CAVENDISH UNIVERSITY ZAMBIA

SCHOOL OF MEDICINE

MPS201- Medical Physics

Lecture Notes
X-RAY PRODUCTION
Objective:
To familiarize the student with the principles of X ray production and the characterization of
the radiation output of X ray tubes

Key points
• X-rays are short wavelength, high-frequency part of the electromagnetic spectrum
o They have wavelengths in the range 10−8 to 10−13 m
• X-rays are produced by interaction of accelerated electrons with tungsten nuclei within
the tube anode. This happens when fast-moving electrons rapidly decelerate and transfer
their kinetic energy into photons of EM radiation
• Two types of radiation are generated: characteristic radiation and bremsstrahlung
(braking) radiation
• Changing the X-ray machine current or voltage settings alters the properties of the X-ray
beam

The Production of X Rays involves the bombardment of a thick target with energetic electrons.
Electrons undergo a complex sequence of collisions and scattering processes during the slowing
down process which results in the production of
• Bremsstrahlung and
• Characteristic Radiation

X-rays are produced within the X-ray machine, also known as an X-ray tube. No external
radioactive material is involved.

The X-ray tube

X-rays are generated via interactions of the accelerated electrons with electrons of tungsten
nuclei within the tube anode.

A small increase in the filament voltage (1) results in a large increase in tube current (2), which
accelerates high speed electrons from the very high temperature filament negative cathode (3)
within a vacuum, towards a positive tungsten target anode (4). This anode rotates to dissipate
heat generated. X-rays are generated within the tungsten anode and an X-ray beam (5) is
directed towards the patient.
Radiographers can change the current and voltage settings on the X-ray machine in order to
manipulate the properties of the X-ray beam produced. Different X-ray beam spectra are
applied to different body parts.

Principle components of an X-ray tube are an Electron Source from a heated tungsten filament
with a focusing cup serving as the tube Cathode, an Anode or Target and a Tube Envelope to
maintain an interior vacuum.

• At the cathode (negative terminal), the electrons are released by thermionic emission
• The electrons are accelerated towards the anode (positive terminal) at high speed
• When the electrons bombard the metal target, they lose some of their kinetic energy by
transferring it to photons
• The electrons in the outer shells of the atoms (in the metal target) move into the spaces
in the lower energy levels
• As they move to lower energy levels, the electrons release energy in the form of X-ray
photons
• When an electron is accelerated, it gains energy equal to the electronvolt; this energy can
be calculated using:

Emax = eV

• This is the maximum energy that an X-ray photon can have

• Therefore, the maximum X-ray frequency fmax, or the minimum wavelength λmin, that can
be produced is calculated using the equation:
 • Where:
o e = charge of an electron (C)
o V = voltage across the anode (V)
o h = Planck’s constant (J s)
o c = speed of light (m s-1)

Bremsstrahlung/Braking X-ray generation

A Simplified treatment of this process, based on classical theory explains that Energetic Electrons
are mostly slowed down in matter by:
• Collisions and
• Excitation interactions

When an electron comes close to an atomic Nucleus it is slowed and its path is deflected. The
attractive Coulomb forces causes a change of the electron’s trajectory. An accelerated electron
or an electron changing its direction emits electromagnetic radiation as a bremsstrahlung X-ray
photon = Braking radiation. Approximately 80% of the population of X-rays within the X-ray
beam consists of X-rays generated in this way

The energy of the emitted photon is subtracted from the kinetic energy of the electron
The Energy of the Bremsstrahlung photon depends on the
• Attractive Coulomb forces and hence on the
• Distance of the electron from the nucleus

Characteristic X-ray generation

A Fast Electron colliding with an electron of an atomic shell could knock out the electron once
its KE exceeds the binding energy of the electron in that shell. The binding energy is Highest in
the most inner K-shell and decreases for the outer shells (L, M, ..). The Scattered primary
electron carries away the difference of kinetic energy and binding energy. The vacancy in the
shell is then filled with an electron from an outer shell accompanied by the emission of an X
Ray Photon with an energy equivalent to the Difference in binding energies of the shells
involved.

The Characteristic x-ray production sequence is summarised as: When a high energy electron (1)
collides with an inner shell electron (2) both are ejected from the tungsten atom leaving a 'hole'
in the inner layer. This is filled by an outer shell electron (3) with a loss of energy emitted as an
X-ray photon (4).
For each element binding energies and the Monoenergetic radiation resulting from such
interactions, are unique and Characteristic for that element

The X-ray spectrum

• As a result of characteristic and bremsstrahlung radiation generation a spectrum of X-ray
energy is produced within the X-ray beam.
• This spectrum can be manipulated by changing the X-ray tube current or voltage settings,
or by adding filters to select out low energy X-rays. In these ways radiographers are able
to apply different spectra of X-ray beams to different body parts.
Practice Questions

Q1. The simplified diagram shows a modern X-ray tube.

