CHAPTER 7: Skull (solid bone) encloses and

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM protects the brain.

OUTLINE Vertebrae surround the spinal
cord.
CHAPTER 7: Rib cage protects the heart,
Too many lungs, and other
organs of the
REFERENCE/S
thorax.
Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology
(Eleventh Edition) Body movement

-Tendons (attach muscles to the bones).

SKELETAL SYSTEM: BONES AND JOINTS
-Contraction of the skeletal muscles moves
Osteology the bones, producing body movement.
- Study of the skeletal system
-Joints, which are formed where two or more
Skeletal System bones come together, allow movement
-Consists of bones and ligaments between bones.

-Called Skeleton -Ligaments allow some movement between

bones but prevent excessive movement.
Components of Skeletal System
Mineral storage

Bone- framework of the body -The principal minerals stored are calcium and
phosphorous.
Cartilages- reduce friction and serves as
model/precursor for bone formation. Blood cell production

Tendons- attach bone to muscle - In the bone marrows

Ligaments- attach bone to bone - Production of Red Blood Cells

(erythrocytes).
FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
- Production of White Blood Cells
Body support (leukocytes).
- Rigid, strong bone is well suited for
bearing weight and is the major supporting BONE HISTOLOGY
tissue of the body.

- Cartilage provides firm yet flexible support
within certain structures, such as the nose,
external ear, thoracic cage, and trachea.
- Ligaments, strong bands of fibrous
connective tissue, hold bones together.
Organ protection
Bone, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments of the
skeletal system are all connective tissues.
Their characteristics are largely determined by the
composition of their extracellular matrix.
The matrix always contains collagen, ground
substance, and other organic molecules, as well as
water and minerals.

-Bone is hard and protects the organs it Extracellular Matrix

surrounds.

-Not every part of our body is equally protected.
-The most protected organs of the entire body
are the brain, spinal cord, and the organs on
our chest.
Bone’s extracellular matrix- organic and inorganic
(flexible and able to bear weight).
Cartilage’s extracellular matrix- collagen and
proteoglycans (good shock absorber).

Tendons and ligament’s extracellular matrix is

collagen (very tough)
1|P age
Proteoglycans- large polysaccharides attached to OSTEOBLAST -bone-building cells
proteins; part of ground substance; capable of storing
water, giving it a shock absorbing capacity. -responsible for the
formation of bone and the
BONE MATRIX repair and remodeling of
bone.
Bone matrix is normally about 35% organic and 65%
inorganic material. -produce collagen,
proteoglycans and
The organic material consists primarily of collagen hydroxyapatite. (Produce
and proteoglycans. ECM of the bone)

The inorganic material consists primarily of a calcium -do not undergo mitosis
phosphate crystal called hydroxyapatite Ca10 (PO4) 6
(OH)2. Hydroxyapatite makes the bones hard and -secrete osteocalcin
strong.
-Ossification- the formation
The collagen and mineral components are responsible of new bone by osteoblasts.
for the major functional characteristics of bone.
OSTEOCYTES
If mineral in a long bone is reduced, collagen becomes -Osteocytes are cells that
the primary constituent, and the bone is overly flexible. maintain bone matrix and form
On the other hand, if the amount of collagen is reduced from osteoblast after bone
in the bone, the mineral component becomes the matrix has surrounded it.
primary constituent, and the bone is very brittle.
- account for 90–95% of bone
BRITTLE BONE DISEASE cells with a life span of up to
25 years
-Osteogenesis imperfecta
(imperfect bone formation) is
- produce the components
an inherited (genetic) bone needed to maintain the bone
disorder that is present at matrix
birth.
- Lacunae- houses within the
-a rare disorder caused by any one of a number of faulty
bone matrix where osteocytes
genes that results in either too little collagen formation, live.
or poor-quality collagen
-Canaliculi – cell extensions
- As a result, the bone matrix has decreased flexibility
of the lacunae
and is more easily broken than normal bone.
OSTEOCLASTS - bone-destroying cells
- break down bone
BONE CELLS
- Bone resorption- process of
bone repair and remodeling by
removing existing bone by
osteoclasts.

