Control - System - Chapter 6 - 8E

Feedback Control of Dynamic Systems 8th edition
Chapter 6: The Frequency-Response Design Method

6.1 Frequency Response
Y ( s) A0 A
A system  G ( s) ; input u (t )  A sin(0t )1(t )  U ( s )  , Y (s)  G (s) 2 0 2 (6.1)
U ( s) s  0
2 2
s  0
Assume the poles of G ( s ) are distinct
1 2 n 0 0
Y ( s)       (6.2)
s  p1 s  p2 s  pn s  j0 s  j0
 y (t )  1e p1t   2 e p2t     n e pnt   0 e j0t  0 e  j0t (6.3)
If Re( p i )  0, i, then yss (t )   0 e j0t  0 e  j0t ,  0 and 0 can be determined by
A0 A0 jA
 0  lim ( s  j0 )  G ( s )   G ( j0 ) e j   Me j
s  j0 ( s  j0 )( s  j0 ) 2 j0 2
 M  G ( j0 )  G( j0 ) ,   G ( j0 ) 
A0 j
0  lim ( s  j0 )  G ( s )   AMe  j
s  j0 ( s  j0 )( s  j0 ) 2
MA j ( 0t ) MA  j ( 0t ) MAj
 yss (t )   je  je    cos(0t  )  j sin(0t  )  cos(0t  )  j sin(0t  )
2 2 2
 AM sin(0t  )  A G ( j0 ) sin  0t  G ( j0 )  (6.4)
Prof. T.-H. S. Li (aiRobots Lab., Dept. of Electrical Eng., National Cheng Kung University) 6- 1
Im G ( j0 )
M  G ( j0 )  [Re G ( j0 )]2  [Im G ( j0 )]2 (6.5);   G ( j0 )  tan 1  G ( j0 ) (6.6)
Re G ( j0 )
In polar form, G ( j0 )  M e j (6.7)
EX.6.1: Frequency-Response Characteristics of a Capacitor

v is the input (voltage source); i is the output (current of the capacitor)
dv I ( s)
ic ,   G ( s )  cs  G ( j)  cj;  magnitude M  G ( j)  c, G ( j)    90
dt V ( s)
Magnitude is proportional to the input freq. Phase is independent of frequency.
EX.6.2: Frequency-Response Characteristics of a Lead Compensator

Tj  1 1  (T )2
Ts  1 D( j)  K  A D  K
D( s)  K ,  1 (6.8); Tj  1 1  (T )2 ,
Ts  1
  (1  jT )  (1  jT )  tan 1 (T )  tan 1 T
K
at low freq. A  K , at very high freq. A 

 Amplitude (magnitude) increases as a function of frequency;  is zero at very low and very high
frequencies. At intermediate freq., D ( j) , () . Figure 6.2 K  1, T  1,   0.1
 Freq. response of the closed-loop transfer function

Figure 6.4 Simplified system definition
Figure 6.5 Definitions of bandwidth and resonant peak
Y (s) KG
The closed-loop transfer function  T (s) 
R( s) 1  KG
Bandwidth: ( 3 dB point)  low pass filter or Band pass filter; M p : peak resonant;
M r  M p  1: resonant peak. (High pass filter, for example, Lead compensator, bandwidth is  .)
6.1.1 Bode Plot Technique (H.W. Bode at Bell Lab. (1932~1942))

Bode plot includes two parts:
1. A plot of logarithm of magnitude (dB) versus log  or magnitude versus log  .
2. A plot of the phase versus log  .
◎ The transfer function in Bode form
( j1  1)( j2  1)

KG ( j)  K 0 ( j) n (6.16)
( ja  1)( jb  1)
K 0 is the transfer-function magnitude at very low-freq. for type 0 system, K 0 is the DC gain of the system.
K 0 ( j1  1)
For example, KG ( j)  (6.17)
( j) 2 ( ja  1)
Magnitude : log KG ( j)  log K 0  log j1  1  log ( j) 2  log ja  1
or KG ( j) dB  20log K 0  20log j1  1  20log ( j) 2  20log ja  1

Phase : ()  K 0G ( j)  K 0  ( j1  1)  ( j) 2  ( ja  1)
 All transfer functions for the kinds of systems we have talked about so far are composed of three
classes of terms:
1
  j  2  j  
1: K 0 ( j) ; 2: ( j  1) ;
n 1
3:    2    1
  n  
 n 
◎ Class 1: singularities at the origin K 0 ( j) n
log K 0 ( j) n  log K 0  n log j ; K 0 ( j) n dB  20log K 0  20n log j
The phase of ( j) n is n  90 and is independent of  .

