Fluid Flow and

Heat Transfer
 Introduction
- Many raw materials for foods and many finished foods are in the
form of fluids. These fluids have to be transported and processed in
the factory.
- Food technologists must be familiar with the principles that govern
the flow of fluids, and with the machinery and equipment that is
used to handle fluids.
- There is an increasing tendency to handle powdered and granular
materials in a form in which they behave as fluids.
 Introduction
- The study of fluids can be divided into the study of fluids at rest -
fluid statics, and the study of fluids in motion - fluid dynamics.

- Fluids in the food industry vary considerably in their properties.

They include such materials as:

Thin liquids - milk, water, fruit juices,

Thick liquids - syrups, honey, oil, jam,
Gases - air, nitrogen, carbon dioxide,
Fluidized solids - grains, flour, peas.
 Fluid Statics
- A very important property of a fluid at rest is the pressure exerted by that
fluid on its surroundings.

- Pressure is defined as force exerted on an area.

- Under the influence of gravity, a mass of any material exerts a force on

whatever supports it.

- The magnitude of this force is equal to the mass of the material multiplied
by the acceleration due to gravity.

- The mass of a fluid can be calculated by multiplying its volume by its

density, which is defined as its mass per unit volume.
 F = mg = V x ρ x g P=Zxρxg

where: where:
F = force exerted P = pressure at any depth in a fluid
m = mass Z = depth
g = acceleration due to gravity ρ = density of the fluid
V = volume g = acceleration due to gravity
ρ (the Greek letter rho) = density
Sample Problem 1:
Calculate the total pressure in a spherical tank, 2m in depth, filled with
peanut oil of specific gravity 0.92, if the pressure measured at the highest
point in the tank is 70 kPa.

Given:
Required:
depth of tank = 2 m
total pressure
specific gravity of peanut = 0.92
surface pressure = 70 kPa

Solution:
Density (ρ) of peanut oil = Sp. gravity of peanut oil x density of water
= 0.92 x 1,000 kg/m3
= 920 kg/m3
Solution:

P=Zxρxg
P = (2 m) (920 kg/m3) (9.81 m/s2)
P = 18,050.4 Pa
P = 18.0504 kPa

Total pressure = 70 kPa + 18.0504 kPa

Total pressure = 88.0504 kPa
 Fluid Dynamics
- Problems on the flow of fluids are solved by applying the
principles of conservation of mass and energy.

- In any system, or in any part of any system, it must always be

possible to write a mass balance and an energy balance.

- The motion of fluids can be described by writing appropriate

mass and energy balances and these are the bases for the
design of fluid handling equipment.
 Mass and energy balance in fluid flow

ρ1A1v1 = ρ2A2v2 A1v1 = A2v2

Continuity equation for liquids

Sample Problem 2:
Whole milk is flowing into a centrifuge through a full 5cm diameter
pipe at a velocity of 0.22 m/s, and in the centrifuge, it is separated into
cream of specific gravity 1.01 and skim milk of specific gravity 1.04.
Calculate the velocities of flow of skim milk and of the cream if they
are discharged through 2cm diameter pipes. The specific gravity of
whole milk is 1.035.

Given:
Required:
diameter of pipe (inlet) = 5 cm
diameter of pipe (outlet) = 2 cm velocities of flow of skim milk and of
velocity of flow (whole milk) = 0.22 m/s cream
sp. gravity of whole milk = 1.035
sp. gravity of cream = 1.01
sp. gravity of skim milk = 1.04
Solution:
ρrArvr = ρsAsvs+ ρcAcvc

Arvr = Asvs + Acvc

vs = (Arvr – Acvc)/As (a)

This expression can be substituted for vs in the mass balance equation to give:

ρrArvr = ρsAs(Arvr – Acvc)/As + ρcAcvc

ρrArvr = ρsArvr - ρsAcvc + ρcAcvc

So (ρr - ρs) Arvr = (ρc - ρs) Acvc (b)

From the known facts of the problem, we have:

Ar = (π/4) x (0.05 m)2 = 1.963 x 10-3 m2

As = Ac = (π /4) x (0.02 m)2 = 3.142 x 10-4 m2

vr = 0.22 m/s

ρr= 1.035 x ρw, ρs = 1.04 x ρw, ρc = 1.01x ρw

where ρw is the density of water.
Substituting these values in eqn. (b), we obtain:

(-5 kg/m3) (1.963 x 10-3 m2) (0.22 m/s) = (-30 kg/m3) (3.142 x 10-4 m2) vc
vc= 0.229 m/s

Also, from eqn. (a) we then have, substituting 0.229 m/s for vc,

vs = [ (1.963 x 10-3 m2) x 0.22 m/s) – (3.142 x 10-4 m2 x 0.229 m/s)] / 3.142 x 10-4 m2
vs = 1.145 m/s
 Heat Transfer
- Heat transfer is a dynamic process in which heat is transferred
spontaneously from one body to another cooler body.

- The rate of heat transfer depends upon the differences in

temperature between the bodies, the greater the difference in
temperature, the greater will be the rate of heat transfer.