-As bone is broken down, the

Ca 2+ goes “back” into the
blood

2|P age
 TYPES OF BONE

BASED ON TYPE OF BONE TISSUE:

Spongy

Compact

BASED ON SHAPE:

Long Bone

Short Bone

Flat Bone

Irregular Bone
SPONGY AND COMPACT BONE
-Mature bone is called lamellar bone. It is organized
into thin, concentric sheets or layers, called lamellae.
-Bone can be classified according to the amount of bone
matrix relative to the amount of space within the bone.
-Spongy bone has less bone matrix and more space
than compact bone, which has more bone matrix and
less space.
COMPACT BONE/CORTICAL BONE
-Compact bone, or cortical bone, is the solid, outer
layer surrounding each bone.
-The functional unit of compact bone is osteon. It is
composed of concentric rings of matrix surrounding a
central canal.
-Central canals are lined with endosteum and contain
blood vessels, nerves, and loose connective tissue.

SPONGY BONE

-Spongy bone consists of interconnecting rods or

plates of bone called trabeculae.

-Between the trabeculae are spaces, which in life are

filled with bone marrow and blood vessels.

-The surfaces of trabeculae are covered with a single

layer of cells consisting of osteoblasts with a few
osteoclasts.

-No osteons.

3|P age
 Epiphysis (pl. Epiphyses)

-Head of the long bones or ends of a long bone.

-The epiphyses are mostly spongy bone, with an outer

layer of compact bone.

Articular cartilage

-Hyaline cartilage covering the end of a long bone

-The purpose is to cover the head of the bone to prevent

friction when it connects to another bone.

Epiphyseal plate, or growth plate

BONE ANATOMY - Located between the epiphysis and the diaphysis.

-Site of growth in bone length

STRUCTURE OF A LONG BONE -When bone stops growing in length, the epiphyseal
plate becomes ossified and is called the epiphyseal
line.

Growth in length of the long bones of the arm, forearm,

thigh, and leg occurs at both ends of the diaphysis,
whereas growth in length of the hand and foot bones
occurs at one end of the diaphysis.

Medullary cavity

- Center of diaphysis

-Cavities in spongy bone and the medullary cavity are

filled with soft tissue called marrow.

Red marrow - the site of blood cell formation.

Yellow marrow -mostly adipose tissue.

Bone Marrow

-In the fetus, the spaces within bones are filled with red
marrow. Just before birth the red bone marrow starts
to get converted to yellow marrow.

-This continues well into adulthood.

-In adults, most red bone marrow is in the flat bones.

The long bones of the femur and humerus contain
yellow marrow.

Diaphysis Hipbone is used as a source of donated red bone

-Whole central shaft/ body or the center portion of the
bone.
-Houses the marrow
-It is composed primarily of compact bone tissue,
surrounding a hollow center called the medullary
cavity.
marrow because it is a large bone with more red bone
marrow than smaller bones and it can be accessed
relatively easily.
Periosteum
-The outer surface of a bone is covered by a connective
tissue membrane.
-The outer layer of periosteum contains blood vessels
and nerves.

4|P age
-Where tendons and ligaments attach to bone, fibers of 1. intramembranous ossification
the tendon or ligament become continuous with those
of the periosteum. -Starts within embryonic connective tissue membranes

Endosteum -cranium, clavicles, flat bones

-Inner-most single cell layer of connective tissue that
lines the internal surfaces of all cavities within bones.
-Membrane that lines medullary cavity.
Metaphysis
-Located between epiphysis and diaphysis.
-Contains the growth plate of the epiphysis known as
the epiphyseal plate.
Compact Bone
-CT membranes formed by mesenchymal cells
2. endochondral ossification
-Starts with a hyaline cartilage model.
-Forms most bones
-Similar to post-natal bone growth
INTRAMEMBRANOUS OSSIFICATION

-Found in the harder outer shell of the bone organ. -Occurs when
osteoblasts begin to
Spongy Bone
produce bone within
- Found in the inner portions of bone and is identified by connective tissue.
the trabeculae and open spaces.
-This occurs primarily
in the bones of the
skull.

BONE DEVELOPMENT
Bone formation (ossification/osteogenesis; osteo-bone,
genesis-beginning) in the fetus follows two processes:

Note: Both types of bone formation can result in

compact or spongy bone.

5|P age
STEPS IN INTRAMEMBRANOUS OSSIFICATION STEPS IN ENDOCHONDRAL OSSIFICATION

1. Osteoblasts within the center of ossification

produce bone matrix around collagen fibers of
the connective tissue membrane.

Once the osteoblasts are embedded in bone

matrix, the osteoblasts become osteocytes.

Many tiny trabeculae of woven bone develop.