Suppose K0  0  K0  1
Figure 6.6: Magnitude of (jω)n

 ( )
180  n2
90  n 1
0.1 1 10 100 1000
0 
 90  n  1
 180 n  2
1 The easiest way to draw the curve is to locate   1 and draw the line with slope n (or n  20dB )
○
through this point. Or
2 To draw the curve is to locate  such that K 0 n  1 and plot the line with slopes n through that
○
point.
Suppose K 0  0  magnitude unchanged; phase  180o  n  90o .
◎ Class 2: first-order term ( j  1) (zero)

Magnitude, j  1
FIGURE 6.7 Magnitude plot for j  1;   10 .
  1, j  1  1,  0dB
  1, j  1  j,  
1
  1,   : break point j  1  j 1  1  2

20log 2  3dB
1
Asymptotes:   , magnitude  1 ;

1
  , line: slope 1

or 20dB / decade ;
Phase: j  1
  1, j  1  1, 1  0;   1, j  1  j, j  90
1
  1,   , break point, j  1  j 1  1, j 1  1  45

FIGURE 6.8 Phase plot for j  1;   10 .
1
asymptotes,   , asymptote  0 ;   5 ,
5
asymptote  90 In fact, true phase, as
1 1 1
  , j  1  j  1    phase  tan 1  11.3
5 5 5
  5, j  1  j 5  1    tan 1 5  78.7,
As
90  78.7  11.3
1
Other books: asymptotes:   , asymptote  0 ; asymptotes:   10 , asymptote  90 . True phase:
10
6, 84 .
◎ Class 2’: first-order term ( j  1) 1 (pole)

For example (10 s  1) 1
1 1 1 1 1
  1,  1,  0dB ; 1  0 ; as   1,  ,  ;   90
j  1 j  1 j  j
1 1 1  j 45 1
  1,   e ,   3dB   45o
j  1 j1  1 2 j1  1
1
Asymptotes: 0    ,  90    5
5
◆ Suppose   0 , i.e., (10s  1) or (10 s  1) 1 RHP zero or pole

j tan 1
( j  1)  1  () e 2 1
. Magnitude  j  1 Phase:   1, 0 ;   1,  90 ;
magnitude plot  LHP zero magnitude plot
  1,  45 .  RHP zero ( j  1) ,
phase plot  LHP pole phase plot
RHP pole (  j  1) 1 ,

1  j 1 j tan 1 
( j  1) 1   e magnitude plot  LHP pole M.P.
1  2 2 1  2 2
phase plot  LHP zero phase plot
1
  j  2  j  
◎ Class 3: second-order term,     2    1
  n   n  
1
  s 2 2
 s  
Standard 2nd-Order Sys. 2   2    1
n
(6.9)
s  2n s  2n  n   n  

1 1/2
  j  2  j    2 2 2 
2
   2    1    1  2   4 2  ; [( ) 2  2( )  1]1 
 n   n    n  n 


 2  2 2 1/2
2 
2  n
 Magnitude 1  2   4 2  Phase  tan 1
 n  n  2
 1 2
n
FIGURE 6.3 (a) Magnitude and (b) phase of Eq. (6.9).
As   n [( ) 2  2( )  1]1  : 0dB
As   n
[( ) 2  2 ( )  1]1  ( ) 2 : slopes  2
or  40dB / decade
As   n break point
G ( j)  [( ) 2  2 ( )  1]1
1 1
G ( jn )  ;   0.1, G ( jn )   5;
2 0.2
1
  0.2, G ( jn )   2.5
0.4
  0.5, G ( jn )  1
as   10n , G ( j)  [99 2  400 2 ]1/2  [1002 ]1/2  0.01  40dB
Prof. T.-H. S. Li (aiRobots Lab., Dept. of Electrical Eng., National Cheng Kung University) 6 - 10
FIGURE 6.3 (b) phase of Eq. (6.9)  2 

 
 1  2   2 j 
2 
n
G ( j)  tan 1 2
  n  n
   2  2
  
2

1     1  2   4   
2
 n   n   n  
As   n , G ( j)  1  0 ;
j
As   n , G ( jn )    90
2
 2  2 j
As   n , G ( j)      0  180
[ 4 ]
As   0.8n
2  0.1  0.8
  0.1, G ( j)  tan 1  23.9
0.36
2  1  0.8
  1, G ( j)  tan 1  77.3
0.36
2  0.1  2
as   2n   0.1, G ( j)  tan 1  7.6  180  172.4
3
2  1  2
  1, G ( j)  tan 1  53.1  180  126.9
3
 Complex conjugate pole case: the magnitude changes slope by 40dB per decade at break point,   n ,
the phase changes by 180 .
◎ As in complex conjugate zero case

1
  j  2  j  
G ( j)     2    1 :
 n   n  
the magnitude changes slop by 40dB per decade at break point,   n , the phase changes by 180 .
2 1
  j  2  j     j   1
◎   1 ,     2    1     1 ,  
  n   n    n   n
1
It obeys the rule for two first-order terms with simultaneous break frequencies,    n .

