Personality and

Intelligence
MBBS Yr 4 Psychiatry Rotation
 Major theories of personality

1. Psychodynamic
2. Humanistic
3. Behavioural
4. Trait
5. Cognitive-Social

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Psychodynamic

• Instincts are the basic elements of personality:

• Life instincts- drive for ensuring survival by seeking to satisfy needs
for food, water, air, sex
• Death instinct- unconscious drive towards decay, destruction and
aggression

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Levels of personality- conscious, pre-conscious, and unconscious
Structure of personality- Id, Ego and superego

Id- operates on pleasure principle- functions to avoid pain and

maximise pleasure. It is selfish, primitive, amoral, insistent and rash

Ego- operates on reality principle. Exerts control over id impulses,

directs and controls instincts. Controlling and postponing
functioning which prevents the id from dominating

Superego- consists of conscience (behaviours for which children are

punished) and ego-ideal (good or correct behaviours for which
children are praised). Arbiter of morality, strives for moral perfection

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Anxiety
3 types:
1. Reality or objective anxiety- reality based fear
2. Neurotic anxiety- conflict between id and ego
3. Moral anxiety- conflict between id and superego

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Defense Mechanisms
Strategies the ego uses to defend itself against the anxiety
provoked by conflicts of everyday life.

Mature Neurotic Immature

Altruism Controlling Acting Out
Humour Displacement Denial
Sublimation Intellectualization Regression
Suppression Isolation of affect Projection
Intellectualization
Rationalization
Reaction Formation
Repression
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Psychosexual stages of development
• Character develops through parent-child interactions.
Personality is shaped and crystallized by age 5

• In the oral, anal, phallic and genital stages that all children pas
through, gratification of id instinct depends of stimulation of
corresponding areas of the body
• In fixation, a portion of the libido (psychic life energy)
remains invested in one of the psychosexual stages due to
excessive frustration or gratification

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Psychosexual stages of development

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 Psychosocial stages of Personality theory
• Erik Erikson

• Erikson also believed that personality progressed through a series of

stages, with certain conflicts arising at each stage.

• For Erikson, these crises are of a psychosocial nature because they involve
psychological needs of the individual (i.e., psycho) conflicting with the
needs of society (i.e., social).

Success in any stage depends on successfully overcoming these conflicts.

During each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis which could
have a positive or negative outcome for personality development.
Humanistic
• Carl Rogers
Humans are motivated by an innate tendency to actualise, maintain
and enhance self.

As self emerges, infant develops a need for positive regard

(acceptance, love and approval from others). By interpreting the
feedback we receive from others (approval or disapproval) we refine
our self-concept.

Over time, positive regard comes from within ourselves- positive

self-regard

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conditions of worth- a belief that we are worthy of approval only when we
express desirable behaviors and attitudes and refrain from expressing those that
bring disapproval from others; similar to the Freudian superego.

incongruence- A discrepancy between a person’s self-concept and aspects of

his or her experience.

Experiences that are incongruent or incompatible with our self-concept

become threatening and are manifested as anxiety. Our level of
psychological adjustment and emotional health is a function of the
congruence or compatibility between our self-concept and our experiences.

unconditional positive regard- Approval granted regardless of a person’s

behaviour. In Rogers’s person-centered therapy, the therapist offers the client
unconditional positive regard.

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Abraham Maslow

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Behaviourism
BF Skinner
Unconscious influences, defense mechanisms, traits, and other driving
forces cannot be seen, and therefore have no place in a scientific
psychology.

respondent behaviour - Responses made to or elicited by specific

environmental stimuli.

Reinforcement - The act of strengthening a response by adding a

reward, thus increasing the likelihood that the response will be
repeated.

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operant behavior- Behavior emitted spontaneously or voluntarily that
operates on the environment to change it.

The nature and frequency of operant behavior will be determined or

modified by the reinforcement that follows the behavior. Respondent
behavior has no effect on the environment.