2. Additional osteoblasts gather on the surface of

the trabeculae and produce more bone.
Trabeculae become larger and longer. Spongy
bone forms as the trabeculae join together.
3. Cells within the spaces of the spongy bone
specialize to form red bone marrow, and cells
surrounding the developing bone specialize to
form the periosteum.
1. Chondroblasts build a cartilage model, the
chondroblasts become chondrocytes.
2. Cartilage model calcifies (hardens).
3. Osteoblasts invade calcified cartilage and a
primary ossification center forms in the
diaphysis.

Osteoblasts from the periosteum lay down bone 4. Secondary ossification centers from
matrix to form an outer surface of compact epiphysis.
bone.
5. Original cartilage model is almost completely
Centers of ossification: locations in the membrane ossified and remaining cartilage is articular
where intramembranous ossification begins. The cartilage.
centers of ossification expand to form a bone by
gradually ossifying the membrane. Thus, the centers
BONE GROWTH
have the oldest bone, and the expanding edges the
youngest bone
BONE GROWTH IN WIDTH- APPOSITIONAL
Fontanels, or soft spots, are the larger, membrane- GROWTH
covered spaces between the developing skull bones
that have not yet been ossified. The bones eventually
grow together, and all the fontanels have usually closed -Bone growth occurs by the deposition of new bone
by 2 years of age. lamellae onto existing bone or other connective tissue.

ENDOCHONDRAL OSSIFICATION -As osteoblasts deposit new bone matrix on the surface
of bones between the periosteum and the existing bone
matrix, the bone increases in width, or diameter.
-Endochondral bone formation is bone formation within
a cartilage model. -The process is called appositional growth.

-The cartilage model is replaced by bone.

-Initially formed is a primary ossification center, which

forms bone in the diaphysis of a long bone.

-A secondary ossification center forms bone in the

epiphysis.

- Bones of the base of the skull, part of the mandible,

the epiphyses of the clavicles, and most of the
remaining skeletal system develop through
endochondral ossification. (Happens in all bones
except skull).

6|P age
 BONE GROWTH IN LENGTH- ENDOCHONDRAL 18 to 23 years Bone of the lower limbs
GROWTH and os coxas become
completely ossified.
23 to 25 years Bone of the sternum,
-Growth in the length of a bone, which is the major clavicles, and vertebrae
source of increased height in an individual, occurs in the become completely
epiphyseal plate. ossified.
By 25 years Nearly all bones are
-This type of bone growth occurs through completely ossified.
endochondral ossification.

BONE REMODELING

Bone remodeling involves:

-removal of existing bone by osteoclasts and

-deposition of new bone by osteoblasts

-occurs in all bones

-responsible for changes in bone shape, bone repair,

adjustment of bone to stress, and calcium ion
regulation.
-Chondrocytes increase in number on the epiphyseal
side of the epiphyseal plate.

-Then the chondrocytes enlarge and die BONE REPAIR

-The cartilage matrix becomes calcified.

-Much of the cartilage that forms around the enlarged

cells is removed by osteoclasts, and the dying
chondrocytes are replaced by osteoblasts.

-The osteoblasts start forming bone by depositing bone

lamellae on the surface of the calcified cartilage.

-This process produces bone on the diaphyseal side of

the epiphyseal plate. 1. Broken bone causes bleeding and a
hematoma forms.
TIMETABLE FOR HUMAN OSSIFICATION 2. A callus forms which is a bone cartilage
network between and around the bone
Time period Bones affected
fragments.
Third month of Ossification in long 3. Woven, spongy bone replaces the callus.
embryonic development bones beginning. 4. Compact bone replaces the spongy bone.
Fourth month Most primary ossification
centers have appeared
in the diaphyses of Note: Broken bones should be kept in their proper place
bone. (that’s why we put splints and casts), if not bone repair
Birth to 5 years Secondary ossification will not happen properly.
centers appear in the
epiphyses. CLINICAL IMPACT
5 years to 12 years in Ossification is spreading
females, 5 to 14 years in rapidly from the
males ossification centers and
various bones are
becoming ossified.
17 to 20 years Bone of upper limbs and
scapulae becoming
completely ossified.