1
 j   2   2 
1
◎   0 ,    1  1  2  : the transition is a step.

 n    n 
2
zero case:   n  0 ;   n  180 ; magnitude: 1  2 , as   n , log "   .
n
1 1
pole case:   n  0 ;   n  180 ; magnitude: ,    ,   .
2 n
0
1 2
n
Summary of Bode Plot Rules (Refer to p.368)
EX.6.3: Bode Plot for Real Poles and Zeros

2000( s  0.5)
KG ( s )  , K 1
s[( s  10)( s  50)]
Step 1: standard form
 s   j 
2  1 2  1
KG ( s )   0.5   KG ( j)   0.5 
 s  s   j  j 
s   1  1 ( j)   1  1
 10  50   10  50 
2
Step 2:   0.5 , G ( j)  , G ( j 0.1)  90
j
2 2
 20 , (   0.01, G( j0.01) 
G ( j 0.1)   200 )
0.1 0.01
基本上只要先選定第一點後，其餘部分按 Bode plot 之漸近線畫法即可。
FIGURE 6.9 Composite plots: (a) magnitude; (b) phase;
(c) approximate phase.
EX. 6.4: Bode Plot with Complex Poles.

10 K 10 K
KG ( s )  
s( s 2  0.4 s  4) 4 s 2
s
s(  0.2  1)
4 2
5 1
G ( j) 
2   j  2  j  
j     0.2    1
  2   2  
As   2 , Slope –1; As   2 , Slope –3
5 1
as   2  G ( j 0.1)  ; G ( j 0.1)  25 ; G ( j 0.1)  90
2 j
5 1 1 5
as   2  G ( j 2)  ; G ( j 2)   6.25
2 j 2 0.2  j1 0.8
FIGURE 6.10 Bode plot for a transfer function with complex poles: (a) magnitude; (b) phase.
EX.6.5: Bode Plot for Complex Poles and Zeros: Satellite with Flexible Appendages
0.01( s 2  0.01s  1)
KG ( s ) 
2 s 
2
s
s ( )  0.02( )  1
 4 2 
0.01 0.01
as   1, G ( j)  ; starting point, G ( j 0.1)   1, with slope   2
( j) 2 (0.1)2
zeros: s 2  0.01s  1  s 2  2  0.005  s  1   z  0.005
s2 s s2 s
poles:  0.02  1  2  2  0.01   1   p  0.01
4 2 2 2
Asymptotes: at   0.1, slope  2 ; at the break frequency of zero,   1, slope shifts to zero; at the break
frequency of pole,   2 , slope down to 40dB / decade .
FIGURE 6.11 Bode Plot for EX.6.5.
0.01 j 0.01
G ( j1) 
1
11   j 0.01
4
4
  104  1.33  104
3
0.01 3  j 0.02
G ( j 2) 
4 j 0.02
0.01  3 3
   0.36
8  0.01 8
From Figure 6.11, where G( j1)  1.33  10 4 and G ( j2)  0.36 are given
 Please determine Transfer function of the Bode Plot
Step 1: From Bode plot, we draw the asymptotes and read from the break point
K ( s 2  2 z s  1)
G(s) 
()  s 
2
s
s ( )  2 p ( )  1
 4 2 
K ( s 2  2 z s  1)
Step 2:    1  slope –2  G ( s ) 
(2)  s 
2
s
s ( )  2 p ( )  1
 4 2 
K (1)
Step 3:  G ( j 0.1)  1  G ( j 0.1)   1  K  0.01
(0.1) 2 1
0.01[( j1) 2  2 z ( j1)  1] 0.01  2 z

Step 4: As   1, G ( j1)   1.33  104    z  0.005
 j1 j1  1  43
( j1) 2 ( ) 2  2 p ( )  1
 2 2 
0.01[( j 2) 2  0.01( j 2)  1] 0.01 3

Step 5: As   2 G ( j 2)   0.36    p  0.01
 j2 j2  4  2 p
( j 2) 2  ( ) 2  2 p ( )  1
 2 2 
0.01( s 2  0.01s  1)
Step 6:  G ( s ) 
2 s 
2
s
s ( )  0.02( )  1
 4 2 
◎ Nonminimum phase systems: A system with a zero in the RHP.
s 1 s 1
For example, G1 ( s)  10 , G2 ( s )  10 ; G1 ( j)  G2 ( j) , G1 ( j)  G2 ( j)
s  10 s  10
FIGURE 6.12: Bode plot for minimum and nonminimum phase systems:(a) magnitude; (b) phase.
For G2 ( j) ,
as   1, G ( j)    1  180 or  180
j1  1 (10  j1)(1  j1) 11
as   1, G ( j1)     (9  j11)  tan 1  130 第二象限
j1  10 101 9
 G2 ( j) : 180  130  0
※ A minimum phase system (all zeros in the LHP) with a given magnitude curve will produce the smallest net
change in the associated phase, as shown in G1 , compared with what the nonminimum- phase system will
produce, as shown by the phase of G2 . Hence, G2 is nonminimum phase.
※ 6.5 Bode’s Gain-Phase Relationship
For any stable minimum-phase system (i.e., one with no RHP zeros or poles), the phase of G ( j) is
uniquely related to the magnitude of G ( j) .
6.1.2 Steady-State Errors
K 0  ( zi s  1)
KG ( s ) 
s n  ( pi s  1)
1 1
If n  0 , i.e., type 0 system ess   , K p  K 0  DC gain of KG ( s ) .
1  K p 1  K0
If n  1, i.e., type 1 system ess 