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Reinforcement
Positive reinforcers are favorable events or
outcomes that are presented after the behavior.
In positive reinforcement situations, a response
or behavior is strengthened by the addition of
praise or a direct reward.
If you do a good job at work and your manager
gives you a bonus, that bonus is a positive
reinforcer.
Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an
unfavorable events or outcomes after the display
of a behavior. In these situations, a response is
strengthened by the removal of something
considered unpleasant.
You do the dishes to stop your mother’s nagging
is an example of negative reinforcement
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Punishment
Positive punishment, presents an unfavorable
event or outcome in order to weaken the
response it follows.
Spanking for misbehavior is an example of
punishment by application.
Negative punishment, occurs when a favorable
event or outcome is removed after a behavior
occurs.
Taking away a child's video game following
misbehavior is an example of negative
punishment.
18
 Classical
conditioning

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Trait theory
A trait can be thought of as a relatively stable characteristic that causes
individuals to behave in certain ways. The combination and interaction
of various traits form a personality that is unique to each individual.

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5-factor theory of personality
The five-factor model of personality represents five core traits that
interact to form human personality.5
• Agreeableness
• Conscientiousness
• Extraversion
• Neuroticism
• Openness

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Eysenck’s 3 Dimensions of Personality

• British psychologist Hans Eysenck developed a model of personality based on three

universal trails.4
• Introversion/extraversion: Introversion involves directing attention to inner experiences,
while extroversion relates to focusing attention outward on other people and the
environment. A person high in introversion might be quiet and reserved, while an
individual high in extroversion might be sociable and outgoing.
• Neuroticism/emotional stability: This dimension of Eysenck’s trait theory is related to
moodiness versus even-temperateness. Neuroticism refers to an individual’s tendency to
become upset or emotional, while stability refers to the tendency to remain emotionally
constant.
• Psychoticism: Later, after studying individuals suffering from mental illness, Eysenck
added a personality dimension he called psychoticism to his trait theory. Individuals who
are high on this trait tend to have difficulty dealing with reality and may be antisocial,
hostile, non-empathetic, and manipulative.

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Social-cognitive
Albert Bandura
Bandura presents a less extreme form of behaviourism than Skinner. He
emphasizes the observation of others as a means of learning, and he
considers learning to be mediated by cognitive processes.

Modelling - A behaviour modification technique that involves observing

the behaviour of others (the models) and participating with them in
performing the desired behaviour.

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observational learning- Learning new responses by observing
the behavior of other people.

vicarious reinforcement - Learning or strengthening a

behaviour by observing the behaviour of others, and the
consequences of that behaviour, rather than experiencing the
reinforcement or consequences directly.

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Intelligence
 INTELLIGENCE

▪ Definition: the ability to acquire and apply knowledge and skills

▪ Intelligence involves the level of ability to:
• Learn: The acquisition, retention, and use of knowledge is an important
component of intelligence.
• Recognize problems: To put knowledge to use, people must be able to
identify possible problems in the environment that need to be addressed.
• Solve problems: People must then be able to take what they have learned
to come up with a useful solution to a problem they have noticed in the
world around them.
Charles Spearman: General Intelligence

• British psychologist (1863–1945)

• Described a concept he referred to as general

intelligence or the g factor.
• a broad mental capacity that influences cognitive performance

• He concluded that intelligence is a general cognitive ability

that can be measured and numerically expressed
Louis Thurstone: Primary Mental Abilities
• Psychologist (1887–1955)

• Instead of viewing intelligence as a single, general

ability, Thurstone's theory focused on 7 different
primary mental abilities:
• Verbal comprehension
• Reasoning
• Perceptual speed
• Numerical ability
• Word fluency
• Associative memory
• Spatial visualization
 Robert Sternberg: Triarchic Theory of
Intelligence

• Sternberg proposed "successful intelligence" which

involves three different factors:
• Analytical intelligence: Your problem-solving abilities.
• Creative intelligence: Your capacity to deal with new
situations using past experiences and current skills.
• Practical intelligence: Your ability to adapt to a changing
environment
 Assessment

• Psychologist Alfred Binet developed the very first

intelligence tests to help the French government identify
schoolchildren who needed extra academic assistance.

• Binet was the first to introduce the concept of mental age or

a set of abilities that children of a certain age possess.

