Available online at www.sciencedirect.

com
ScienceDirect

Energy Reports 8 (2022) 231–249

www.elsevier.com/locate/egyr

TMREES22-Fr, EURACA, 09 to 11 May 2022, Metz-Grand Est, France

Modeling, simulation, and experiments on waste kinetic energy

utilization
R. Afifya ,∗, M. Mansourb , E. Sabera , K.A. Ibrahimc
a Mechanical Engineering Department, College of Engineering and Technology, Arab Academy for Science, Technology and Maritime
Transport, Alexandria, P.O. Box 1029 Miami, Egypt
b Atlantic Industries, Coca-Cola, Cairo, Egypt
c Mechanical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Menoufia University, Egypt

Received 12 June 2022; accepted 25 June 2022

Available online xxxx

Abstract
Saving energy is as important as energy production. In systems like cars, trains, elevators, and machines that require
frequent start/stop operation, a significant amount of kinetic energy is wasted during braking. It may be necessary to employ a
sophisticated breaking mechanism to catch waste kinetic energy for later usage. Several criteria influence the proposed braking
mechanism. A hydraulic test bench is developed and built to investigate how much kinetic energy can be absorbed and stored
during braking using a hydraulic circuit. The test bench’s driving power is a variable voltage and variable frequency electric
motor that drives a flywheel that constitutes the majority of the kinetic energy with speeds ranging from 876 to 2975 rpm. A
positive displacement gear pump, flow control valve, non-return valve, on/off valve, direction control valve, and an accumulator
are the major components of the hydraulic circuit. The use of an automated contactor and a magnetic clutch allows for alternate
operations between the mechanical system and the hydraulic brake circuit. The entire system is theoretically modeled, and a
MATLAB code is created to investigate the impact of various parameters on the braking mechanism’s performance. Four groups
of experiments were conducted to investigate the features of the driving and braking systems, as well as the influence of various
factors on the amount of energy that may be collected during braking. The results indicate that 18% to 55% of the kinetic
energy may be absorbed and transformed into hydraulic power stored in the accumulator. The amount of hydraulic power
gained is governed by the operating speed and restriction ratio (hydraulic system resistance). At certain rotational speeds and
restriction ratios, maximum gain hydraulic power could well be produced. Not only can braking energy regeneration improve
system efficiency, but it also provides environmental benefits. Alexandria, Egypt is used as a case study to investigate the
economic and environmental benefits of employing this technology in cars.
© 2022 Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the TMREES22-Fr, EURACA, 2022.

Keywords: Waste kinetic energy; Energy-saving; Modeling; Experiments

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: rola@aast.edu (R. Afify).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2022.06.106
2352-4847/© 2022 Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the TMREES22-Fr, EURACA, 2022.
R. Afify, M. Mansour, E. Saber et al. Energy Reports 8 (2022) 231–249

Nomenclature
A Receiver tank Area (m2 )
Al Load cylinder Area (m2 )
dp Pipe diameter at various points (m)
g Gravitational accel. (m/s2 )
I Motor supply current (A)
Jc Clutch Inertia (= 0.012099 kg m2 )
Jeq Equivalent moment of inertia (= 0.664519 kg m2 )
Jf Flywheel moment of inertia (= 0.6297 kg m2 )
Jm Motor moment of inertia (= 0.015080 kg m2 )
Jp Positive pump moment of inertia (kg m2 )
Js Shafts moment of inertia (= 0.000353 kg m2 )
k2 First coupling moment of inertia (= 0.007375
k3 Second coupling moment of inertia (= 0.007375 kg m2 ) kg m2 )
k4 Third coupling moment of inertia (= 0.007375 kg m2 )
kc Check valve coefficient
kl Stiffness of load spring (N/m)
km Metering valve coefficient
kr Stiffness of receiver spring (N/m)
kv On–Off Valve coefficient
lp Pipe length at various points (m)
Lp The pipe inductance at various points (kg/m4 )
m Load cylinder piston mass (kg)
N Rotational speed (RPM)
ηo Pump overall efficiency (%)
ηv Pump volumetric efficiency (%)
Θ Angle of rotation (rad)
Θ̇ Angular velocity (rad/s)
Θ̈ Angular acceleration (rad/s2 )
Ø Power factor (∼= 0.9)
P The oil pressure at various points (Pa)
Pe Electric motor supply power (W)
PF L Power loss due to friction (W)
Pi Inertia power (W)
Pm Mechanical driving power (W)
Q Flow rate at various points (L/min)
Qa Actual flow rate (L/min)
Q th Theoretical flow rate (L/min)
Rp The pipe resistance at various points (kg/m4 s)
T Motor Torque (N m)
t Time (s)
Ti Inertia torque (N m)
to Free braking time (s)
V Motor supply voltage (V)