1
, K v  lim sK 0
 ( zi s  1)  K
s ( pi s  1)
0
Kv s 0
 DC gain of KG ( s ) with s  0 pole re-movement.

EX.6.7: Computation of K v
As an example of the determination of steady-state errors, a Bode magnitude plot of plant with compensation
and unity feedback is shown in Fig. 6.13. Find the velocity-error constant.
Solution. Because the slope at the low frequencies is 1, we know that the system is type 1. The extension of
the low-frequency asymptote crossed   1 rad/sec at a magnitude of 10. Therefore, K v  10 and the
steady-state error to a unit ramp for a unity feedback system is 0.1.
K  K v   G ( j)  0.01(1000)  10 Or
K v  limsKG ( s )  lim  K G ( j)  K
s 0 0
K  ( )  1 K
 KG ( s )   As   0.01, KG ( j 0.01)  1000   K  10
s  ( )  1 j 0.01
FIGURE 6.13 Determination of K v from the Bode plot for the system KG ( s )  10 /[ s ( s  1)]
6.3 The Nyquist Stability Criterion

Im [s ] Im [H (s )]
s-plane
b (s ) c1 c2
H (s )  or
Re[s] a (s ) R e[H]
m apping
 1 contour H (s ) |1
H (s ) |1
 If there are some poles or zeros of H ( s ) located in the contour 1 , then the contour evaluation H ( s ) |1
will encircle the origin (as shown in contour c1 );
 If there are no poles or zeros of H ( s ) located in the contour 1 , then the contour evaluation H ( s ) |1 will
not encircle the origin (as shown in contour c2 ).
◎ Argument principle:
A contour map of a complex function will only encircle the origin if the contour contains a singularity (pole or
zero) of the function.
 The principle can be extended by allowing multiple singularities (poles or zeros) with the contour.
◎ Nyquist path (contour)
KG
Y R
1  KG
Closed-loop roots are the zeros of 1  KG(s)  0
FIGURE 6.17
An s plane plot of a contour C1
(or  1 ) that encircles the entire
RHP
FIGURE 6.19 Evaluations of KG(s) and 1+KG(s): Nyquist plots.
1. If 1 contains a zero or pole of 1  KG ( s) , then the evaluation of 1  KG ( s) will encircle the origin (as
shown in the right plot C2 )
2. If 1  KG ( s) encircle the origin  KG ( s ) encircles the point 1. (as shown in the left plot C1 )
b( s ) a ( s )  Kb( s )
1  KG ( s )  1  K   poles of 1  KG ( s )  poles of G ( s )
a( s) a( s)
zeros of 1  KG ( s )  roots of the characteristic equation =poles of the closed-loop system
◎ If a clockwise 1 contour enclosing a zero of N 1 KG ( s ) |s  1
1  KG ( s) , i.e., a closed-loop system root (pole), 1  KG ( r1 )  0
will result in a clockwise KG ( s ) encirclement r1 KG ( s )

1
of 1.
1
◎ If 1 enclose a pole of 1  KG ( s) , i.e., N  1 KG (s ) |s  1

there is an unstable open-loop pole, there will G ( p1 )  
p1 KG ( s )
be a counterclockwise KG ( s ) encirclement of 1
1.
1
◎ If two poles or two zeros are in the RHP, KG ( s ) will encircle 1 twice, and so on.
 The net number of encirclements, N  The No. of zeros of 1  KG ( s) in the RHP (z)－the No. of poles
of 1  KG ( s) in RHP (p). i.e., N  z  p  zNp
 If z  0 , no RHP zeros (1  KG ( s) ), then the closed-loop system is stable.
◎ Procedure for plotting the Nyquist plot

1. Plot KG ( s ) w.r.t. 1 (Nyuist path) 2. Evaluate the N
3. Determine the p from G ( s ) 4. Calculate z  N  p
EX.6.8: Nyquist Plot for a Second-order System

Determine the stability properties of the system defined in Fig. 6.20.
FIGURE 6.20 Control system for FIGURE 6.21 Root locus of
Example 6.8 G ( s)  1/( s  1) 2 with respect to K
K  0 , the system is stable
As   100 , at E
G ( j100)  180 
G ( j100)  20log104
 80dB
i.e., K  104  10000 ;
K 可大到 10000，系統都穩定
Plot the Nyquist Plot: Fig. 6.23

