MUSCULAR SYSTEM

The muscular system is the biological system of humans that allows them to move. It is composed of
specialized cells called muscle fibers that function for contractibility.
FUNCTIONS:
 Movement of the body
 Maintenance of posture
 Respiration
 Production of body heat
 Communication
 Constriction of Organs and Vessels
 Contraction of the heart
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF MUSCLE
1. Contractility – the ability of muscle to shorten forcefully
2. Excitability – the capacity of muscle to respond to a stimulus
3. Extensibility – a muscle can be stretched beyond its normal resting length and still be able to contract
4. Elasticity - the ability of muscle to recoil to its original resting length after it has been stretched
TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE

SKELETAL MUSCLE
 Constitutes about 40% of the body’s weight
 These muscles work with the bones, ligaments, and tendons
 Responsible for locomotion, facial expressions, posture, respiratory functions
Location Function
*Attached to bones *Body Movement
 Made up of hundreds and thousands of cylindrical fibers up to 30cm striated
 Bound together in bundles by connective tissue
 Voluntary and involuntary (reflexes)
 Multinucleate
 Largest
CARDIAC MUSCLE
  Found only in the heart, and its contractions provide the major force for moving blood through the
circulatory system
Location - Heart
Function - Pumping blood; contractions provide the major force for propelling through blood vessels
 Striated by shorter and have branches that link up to form interconnected strands
 Interweave to form a spinal bond around ventricle of heart
 Involuntary
SMOOTH MUSCLE
 The most widely distributed type of muscle in the body
Location - Walls of hollow organs, blood vessels, eyes, glands, and skin
Function - Walls of hollow organs, blood vessels, eyes, glands, and skin
 Spindle-shaped (15-200 µm in length, 5-8 µm in diameter)
 Packed together in sheets
 Non-striated
 Contracts slowly and rhythmically – control of autonomic nervous system
 Involuntary

What do muscles look like?

Skeletal muscles:
Many individual fibers make up skeletal muscles. Actin and myosin are proteins that make up fibers.
The bundles of fibers from a spindle shape (long and straight with tapered ends). A membrane
surrounds each spindle. Providers describe skeletal muscles as striated (striped) because of the striped
pattern the spindles create together.
Cardiac muscles:
These striated muscles look similar to skeletal muscles. Special cells called cardiomyocytes help your
heart beat.
Smooth muscles:
The proteins actin and myosin also make up smooth muscle fibers. They appear in sheets and give the
muscle tissue a smooth appearance.
III. Skeletal Muscle Structure
• A muscle is composed of numerous visible bundles called muscle fasciculi.
• Each fasciculus is surrounded by another, heavier connective tissue layer called the perimysium.
• The entire muscle is surrounded by a layer of connective tissue called the epimysium.
• Fascia is a general term for connective tissue sheets within the body.
• Muscular fascia, located superficial to the epimysium, separates and compartmentalizes individual
muscles or groups of muscles.
 Nerves and Blood Vessels
 Motor neurons are specialized nerve cells that stimulate muscles to contract.
 Motor neurons extend together with arteries and veins through the connective tissue of skeletal
muscles.
 Skeletal Muscle Fibers
 A muscle fiber is a single cell consisting of a plasma membrane (sarcolemma), cytoplasm (sarcoplasm),
several nuclei, and myofibrils.
 Myofibrils are composed of two major protein fibers: actin and myosin.
 Actin and myosin are organized to form sarcomeres.
Physiology of Muscle Contraction
A muscle contraction occurs when a muscle fiber generates tension through the movement of actin
and myosin.

IV. Physiology of Skeletal Muscle Fibers

Sliding Filament Model/Theory
Process
 Each end of the myosin thick filament uses its “head” region that uses energy from ATP to “walk” along
the actin
 The two actin filaments at opposite sides of the sarcomere are drawn closer together
 The sarcomere shortens then the muscle fiber contracts
V. Physiology of Skeletal Muscle
 Muscle Twitch
o A single, brief contraction and relaxation cycle in a muscle fiber
o Muscle Twitch has:
 Lag Phase (latent phase)
The time between the application of the stimulus to the motor neuron and the beginning of contraction
 Contraction Phase
The time during which contraction occurs
 Relaxation Phase
The time during which relaxation occurs

 Motor Units
 consists of a single motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates. An action potential in the
motor neuron generates an action potential in each of the muscle fibers of its motor unit.
 Motor units in different muscles do not always contain the same number of muscle fibers.
 Precise movements use small motor units. Gross movements use large motor units.