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δ Load deflection (m)

δ̇ Load velocity (m/s)
δ̈ Load Acceleration (m/s2 )
µ Dynamic viscosity (Pa s)
ρ Oil density (kg/m3 )
ω Operating speed measured in (rad/s)
Abbreviations
BB Brake Blending
CT sensor Current Transformer sensor
EV Electric Vehicle
FES Flywheel energy storage
HHV Hydraulic Hybrid Vehicle
ICE Internal Combustion Engine
KE kinetic energy
KERS kinetic energy recovery system
PC Personal Computer
RBS Regenerative Braking System

1. Introduction
Due to the growing energy problem and environmental degradation, energy-saving research has lately become a
prominent issue. Regenerative braking is an energy-recovery system that slows down a moving vehicle or device by
transforming its kinetic energy into a form that may be utilized right away or stored till later. There are three major
subjects to investigate for regenerative braking systems: system design, mixed brake control, and energy efficiency
evaluation [1]. The most popular type of regenerative braking uses an electric motor that also functions as an electric
generator. The electricity generated by electric trains is routed back into the traction power supply. Energy is stored
chemically in a battery, electrically in a bank of capacitors, or mechanically in a revolving flywheel. Regenerative
braking is insufficient on its own to safely bring a vehicle to a stop or slow it down as needed; hence it must be
used in conjunction with another braking system, such as friction-based braking. The synergetic coordination of
electric and hydraulic brakes in an Electric Vehicle (EV) is a highly difficult problem owing to the complexity
of the associated phenomena, which affect multiple and diverse physical domains [2,3]. Furthermore, reliability
constraints, which unavoidably impact electric powertrain systems, should be included in the design of the Brake
Blending (BB) Controller, allowing it to automatically select the most cautious circumstances [4]. The presence of a
Regenerative Braking System (RBS) in EVs allows designers to incorporate novel and creative brake methods [5,6]
that can increase vehicle driving range by boosting regenerated energy. Optimizing this characteristic might thus
be a critical point and a highly wanted solution for lowering total energy usage [7,8]. These factors combine to
provide a limited optimization allocation issue [9,10]. Extensive effort has been done in the literature to appropriately
estimate the availability of electric powertrain torques and to apply corresponding constraints in the proposed control
strategies [11]. Flywheel energy storage (FES) works by rapidly speeding a rotor (flywheel) and storing the energy
in the system as rotational energy. As a result of the principle of conservation of energy, when energy is withdrawn
from the system, the rotational speed of the flywheel is lowered; adding energy to the system results in an increase in
the rotational speed of the flywheel [12]. The maximum specific energy of a flywheel rotor is primarily determined
by two factors: the shape of the rotor and the properties of the material utilized [13]. Flywheel energy storage devices
that use mechanical bearings can lose 20% to 50% of their energy in two hours, while flywheels with magnetic
bearings and high vacuum, on the other hand, can retain 97% mechanical efficiency and 85% round trip efficiency.
The kinetic energy recovery system (KERS), which is in the shape of a revolving flywheel, has been used as an
energy-saving and power-increasing element in Formula (1) racing vehicles [14]. Hydraulic regenerative braking
has been used in heavy vehicles due to its high power density and energy conversion efficiency [15]. Hydraulic
regenerative braking control techniques were also investigated [16]. However, due to the hydraulic accumulator’s
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low energy density, it is impossible to fully exploit the regeneration potential. The electro-mechanical RBS becomes
the most common choice in all types of cars by balancing performance and cost [17]. It recaptures the kinetic
energy of the vehicle during deceleration, considerably enhancing the vehicle’s energy efficiency [18]. The electro-
mechanical RBS has become common equipment for all forms of electrified cars in the automotive sector, which
are born with at least one electric motor [19]. A control technique synchronizing the regenerative and pneumatic
brakes was described in [20] in order to collect braking energy and increase fuel efficiency for fuel cell city buses.
A new control mechanism based on on–off solenoid valves was presented in [21] to increase blended brake control
performance even more. A variety of alternatives to the traditional Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) is observed
by [22], with a focus on the development of hybrid-drive cars using electric hybrids, particularly for passenger
vehicles. They were interested in Hydraulic Hybrid Vehicles (HHV) in the context of commercial large passenger
vehicles. Collett et al. [23] concentrated on the design and modeling of hydraulic hybrids in order to create models
showing vehicle utilization under various driving cycles. They considered two regenerative braking scenarios, one
involving a medium-duty vehicle and the other involving electric forklifts. Vu [24] also looked at a regenerative
braking system for the HHV model. He investigated the effects of component characteristics on the performance
of the braking system, the rate of energy recovery, and the system’s efficiency. Wang and Wang [25] suggested
a modern series hybrid hydraulic excavator based on electro-hydraulic composite energy storage, with the battery
and accumulator operating as intermediate energy storage. They increased the battery’s service life. Rydberg [26]
explored the use of hybrid technology in a novel excavator design that uses smart power capture and reuse to reduce
fuel usage. He also chose to decrease the engine and store energy for peak demand. Wasborg [27] looked into a new
hydraulic hybrid design that uses the auxiliary pump on a wheel loader as a supplement to enable both Series and
Parallel hybrid operation. The coupled hybrid showed higher energy efficiency in simulations. Azzam et al. [28]
established and verified a new technique for improving the overall efficiency of hydraulic hybrid drive trains by
replacing traditional pump/motor units with digital equivalents. Their technique allowed them to improve the overall
efficiency of a series hydraulic hybrid transmission, resulting in energy savings.
Energy conservation is one of the most essential aspects in enhancing design features of energy conserved
systems, as evidenced by prior research. In road cars, braking energy contributes a significant amount of the used
energy (about 30% in cities). From a scientific, environmental, technical, and economic standpoint, initiatives to
recover such energy may be of enormous importance. The goal of this research is to determine how much energy
may be caught and stored when rotating machine parts are stopped under various operating situations. A dynamic
simulation model is developed, and a test bench with measurement equipment is created to achieve this purpose.
The hydraulic system will be used to recuperate the system’s braking energy. A positive displacement gear pump,
a flow control valve, and an accumulator for energy storage are all included in the hydraulic circuit.