Im[s ]
(1) ( 2)
Re[s]
(3)
1
K K K [(1  2 )  2 j]
Region (1): s  j ,  : 0   , KG ( j)   
( j  1) 2 (1  2 )  2 j (1  2 ) 2  42
real axis cross point: i.e., Im Part  0 ; 2  0 ,   0 .  KG ( j 0)  K
K ( j 2) K
Im axis cross point: i.e., Re Part  0 ; 1  2  0 ,   1. KG ( j1)    j , (   1, 不在 Region
4 2
(1))
K [(1  2 )  2 j] ( )  ( j )
as 0    1, KG ( j)   , 第四象限
(1  2 ) 2  42 
K [(1  2 )  j 2] ()  ( j )
as 1     , KG ( j)   , 第三象限
(1  2 ) 2  42 
  K K
Region (2): s  Re j , R   ;  :  0 . KG ( s )  lim  lim  0 e  j 2
 0  2
2 2 R  (Re j  1) 2 R  R 2 e j 2 
 
2 : 2   2  0  2  ( ) ;   0  
2 2
K [(1  2 )  j 2]
Region (3): s  j ,  :   0 . KG ( j) 
(1  2 ) 2  44
real axis cross point: Im Part  0 ;   0  KG ( j 0)  K
j 2K K
Im axis cross point: Re Part  0 ; 1  2  0 ,   1. KG ( j1)   j
4 2
( )  ( j  )
As     1, KG ( j)  : 第二象限

()  ( j )
As 1    0 , KG ( j)  : 第一象限

Note: Region (3) is symmetric with Region (1)
 N  0 (From Nyquist plot)
又 p  0 (From Nyquist path)  z  N  p  0

The closed-loop system is sable  K  0
◎ Example 6.9: Nyquist Plot for a Third-Order System

FIGURE 6.14 & 24 Stability example: (a) system definition; (b) root locus
Figure 6.15: Frequency-response magnitude and

phase for the system in Fig. 6.14
Im[s]
(2)
(3)
(1)
Re[s]
(4)
Fig. 6.27
 
Region (1), s  e j ,   0 ,  :   0   .
2 2
K K  
KG ( s )  lim  lim     ；  :   0  
0 e j (e j  1) 2 0 e j 2 2
Region (2), s  j ,  : 0  
K K K ( j )[(1  2 )  j 2] K [2  j (1  2 )]

KG ( j)    
j( j  1) 2 j[(1  2 )  j 2] [(1  2 ) 2  42 ] [(1  2 ) 2  42 ]
K 
Im axis cross point, i.e., real part  0 , 2  0 .    0 KG ( j 0 )    j    
j 0 2
2 K  K
real axis cross point, i.e., Im part  0 , 1  2  0 ,   1, KG ( j1)  
4 2
(  )  j ( )
as 0    1 , KG ( j)  , 第三象限

( )  j (  )
as 1     , KG ( j)  , 第二象限

  K K
Region (3), s  Re j , R   ,  :   0   . KG ( j)  lim j  lim  0  3
2 2 R  Re (Re j  1) 2 R  R 3e j 3
 3
3 :  3  0
2 2
Region (4) is symmetric with Region (2).

From Nyquist path, p  0 ,
K
If   1 , i.e. K  2 and from Nyquist plot, N  0 ,  z  N  p  0  system is stable
2
K
If   1, K  2  N  2  z  2  2RHP closed-loop poles, unstable
2
Figure 6.26: Nyquist plot for G ( s )  1 / s( s  1) 2
EX. 6.10: Nyquist Plot for an Open-loop Unstable FIGURE 6.29 Root locus for
G ( s )  ( s  1) /[ s ( s /10  1)]
System. FIGURE 6.28
FIGURE 6.30 Bode plot for G ( s )  ( s  1) /[ s ( s /10  1)]
G ( j1)  ( j1  1)  j1  ( j 0.1  1)  45o  90o  174o  219o ; the phase: 270o  180o  90o
Nyquist plot
 
Region (1), s  e j  ,   0 ;  :   0  
2 2
K (e j  1) K
KG ( s )  lim  lim  e  j (  ) ( 1  1  e j )
0  0 e j 
e j ( e j  1)
10
   3
 (  ) :  (  )  (0  )  (  ) :      
2 2 2 2
Region (2): s  j ,  : 0   
 1 11 11 1
K ( j )( j  1)(1  j ) Kj[(1  2 )  j ] K [   j (1  2 )]
K ( j  1) 10  10 10  10 10
KG ( j)  
j 2 2
2
j(  1) [1 2
] (  1) (  1)
10 100 100 100
11
10K 
1 2 10
Real axis cross point, 1    0    10 ; KG ( j 10)   K
10 11
10
10
11
Im axis cross point,    0    0, 
10
FIGURE 6.32 c1 contour for FIGURE 6.31 Nyquist plot for Region (2),
Example 6.10 G ( s )  ( s  1) /[ s ( s /10  1)] jK
KG ( j 0)   90o
0
0     10 ,
( )  j (  )
KG ( j)  :

