Understand and Managing

Human Behaviour

In reference to the author’s reflective journal, this essay will commence by evaluating
educational behavioural management policies in England and discuss current
conventions. Thereafter, intrinsic and extrinsic influences on the various behaviours
of children in the school setting will be explored. Penultimately, well-known theories
of behaviour, learning and motivation will be explored, applying them to the contexts
in question. Finally, conflict resolution strategies will be discussed, and suggestions
will be made for how to improve the current situation, including how to involve care-
givers and the wider community.

Behaviour management is defined as the means of using strategies to make pupils

learn the consequence of their behaviour (James, 2016, p. 12). On a national level
the Teachers’ Standard (2011, p. 12) highlights basic principles to manage
behaviour effectively in order to create a safe learning environment. Such
expectations include: having clear rules and routines, high expectations of
behaviour, managing classes effectively and maintaining good relationships with
pupils. This indicates that the Teachers' Standard expects teachers to already be
equipped with knowledge and experiences of both positive and negative behaviour
management and some tools to deal with. George Bear, an American professor and
an author of many books and journals about self-discipline in educational practice,
claims that schools fail to understand that school discipline should involve self-
discipline (Bear, 2011, p. 1). Teachers’ Standard gives no indication or guidance of
what constitutes disruptive behaviours, how to deal with or de-escalate minor
behaviour prior to exacerbation, and how to appropriately use disciplinary behaviour.
James (2016, pp. 4-5) supports this, explaining that the only improvements made by
the government for initial teacher training is the teaching of a very ‘generic behaviour
management’, not too different from the old-fashioned authoritative approach of
reward, punishment and control.

Furthermore, Timpson review (DfE, 2019, p. 5) stated that a high rate of exclusion
can be an indication that no effective intervention is in place and schools themselves
are risking the pupils’ exclusion from lessons. Nash, Schlosser and Scarr (2016, p.
168) maintain that school exclusion benefits no one as this ultimately shows defeat
in providing rewarding education and adds additional unnecessarily adverse
experiences for a pupil. This shows that the past government guidance of behaviour
and discipline in schools (2013) is not efficient. The Timpson review (DfE, 2019, p. 5)
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recognised that an expectation for a good system exists, there is the need to equip
schools and staff with the ‘right tools’, in order to deliver this expectation. Since
2020, the government behaviour guidance (DfE, 2016) has been updated with
further resources on exclusion. At a local level if schools are unable to deploy such
management, this creates issues within management and for students (Hayden,
2003, pp. 5-6). A small example is seen in the author's reflective journal, specifically
conflict between staff due to lack of consistency (Kaur, 2022, pp. 3-4). Despite the
government's lack of proactiveness, schools in England as well as author’s setting
do well with behaviour management (Nash, Schlosser, Scarr, 2016, p. 168). To
manage behaviour, schools use strategies such as following a hierarchical
framework of clear targets and behavioural expectations from pupils and staff, as
well as the community, and using evidence-based strategies which are reviewed
timeously (Nash, Schlosser, Scarr, 2016, p. 168; Setting School, 2021; Kaur, 2022,
p. 1). For example, the author’s school uses Paul Dix’s series of steps for classroom
management (2017, cited in Setting School, 2021, p. 14; Setting School, 2021; Kaur,
2022, p. 1); and many schools now have an inclusive nurture provision within the
mainstream school (Nash, Schlosser, Scarr, 2016, p. 168; Boxall, 2010, p. xi).
Nurture work provides further support for children with emotional, social, behavioural
and cognitive needs which cannot be met within the classroom environment (Boxall,
2010, p. 2). However, these groups tend to be mixed with others with additional
difficulties and therefore they may not be supportive enough (Nash et al. 2016, p.
168).

Despite strategies and support that are placed within schools, the Union’s Big
Question survey still found that twenty- four percent of teachers experience
challenging and disruptive behaviour within the school environment (NASUWT The
Teachers' Union, 2022). Furthermore, Gedds (2006 cited in Nash, Schlosser, Scarr,
2016, p. 168) discussed how behaviour operates along a continuum, on one end is
mild and within time can be conformed to schools' expectation and focus on learning,
on the other hand an extreme behaviour causing bafflement and distress for
teachers even when robust behavioural approaches and plans are implemented.
Research indicated that children living in metropolitan areas with lower
socioeconomic backgrounds are at greater risk of either developing behaviour
problems or being affected by the behaviour of their peers (Layard and Dunn, 2009

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cited in Nash et al. 2016, p. 168; Hemphill et al., 2014 cited in Klein et al., 2020). At
government level, safeguarding training is mandatory by law, almost all schools
employ regular safeguarding training, and thus the rate of children protected is high.
A study conducted by Nash, Schlosser and Scarr (2016, p. 168) indicated that
teachers lack understanding of psychological elements at play, for example
acknowledgement of the attachment theory of Bowlby (1969); there were marked
gaps in teachers’ overall knowledge about behaviour and managing it overall.
Moreover, Nash, Schlosser and Scarr (2016, p. 168) stated that teachers having
increased understanding, the better the intervention plan can be to an individual, a
more robust strategy for children with extreme behaviour which would be crucially
useful in metropolitan areas such as Southampton being one of them (Roberts,
Williams and Preston, 2021). A further recommendation (DfE, 2019, p. 13;) is for
teachers to use proactive strategies. Nash, Schlosser and Scarr (2016, P. 168)
suggests that a stronger focus on a more systematic application of attachment
theory could start to address some of these issues. Schools need to work closer with
parents when managing behaviour to deploy proactive strategies (Nash et al, 2016,
p. 168).