7|P age
Classification of Bone Fractures -Calcium is a critical nutrient involved in many
physiological processes including:
Open (Formerly called a compound
fracture fracture) occurs when an open -Stimulation and regulation of skeletal and
wound extends to the site of the cardiac muscle contraction.
fracture or when a fragment of bone
protrudes through the skin. -Exocytosis of cellular molecules, including
Closed (Formerly called a simple fracture). If those important for neural signaling.
fracture the skin is not perforated, the
fracture is called a closed fracture PARATHYROID HORMONE (PTH)
Complicated If the soft tissues around a closed
fracture fracture are damaged. Goal: Increase the amount of calcium in the blood.
Incomplete Does not extend completely across
fracture the bone. - Secreted by the parathyroid gland
Complete The bone is broken into at least two (behind thyroid)
fracture fragments.
Greenstick An incomplete fracture on the - Increases formation and activation of
fracture convex side of the curve of the bone osteoclasts, the principal bone-
Hairline are incomplete fractures in which the reabsorbing cells.
fractures two sections of bone do not
separate; hairline fractures are
common in the skull. - Stimulates reabsorption of Calcium from
Comminuted is a complete fracture in which the urine in the kidney, reducing the amount of
fracture bone breaks into more than two Calcium excreted in the urine.
pieces—usually two major
fragments and a smaller fragment. - Indirectly increases Calcium uptake
Impacted One fragment is driven into the from the small intestine through the
fracture spongy portion of the other activation of calcitriol.
fragment.
Linear Run parallel to the length of the bone CALCITONIN
fractures
Transverse At right angles to the length of the Goal: Lower the amount of calcium in the blood.
fractures bone. -Secreted from C cells in the thyroid gland when blood
Spiral Take a helical course around the
calcium(2+) levels are too high.
fractures bone
Oblique Run obliquely in relation to the length -Rapidly lowers blood calcium levels by inhibiting
fractures of the bone. osteoclasts activity.
Dentate Have rough, toothed, broken ends.
fractures
Stellate Have breakage lines radiating from a
fractures central point.

BONE AND CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS

-Bone is a major storage site for calcium.

-Movement of calcium in and out of bone helps

determine blood levels of calcium.

-Calcium moves into bone as osteoblasts build new

bone.

-Calcium moves out of bone as osteoclasts break down

bone.

-Calcium homeostasis is maintained by parathyroid

hormone (PTH) and calcitonin.

8|P age
 LONG BONES

-Longer than wide and facilitate movement.

-Ex. Femur, tibia, fibula, phalanges (upper and

lower limb)

SHORT BONES

-As long as they are wide (equal length and

width).

-Ex. Carpals, tarsals

FLAT BONES

-Relatively thin, flattened shape

-Offers large surface area of protection and

SKELETAL ANATOMY OVERVIEW muscle attachment.

-Ex. Ribs, sternum, skull

The average adult has 206 bones.

Bones are segregated into the axial skeleton and the

appendicular skeleton. IRREGULAR BONES

Axial skeleton- consists of the bones of the skull, the -Complex in shape.
auditory ossicles, the hyoid bone, the vertebral column, -Do not fit readily into the other three
and the thoracic cage. (Midline bones) categories.
Appendicular skeleton consists of the bones of the -Ex. Vertebrae and facial bones
upper limbs, the lower limbs, and the two girdles.

Girdle(belt/zone)- refers to the two zones where the

limbs are attached to the body. These two zones are the SESAMOID BONES
pectoral girdle (for upper limb) and the pelvic girdle
-Embedded in tendons.
(for lower limb).
-patella (kneecap).
5 TYPES OF BONES/ BONE SHAPES

9|P age
 BONE MARKINGS/ SKELETAL TERMINOLOGY Process

MARKING MEANING A raised area or projection.

Angle A corner Ex. mastoid process
Body The main portion of a bone
Condyle

Smooth, rounded end

Ex. occipital condyle Ramus Curved portion of a bone. Like a
ram’s horn (pl. rami).
Sinus Cavity within a bone.
Spine Similar to a crest but raised more; a
sharp, pointed process; for muscle
attachment.
Crest Moderately raised ridge; generally, a Sulcus Groove or elongated depression (pl.
site for muscle attachment sulci).
Epicondyle Bump near a condyle; often gives Trochanter Large bump for muscle attachment
the appearance of a bump on a (larger than tubercle or tuberosity)
bump; for a muscle attachment. Tubercle
Facet Flat surface that forms a joint with
another facet of flat bone. Lump of bone/ Smaller version of a
Fissure Long, cracklike hole for blood tuberosity.
vessels and nerves. Ex. greater tubercle
Foramen

Round hole for vessels and nerves

(pl. foramina).
Ex. foramen magnum Tuberosity Larger, oblong, raised bump, usually
for muscle attachment.