 Stimulus Strength and Motor Unit Response

 A stimulus of increasing magnitude results in graded contractions of increased force through either
summation or recruitment.
 Summation – the additive effect of several electrical impulses on a neuromuscular junction
Temporal Summation – successful stimuli on one nerve
Spatial Summation – the addition of simultaneous stimuli from several conducting fibers
 Recruitment – involves increasing the number of muscle fibers contracting

 Treppe is an increase in the force of contraction during the first few contractions of a rested muscle
 Multiple-Motor-Unit Summation is the relationship between increased stimulus strength and an
increased number of contracting motor units
VARIOUS RESULTS THAT ARE POSSIBLE TO HAPPEN DEPENDING ON THE STRENGTH OF THE STIMULUS:
1. Subthreshold Stimulus – not enough to cause an action potential in any of the axons in a nerve and
does not cause contraction
2. Threshold Stimulus – strong enough to produce an action potential, causing all the muscle fibers of the
motor to contract
3. Submaximal Stimuli – a progressively stronger stimuli that produce action potentials in axons of
additional motor units
4. Maximal Stimuli – produces action potentials in the axons of all the motor units of the muscle

 Stimulus Frequency and Whole Muscle Contraction

As the frequency of action potentials in a skeletal muscle fiber increases, the frequency of contraction
also increases until a period of sustained contraction or Tetanus is achieved.
 Incomplete Tetanus – muscle fibers partially relax between the contractions
 Complete Tetanus – muscle fibers produce action potential so rapidly that no relaxation occurs
between them
 Multiple Wave Summation – The increased tension produced as the frequency of contractions
increases
 Wave Summation – occurs when stimulations are delivered to a muscle fiber faster than it is able to
completely relax
 Primary function of wave summation is to make muscle contractions smooth and continuous
 Passive Tension – tension applied to the load when a muscle stretches but I is not stimulated
 Active Tension – the force applied to an object to be lifted when a muscle contract
 Total Tension – the sum of active and passive tension

 Muscle Length Versus Tension

- Isometric Contractions – occurs when muscle length remains relatively constant as tension is produced
- Isotonic Contractions – there is a change in muscle length but no change in muscle tension
- Concentric Contraction – the muscle tension rises to meet the resistance, then remains the same as
muscle shortens
- Eccentric Contraction – the muscle lengthens due to the resistance being greater than the force the
muscle is producing
- Muscle Tone – the constant tension produced by muscles for long periods of time
VI. Muscle Fatigue
• Fatigue, the decreased ability to do work, can be caused by the central nervous system, depletion of
ATP in muscles, or depletion of acetylcholine in the neuromuscular junction.
• Physiological contracture (the inability of muscles to contract or relax) and rigor mortis (stiff muscles
after death) result from inadequate amounts of ATP

VII. Energy Sources

Energy for muscle contraction comes from ATP
 Creatine Phosphate
 ATP synthesized when ADP reacts with creatine phosphate provides energy for a short time during
intense exercise.
 Anaerobic Respiration
 The ATP synthesized by anaerobic respiration provides energy for a short time during intense exercise.
Anaerobic respiration produces ATP less efficiently but more rapidly than aerobic respiration. Lactic
acid levels increase because of anaerobic respiration.
 Aerobic Respiration
 The ATP synthesized by aerobic respiration produces energy for muscle contractions under resting
conditions or during exercises such as long-distance running. Although ATP is produced more
efficiently, it is produced more slowly
 Oxygen Deficit and Recovery Oxygen Consumption
 After anaerobic respiration, aerobic respiration is higher than normal, as the imbalances of
homeostasis that occurred during exercise become rectified

VIII. Slow-Twitch and Fast-Twitch Fibers

• Two major types of skeletal muscle fibers:
 Slow-Twitch oxidative (SO) muscle fibers (type I fibers)
- contract more slowly, have a better-developed blood supply, have more mitochondria, and are more
fatigue-resistant than fast-twitch muscle fibers.
- called oxidative muscle fibers because of their enhanced capacity to carry out aerobic respiration
- contain large amounts of myoglobin, a dark pigment similar to hemoglobin in red blood cells, which
binds oxygen and acts as an oxygen reservoir in the muscle fiber when the blood does not supply an
adequate amount
 Fast-twitch muscle fibers (type II fibers)
- respond rapidly to nervous stimulation, and their myosin heads have a fast form of myosin ATPase,
which allows them to break down ATP more rapidly than slow-twitch muscle fibers.
 - have a less-well-developed blood supply than muscles containing a high percentage of slow-twitch
fibers
- have very little myoglobin and fewer and smaller mitochondria
Effects of Exercise
 Muscles increase (hypertrophy) or decrease (atrophy) in size because of a change in the size of muscle
fibers
 Anaerobic exercise develops IIb fibers
 Aerobic exercise develops type I fibers and changes type IIb fibers into type IIb fast-twitch fibers