2. Physical system
The hydro-mechanical system is developed and built to investigate the amount of energy that may be caught
and stored during the stoppage of spinning machine components under various working circumstances, as seen in
Fig. 1. It comprises of a mechanical drive system and a braking mechanism. The driving system consists of an
electric motor that overcomes its own moment of inertia and delivers the driving power to the flywheel through a
torque measuring device located right before the flywheel.
The braking mechanism is a hydraulic circuit that consists of a positive displacement gear pump, model AP
100/1.7 D, from Hidroirma (Italy) with a maximum working pressure of 250 bar, connected to an electromagnetic
clutch that engages the braking mechanism with the driving system when the electric motor current is turned off.
During the high pressure test, the oil delivered by the pump is restricted by a flow control valve with integral check,
model FT 257/5-12 BAR 400, which includes ten complete turns from fully open to fully closed situations, each
turn representing 10% restriction, and a bladder type accumulator 1.5 liter fitted with a pressure sensing element to
record the value of maximum pressure of the stored oil. The electromagnetic clutch connects the flywheel shaft to the
hydraulic gear pump instantly when the motor supply power is turned off. The pump uses some of the accumulated
kinetic energy and transfers the rest to the braking mechanism and the accumulator. As a result, the flywheel
and moving elements come to a complete stop after a certain amount of braking time. Fig. 2 depicts the study
methodology chart, which includes the four sets of simulated/tested results used to analyze system characteristics
and quantify the amount of energy collected during braking.
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Fig. 1. System components.

The first set of tests looks at how much electric and mechanical power is used to move the flywheel and
other system components at different speeds ranging from 250 to 3000 rpm. The second set of tests examines
pump performance and determines pump volumetric efficiency at a variety of speeds and operating conditions. The
volumetric efficiency is computed and employed in the hydraulic gain power evaluation. The third set of testing
is used to see how bearing friction and aerodynamic forces affect the system’s performance and characteristics.
During these tests, the braking time and friction torque are determined under various operating situations in order
to calculate hydraulic gain power. The fourth set of experiments focuses on determining how much hydraulic energy
can be collected from the inertia of the moving parts when the system is operated at various speeds and restriction
ratios. The flywheel and moving parts are stopped during these tests by connecting the hydraulic braking mechanism,
while the motor electric current is turned off. The braking time, inertia power, friction power, gain hydraulic power,
and inertia power are all calculated. Because friction torque is a function of operating speed and braking time,
the resistive torque via braking is calculated using the relationships between friction torque, operating speed, and
braking time.