Fossa BONES IN ADULT HUMAN SKELETON

AXIAL SKELETON
Depression; often receives an
articulating bone (pl. fossae) SKULL (22)
Ex. glenoid fossa

BRAIN CASE (8)

Head Distinct epiphysis on a long bone,
separated from the shaft by a
narrowed portion (or neck). Paired Parietal 2
Line Similar to a crest but not raised as
much (is often rather faint). Temporal 2
Margin Edge of a flat bone or flat portion of
an irregular bone. Unpaired Frontal 1
Meatus or Occipital 1
canal Canal-like passageway/ Tubelike
opening or channel (pl. meati). Sphenoid 1
Ex. external auditory meatus
Ethmoid 1

Neck A narrowed portion, usually at the

base of a head.
Notch A V-like depression in the margin or
edge of a flat area.

10 | P a g e
FACE (14) APPENDICULAR SKELETON

PECTORAL GIRDLE (4)

Paired Maxilla 2

Zygomatic 2 Scapula 2

Palatine 2 Clavicle 2

Nasal 2 UPPER LIMB (60)

Lacrimal 2
Humerus 2
Inferior nasal concha 2
Ulna 2
Unpaired Mandible 1
Radius 2
Vomer 1
Carpal bones 16
BONES ASSOCIATED WITH THE SKULL (7)
Metacarpal bones 10
AUDITORY OSSICLES (6)
Phalanges 28

Malleus 2 PELVIC GIRDLE (2)

Incus 2
Coxal bone 2
Stapes 2
LOWER LIMB (60)
Total 6

Femur 2
HYOID (1)
Tibia 2
Hyoid 1 Fibula 2
VERTEBRAL COLUMN (26) Patella 2
VERTEBRAL COLUMN (26) Tarsal bones 14

Metatarsals 10
Cervical vertebrae 7
Phalanges 28
Thoracic vertebrae 12
TOTAL GIRDLE AND UPPER LIMB 64
Lumbar vertebrae 5
TOTAL GIRDLE AND LOWER LIMB 62
Sacrum 1
TOTAL APPENDICULAR SKELETON 126
Coccyx 1

THORACIC CAGE (25)

AXIAL SKELETON
THORACIC CAGE (25)
-The axial skeleton is composed of the skull, the
Ribs 24 vertebral column, and the thoracic cage.

Sternum 1 -The skull has 22 bones divided into those of the

cranium and those of the face.
TOTAL AXIAL SKELETON: 80
-The cranium, which encloses the cranial cavity,
consists of 8 cranial bones that immediately surround
and protect the brain.
11 | P a g e
-The bony structure of the face has 14 facial bones. Occipital Fontanelle- Where the lambdoid suture
meets the sagittal suture.
-Thirteen of the
facial bones are The spaces between the bones that remain open in
rather solidly babies and young children are called fontanelles.
connected to form Sometimes, they are called soft spots. These spaces
the bulk of the face. are a part of normal development. The cranial bones
remain separate for about 12 to 18 months. They then
-The mandible, grow together as part of normal growth. They stay
however, forms a connected throughout adulthood.
freely movable
joint with the rest of Calvaria- top of the skull which is often removed to view
the skull. the interior of the skull.

-There are also

three auditory
ossicles in each
middle ear (six
total).

SKULL

The skull consists of 8 cranial bones and 14 facial

bones, a total of 22 bones.

Cranial bones or cranium- house and protect the

brain.

Both the exterior and the interior of the skull have visible
ridges and lines. Most of these are locations where
head and neck muscles attach to the cranium.

Sutures- immovable joints that connect the bones of

the skull.

The facial bones form the basis of the face; contain

cavities for the eyes, nose, and mouth; and are the
attachment sites for our facial expression muscles.

CRANIAL SUTURES

The cranial bones are connected by immovable joints

called sutures.

There are four principal sutures:

Coronal- connection of frontal bone to the parietal

bone.

Sagittal- connection of two parietal bones

Lambdoid- connects the two parietal bones to the

occipital bone.

Squamous- connects parietal bone to the temporal

bone.

Fontanelle- convergence of different sutures.

Frontal Fontanelle- Where the coronal suture meets

the sagittal suture.

12 | P a g e
 CRANIAL BONES Ethmoid bone

-Anterior portion
of cranium,
including medial
surface of eye
orbit and roof of
nasal cavity.

-Nasal conchae.