IX. Heat Production

 Heat is a by-product of chemical reactions in muscles
 Shivering products heat to maintain body temperature

X. Smooth Muscle
• Smooth muscle cells are spindle-shaped with a single nucleus
• The sarcoplasmic reticulum is poorly developed, and caveolae may function as a T tubule system.
• Calcium ions enter the cell to initiate contraction; calmodulin binds to Ca2+ and activates an enzyme
that transfers a phosphate group from ATP to myosin. When phosphate groups are attached to myosin,
cross-bridges form.
• Relaxation results when myosin phosphatase removes a phosphate group from the myosin molecule.
TYPES OF SMOOTH MUSCLE
1. Visceral smooth muscle fibers
• contract slowly, have gap junctions (and thus function as a single unit), and can be
autorhythmic.
2. Multiunit smooth muscle fibers
• contract rapidly in response to stimulation by neurons and function independently

Electrical Properties of Smooth Muscle

 Spontaneous contractions result from Na+ and Ca2+ leakage into cells; Na+ and Ca2+ movement into
the cell is involved in depolarization.
 The autonomic nervous system, hormones, and chemicals produced locally can inhibit or stimulate
action potentials (and thus contractions). Hormones can also stimulate or inhibit contractions without
affecting membrane potentials
Functional Properties of Smooth Muscle
  Some visceral smooth muscle exhibits autorhythmic contractions
 Smooth muscle maintains a steady tension for long periods
 The force of smooth muscle contraction remains nearly constant, despite changes in muscle length
 Smooth muscle does not develop an oxygen deficit
Regulation of Smooth Muscle
 Smooth muscle is innervated by the autonomic nervous system and is involuntary.
 Hormones are important in regulating smooth muscle. Certain hormones can increase the Ca2+
permeability of some smooth muscle membranes and therefore cause contraction without a change in
the resting membrane potential.

XI. Cardiac Muscle

• Some cardiac muscle cells are autorhythmic
• One part of the heart normally acts as the pacemaker
• Have a much longer duration and refractory than nerve and skeletal muscle

XII. Effects of Aging on Skeletal Muscle

 The types of muscle fibers are affected by aging as well. The numbers of muscle fibers that contract
faster decrease much more than the numbers of muscle fibers that contract slower. Thus, muscles are
not able to contract as quickly in old age.
 A primary consequence of aging is sarcopenia, or muscle atrophy.
 Loss of muscle (sarcopenia) is a process that starts around age 30 and progresses throughout life. In
this process, the amount of muscle tissue and the number and size of muscle fibers gradually decrease.
The result of sarcopenia is a gradual loss of muscle mass and muscle strength. Fortunately, the loss in
muscle mass and strength can partially be overcome or at least significantly delayed by a program of
regular exercise
What conditions and disorders affect the muscles?
A wide range of disorders, diseases, drugs, and injuries can cause problems with how the muscle work.
They include:
o Cardiovascular disease:
- Several kinds of venous disease and cardiovascular disease, including coronary artery disease, can cause
problems with the heart and blood vessels. A heart attack can result when muscles in the blood vessels
weaken.
o Muscle injuries is a broad term encompassing many pathologies and these are common injuries in both
elite and amateur athletes as well as in the general population.
Some Muscle Injury types:
 1. Muscle Strains – is a contradiction-induced injury in which muscle fibers tear due to extensive
mechanical stress (over stretching of the muscle)

2. Muscle Cramp – sudden, involuntary muscle contractions or over-shortening. It can cause mild-to-
excruciating pain and paralysis-like immobility of the affected muscle.

The best way to prevent a sports injury is to warm up properly and stretch. Cold muscles are prone to
overstretching and tears. Warm muscles are more flexible. They can absorb quick movements, bends, and
jerks, making injury less likely.
Moreover, the RICE method is a common treatment regimen for sports injuries.

What are common signs or symptoms of conditions affecting the muscles?

• Difficulty swallowing, shortness of breath
• Movement problems and balance issues
• Muscle pain, cramps, or twitching
• Muscle weakness
• Vision problems

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

DEFINING THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
 complex network of nerves and cells that carry messages to and from the brain and spinal cord to
various parts of the body.
  proper functioning of these nerves ensures that each organ system can adequately communicate with
one another.
 for sensory Input, integration, and motor response
Three Ancient Greek Philosophers
INTERESTED IN THE RELATION BETWEEN THE HEAD AND THE BODY

Alcmaeon of Croton - Argued that the brain is the seat of intelligence, connected to the extremities of the
body by poroi.