• Developed the Stanford-Binet IQ test - a series of tests

designed to assess mental abilities. Rather than focus on
learned information such as math and reading
• instead concentrated on other mental abilities such as attention and
memory
Wechsler Intelligence Scales
• Among the most popularly used tests of intelligence
Psychotherapies
MBBS Psychiatry Clerkship
Psychotherapy
Psychological interventions can be effective and make a significant
difference to individuals and society and are likely to have an increasing
role in clinical practice.
Aim of psychotherapy- resolve mental health problems and help persons
thrive
Many professions are involved in psychotherapy:
• Psychologists
• Psychiatrists
• Counsellors
• Mental health nurses
• Psychotherapists

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 CBT Cognitive Behaviour Therapy

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Core features of CBT
• It is a collaborative relationship between therapists and client
• Client is educated about the CBT approach so they can become their own
therapist
• The focus is on the present problem- here and now
• Sessions are structured for content and an agenda
• It is goal directed with aims for therapy stated at the beginning and work in
therapy directed towards achieving these goals
• It is short term- typically between 6 and 24 sessions
• It is an examination of maladaptive beliefs
• Maladaptive beliefs are cognitively challenged
• Behavioural experiments are used to test maladaptive beliefs

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DBT- Dialectical Behaviour Therapy
• Form of CBT
• Developed by Marsha Linehan
• Effective for borderline personality disorder
• Incorporates cognitive, supportive, mindfulness tehniques

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 Psychoanalysis

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Core features of psychoanalysis
• Based on the assumption we have a dynamic unconscious
• Focused on past, particularly early childhood experiences and
conflict and on defense mechanisms that have been
subsequently used
• Therapist is neutral so transference can occur
• Focus in on interpersonal relationships and how these are
influenced by childhood experiences, defence mechanisms
• Intensive therapy, longer term

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Psychoanalysis
• Analysis of the effect of unconscious and conscious processes.
Assumes a dynamic psyche where unconscious processes
influence our lives. Emphasis on childhood and relationship
with parents
• Therapeutic techniques - analysis of unconscious processes
through dreams, Free Association, conflict, and transference
within the therapeutic relationship

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 Group Therapy
Other
Family Therapy
therapies Couples Therapy

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Group Therapy
• One or more psychologists leads a group of persons
• Meet regularly
• Groups may be open (new members can join at any time) or closed
(all members join at the same time)
• Many groups are designed to target a specific problem, such as
depression, obesity, panic disorder, social anxiety, grief, chronic
pain or substance abuse. Other groups focus more generally on
improving social skills, helping people deal with a range of issues
such as anger, shyness, loneliness and low self-esteem.

https://www.apa.org/topics/group-therapy
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Benefits of group therapy
• Develop self-awareness by listening to others
• Help put problems in perspective- others are also struggling with a
similar issue. Can be a relief to hear others discuss what they are
going through and realise they are not alone
• Provide a support network
• Provide a sounding board for coping strategies
• Can help keep members accountable
• Diversity in groups provides different perspectives
• Can discover range of strategies for addressing concerns

https://www.apa.org/topics/group-therapy
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Family Therapy
• Designed to address specific issues affecting the health and
functioning of a family
• seeks to reduce distress and conflict by improving the systems of
interactions between family members
• Some goals of family therapy:
1.Exploring the interactional dynamics of the family and its relationship to
psychopathology
2.Mobilizing the family's internal strength and functional resources
3.Restructuring the maladaptive interactional family styles (including
improving communication)
4.Strengthening the family's problem-solving behaviour.

Varghese et al, 2020 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7001353/

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Couples Therapy
• Couples therapy or marriage counselling helps recognize and
resolve conflicts and improve their relationships.
• aims to enhance to enhance the connection between two adults
engaged in a long-term relationship
• Benefits of couples counselling:
1. Can help couples clarify feelings about their relationship
2. Improve communication
3. Help resolve conflicts in a healthy manner
4. Can deepen intimacy and connection
5. Develop[ a supportive environment, lessen emotional isolation or avoidance
6. Promote self-awareness and personal growth
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Describe a scenario
where a patient
may benefit from,
group therapy,
family therapy and
couples therapy