

These children are extremely active. Because most of the activities in traditional schools are
sedentary , they often release their unusual amount of energy in some forms of nervous habits
including fidgeting, nail biting and pencil chewing.

Primary- school age children get fatigued more easily because of physical and mental exertions
both at home and in school.

Height and weight

This period of gradual and steady growth will gve children time to get used to the changes in their
bodies. An average increase in height of a little over two inchesa year in both boys and girls will
introduction them to ,many different activities that they can now do wit greater accuracy.

Weight gain average about 6.5 pounds a year. Most children will have slimmer appearance
compared to their preschool years because of the shifts in accumulation and location of their body
fat, although girls tend to develop additional fat cells relative to muscle cell. A child ‘s legs are
longer and more proportioned to the body than they were before.

A NUMBER OF FACTORS COULD INDICATE HOE MUCH A CHILD GROWS, OR

HOW MUCH CHANGES IN THE BODY WILL TAKE PLACE

 Genes
 Food
 Climate
 Exercise
 Medical condition
 Diseases/ illness

Bones and muscle

Childhood years are the peak bone-producing year- bones grow longer and broader. This
is the best time for parents and teacher to educate children of good dietary and exercise
habits to help them have strong, healthy bones throughout their lives. Replacement of
primary teeth, also know as baby teeth with permanent teeth occur around ages 6to 7
years and up until age 12, most children will have all their primary teeth replaced. Many
lifestyle factors, like nutrition and physical activity, can substantially influence influence
the increase of bone mass during childhood.
Because children bones have proportionately more water and protein- like materials and
fewer minerals than adults, ensuring adequate calcium intake will greatly help them in
strengthening bones and muscles.

Large muscle control is at bigger play over fine motor. Some may still have difficulty
holding a pencil properly or coloring inside the lines. We have to limit writing time, since
children may develop a negative more coordinated physical activities or competition or
rotate players during sports or games.

Bone and muscle growth are still not complete during this stage. Most activities which
use heavy pressure will be very difficult for growing bones, muscle and ligaments. If the
student are engaging in too much strenuous activities to test their competition or rotate
players during sports or games.

MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

Young school- aged children are gaining control over the major muscle of their
bodies. Most children have a good sense of balance they like testing their muscle strength
and skills. They pretend and fantasizes less often because they are more in tune with
everything that is happening around them.
Children during this stage love to move a lot they run, skip, hop, roll and jump. Because
their gross motor skill are already developed, they can now perform activities like
catching a ball with one hand and tying their shoelace.

Performing unimanual ( requiring the use of one hand) and bi- manual ( requiring the use
of two hands) activities become easier. Children graphic activities, writing and drawing
are now more controlled but are still developing.

Motor development skills include coordination, balance speed , agility.

 Let us look into the definition of the different motor skills. Coordination is a series of
movements organized and timed to occur in a particular way to bring about a particular
result ( Strickland, 2000) the more complex the movement is , the greater coordination
when they play games and sports. Balance is thr children’s ability to maintain the
equilibrium or stability of his/her body in different positions. ,like balance on one foot.
Dynamic balance is ability to maintain equilibrium while moving ( owens, 2006). Speed
is the ability to cover a great distance in the shortest possible time while guilty is one’s
ability to quickly change or shift the direction of the body. These skills are extremely
important on most sports. Power is the ability to perform a maximum effort in the
shortest possible period.

All these motor skills are vital in performing different activities, games and sports.
Development of these skills may spell the different between success and failure in future
endeavors of the child.

Large scale body movements are key in this stage. Most of the time, boys develop motor
skills slightly faster than girls except for skills involving balance and precise movement.

Here are some motor milestones of primary school- age children: ( bergin and bergin,
child and adolescent development in your classroom, third edition: 2018, boston, MA,
USA)

FINE MOTOR SKILL GROSS MOTOR SKILL

 ZIP ZIPPERS AND LACE  Hop
SHEOS  Skip on alternating feet
 ABLE to learn piano or violin  Jump rope
 Control pencil with the finger and  Walk on a balance beam
thumb. Movement comes from the  Throwing, catching and kicking
elbow become smoother
  Begin to participate in organized
games.