第二象限
10     ,
(  )  j ( )
KG ( j)  :

第三象限
  K (Re j  1) K
Region (3): s  Re , R ,  :   0   . KG ( s )  lim j
j
 lim  0   ,
2 2 R  Re (Re j  1) R  Re j
 
 :   0   . From Nyquist plot: N  1, as  K  1 , i.e. K  1
2 2
0 , K  1 , stable
N  1, as  K  1, i.e. K  1. From Nyquist path: p 1 z  N  p  
2 , K  1 , unstable
6.2 & 6.4 Neutral Stability & Stability Margins
 Gain Margin (GM) is the factor by which the gain is less than the neutral stability value.
 GM is the amount of gain in dB (or amplitude) that can be allowed to increase in the loop before the
closed-loop system reaches instability.
 when the KG ( j) plot goes through ( 1, j 0) point, the gain margin is 0dB, which implies that the loop
gain can no longer be increased as the system is already on the margin of instability.
FIGURE 6.33 Nyquist plot for defining GM and PM
 As KG ( j p )   or G ( j p )   (  p phase crossover frequency)
1 1
 GM  20log dB  magnitude
KG ( j p ) KG ( j p )
For a stable system, KG ( j p )  1, i.e., A stable system yields a positive gain margin (in dB).
 The phase margin (PM) is the difference between the phase of G ( jc ) and 180 when
KG ( jc )  1  c  P.M .  G ( jc )  180 . ( c gain crossover frequency)
◎ In principle, a system with a large gain margin should be relatively more stable than one that has a smaller
gain margin. Unfortunately, GM alone does not sufficiently indicate the relative stability of all systems,
especially if parameters other than loop gain (K) are changed.
Im
1 Re
B
A
For example, Nyquist plots A and B have the same gain margin, but plot A corresponds to a more stable
system than B. Because it is easier for plot B to pass through or even enclose the (1, j 0) point.
 The P.M. offers a measure of the degree of stability and is sometimes used directly to specify control system
performance.
 Both GM and PM can be also determined by Bode Plot.

1
GM: G ( j p )  180   p  G ( j p ) 
GM
PM: KG ( jc )  1  c  PM  G ( jc )  180

◎ Figure 6.34: as G ( j p )  180   p  1  G ( j p )  0.5
1
  0.5  GM  2 , i.e., 可由 K  1放大到 K  2
GM
1
As G ( jc )  1   1  c (1  c2 )  1
jc ( jc  1) 2
 3c  c  1  0  c  0.68  P.M .  G ( j 0.68)  180
 90  2 tan 1 0.68  180  158  180  22

由圖 6.34 直接 G ( jc )  1  c  0.68  G ( j 0.68)  158
 PM  158  180  22
FIGURE 6.34 GM and PM from FIGURE 6.35 PM vs. K form

the magnitude and phase plots the frequency-response data
Design K  PM  70 : Find G ( j1 )  110  1  0.2  G ( j1 )  5
1
 PM occurs at KG ( j1 )  1;  G ( j1 )   5 ;  K  0.2
K
Similarly, as K  0.5  PM  45
From Figure 6.35, as   2 , KG ( j2 )  1  K  0.2  1  K  5
KG ( j2 )  G ( j2 )  202  PM  22 , unstable.
◎ Suppose G ( j) ＆ G ( j) are known  KG ( j)  K G ( j) ; KG ( j)  G ( j)
as K  1, KG ( j) is determined by shifting G ( j) up by magnitude K .
as 0  K  1, KG ( j) is determined by shifting G ( j) down by magnitude K .
◎ For a standard 2nd-order system,
2n
open-loop transfer function G ( s )  
s( s  2n )
KG K 2n
closed-loop transfer function T ( s)  
1  KG s 2  2n s  K n2
K 2n K
KG ( j)  
j( j  2n ) j  ( j   2 )
n n
K
KG ( j)   1: in order to determine PM
 
( ) 2  4 2
n n
 2  2  4 2  2  2 4 2  16 4  4 K 2
 K  ( ) [( )  4 ]  ( )  4 ( )  K  0  ( ) 
2 2 2
n n n n n 2