Praxagoras of Kos - Suggested that the brain controls movement in the body, and posed the existence of
neurons responsible for sending brain signals through the body.

Herophilus of Chalcedon – Herophilus used dissection to demonstrate the existence of a nervous system
distinct from the vascular system, discovered nerves connected to inner organs and muscles, and
distinguished between sensory and motor nerves.
The Nervous System: Its Types
" A complex part that coordinates its actions and sensory information by transmitting signals to and from
different parts of its body."
The Central Nervous System
 made up of the brain and spinal cord
 analyze and integrate various intra- and extra personal information, as well as to generate a
coordinated response to these stimuli.
 supreme command center of the body
 “central” because it combines information from the entire body and coordinates activity across the
whole organism.

The tissue of the central nervous system is made up of:

• grey matter
• white matter
 The brain and spinal cord are protected from damage by a clear liquid called cerebrospinal fluid, 3
layers of membranes called the meninges, and the hard bones of the skull and backbone.
 The brain is protected by the skull (the cranial cavity) and the spinal cord travels from the back of the
brain, down the center of the spine, stopping in the lumbar region of the lower back.
The Brain
 most complex organ in the human body
 Cerebral Cortex - the outermost part of the brain and the largest part by volume)
 controls most of the functions of the body
 central control module of the body and coordinates activity
Brain Regions (the brain can be divided into four distinct regions):
 BRAINSTEM
 CEREBRUM
 CEREBELLUM
 DIENCEPHALON
THE BRAIN STEM
It is the stalk-like part of the brain that connects the brain to the spinal cord and is only about one inch long.
• located in the middle of the brain
• regulates essential functions such as blood pressure, breathing, heart rhythms, and swallowing.
The brainstem can be further subdivided into:
• the midbrain - mesencephalon, is crucial for regulating eye movements, emotions, hearing, and long-
term memory
• pons - facial movements, hearing, breathing, and balance.
• medulla - breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure

THE CEREBRUM
The most significant part of the brain and is lined by a deeply folded layer of nerve tissue called the cerebral
cortex.
• Right hemisphere - responsible for creating awareness, emotions, facial expression perception,
posture, and prosody.
• Left hemisphere - dominant in language and pre-processing social emotions.
Brain Lobes

• Temporal lobe (green):

- located at the sides of the brain and are inferior to the lateral fissure
- important for processing sensory input and assigning it emotional meaning
• Occipital lobe (purple):
- located in the posterior portion of the brain behind the parietal and temporal lobes
- visual processing region of the brain, housing the visual cortex.
• Parietal lobe (yellow):
- posterior to the central sulcus and above the occipital lobe
- the parietal lobe integrates sensory information including touch, spatial awareness, and navigation.
• Frontal lobe (pink):
- positioned at the front of the brain, anterior to the central sulcus
- contains the majority of dopamine-sensitive neurons and is involved in attention, reward, short-term
memory, motivation, and planning.
CEREBELLUM
Located beneath the temporal and occipital lobes and above the brainstem.
• coordinate and regulate a wide range of functions and processes in both your brain and body
• it holds more than half of the neurons (cells that make up your nervous system) in your whole body.
DIENCEPHALON
The diencephalon connects the midbrain to the forebrain and is located deep within the brain.
The diencephalon includes:
• thalamus - relay center for sensory data
• hypothalamus - transmits hormonal signals to the body through the pituitary gland
The hippocampus, located underneath each temporal lobe, is vital for long-term memory.

THE SPINAL CORD

 long tube-like structure that extends from the brain
 The spinal cord can be classified into cervical, thoracic, and lumbar areas located in the neck, chest,
and lower back.
 cervical spinal cord consists of eight nerves that originate from the neck and run mainly to the face and
head.
 A total of twelve pairs of nerves can be found within the thoracic region of the spinal cord.
The Meninges
• three membranous layers that cover and protect both the brain and spinal cord.
• The meninges layers include the
- dura mater = outermost meninges layer
- arachnoid = middle meninges layer
- pia mater = thinnest meninges layer

Neurons
The basic unit of the nervous system.
• specialized conductor cell that receives and transmits electrochemical nerve impulses between the brain and
the rest of the nervous system.
A neuron consists of a cell body, dendrite, and axon.