Maslow’s (1971) hierarchy of needs theory suggests that all humans have an
instinctual array of physiological needs and at level three stated human need for love
and sense of belonging. For children between the ages four and six in early years
settings, the need for love and a sense of belonging is important, not just from adults
but between peers as well; actively sharing and cooperating and therefore
establishing meaningful relationships enables transitioning to the next level, self-
esteem (Riddall-Leech, 2003, pp. 51-59). Further to this Piaget (1965) theory of age
moral development, stated that children’s understanding of moral judgement needs
to go through the necessary sequential stages (Lindon, 2005, p. 36). However,
Bandura and McDonald (1963 cited in Cowan et al., 1969, p. 261) argued that
children’s ‘moral assimilation’ can be changed or reversed by the ‘response-
reinforcement contingencies’ with appropriate role models. These authors also
claimed that Piaget’s (1965) theory of sequential aged specific moral development
does not apply in reality.

The guidance by Action for Children (2018, p. 26) teaches caregivers that children’s
emotional feelings between 30 to 50 months (two and half to 5 years) enable them to
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understand that another child may want the toy they are playing with and should
share, but they may require adult assistance. Interestingly, this is evidenced in the
the author’s reflective journal (Kaur, 2022) knowing that child A has behavioural
needs such with difficulties of self-regulating their emotions and developing self-
discipline in which could be considered as socially and emotionally developmentally
delayed as earlier stated the age range is between 30 to 50 months for children to
have developed understanding feelings and now this child is over 5 years of age.
However, the author was prompted straight away to model, ensure and promote the
recognition of positive self-discipline and for further future reinforcement.

Developmental milestones and developmental norms emerged from the works of the
maturational theorist Gesell (1940) (Lindon, 2005, p. 18); he established that
developmental sequence is controlled by maturational processes. Even though this
theory provides ideas and expectations, it offers a narrow view of thinking as it fails
to account for ‘variety within a given culture’ and if development is not inline with age
appropriateness, can leave caregivers with doubts about how to further support their
child (Lindon, 2005, p. 18). Boxall (2011, p. 4) discussed how, many children even
without any additional special needs do not reach the expected developmental level
of a normal three-year-old, including personal, social and emotional development,
and therefore by the time they reach reception year they are already having
difficulties. The expectation of children’s personal, social and emotional development
in the reception year includes children to have developed awareness of their own
and others feelings, play fairly, listen to others and know how to be kind and caring
(DfE, 2021, p. 73). Bear (2010, p.2) stated that self-discipline is seen as moral and
social responsible behaviour which is motivated by intrinsic factors. Boxall (2011, p.
5) suggests one influence that can impair children’s development; the earliest years
where nurturing is crucially important however have been compromised. Boxall
(2011, p. 5) concludes that unlaying external factors that contribute to this are
parents that themselves that are living under extreme and disabling personal stress.
Furthermore, Sandstrom and Huerta (2013, pp. 6-7) discuss how instability within
families, child’s environment and constant changes has the strongest effects during
children’s early life, potentially weakening parents’ ability to provide full material
support, thus negatively influencing children’s social-emotional, cognitive and
academic outcomes. However, to consider involving a trained therapist to discuss

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their emotional difficulties with children at a young age is not suitable because some
aspects of development have been impaired for example, they had limited
experiences or very little coherence and can be confused and thus there would be
no clear focus for interventions, therefore nurturing the gaps would be better (Boxall,
2011, p. 6).

The Department for Education (2020, p. 13) stated that to support effective
characteristics of teaching and learning teachers must consider the rates at which
children are developing and practice should be adjusted accordingly in a way that
will support pupils to participate in active learning, including developing their
concentration during encountering difficulties. With regards to managing the
behaviour of children with developmental differences teachers need to be fully aware
of these factors. Furthermore, they must ensure that they develop their practices in
line with children developmental stage appropriate and implement strategies such
combining activities into the curriculum that teach social, emotional and behavioural
competencies, providing social stories, videos with multiple model targeting specifics
behaviours, social cognition and emotions (Bear, 2011, p. 2). In contrast to children
with special educational needs and disability (SEND) following age expectation for
these children is not appropriate as a portion of these children with their disabilities
may ‘affect their cognitive development’ and the speed rate of their learning which
would account to the potential differences (Rochford Review, 2016, p. 5).

