Morpho Work Book 2077 Final Copy 2

Complete Biology Noters 2022/23 || 1 ||
Body of typical angiospermic plant is differentiated into:

• Root
• Stem
• Leaf
• Flower
• Fruit
• Seed
ROOT
@ The main root or primary root or tap root develos from Radicle of the
embryo
@ General character of root:
@ The root is the descending organ of the plant and are +vely geotropic.
Exception:
F Coralloid roots of cycas: ………………..
F Pneumatophores or respiratory roots of Mangrove
plants:…………………………
• Without nodes and internodes, with no leaves or b
Dr. Kabir’s Lectures 2022/23

• Bear unicellular root hairs (exogenously) and lateral roots or secondary
root or root branch (endogenously arising 1112222233from pericycle).
[IOM1996, BPKIHS] 9812312222311223
@ From apex to base root has 4 region or zones:
Root cap zone:

a. Dvision or meristematic zone:
@ Root meristem is sub-terminal/sub-apical and is present just behind the
root cap.
@ In root, there is maximum growth just behind the apex.
b. Zone of cell elongation:
@ Responsible for increasing length of root.
c. Zone of cell maturation or zone of cell differentiation:
@ Characterized by the presence of unicellular root hairs.
@ Maximum water absorption takes place from this region.
ROOT SYSTEMS
The main root along with its branches constitutes the root system.
Root systems
Tap root system Adventitious root system
® Develops from radicle of an embryo.

® Develops from any part other than
Dr. Kabir’s radicle
Lectures of
2022/23
® Primary root persists throughout the life of
embryo
plant
® May be aerial or underground.
® Develop secondary, tertiary roots and
e.g. If developed from stem = cauline root; if
rootlets. The lateral roots are produced in an
developed from leaf = foliar
acropetal succession.
root/epiphyllous root.
@ In dicots, radicle elongates, tapers, swells, becomes prominent as primary

root.
@ In monocots, primary root is short lived and is replaced by fibrous roots
(adventitious in origin).
@ Fibrous root system is better adapted than tap root system for absorption
of water and minerals.
¨ Roots arising from callus in tissue culture areadventitious in origin.
¨ Adventitious roots and tap roots differ in their origin.
Modifications of tap root
a. Fleshy tap roots (for storage of food):

b. Nodulated tap roots/Tuberculate roots (Root nodules):
@ Found in plants of sub-family Papilionoideae of family

Leguminosae.
@ Bacterium ……………. lives symbiotically in the root of
leguminous plants. [IOM 2005]
@ Rhizobium fixes nitrogen and makes the plant rich in
…………..
c. Pneumatophores or respiratory roots or breathing roots:

@ Common in mangrove plants i.e. plants growing
…………
@ Shows negative geotropism.
@ Minute aerating pores of pneumatophores are
called …………………...
@ Pneumathodes anatomically resemble lenticels.

@ e.g., Rhizophora, Avicennia, Sonneratia, Heritiera, etc.
d. Mycorrhizal roots:
@ It is symbiotic association between fungi and roots of higher plants like
Pinus, Betula etc,
@ Root hair and root cap remain absent.
@ Fungal hyphae provides phosphorus nutrient to host when necessary.
Modification of adventitious root
A. Modifications of adventitious roots for storage (Fleshy types):
1. Tuberous roots or single root tubers: Arise singly and are without definite
shape e.g. Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas)
2. Fasciculated roots: ………………………………………………………..
B. Modifications of adventitious roots for mechanical support:
1. Pillar roots or prop roots:
@ These adventitious roots arise from

horizontal aerial branches.
@ Example:…………………………………………………….
2. Stilt roots or brace roots:
e.g.,...............................
.....................................
.....................................
...
3. Climbing roots: [IOM 2002]
e.g.,……………………………………………………………………….
4. Buttress roots/ Plank roots:
e.g., Bombax ceiba (Simal), Ficus

religiosa (Peepal)
5. Modifications of adventitious roots for other vital functions:

1. Photosynthetic roots or assimilatory roots:
e.g.,…………………….………………………………………………..
2. Parasitic roots or haustorial roots or sucking roots:

@ Parasitic roots of Cuscuta are called haustoria or sucking roots. [IOM 1997]
@ Cuscuta is a dicot plant without differentiation of cotyledons in its
embryo i.e. zero cotyledon.
e.g., Cuscutta
Cuscuta (Akash beli
lahara) is a total stem
parasite [IOM 2009,
BPKIHS 2009]
3. Epiphytic roots or hygroscopic roots:

@ Common in epiphytic
orchids.
@ Epiphytic orchids show
three types of roots:
a. Fixing root/Clinging root: for fixation.

b. Absorbing roots: for absorption of minerals.
c. Hanging roots/Epiphytic roots/Hygroscopic roots/Aerial roots: for absorption
of moisture.
@ Hanging root is surrounded by a multilayered, dead, spongy and hygroscopic
tissue called Velamen
@ Epiphytic roots have no root hairs and root cap
4. Reproductive roots:
@ Due to the presence of adventitious buds (radical buds), certain roots have
capacity to reproduce.
e.g. Dahlia, Sweet Potato, Trichosanthes dioica (parwal)
@ Reproductive tap roots occur in …………………