( ) 4 4  K 2  2 2
n
  / n
 KG ( jc )  90  tan 1  90  tan 1
2n 2
 / n
 Phase Margin PM  KG ( jc )  180  90  tan 1
2
1
A

 tan(  ) 
tan A  tan B
, tan(tan 1
 tan 1 1
)  A    tan  
 A B A 
 1  tan A tan B A 1 A 1 2
A
1   / n 2
tan 1 A  tan 1   90  PM  90  tan 1  tan 1
A 2 2  / n
2 2
Thus, PM  tan 1  tan 1 , as K  1
4  K  2 
4 2 2
4  1  2
4 2
0.4 PM
As   0.2  PM  tan 1  22.6 . From Figure 6.37,   , 0    0.6
" 100
FIGURE 6.36 Damping ratio vs. phase margin (PM)
◎ From the closed-loop point of view

KG K n2 as K 1
n2
T ( s)    2
1  KG s 2  2n s  K n2 s  2n s  n2
u / n
1 1
T ( j)    T ( ju )
 2  (1  u 2 )  2 ju
(1  ( ) )  2 j
n n
The magnitude and phase of T ( ju ) are
1 1 2  u
T ( ju )  M (u )  , T ( ju )   ( u )   tan
[(1  u 2 ) 2  4 2u 2 ]1/2 1  u2
m
Please refer to Figure 6.5, the resonant frequency is determined first by taking derivative of M (u ) w.r.t. u
and setting it equal to zero. Thus,
dM (u ) 1
  [(1  u 2 ) 2  (2u ) 2 ]3/2 (4u 3  4u  8 2u )  0  4u 3  4u  8 2u  0  u(u 2  1  2 2 )  0
du 2
u p  0
 u p  0    0 : this is not a real max.
u p  (1  2 )
2 1/2
p
u p  1  2 2    p  n 1  2 2 : resonant frequency.
n
1 1 1
M p : peak resonant  M (u p )   
[(1  (1  2 ))  4 (1  2 )]
2 22 2 1/2
[4  4  8 ]
4 2 4 1/2
2 1   2
 M p is a function of  only.
1  2 1   2
M r : resonant peak  M p  1 
2 1   2
◎ Note: resonant frequency  p  n 1  2 2 is valid only for 1  2 2 or   0.707 . It implies that for all
values of  greater than 0.707, the solution  p  0 becomes the valid one and M p  1 , M r  0 .
◎ Bandwidth, BW , of a system is frequency at which M () drops to 70.7% of its zero-frequency value,
or 3dB down from the zero-frequency gain.
1 1
 M (u )   0.707   (1  u 2 )2  (2u )2  2
[(1  u 2 )2  (2u )2 ]1/2 2
 1  2u 2  u 4  4  2 u 2  2  0  u 4  2(1  2 2 )u 2  1  0  u 2  (1  2 2 )  1  4 2  4 4  1
BW
Since u must be a positive real for all  ,  u  [(1  2 2 )  4 4  4 2  2]1/2 
n
 Bandwidth BW  n [(1  2 2 )  4 4  4 2  2]1/2
◎ For the standard 2nd-order system, some relationships between the time-domain response and frequency
domain response are summarized as
1 2
 The max. overshoot of unit step response in time domain depends  only, i.e., M p  e  /
1
 The peak resonant of the closed-loop frequency response M p 
2 1   2
2
 PM depends on  only, i.e., PM  tan 1 
4  1  2 4 2
FIGURE 6.38: Transient-response overshoot and frequency response

Resonant peak versus phase margin (PM) for T ( s )  2 / ( s 2  2s  2 )
Given   calculate  Given   calculate 
 obtain M p  obtain M r  M p
max. overshoot Peak resonant
 The rise time increases with  ,
1  1.1  1.4 2 0.8  2.5

 tr   , the bandwidth decreases with the increase of  , for a fixed n .
n n
1
BW and tr are inversely proportional to each other, i.e., BW 
tr
 
1/2
 ln 0.01
 BW  n (1  2 )  4  4  2 , ts 
2 4 2
: settling time
  n
 Higher bandwidth corresponds to larger M p (peak resonant)
Conditionally stable: an increase in the gain can make the system stable.
 For Figure 6.39, a point on the root locus, such as A, an increase in the gain would make the system stable by
bringing the unstable roots into the LHP.
 For point B, either a gain increase or decrease could make the system become unstable.
 Therefore, several gain margins exist that correspond to either gain reduction or increase, and the definition
of the GM in Fig. 6.33 is not valid.
EX.6.12: Stability Proportions for a Conditionally Stable System
FIGURE 6.40: System in which increasing gain leads from instability to stability:
(a) root locus; (b) Nyquist plot
K ( s  10)2
G(s)  ; As K  5 : stable  conditionally stable
s3
Let K  7  Nyquist plot: G ( j)  1  c  G ( jc )  170  PM  10
1
G ( j p )  180   p  G ( j p )  1.4  GM   0.714 ( K 0  7  GM  7  0.714  5 )
1.4
For system like this it is best to resort to the root locus and Nyquist Plot (rather than the Bode Plot)
to determine stability (and the GM and PM)
EX.6.13: Nyquist Plot for a System with Multiple Crossover Frequency.
Nyquist plot of the complex system is shown in Fig. 6.41
85( s  1)( s 2  2 s  43.25) 85( s  1)( s  1  6.5 j )