- Temperature difference between the source of heat and the

receiver of heat is, therefore, the driving force in heat transfer.
 Conduction
- Conduction is the movement of heat by direct transfer of
molecular energy within solids.

- The molecules with greater energy communicating some of

this energy to neighboring molecules with less energy.

- An example of conduction is the heat transfer through the

solid walls of a refrigerated store.
 Conduction
𝒌𝑨𝜟𝑻
𝑨𝜟𝑻
𝒒= 𝒒= 𝒙
𝒙 𝒌

where
k = thermal conductivity of the medium
A = area of cross-section of the heat flow path
𝛥𝑇= rate of change of temperature
x = thickness of the given material
 Convection
- Convection is the transfer of heat by the movement of groups
of molecules in a fluid.

- The groups of molecules may be moved by either density

changes or by forced motion of the fluid.

- An example of convection heating is cooking in a jacketed

pan: without a stirrer, density changes cause heat transfer by
natural convection; while with a stirrer, the convection is
forced.
 Convection
q = hs A (Ta – Ts)

where
hs = surface heat-transfer coefficient
A = area of cross-section of the heat flow path
Ta= temperature of the cooling fluid
Ts = temperature at the surface of the solid.
where
hs = kf/xf kf is the thermal conductivity
of the cooling medium
 Approximate range of surface heat transfer coefficients

hs values (W/m2 °C)

Boiling liquids 2400-24,000 2,400-24,000
Condensing liquids 1,800-18,000
Still air 6
Moving air (3 m/s) 30
Liquids flowing through pipes 1,200-6,000
 Radiation
- Radiation is the transfer of heat energy by electromagnetic waves,
which transfer heat from one body to another, in the same way as
electromagnetic light waves transfer light energy.

- An example of radiant heat transfer is when a foodstuff is passed

below a bank of electric resistance heaters that are red-hot
(electric grill).
 Radiation

q = A σ (𝑻𝟐 𝟒 − 𝑻𝟏 𝟒 ) q = ε A σ(𝑻𝟐 𝟒 − 𝑻𝟏 𝟒 )

where
A = area of cross-section of the heat flow path
T = absolute temperature in degrees Kelvin (K)
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.6703 × 10−8 W/m2 K4
ε = emissivity of the particular body and is a number
between 0 and 1.
Conduction, Convection & Radiation

Convection Conduction Radiation

 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
q = UA ΔT

where
A = area of cross-section of the heat 𝟏
flow path 𝑼=𝒙 𝒙 𝒙
𝟏
+ 𝟐+ 𝟑+⋯
𝛥𝑇= rate of change of temperature 𝒌𝟏 𝒌𝟐 𝒌𝟑
U = overall heat transfer coefficient
Sample Problem 3:
Calculate the net heat transfer by radiation to a loaf of bread in an oven at a uniform
temperature of 177 °C, if the emissivity of the surface of the loaf is 0.85. The total
surface area and temperature of the loaf are 0.0645 m2 and 100 °C respectively.

Given:
Required:
T2, T1 = 177 °C; 100 °C
heat transfer by radiation
Area = 0.0645 m2
ε = 0.85

Solution:
q = ε A σ (T24 – T14)
q = 0.85 x 0.0645 m2 x 5.6703 × 10−8 W/m2 K4 [(4504 -3734) K4]
q = 67.30 W
Sample Problem 4:
A cold store has a wall comprising 11 cm of brick on the outside, then 7.5 cm of concrete
and then 10 cm of cork. The mean temperature within the store is maintained at –18 °C and
the mean temperature of the outside surface of the wall is 18 °C. Calculate the rate of heat
transfer through 1m2 of wall. The appropriate thermal conductivities for brick, concrete and
cork, are 0.69, 0.76 and 0.043 W/m °C respectively.

Given:
Brick: x =11 cm; k = 0.69 W/m °C
Concrete: x = 7.5 cm; k = 0.76 W/m °C
Cork: x = 10 cm; k = 0.043 W/m °C
Required:
Rate of heat transfer (q)
Area = 1m2
T2, T1 = 18 °C; –18 °C
Solution:
Solving for the overall heat transfer coefficient:
1
𝑈 = 𝑥1 𝑥 𝑥
+ 2+ 3
𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘3
1
𝑈 = 0.11 0.075 0.10
+ +
0.69 0.76 0.043
𝑈 = 0.387 W/m2 °C
The rate of heat transfer would therefore be

q = UA ΔT
q = (0.387 W/m2 °C) (1m2) [(18-(-18)) °C]
q = 13.932 W
Sample Problem 5:
Hot air at 80 °C is blown over a 2 m by 4 m flat surface at 30 °C. If the
convection heat transfer coefficient is 55 W/m2 °C, determine the rate of
heat transfer from the air to the plate, in kW.

Given:
Area = 2 m x 4 m Required:
hs = 55 W/m2 °C Rate of heat transfer, q
Ta = 80 °C
Ts = 30 °C

Solution:
q = hs A (Ta – Ts)
q = (55 W/m2 °C) (8 m2) [(80-30) °C]
q = 22 kW