STEM
@ Ascending part of the plant which develops from the direct prolongation
of the plumule of embryo.
@ Stem hairs, if present, are mostly multicellular.
@ Nodes and internode are always present in the stem.
@ Lateral branches of stem develop from cortex exogenously.
Stem
Aerial Sub-aerial Underground
Erect Weak
Aerial stem (Epiterranean):

a. Reduced aerial stem:
@ e.g. radish, turnip, etc.
b. Erect aerial stem:
@ These stem are sufficiently strong to stay erect and upright without any
external support.
Types:
i. Culm:
@ Jointed stem with distinct nodes and internodes. [IOM 2008]
@ Example: ……………………………………………..
ii. Caudex:
@ Stem is unbranched, thick, solid and cylindrical with a crown of leaves at
the apex only.
@ Trunk is marked by the scar of fallen leaf base.
@ Example: ………………………………………….
iii. Excurrent: e.g. Pinus, Casuarina, Eucalyptus and most of the conifers.
iv. Decurrent or Deliquescent: e.g. Ficus benghalensis, Ficus religiosa,
Mangifera indica, etc.
v. Pseudostem:
@ Pseudostem is found in acaulescent plants. e.g. Banana, Onion, Zingiber.
Weak aerial stem:
¨ They are thin, soft, delicate and cannot stand erect by themselves.
Weak aerial stem
Twiners
e.g. Beans, Ipomea Climbers
Scramblers ® Stragglers
(hooks using plants)

Root climbers
Tendril climbers
Note: Creepers may be both twiners and climbers.
Figure : A. Twinner (Dioscorea) and B. Climber (Vitis)

(A) Twiners:
¨ Twiners rise up by coiling around the upright support. They have no
special clinging organs. The stem is weak and sensitive to contact.
Stem tip performs a special type of growth movement called
circumnutation.
¨ Example: Dioscorea (Yam or Tarul), Bean, Convulvulus, Clitoria.
(B) Climbers:
¨ A climber possesses organs for clinging to the support. The stem is
weak but not sensitive to contact. Stem tip does not perform
circumnutation.
(1) Root climbers:
Adventitious roots help in climbing.
e.g. Vanilla, Ivy (Hedra nepalnensis), Pothos (Money plant), Paan (Piper
betel), etc.
(2) Tendril climbers:
Leaf tendrils Stem tendrils
· Whole leaf tendril: Wild pea · Axillary bud tendril:
(Lathyrus aphaca) Passiflora (passion flower)
· Leaflet tendrils: Garden pea · Extra-axillary bud tendril:
(Pisum sativum), Sweet pea Cucurbita
(Lathyrus odoratus)
· Leaf tip/ leaf apex tendril: · Terminal bud/ Branch tip
Glory lily (Glorisa) modified = Vitis vinifera
(Grapes)
· Petiolar tendril: Pitcher plant
(Nepenthes), Nasturtium,
Clematis
· Stipular tendril: Smilax

3. Scramblers or Ramblers:
@ Use pointed (sharp) structures like thorns, hooks, spines, etc. for climbing.
e.g. Bougainvillea (Glory-of-the-garden): is a thorn climber.
@ Atrabotrys is a hook climber in which inflorescence axis (peduncle) is
modified into hook.
@ Bignonia ungis-cati syn. Doxantha ungis-cati (Cat’s nail) is another hook
climber in which three terminal leaflets are modified into hooks.
@ Best example of hook climber is Bignonia. [IOM 1997]
3. Lianas:
@ Lianas are commonly found in tropical forest. e.g., Gnetum, Bauhinia vahlli
(Bhorla)
Underground (Sub-terranean) Modifications of Stems

@ Basically for the purpose of perennation, food store and vegetative
propagation.
1. Rhizome:
@ Horizontally growing underground stem with distinct nodes and
internodes is …………………...
@ Rhizome is elongated, usually branched and diageotropic.
@ Non-green, brown scaly leaves called cataphylls protect vegetative buds in a
rhizome.

@ e.g. Musa paradisiaca (Banana), Zingiber officinale (Ginger), Curcuma domestica

(Turmeric), etc.
2. Corm:
Figure : Corm of Colocasia ( “Pidalu”)
@ Corm is a condensed form of rhizome growing in the vertical direction.

[BPKIHS]
@ It is usually spherical or globular in shape and unbranched.
@ Cataphylls are also present in a corm.
@ Corm is characterized by circular nodes.
@ e.g. Colocasia (pidalu), Colchicum autumnale, Crocus sativus,
Amorphophallus (elephant foot or zaminkanda), Gladiolus (Birthday flower)
3. Bulb:

@ Contains a extremely reduced or condensed node represented by disc with
fleshy leaves.
@ Bulb stores food in fleshy scaly leaves/swollen leaf bases.

@ Example:…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………..
4. Tuber:
@ Potato is multiplied vegetatively with the help of
@ ………………………….. [MOE]
@ Potatoes are borne on …………………………
@ Eyes of the potatoes are axillary buds on the node.
@ The stolon end of tuber is called heel end.
@ Only underground stem without adventitious roots.