FACIAL BONES

Maxillae

-Forms the upper jaw,

anterior portion of
hard palate, part of
lateral walls of nasal
Frontal bone cavity, floors of eye
-Anterior part of cranium, the “forehead” orbits

Parietal bones -Upper teeth forms in

-Sides and roof of cranium the maxilla

Occipital bones -Maxillary sinus

-Posterior portion and floor of cranium
-Sinusitis: is an infection of the lining of the
Temporal bones sinuses near the nose. These infections most
-Inferior to parietal bones on each side of the often happen after a cold or after an allergy
cranium flare-up.
-Temporomandibular joint
The temporomandibular joints (TMJ)
are the 2 joints that connect your lower Palatine bones
jaw to your skull.
-Form posterior
Usually damaged in singers. portion of hard
palate, lateral wall of
Too much tension on your jaw can nasal cavity.
even lead to lockjaw, a condition in
which muscle spasms prevent you from - The roof of the
opening your mouth very wide. mouth is known as
the palate. The hard
Sphenoid bone palate (made up of bones) is the front part of
-Forms part of cranium the roof of the mouth, and the soft palate is the
floor, lateral posterior back part.
portions of eye orbits,
lateral portions of
cranium anterior to Zygomatic bones
temporal bones.
-Cheek bones
-Sella turcica
-Also form floor and
lateral wall of each eye
orbit.

13 | P a g e
Lacrimal bones

-Medial surfaces of eye orbits.

-Lacrimal gland: located within the orbit above

the lateral end of the eye. It continually releases
fluid which cleanses and protects the eye's
surface as it lubricates and moistens it.

Nasal bones

-Form bridge of nose.

Vomer

-In midline of nasal cavity

-Forms nasal septum with the

ethmoid bone

Inferior nasal conchae

-Attached to lateral
walls of nasal cavity.

Mandible

-Lower jawbone

-Only movable skull bone

14 | P a g e
 The paranasal sinuses are:

-Frontal

-Ethmoid

-Sphenoid

-Maxillary

HYOID BONE

-floating bone

-The hyoid bone is an

unpaired, U-shaped
bone that is not part of
the skull and the only
bone that has no direct
bony attachment to the
skull or any other bones.

-The hyoid bone

provides an attachment
for some tongue
muscles, and it is an
attachment point for
important neck muscles
that elevate the larynx.

VERTEBRAL COLUMN

-The vertebral column, or spine is the central axis of the

skeleton, extending from the base of the skull to slightly
past the end of the pelvis.

-In adults, it usually consists of 26 individual bones,

grouped into five regions.

-7 cervical vertebra

-12 thoracic vertebra

PARANASAL SINUSES
-5 lumbar vertebra
Several of the bones associated with the nasal
-1 sacrum
cavity have large cavities within them, called the
paranasal sinuses which open into the nasal cavity. -1 coccyx

15 | P a g e
 ATLAS:

-1st vertebra

-hold head

AXIS:

-2nd vertebra

-rotates head

-DENS (superior protrusion of axis)

FUNCTIONS OF VERTEBRAL COLUMN

The adult vertebral column has four major curvatures:
-Supports body weight
The cervical region curves
anteriorly. -Protects the spinal cord

The thoracic region curves -Allows spinal nerves to exit the spinal cord
posteriorly. -Provides a site for muscle attachment
The lumbar region curves -Provides movement of the head and trunk.
anteriorly.

The sacral and coccygeal

regions together curve GENERAL FEAUTURES OF THE VERTEBRAE
posteriorly.
Each vertebra consists of (1) a body, (2) a vertebral
Lordosis – part of the vertebrae arch, and (3) various processes
curves anteriorly.

Kyphosis- curves posteriorly.

16 | P a g e
 Intervertebral foramina- are the locations where two
vertebrae meet. Each intervertebral foramen is formed
by intervertebral notches in the pedicles of adjacent
vertebrae.

Each vertebra has two superior and two inferior

articular processes, with the superior processes of
one vertebra articulating with the inferior processes of
the next superior vertebra.

Articular facets- where the upper vertebrae would

connect to.

REGIONAL DIFFERENCES IN VERTEBRAE

Articular
facets

Superior articular facets Inferior articular facets

The Vertebra
prominens
(C7) is the
Vertebral body- the solid bony disk of each vertebra,
largest and
supports the body’s weight.
most inferior
Vertebral arch- protects the spinal cord. The vertebral vertebra in the
arch projects posteriorly from the body. neck region.

Vertebral foramen- occupied by the spinal cord in a

living person.

Vertebral canal- contains the entire spinal cord and

cauda equina.

Pedicle- extension of the body.

Lamina- connects the spinous process to transverse

process

Transverse process- extends laterally from each side

of the arch between the lamina and the pedicle.

Single spinous process- lies at the junction between

the two laminae. The spinous processes can be seen
and felt as a series of rounded projections down the
midline of the back.
17 | P a g e
 THORACIC CAGE

- Protects vital organs 12 pair of ribs.