G(s)  2 2 
s ( s  2 s  82)( s 2  2 s  101) s 2 ( s  1  j 9)( s  1  10 j )
  0.7  PM  36.7
G ( j)  1    9.5  PM  71.2
  9.8  PM  42.8
1
G ( j p )  180  G ( j p )  0.79  GM   1.26
0.79
From Bode Plot
G ( j)  1    0.74, 9.5, 9.8  PM  37,   0.74
1
G( j)  180    10.4  G( j)  0.79 
GM
1
 GM   1.26
0.79
FIGURE 6.41 Nyquist plot of the complex system in Example 6.13
FIGURE 6.42 Bode plot of the system in Example 6.13

Control - System - Chapter 6 - 8E

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Feedback Control of Dynamic Systems 8th edition

Chapter 6: The Frequency-Response Design Method

EX.6.1: Frequency-Response Characteristics of a Capacitor

EX.6.2: Frequency-Response Characteristics of a Lead Compensator

 Freq. response of the closed-loop transfer function

Figure 6.5 Definitions of bandwidth and resonant peak

6.1.1 Bode Plot Technique (H.W. Bode at Bell Lab. (1932~1942))

( j1  1)( j2  1)

or KG ( j) dB  20log K 0  20log j1  1  20log ( j) 2  20log ja  1

The phase of ( j) n is n  90 and is independent of  .

Figure 6.6: Magnitude of (jω)n

◎ Class 2: first-order term ( j  1) (zero)

FIGURE 6.8 Phase plot for j  1;   10 .

◎ Class 2’: first-order term ( j  1) 1 (pole)

RHP pole (  j  1) 1 ,

as   10n , G ( j)  [99 2  400 2 ]1/2  [1002 ]1/2  0.01  40dB

FIGURE 6.3 (b) phase of Eq. (6.9)  2 

the phase changes by 180 .

◎ As in complex conjugate zero case

◎   0 ,    1  1  2  : the transition is a step.

EX.6.3: Bode Plot for Real Poles and Zeros

FIGURE 6.9 Composite plots: (a) magnitude; (b) phase;

(c) approximate phase.

EX. 6.4: Bode Plot with Complex Poles.

0.01[( j1) 2  2 z ( j1)  1] 0.01  2 z

0.01[( j 2) 2  0.01( j 2)  1] 0.01 3

6.1.2 Steady-State Errors

If n  1, i.e., type 1 system ess 

 DC gain of KG ( s ) with s  0 pole re-movement.

6.3 The Nyquist Stability Criterion

Closed-loop roots are the zeros of 1  KG(s)  0

FIGURE 6.19 Evaluations of KG(s) and 1+KG(s): Nyquist plots.

will result in a clockwise KG ( s ) encirclement r1 KG ( s )

◎ If 1 enclose a pole of 1  KG ( s) , i.e., N  1 KG (s ) |s  1

◎ Procedure for plotting the Nyquist plot

EX.6.8: Nyquist Plot for a Second-order System

K  0 , the system is stable

i.e., K  104  10000 ;

Plot the Nyquist Plot: Fig. 6.23

又 p  0 (From Nyquist path)  z  N  p  0

◎ Example 6.9: Nyquist Plot for a Third-Order System

Figure 6.15: Frequency-response magnitude and

K K K ( j )[(1  2 )  j 2] K [2  j (1  2 )]

Region (4) is symmetric with Region (2).

FIGURE 6.30 Bode plot for G ( s )  ( s  1) /[ s ( s /10  1)]

FIGURE 6.33 Nyquist plot for defining GM and PM

 As KG ( j p )   or G ( j p )   (  p phase crossover frequency)

 Both GM and PM can be also determined by Bode Plot.

PM: KG ( jc )  1  c  PM  G ( jc )  180

 3c  c  1  0  c  0.68  P.M .  G ( j 0.68)  180

 90  2 tan 1 0.68  180  158  180  22

 PM  158  180  22

FIGURE 6.34 GM and PM from FIGURE 6.35 PM vs. K form

Design K  PM  70 : Find G ( j1 )  110  1  0.2  G ( j1 )  5

KG ( j2 )  G ( j2 )  202  PM  22 , unstable.

as K  1, KG ( j) is determined by shifting G ( j) up by magnitude K .

as 0  K  1, KG ( j) is determined by shifting G ( j) down by magnitude K .

◎ For a standard 2nd-order system,

FIGURE 6.36 Damping ratio vs. phase margin (PM)

◎ From the closed-loop point of view

 Bandwidth BW  n [(1  2 2 )  4 4  4 2  2]1/2

FIGURE 6.38: Transient-response overshoot and frequency response

Given   calculate  Given   calculate 