3. Theoretical analysis
3.1. Mechanical system

Fig. 3 depicts the entire system, which includes the driving parts (motor, torque measurement device, and
flywheel), the gear pump, and the electromagnetic clutch.

3.1.1. Condition 1 (Electromagnetic clutch disengaged)

This is the driving mechanical system consists of the electric motor, the measuring torque device and the flywheel.
The electric motor is linked to a torque measurement device and sends power to the flywheel, which stores kinetic
energy. The system achieves steady-state with constant angular velocity (Θ̇). The equations of motion are
T (t) + k2 (θo2 − θo1 ) = Jm θ̈o1
and,
−k2 (θo2 − θo1 ) = J f θ̈o2
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Fig. 2. Research approach flowchart.

Fig. 3. The complete mechanical rotational system.

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These equations may be derived to be as follows,

( −t
)
θ̇o1 = ω 1 − e to (1)
and,
−to T (t) ( −t
)
θ̈o1 = ( ) t + to (e to ) − to (2)
J f + Jm
The initial conditions for Eqs. (1) and (2) are as follows:
At t = 0, θo1 = θo2 = θ̇o1 = θ̇o2 = 0
To be solved o θo1 and θo2 in the domain t = 0 → to where θo1 = θo2 and θ̇o1 = θ̇o2 .

3.1.2. Conditions 2 and 3 (Electromagnetic clutch activated)

When the electric motor’s electric current is cut off (braking condition), the electromagnetic clutch connects the
driving mechanical system to the gear pump (braking mechanism), and the driving mechanical system and the gear
pump slow down to a stop. The equations of motion are
k2 (θ2 − θ1 ) = JM θ̈1 (3)

−k2 (θ2 − θ1 ) + k3 (θ3 − θ2 ) = J f θ̈2 (4)

and,
−k3 (θ3 − θ2 ) + k4 (θ4 − θ3 ) = Jc θ̈3 (5)
The initial conditions for Eqs. (3)–(5) are as follows:
At t = to : θ1 = θo1 , θ2 = θo2 , θ3 = 0, θ4 = 0
θ̇1 = θ̇o1 , θ̇2 = θ̇o2 , θ̇3 = 0, θ̇4 = 0

3.2. Hydraulic system

Fig. 4 depicts the hydraulic system employed in this investigation. The pump draws oil from the tank and pumps
it via the metering valve, which controls the flow rate (Q). The oil goes through the check valve, which stops the
oil from flowing backward and, as a result, prevents back pressure on the pump. When the ON/OFF valve is closed,
the oil gets stored in the receiver where its pressure keeps increasing until it reaches the desired pressure. When
the ON/OFF valve is closed, the oil flows from the receiver to the actuator where the stored energy is used, and
force is applied on the load.
The flow is considered as incompressible and isothermal fluid flow and the governing equations depend on
the dynamic behavior of the fluid flow through the different elements of the braking mechanism according to the
operation conditions.
(i) The governing equations for the case of electromagnetic clutch is activated and the on/off valve is closed
( )
1
Pump : J p θ̈4 = Q 2 ( p2 − p1 ) − k4 (θ4 − θ3 ) (6)
ηo θ̇4
1 √
Metering valve : Q 3 = | p2 − p3 | (7)
km
1
Check valve : Q 4 = (| p3 − p4 |) (8)
kc
Accumulator : Q 5 = C5 ( ṗ4 − ṗ5 ) (9)
Where,
A2
Q 3 = Q 4 = Q 5 and C5 =
kr
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Fig. 4. The hydraulic system.

(ii) The governing equations for the case of electromagnetic clutch is activated and the on/off valve is opened:

A1 k1
Actuator : δ̈ = ( p8 − patm ) − (10)
m m
Q 5 may be calculated as
Q 5 = A1 × δ (11)

Pi pe(6) : p6 = p4 − L P6 Q̇ 6 − R P6 Q 6 (12)
Pi pe(7) : p7 = p6 − (Q 5 kv ) 2
(13)
And,
( )
p8 = p7 − L P7 Q̇ 7 + R P7 Q 7 (14)
Where,
1√
Q6 = | p6 − p7 | (on/o f f valve)
kv

Q5 = Q6 = Q7
With
p5 = p4 (15)

4. Simulation analysis

MATLAB programs and simulations are executed for the three previous conditions. Fig. 5 shows a flow chart
that presents the system’s inputs, equations, and outputs.
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Fig. 5. MATLAB programs flowchart.