Some issues affecting physical development

 Obesity

This is becoming a major concern for parents and heath care providing, sense it seems its
becoming a trend. According to the world heath organization- western pacific region.. the
Philippines is not spared from this scenario. And the results of national nutrition survey are
showing slow but increasing childhood overweight and obesity rates.

 Childhood nutrition

Malnutrition remains a major health issues in the Philippines. This has been proven to have
serious effect on the physical and mental development of children.
  Sleep

Primary school- age children need 9 to 11 hours of sleep every day including
daytime ,naps, .sometimes , due to their schedule in school, middy naps or siesta is not possible
anymore.

Implication to child care, education and parenting.

Two major way to help primary school age children to be physically healthy is 1 provide the
with good nutrition and 2 involve them in coordinated and age- appropriate physical activities.
Specially , health care provides, teachers and parents must do the following.

 Encourage children to join or enroll them in related programs during summer or their
time, if children show interest in a particular activity or sport.
 Advocate better nutrition on foods provided in school canteen by providing healthier
options and accessible healthy products.
 provide a balance between rigorous physical play activity and quiet activities in
designing classroom activities.
 Maintain a daily sleep schedule and consistent bedtime routine.
 Make children bedroom conducive for a peaceful sleep. If possible, keep computer and
TV out of the bedroom.
 Chapter 8

Middle Childhood
Cognitive development of Primary Schoolers

Module 1

Desired Learning Outcome ( DLO)

At the end of this module students would be able to:

 Describe the characteristics of children in the concrete operational stage

 Explain the importance of information-processing skills and how they affect the child’s
cognitive development
 Stat the different cognitive milestone in primary-schooners

Introduction

Jean Piaget is the most foremost theorist on cognitive development. According to him,
intelligence is the basic mechanism of ensuring balance in the relations between the person and
the environment. Everything’s that a person experiences is a continuous process of assimilations
and accommodation. Piaget described four main periods in cognitive development.

Discussion

Jean Pieget’s Concrete Operational Stage

Concrete operation is the third stage in piaget’s theory of cognitive development. It spans from
age 7 to approximately 11 years old. During this time , children have better understanding of their
thinking skills.

 Logic – Concrete operational thinker, according to Piaget, can already make use
of inductive logic.
 Inductive logic involves thinking from a specific experience to general principle,
but this stage, children have great difficulty in using deductive logic or
beginning with a general principle leading to specific event.
 Reversibility- one of the most important development in this stae is an
understanding of reversibility, or awareness that actions can be reversed.


Cognitive Milestones
Elementary –age4d children encounter development milestones. This is the stage when they leave
behind egocentric thinking and start to develop a more mature way of looking at things, which
enhances children’s problem- solving skills Piaget calls this DECENTRATION.

This skills they learn a sequential manner, meaning they need to understand numbers before
they can perform a mathematical equation.

In this stage reasoning is still immature

Specifically, young primary school-aged children can tell left from right. Their ability to speak
and express them selves develops rapidly.

Information-Processing Skills

Several theorist argue that like the computer, the human mind is a system that can process
information through the application of logical rules and strategies.

Implications to Child Care, Education and Parenting

Children have varying intelligence profiles. These profiles may be based on influences of
learning and achievement. Parent child care provides and teachers should be able to recognize
these by:

 Helping children draw on their strengths and promote growth in their weaknesses.
 Planning lesson that cater to multiple intelligences based on instructional objective:
 Encouraging children to read more every day to increase their vocabulary
 Bringing children to museum, art exhibits and historical landmarks to widen their
perspective about the word and people; and
 Lessening children’s screen time and increasing their personal and face to face
interactions.

Application

1. Observe a primary school classroom and take down notes on the following areas of
cognitive development:

a. Language and speech.

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_________________________________________________________________________.

b. Reasoning and creativity

______________________________________________________________________________
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Reflection:

To ensure that you are promoting your students’ cognitive well-being ask yourself the
following questions:

1. do I motivate enoght to read every day to improvetheir vocabulary and languge?