(a) For each of the labelled parts, state what it is and explain its purpose.
(8 mark)
(b) On the diagram draw and label
(i) the direction of the electron beam,
(ii) the direction of the useful X-ray beam.
(2 marks)

Q2.

(a) The diagram shows a rotating-anode X-ray tube. Complete the labelling of the three
numbered arrows in the diagram.
(3 marks)
(b) Explain why the anode
(i) is rotated,
(ii) has a bevelled edge.
(3 marks)
(c) Define for a material,
(i) the linear attenuation coefficient,
(ii) the half-value thickness.
(2 marks)
(d) A monochromatic X-ray beam of intensity 6.0 W m–2 is incident on an aluminium sheet of
thickness 2.0 mm. For these X-rays, the half-value thickness of aluminium is 3.2 mm. Calculate
the intensity of the transmitted beam.
(3 marks)
Q3.

The diagram shows a fluoroscopic image intensifier.

(a) State the purpose of:
(i) the fluorescent screen, A,
(ii) the photocathode,
(iii) the anodes,
(iv) the fluorescent screen, B.
(4 marks)
(b) Give one example of a medical application for which an image intensifier might be used.
Explain why the use of an image intensifier is required.
(2 marks)

Q4. Diagnostic X-rays are produced using a rotating anode X-ray tube.
(a)
(i) State two methods which can be used to increase the intensity of the X-ray beam produced
by the tube.
(ii) For each method of increasing intensity, state the effect on the maximum X-ray photon
energy.
(3 marks)
(b) Before taking an X-ray photograph, the X-ray beam emerging from the tube is passed
through an aluminium filter. State and explain the reason for filtering the X-rays.
(3 marks)

Q5.
(a) When an X-ray image is obtained of certain organs, image contrast enhancement is
necessary. Explain why image contrast enhancement is needed and describe how this might be
achieved.
(3 marks)
(b) A monochromatic X-ray beam of intensity 3.2 × 10–2 W m–2 is incident on an aluminium
sheet. Calculate the thickness of aluminium required to reduce the intensity of the X-ray beam
to 1.2 × 10–2 W m–2.
mass attenuation coefficient of aluminium, m = 0.012 m2 kg–1
density of aluminium, = 2700 kg m–3
(3 marks)

Q6. In the course of diagnosis and treatment of a child's broken arm, several images of the arm
are required. Similarly, to check the progress of a woman's pregnancy, several images of the
foetus are required.
In each case, state which imaging technique would probably be used and give two reasons for
the choice.
(a) Broken arm
(b) Foetus
 (Total 4 marks)

Q7.

(a) An X-ray tube operates with a pd across the tube of 80 kV. The figure above shows the X-
ray spectrum emitted. Explain why the spectrum has spikes at specific photon energies.
(2 marks)
(b) The pd across the tube is increased to 90 kV. Sketch on the figure above the X-ray spectrum
produced at this new pd.
(3 marks)
(c) At the working pd of 80 kV, the anode current was 120 mA. The X-ray tube has an
efficiency of 0.70 %. Calculate the rate of production of heat at the anode.
(3 marks)
(Total 8 marks)

Q8.
The figure below shows the design of an X-ray image intensifier. The main components are
labelled A to D.

Name each component and state its purpose in the process of image intensification.
(Total 8 marks)

Q9.
(a) Explain what is meant by the half-value thickness of lead for X-rays.
(b) Calculate the linear attenuation coefficient of lead for 90 keV X-ray photons. half value
thickness of lead for 90 keV X-ray photons = 12mm.
(c) Calculate the thickness of lead needed to reduce the intensity of a beam of 90 keV X-ray
photons to 5.0% of the intensity incident on the lead.
(Total 6 marks)

Q10.
(a) The X-ray spectrum for a certain X-ray tube target is shown below. Explain the process
which gives rise to spikes at certain photon energies.
(3 marks)
(b) A film cassette, placed under a patient being X-rayed, is shown below:

Explain how the intensifying screens in the film cassette achieve their purpose and state their
benefit to the patient.
(3 marks)

Q11.
(a) In an X-ray tube, electrons are accelerated from rest through a pd of 72.4 kV before they hit
the target anode.
(i) Calculate the kinetic energy of an electron as it reaches the anode. Give your answer to an
appropriate number of significant figures.
(2 marks)
(ii) Assuming that the electron gives up all this energy to form an X-ray photon, calculate the
wavelength of the photon.
(b) X-rays are used in a CT scanner. Describe briefly how a CT scanner produces an image.
(3 marks)
Q12.
(a) Explain the term contrast enhancement when applied to X-ray photographic imaging and
explain how such enhancement is achieved.
(2 marks)
(b) The half-value thickness of lead for 90 keV X-ray photons is 12 mm.
(i) What is meant by half-value thickness?
(ii) Calculate the linear attenuation coefficient, μ, for these X-ray photons in lead.
(iii) It is required to reduce the intensity of X-radiation escaping in unwanted directions from a
90 kV X-ray tube to 5% of its full intensity. Calculate the thickness of lead shielding needed to
achieve this reduction.
(5 marks)