4.1. Simulation results

4.1.1. Condition 1 (Electromagnetic clutch disengaged)

The angle of rotation acquired throughout time for the motor and flywheel is shown in Fig. 6(a). As time passes,
the angle of rotation rises. The relationship between angular velocity and time for the motor is shown in Fig. 6(b),
and it is discovered that the angular velocity achieves a steady state value of roughly 158.333 rad/s (1512 rpm)
when the increment will last less than a second. The relationship between torque and time is seen in Fig. 6(c), it
is achieved that the torque achieves a constant value of around 400 N m. These findings were achieved when the
motor’s input rotational speed was 1500 rpm.

4.1.2. Condition 2 (Electromagnetic clutch activated & on/off valve closed)

The SIMULINK programmed chart for the mechanical system and braking mechanism is shown in Figs. 7 and 8
when the electromagnetic clutch is activated and the on/off valve is closed. The findings demonstrate that the system
was halted at around 5 s for the operational rotational speed of 1500 rpm, as shown in Figs. 9 and 10. Fig. 9 shows
the variation of the pressure values at locations 2, 3, 4, and 5 with time, while Fig. 9(e) shows the angular velocity
of the pump during the braking action. The braking is achieved at about 5 s. The accumulator’s pressure value is
around 14 MPa as shown in Fig. 9(d). The pressure values at different positions between the pump outlet and the
accumulator have the same value at the completion of the braking time. The charge of the accumulator with time
during the braking action is seen in Fig. 11.

4.1.3. Condition 3 (Electromagnetic clutch activated & on/off valve is opened)

Figs. 12 and 13 illustrates the power resulted from the hydraulic circuit in terms of pressures (a) P4 and P5 , (b)
P6 , (c) P7 , (d) P8 and Flow rate Q 5 which is charged to the actuator when the on/off valve is opened.
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Fig. 6. The relation between (a) the angle of rotation for motor and flywheel, (b) the angular velocity for motor and flywheel, (c) torque
and time for condition 1 (electromagnetic clutch disengaged).

Fig. 7. The SIMULINK program for the mechanical system.

5. Experimental analysis
5.1.

An experimental investigation is conducted to evaluate the characteristics, such as how much energy can be
lost during braking, braking, and how much energy can be recovered from waste kinetic energy during braking. In
addition, a case study is used to assess the application of regenerative hydraulic braking in cars.
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Fig. 8. The SIMULINK program for the braking system.

5.2. Efficiency of the driving system

Before doing hydraulic brake tests, it is necessary to examine the features of the test bench. The motor’s utilized
electric power changes depending on the supplied voltage and current, which differ depending on the frequency
selected (motor speed). The electric power is converted to mechanical power by flywheel spinning. The first set of
tests is used to establish the parameters of electric and mechanical driving power at various speeds. The consumed
electric power in Watts, which is the amount of electric power absorbed by the motor, may be calculated as [29],
√
Pe = 3 V I cos ϕ (16)
Where, cos ϕ is the power factor, assumed to be constant and equal to ∼ = 0.9, V is the line voltage in volts and I
is the supply line current in amperes. Avometer and CT sensor are used to measure the motor supply voltage and
current, at different operating speeds. The operating speed is measured using an incremental encoder. The encoder
is linked to an Arduino Mega board, which processes the output signal and displays the results on a PC. Fig. 13(a)
demonstrates that the operating speed rises linearly as the input frequency increases, therefore it is possible to
choose a desirable frequency and measure the operating speed, then use the frequency as a reference throughout
the experiments. The tests are performed at frequencies ranging from 5 Hz to 50 Hz in 5 Hz increments, with the
matching flywheel rotational speed recorded the electric power consumed by the motor increases as the frequency
increases. Fig. 13(b) and (c) indicate that as the frequency increases, so does the motor supply current and voltage.
The mechanical driving power in Watt may be determined after measuring the actual operating speed with the
encoder and the mechanical torque with the torque measuring device, Pm = T (t) (2π N /60). The findings reveal
that the mechanical driving torque changes linearly with operating speed and increases as it rises. As a result, the
mechanical driving power rises as the operating speed increases (see Fig. 13(d)).
Experiments are carried out to determine the relation between the operating speed and the mechanical driving
torque. The mechanical driving torque is measured using the torque cell. The torque cell is connected to the Arduino
Mega board to process the output signal and to display the measurements on a PC. The overall system efficiency
may be estimated after determining the mechanical power as ηo = Pm /Pe . Fig. 13(e) shows the relation between
overall system efficiency and the operating speed.
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Fig. 9. Variation of the angle of rotation at pressures (a) 2, (b) 3, (c) 4 and (d) 5 and the pump angular velocity with time.