______________________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________________.

2. Do I offer my student different activivties for different intelligences?

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Chapter 9

Middle childhood ( the primary schooler)

Socio –Emotional development of primary schooler

Desired Learning Outcome

 Identify the different characteristics of [rimary schooler aged children in this stage of
development.
 Discuss the different factorsthat affect the socio emotional growth of the primary
schoolers.

Introduction

The development theorist, Erik Erikson eight satges of mans psychosocial development. Each
satge is regarded as a psychosocial crisis, which arises and demands resolution before the
next stage can be achieved.

Preschooler children belong to the fourth stage of Erikson’s Psychosocial Stage. Her ,children
have to resolve the issue on INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY.

ASBTRACTION

Erik Erikson’s Fourth Stage of Psychosocial Development

Industry vs. inferiority is the psychosocial crisis that children will have to resolve in this
stage. INDUSTRY refers to a child’s involvement in situation where long, patient work is
demanded of them, while INFERIORITY Is the feeling created when a child gets a feeling
of failure when they cannot finish or master their school work.

In this stage, children, will most likely, have begun going to school. School experiences
become the priority, with children so busy doing school work. The encouragement of parent
and caring educators helps to build a child sense of self esteem, confidence and ability to
interact positively in the world.

Understanding the self

One’s self-concept is the knowledge about the self, such as beliefs regarding personality
traits, physical characteristics, abilities, values, goals, and roles

It also involve a sense of belonging and acceptance, a sense of good and a sense of being
capable of doing good.

Having a healthy self-concept does not mean that a child hink he/she is better than others. It
means that he/ she likes himself/herself, feels accepted by his/her family and friends and
believes that he/ she can do well.

Primary school children’s self-concept is influenced not only by their parents, but also by
their growing numbers of people they begin to interact with, including teachers and
classmates.

School years

In the transition from pre-elementary to primary school, children tend to become

increasingly self confident and able to cope well with social interaction. They are not focused
on themselves anymore but are also aware of the needs and desire of others. The issues of
fairness and equality become important to them as they learn to care for people who are not
part of their families. Characteristics are like loyalty and reliable are being considered as well
as responsibility and kindness.

Building friendship

Making friends is a crucial but very important part of children’s social and emotional growth.
During this stage, most likely belong to peer group.

Antisocial behavior

Some adult may perceive that some children’s behavior towards other children as anti social.
When children poke, pull, hit and kick other children when they are first introduced, it is
fairly normal. Parents and teachers can help children make friends. You can consider the
following.

 Expose the children to kid rich environment like play grounds.

 Create a plays group in your class and let the children mingle with their classmates.
 When your children hit other children, remind them that their behavior hurts others.
 Coordinate with the parent and other teachers so that the children will have greater
opportunity to interact with other children.

Self control

Once children reach school age begin to take pride in their ability to do things and their
capacity to expert effort. They like receiving positive feedback from their parent and
taechers. This become a great opportunity for parents and teachers to encourage positive
emotional responses from children by acknowledging their mature, compassionate
behaviors.

Implication to child care, education and parenting

Primary school children’s socio-emotional competency should be viewed in the context

of the child development age. Health- care providers, teachers and parent should be able
to:

 Gain understanding of their child’s socio emotional strengths and weaknesses by

observing the child’s behavior at home.
 Work collaboratively with the childes parent and heath care provider to expand
one’s insights on the child’s development.
 Be a role model of healthy emotions and expressing these emotions
appropriately.
 Demonstrate calmness and staying in control of one’s own feelings.

Application
If you are a teacher, how will you help these learners cope with their socio-emotional
difficulties.?

Reflection

To ensure tat you are promoting your students socio emotional well being, ask
yourself the following questions.

1. do I acknowledge my own feeling and help my student identify their own feelings?

2. do I remind my student that although it is okay to feel anger and sadness,

inappropriate behavior such as hurting others, hurting themselves or destroying
property is not an acceptable response?