STERNUM:

-breastbone

-has 3 parts

TRUE RIBS (1-7):

-attach directly to sternum by cartilage

FALSE RIBS (8-12):

-attach indirectly to sternum by cartilage

FLOATING RIBS (11 and 12):

-not attached to sternum

COSTAL CARTILAGE- bars of hyaline cartilage which

serve to prolong the ribs forward and contribute very
materially to the elasticity of the walls of the thorax.

-COCCYX

18 | P a g e
 APPENDICULAR SKELETON
The appendicular skeleton allows movement of our
appendages and supports our weight in an upright
position.
Acromion process

- where the clavicle would attach to

-At the tip of the shoulder

Glenoid cavity (glenoid fossa)

-where the upper limb would attach to

- a shallow, vertically elongate concavity that receives

the head of the humerus.

PECTORAL GIRDLE AND UPPER LIMB

SCAPULA:

-shoulder blade

CLAVICLE:

-collar bone

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 UPPER LIMB BONES The proximal end of the humerus has two prominent
landmarks
Humerus:
Greater tubercle
-upper portion of fore limb
- Laterally,
Ulna:
-larger
-forearm
Lesser tubercle
Radius:
- Anteriorly
- one of the two bones that
make up the forearm Deltoid tuberosity

-radius and the thumb are - site of attachment of the deltoid muscle
always on the same side
Capitulum
Carpals:
-location where the humerus articulates with the radius.
-wrist
Trochlea
Metacarpals:
-location where the humerus articulates with the ulna.
-hand
Lateral and Medial epicondyle
Phalanges:
-smooth rounded parts of the bone
-fingers
HUMERUS
HUMERUS
Greater

tubercle

Lesser

tubercle

The humeral head articulates with the glenoid cavity of

the scapula.

The anatomical neck, immediately distal to the head,

is almost nonexistent; thus, a surgical neck has been
designated.

The surgical neck -where fractures would happen.

Removal of the humeral head due to disease or injury

occurs down to the level of the surgical neck.

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Intertubercular Groove- between greater and lesser Radial tuberosity
tubercle
-lump of bone

-the site of attachment for the biceps brachii muscle of

the arm.

Styloid process

- The styloid process of the radius is lateral and also

serves as an attachment location for wrist ligaments.

Ulna

-more medial

-ulna and the middle finger are on the same side.

ULNA AND RADIUS

C-shaped trochlear notch

- The portion of the ulna that articulates with the

humerus.

- The trochlear notch rotates over the trochlea of the

humerus when bending the elbow.

Coronoid process.

- The anterior surface of the proximal end of the ulna.

- The coronoid process inserts into a fossa of the

humerus when the elbow is bent.

Olecranon process

- The posterior surface of the proximal end of the ulna

- The olecranon process inserts into the olecranon

fossa of the humerus when the elbow is straightened.

Radius

-shorter one

-more lateral

-has a head (the one that attaches to your capitulum)

-radius and the thumb are on the same side.

Radio-ulnar joint

-middle portion that connects the radius and the ulna.

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 BONES OF THE WRIST AND HAND Ilium

-most superior region of hip bone

Acetabulum

-hip socket (joint) of hip bone

-where the femur would insert

-for lower limb

CARPAL BONES
COMPARISON OF THE MALE PELVIS TO THE
Proximal row- has 4 bones (scaphoid, lunate, FEMALE PELVIS
triquetrum, pisiform)

Distal row- (hamate, capitate, trapezoid, trapezium)

METACARPAL BONES

-bones 1-5

PHALANGES

-proximal and distal phalanx of the thumb

-proximal, middle, and distal phalanx of finger

PELVIC GIRDLE

-Where lower limbs attach to the body

The male pelvis is usually more massive than
Pelvis
the female pelvis as a result of the greater weight and
-includes pelvic girdle and size of the male body. The female pelvis is broader and
coccyx has a larger, more rounded pelvic inlet and outlet
consistent with the need to allow the fetus to pass
Ischium through these openings in the female pelvis during
childbirth. A wide, circular pelvic inlet and a pelvic outlet
-inferior and posterior region of
with widely spaced ischial spines can facilitate delivery
hip bone
of the newborn.

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 PHALANGES

-toes and fingers

BONES OF THE THIGH

The thigh, like the arm, contains a single bone, the

femur.

The femur has a prominent, rounded head, where it

articulates with the acetabulum.

The femur also has a well-defined neck.