Fig. 10. Charging of the accumulator with time.

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Fig. 11. Variations of the pressure value at pressures (a) 4, 5, (b) 6, (c) 7 and (d) 8 with braking time.

Fig. 12. Relation between flow rate Q5 and time.

5.2.1. Equivalent inertia of the system

The flexibility of the flexible connections may be overlooked during steady-state operation. The equivalent
moment of inertia of the system “Jeq ” is the total of these moments of inertia when only considering the influence
of each component’s moment of inertia. The equivalent moment of inertia may be calculated using the following
formula as Jeq = Jm + J f + Jc + Js + J1 + J2 + J3 + J4 + J5 , where J1 , J2 , J3 , J4 and J5 are the moment of inertia
corresponding to each coupling number, (I1 = 0.000353, I2 = I3 = 0.000121, I4 = I5 = 0.007375 kg m2 ).

5.2.2. System kinetic energy

The system kinetic energy KE in (Nm) can be calculated as K E = 21 Jeq ω2 and the torque due to friction in the
bearings and aerodynamic forces in (NM) can be calculated from T f = 2(K E)/(ω to ) where to is the free braking
time in (s). Figs. 14(a) and 14(b) show the relation between system kinetic energy and system kinetic energy with
operating speed, respectively. It can be seen that both parameters increase as operating speed increases.

5.3. Gear pump volumetric efficiency

The gear pump performance (pump’s volumetric efficiency) is studied at different operating speed. It can be
calculated by dividing actual flow rate by theoretical flow rate, Eq. (18). For the actual flow rate, a specific
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Fig. 13. Relation between (a) motor speed and frequency, (b) motor supply voltage and frequency, (c) motor supply current and frequency,
(d) motor supply power and operating speed and (e) overall system efficiency and operating speed.

volume (60 L) and the time needed to deliver it (t1 ) are measured, Eq. (17)(a). For the theoretical flow rate, it
can be calculated by multiplying displaced volume (1.7 × 10−3 L/rev) by pump measured rotational speed (rpm),
Eq. (17)(b).
}
Q a = 60/t1
(17)
Q th = (1.7 × N )/1000

ηv = Q a /Q th (18)

Fig. 15(a) shows the variation of actual flow rate and theoretical flow rate versus operating speed. The theoretical
and actual flow rates of the pump both raise as the operating speed increases; the difference might be due to pumping
operation losses. The results show that when the pump’s working speed increases, its volumetric efficiency improves
as well. Volumetric efficiency’s values range from 75% to 95%, see Fig. 15(b).
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Fig. 14. Relation between (a) system kinetic energy and operating speed, (b) free braking time and operating speed, (c) Friction power loss
and operating speed.

Fig. 15. Relation between (a) flow rate and operating speed, (b) volumetric efficiency and operating speed.