This means that their behaviour expectations would also be affected and would be
different, for example some children may display reduced awareness or perception
of feelings of their own or others (Rachford Review, 2016, p. 18). However, the code
of practice states that for children exhibiting disruptive or withdrawn behaviours,
these are not necessarily caused by different SEN (DfE and DoH, 2015, p. 96).
Therefore, other factors must be considered and assessments should be made to
determine whether it is causal factors such as difficulties with communication (Ellis
and Tod, 2018, p.27)

Behaviourists focused on how behaviour can be learned, through experiences and

reinforcement (Lindon, 2012, 16). Much of Pavlov’s (1903) research was based on
the idea that individuals can be trained using associations; this came to be known as

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classical conditioning (Riddall-Leech, 2003, p. 11). In practice this is seen when

teachers use hand clapping or shake a tambourine to tell the children it is tidy up
time; in time children then make the associate automatically (Riddall-Leech, 2003, p.
13). Hence, Edward Thorndike’s (1898) Theory of Operant Conditioning, also known
as Thorndike’s Law of Effect, insisted that specific behaviours can be learnt following
a positive or negative experience, thus developing a specific behaviour from the
results of an individual's response within the environment (Leech, 2003, p. 13).
Furthermore, Skinner (1938) developed this theory of Operant conditioning stimuli to
positive reinforcement (1938) where behaviour is strengthened whether positive or
negative. In children, behaviour repetition tendencies will be strengthened by positive
rewards, such as stickers or head teacher's certificates; negative behaviour will be
punished (ie: missing playtime) and in accordance with this theory, will be avoided in
the future. Such an example of positive reinforcement is seen in the author’s journal
where Child A’s positive behaviour is acknowledged and rewarded with a sticker,
presumably resulting in positive affect, making repetition of said behaviour, likely.
However, the fact that many of the experiments said to support Operant Conditioning
were conducted on animals is cause for criticism as they may not as easily apply to
humans; animals cannot think about their ‘experiences and invoke reasons,
patience, memory or self-comfort’ (McLeod, 2007, p. 9).

Punishment reinforcement is unacceptable, as it further causes mental distress, so

professionals rather use positive reinforcement to increase acceptable behaviour
(Riddall-Leech, 2003, p. 15). In comparison Bandura’s (1977) social learning theory
suggests that the influence of human behaviour is dependent on both the
environment, as well as cognitive factors (Riddall-Leech, 2003, p. 17) which are
observed, modelled and imitated. In some ways Bandura’s sentiments resonated
with the strict behaviourist, with some variations; he believed that a cognitive link is
made before observed behaviour can occur. According to Bandura there are four
processes involved during observational learning; behaviour needs to attract
attention and be worthy of the attention, the behaviour needs retention by some
symbolic form, the behaviour needs to be enacted at abilities level and finally,
behaviour needs to motivate the person as the most desirable outcome (Ahn, Hu
and Vega, 2019, p. 3; Riddall- Leech, 2003, p. 19).

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Ahn, Hu and Vega (2019) discussed how, in education, the application of Bandura’s
theory is overlooked. In education, role modelling is greatly emphasised, and Ahn,
Hu and Vega (2019, p. 2) stated that as important as role models are for children,
they are too for adults. However, Abn, Hu and Vega (2019, p. 2) claim that only the
attentional and the motivational process is disproportionately focussed and the
balance of other processes that support the behaviour change is not considered with
the role aspirants. Therefore, Ahn, Hu and Vega (2019, p. 2) stated that, by the role
modeller having not fully grasped the concept of how the other process functions
together, this reduces their effectiveness of their role modelling. Yet this social-
cognitive is the most relevant process to behaviour change (Bandura, 1977 cited in
Ahn, Hu and Vega, 2019, p. 2).

Ahn, Hu and Vega (2019, p. 2) stated that effective role modelling firstly should be
done with competence as for those that lack in skills will be motivated further to learn
from them. Secondly the effective role model should be able to identify the shared
similarities within each other for example shared interest or shared experiences as
this promotes self-enhancing and thirdly the role model will demonstrate or share
how they earn their success for example internal factors; the amount of effort or
narratives of overcoming a struggle than only solely emphasising a achievement.
These enact the retention code and motor reproduction process. As once observed
the symbolic coding represents better skills acquisition and the motor representation
guides the pattern of performance. This value of modelling also leads to a process of
motivation as rewarding outcomes enhance a sense of belonging, increased self-
efficacy and increased achievement. In professionalism management and leadership
skills are considered as prerequisites in order for better organisation (Bush, 2020, p.
1). With this motivational theory this can enhance leadership for managers to inspire
their employees further and reduce disputes (Kaur, 2022, p. 3).

In conclusion, behaviour management requires both theoretical and practical

understanding of what motivates and contributes to positive behaviours. Moreover,
the main themes that emerged from this essay were the need for adequate training
for all those that work with children and in education. Not only this improves
practices but also allows for professional moral enhancement, the most important

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aspects for one’s self satisfaction and self-actualisation. Therefore, it is clear that
more needs to be done by the UK government, in terms of support which can go a
long way to achieving more than just academic achievements but personal and
social development.

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