LOWER LIMB BONES Greater trochanter-lateral to the neck and a smaller.

FEMUR Lesser trochanter-inferior and posterior to the neck.

-thigh Both trochanters are attachment sites for muscles that

fasten the hip to the thigh.
-longest bone
of the body The greater trochanter and its attached muscles form a
bulge that can be seen as the widest part of the hips
PATELLA
Patella- or kneecap, is a large sesamoid bone located
-knee cap within the tendon of the quadriceps femoris muscle
group, which is the major muscle group of the anterior
TIBIA thigh.
-larger bone
of lower leg

FIBULA

-smaller bone
of lower leg

TARSALS:

-ankle

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 Apex-pointed part, bottom part

Base- flat part

Articular surface- outer surface or the part of the

patella which attaches to both bones

BONES OF THE LEG

Gluteal tuberosity- where the gluteus maximus or the

butt muscle would attach to.

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TIBIA or shinbone- larger, always medial, major BONES OF THE FOOT
weight-bearing bone of the leg

FIBULA-always lateral

MALLEOLUS- counterpart in upper limb is styloid

process

There are seven tarsal bones

1.Talus

2.Calcaneus

3.Navicular

4-6. Medial, intermediate, and lateral cuneiforms

7. Cuboid

Mnemonic

Tiger Cub Needs MILC (Talus, Calcaneus, Navicular,

Medial cuneiform, Intermediate cuneiform, Lateral
cuneiform, and Cuboid).

The metatarsal bones and phalanges of the foot are

arranged in a manner very similar to that of the
metacarpal bones and phalanges of the hand, with the
great toe (hallux) comparable to the thumb.

There are three primary arches in the foot formed by

the positions of the tarsal bones and metatarsal bones
and held in place by ligaments. Two longitudinal

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arches extend from the heel to the ball of the foot, and FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS
a transverse arch extends across the foot.
SYNARTHROSIS:

-non-movable joint

-Ex. skull bone articulations

AMPHIARTHROSIS:

- slightly movable joint

-Ex. between vertebrae

DIARTHROSIS:

-freely movable joint

-Ex. knee, elbow, and wrist articulations

FONTANELS AND SUTURES

ARTICULATIONS

-Articulations (joints) are where two bones come

together.

-Joints can be classified:

A. Structurally according to the major connective

tissue type that binds the bones together and whether
a fluid-filled joint capsule is present

B. Functional categories according to their degree of

motion.

STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS

FIBROUS JOINT:

-united by fibrous connective tissue

-subclasses are sutures, syndesmosis and

gomphoses

CARTILAGINOUS:

-united by means of cartilage

-subclasses are synchondroses and

symphysis

SYNOVIAL:

-joined by a fluid cavity

-most joints of the appendicular skeleton

-usually in the knees and elbows

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 SYNOVIAL JOINT TYPES OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS

-Synovial joints are surrounded by fluid filled joint

cavity. The cavity is created by the joint capsule and
is full of synovial fluid.

-The joint capsule helps hold the bones together while

still allowing for movement.

-The joint capsule consists of two layers: an outer

fibrous capsule and an inner synovial membrane.

-The fibrous capsule is the outer layer of the joint

capsule. It consists of dense irregular connective tissue
and is continuous with the fibrous layer of the
periosteum that covers the bones united at the joint.

-The synovial membrane is the inner layer of the joint

capsule. It lines the joint cavity, produces synovial fluid,
a viscous lubricating liquid.

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 Pronation: rotation of the forearm with palms down

Supination: rotation of the forearm with palms up

Rotation: movement of a structure about the long axis

EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

AND JOINTS

1. Decreased Collagen Production

2. Loss of Bone Density
3. Degenerative Changes

A plane joint, or gliding joint, consists of two flat bone

surfaces of about equal size between which a slight
gliding motion can occur.

A saddle joint consists of two saddle-shaped

articulating surfaces oriented at right angles to each
other so that their complementary surfaces articulate.

A hinge joint is a uniaxial joint in which a convex

cylinder in one bone is applied to a corresponding
concavity in the other bone.

A pivot joint is a uniaxial joint that restricts movement

to rotation around a single axis.

A ball-and-socket joint consists of a ball (head) at the

end of one bone and a socket in an adjacent bone into
which a portion of the ball fits.

An ellipsoid joint (condyloid joint) is a modified ball-

and- socket joint.

TYPES OF MOVEMENT

Flexion: bending

Extension: straightening

Abduction: movement away from midline

Adduction: movement toward the midline

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