5.4. Hydraulic power

Through various measures, three assumptions are considered in calculating the hydraulic gain power: (i) a linear
relationship between operating speed and braking time; then the average speed may be taken as half of the operating
speed; (ii) the average oil flow rate equals to the quantity of delivered oil ‘V’ divided by the corresponding braking
time ‘t’; and (iii) the maximum recorded pressure during each test is a system pressure which may be used to
determine the gain hydraulic power.
Hydraulic power is gained by measuring the maximum system pressure, the amount of oil delivered by the
system and the braking time at different operating speeds and restriction ratios. The inertia torque in (N m) can be
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calculated as Ti = (2 × (K E))/(ω × t), where t is the braking time in (s). The inertia power can be calculated from
Pi = (Ti × ω)/2. Friction and aerodynamic torque can be obtained experimentally as mentioned before. Friction
and aerodynamic power loss can be estimated from the relation P f = (T f × ω)/2. Hydraulic resisting torque may
be calculated as Tr = Ti − T f and the hydraulic resisting power consumed by the pump can also be estimated as
Pr = (Tr × ω)/2. Average oil flow rate can be estimated using the relation Q av = (60V )/(1000t), where V is the
quantity of delivered oil in cm3 . Gain hydraulic power Ph in (Watt) based on maximum system pressure and average
oil flow rate, can be obtained from the equation; Ph = (Pmax Q av )/0.612, see [30], where Pmax is the maximum
system pressure in (bar) and Q av is the average oil flow rate in (L/min). Hence, the overall efficiency of the pump
can be estimated as ηo = Ph /Pr . Regenerative efficiency η R which measures how much energy can be captured
from the system waste kinetic energy, η R = Ph /Pi .
The relationship between restriction ratios that may be modified by the flow control valve (16), see Fig. 2,
and braking time, stored volume, maximum pressure, and average oil flow rate is shown in Fig. 16(a) to (d) for
numerous running speeds. The flow control valve is tested in five distinct locations (0%, 20%, 40%, 60%, and
80%) limitation, and the electric motor is operated at four different rotational speeds (800,1200,1500, and 2100
rpm) for each position of the flow control valve. The breaking time increases as the operating speed increases
and the restriction ratio decreases, as shown in Fig. 16(a). The volume of oil delivered by the pump as well as
the average oil flow rate increase significantly as the operating speed increases and decrease dramatically as the
restriction ratio increases, as shown in Fig. 16(b) and (c). The hydraulic test findings demonstrate that the maximum
system pressure attained during tests increases with increasing running speed and has no influence on the maximum
pressure value at restriction ratios larger than 20%, Fig. 16(c). Finally, the current research shows that when the
operating speed increases and the restriction ratio decreases, gain hydraulic power and regeneration efficiency rise
(Fig. 17(a) and (b)).

Fig. 16. Relation between (a) braking time and restriction ratio, (b) stored volume and restriction ratio, (c) maximum pressure and restriction
ratio, (d) average oil flow rate and restriction ratio.

6. Comparison of simulation and experimental results

– Validation is accomplished by comparing experimental and theoretical results. The relationship between free
braking time and rotation speed is seen in Fig. 18. Due to assumptions predicted in the theoretical study, a reasonable
agreement was attained within a 15% variance.
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Fig. 17. Relation between (a) regenerative efficiency and restriction ratio, (b) gain hydraulic power and restriction ratio.

Fig. 18. Relation between free braking time and rotating speed for experimental and theoretical analysis.

– Fig. 6(b) demonstrates that the rotational speed (1512 rpm) calculated from the theoretical model and analysis
agrees well with the motor speed (1500 rpm). Furthermore, the calculated torque using the mathematical model
at 1500 rpm motor speed is 400 N m, however the actual amount during the experiment at 1500 rpm is around
412 N m. As a result, the numerical model is considered accurate enough to utilize.

7. Economic and environmental benefits

In Alexandria/Egypt, for example, about 284900 gasoline-powered automobiles and 72620 diesel-powered cars
are on the road [31], consuming around 600 million liters of gasoline and 1500 million liters of diesel fuel
yearly [32]. Fig. 19 demonstrates that using a hydraulic regenerative braking system and assuming a 20% energy
reduction, around 120 million liters of gasoline and 300 million liters of diesel fuel might be saved yearly.

8. Conclusions
It is critical to investigate waste kinetic energy and how to use it to conserve energy. The quantity of energy
that can be gathered and stored is tested via theoretical and experimental work. A hydro-mechanical test rig is
designed and built to investigate the amount of energy that can be collected and stored while rotating machine parts
are stopped. A parametric research is presented, taking into account the different system parameters. The following
main points have been reached:
– When the working speed increases and the restriction ratio decreases, both gain hydraulic power and
regeneration efficiency increase.
– Around 18% to 55% of inertia power may be caught and converted to hydraulic power, which can then be
stored in an accumulator.
– The hydraulic power gain is influenced by the operating speed and resistance in the hydraulic braking system.
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Fig. 19. Effect of energy generation on (a) gasoline and (b) diesel fuel consumptions.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could
have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.

Acknowledgments
Authors would like to thank Prof. Hassan El-Gamal for his guidance and support, Eng. Amr Afifi for his help
with MATLAB, Eng. Mostafa Othman for his help with control and Mr. Karim for helping in the lab.

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