• Cell body - contains the nucleus, which controls cellular activities and contains genetic material.
• Dendrites - branched projections that extend from the cell body and receive signals from other neurons.
• Axon - Electrical signals travel down a long and thin process, which extends from the cell body.
• Neurotransmitters, travel between neurons through a space known as the synapse.
• Myelin Sheath - insulates neurons and is continuous along the axons or dendrites, except at the nodes of
Ranvier - periodic gap in the insulating sheath (myelin)
Myelin which consists of fat and proteins, provides protection to the neuron, propagates electrical impulses
between neurons, and maintains the strength of the signal as it travels down the axon.

THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

 Consists of both the somatic and autonomic nervous systems
 These systems transmit information from different areas of the body to the brain and ensure that
signals sent from the brain are transmitted to other areas of the body.
The Somatic Nervous System (SNS)
• consists of peripheral nerve fibers that carry sensory information or sensations from peripheral
organs to the CNS.
• motor nerve fibers that exit the brain to carry commands for movement to the skeletal muscles.
The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
• controls the nerves of the body's inner organs that cannot be controlled consciously
• The ANS can be further subdivided into the
- sympathetic (“fight-or-flight”)
- parasympathetic (“rest and digest”)
 - enteric nervous systems (modulates immune and endocrine functions)
• heartbeat, digestion, subconscious breathing, blood pressure, and sexual arousal.

Facts about Nervous System

1. The body has billions of nerve cells – 100 billion in the brain and 13.5 million in the spinal cord
2. Neurons are made of three major parts

3. Neurons may look different from one another

4. Neurons are programmed to do different things
-Varies in shapes and sizes depending on their locations and what they are programmed to do.
TYPES OF NEURONS
a) SENSORY NEURONS
 Carry impulse towards the CNS

b) MOTOR NEURONS
 Carries signal
 c) RECEPTORS
 Sense the environment

d) INTERNEURONS
 Sends messages

5. The body has a nervous system for preparing the body for action
6. There is a nervous system for controlling the body at rest
7. There is a nervous system for controlling the bowel
8. Your nervous system can be hacked
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM (Why is it important?)
It's significance:
-transmits signals
-controls brain growth and development
-guides everyday activities such as: waking up, breathing, thinking, reading, remembering, feeling
emotions
In addition to the brain and spinal cord, principal organs of the nervous system include the following:
• Eyes
• Ears
• Sensory organs of taste
• Sensory organs of smell
• Sensory receptors located in the skin, joints, muscles, and other parts of the body
What are some disorders of the nervous system?
 Trauma
 Infections
  Degeneration - occurs because of age-related wear-and-tear on a spinal disc, and may be
accelerated by injury, health and lifestyle factors, and possibly by genetic predisposition to joint
pain or musculoskeletal disorders.
-Degenerative disc disease rarely starts from a major trauma such as a car accident.
more severe or longer-lasting symptoms:
• Structural defects (any defect from your organs or structures)
• Tumors
• Blood flow disruption
• Autoimmune disorders
Steps to keep your central nervous system healthy
Step 1: Exercise on a daily basis
Exercising doesn’t really mean that you need to get out and start running
Step 2: Get plenty of sleep
Sleep plays a vital role in enhancing your mental health, physical health, and safety
Step 3: Expose your body to sunlight
Exposing yourself to the sunlight every morning for about 10 minutes is enough to boost your
body’s nervous system, and at the same time, obtain enough vitamin D.
Step 4: Add meditation in your daily routine
Meditating is a smart way of calming and soothing your nerves.
Step 5: Walk barefoot
Walking barefoot can further help in improving your sleep and strengthening your immune
system.
other benefits are:
▪Reduce pain and inflammation
▪Reduce the risk of heart disease
▪Normalize biological rhythms
▪Increase your senses
▪Improves overall posture
▪Influence the brain
▪Lessen the severity of menstrual cramps
Step 6: Drink green tea
Having a cup of Green Tea at least once a day, is a great way of maintaining the heart of your
nervous system
 Step 7: Food you eat matters
Eating a healthy diet not only aids in maintaining a proper weight and steering away a plethora
of lifestyle diseases in check, but also in keeping the central nervous system in check.
Additional tips:
o Drink plenty of water
o Excess consumption of alcohol and smoking
o Get your blood pressure checked regularly
o Learn new way to increase your attention
o Make certain your intake adequate amount of healthy fats
o Keep your weight in check and reduce in case you’re obese
o Use prescribed medicines
o Protect yourself from traumatic situations
o Consume adaptogenic herbs
o Decrease the intake of caffeine rich drinks