Sub-aerial Modifications of Stem (Prostate weak stem modifications)

@ Basically, for the purpose of vegetative propagation.
1. Runners:
@ It is a long, thin, green stem with long internodes growing horizontally on

the soil surface.
@ Adventitious roots develop at intervals.
@ Examples: …………………………………..
@ An underground running stem is called sobole.
2. Sucker:
@ It is a non-green underground stem which grows obliquely upwards.

e.g. Banana, Chrysanthemum (“Godabari”), Mentha (Mint/ “Patina”)
@ New banana plants develop from sucker. [BPKIHS]

3. Stolons:
@ It is lateral branch from lower leaf, which runs and strikes ground producing
new plant.
e.g. Strawberry (Fragaria indica), Jasmine
4. Offsets:
@ Similar to runner but differ in being thicker and shorter. i.e one internode
long, thick, short runner.
@ Common in hydrophytes like - …………………….. ……………………………………………………
@ Vegetative reproduction in Eichhornia and Pistia takes place by offset.
[MOE 2067]
@ Note: The terrestrial plant that produces offset is Agave.
Aerial (Epiterranean) Modifications of Stems
1. Stem tendrils:

@ Axillary bud into tendril, e.g.,…………………..

@ Extra-axillary bud into tendril, e.g., …………………..
@ Terminal bud into tendril, e.g., ……………………….
@ Floral bud into tendril, e.g.,…………………….
2. Thorns:
@ Modification of an axillary bud as in Citrus, Bougainvillea, Duranta or a
terminal bud as in Carissa.
@ With vascular bundles and a bark , may be branched and may even bear leaves,
flowers and fruits.
@ Thorn is a defensive organ meant to keep off grazing animals.
@ In Bougainvillea, thorn is also used as a climbing organ.
@ Prickles of rose differ from thorn as they are devoid of vascular bundle.
@ Prickles of rose are exogenous in origin [BPKIHS]
3. Phylloclade
@ Phylloclade is a long, flattened or cylindrical, succulent, green and
photosynthetic, stem of unlimited growth.
@ It has several nodes and internodes.
@ Many xerophytic plants develop phylloclade to reduce transpiration to a
considerable extent.
@ E.g., ………………………
……………………and
……………………………………..
4. Cladodes:

@ Cladode is a short, flattened or cylindrical, succulent, green and
photosynthetic, branch of limited growth.
@ It has one or few nodes.
@ Only one internode long phylloclade is called …………………. [MOE]
@ This is also a xerophytic adaptation to reduce transpiration.
@ E.g., ………………………and……………………..
5. Bulbils:
@ It may is modification of a
vegetative bud or a floral bud.
@ e.g. ……………..
…………………
@ Vegetative reproduction in agave takes place by bulbil. [BPKIHS]

LEAF (PHYLLOPODIUM
@ Develops from a node of stem or its branches in an acropetal order and are
exogenous in origin.
@ It generally bears a bud in its axil called axillary bud.
@ The first leaf originates from the shoot meristem as leaf primordia.
@ Three primary functions of are photosynthesis, transpiration and gaseous
exchange.
Parts of a typical foliage leaf
a. Leaf base (Hypopodium)/Vagina:

@ Lowermost portion of a leaf which is attached to the node of the stem and
made from stem cells.
@ Sheathing leaf base (leaf base covering stem) is ….....................................................................
@ Pulvinus (swollen leaf base) is called pulvinus. e.g. Leguminosae
@ Pulvinus acts as motor organ – stores K+ ion and responsible for sleep and
shock movements. e.g. Mimosa pudica
b. Stipules:
@ Lateral appendages of the leaf borne at its base.
@ Considered as vestigial leaflets and are common in dicots.
Types:

1. Free lateral stipule: Most common type e.g., China rose.
e.g.,........................ e.g.,........................
........... ............................... e.g.,...........................
e.g., ...................
e.g.,........................ ........................... ..................................
............................
............................... .....................
..
...........................

c. Petiole (Mesopodium):
@ Stalk of a leaf is called petiole.
@ Leaf having petiole is called petiolate.
@ Leaf without petiole is called sessile.
@ A petiole may be modified in certain plants for specific functions:
1. Winged petiole in Citrus.
2. Floating petiole or spongy petiole or bulbous (swollen) petiole in

Eichhornia. [IOM 2008]
3. Tendrillar petiole in Pitcher plant (Nepenthes), Nasturtium and Clematis
4. Phyllode (a flattened, green and photosynthetic petiole) in Parkinsonia,

Australian acacia.
b. Lamina or leaf blade (Epipodium)
@ Most conspicuous part of a leaf and major site for photosynthesis and
transpiration.
@ Leaf lamina has two surfaces:
@ Adaxial surface or upper surface or ventral surface: This surface is nearer to
the apex of the stem.
@ Abaxial or lower or dorsal surface: This surface is away from the stem tip.
@ Dicot leaf – Dorsiventral and horizontal.
@ Monocot leaf – Isobilateral and vertical
KINDS OF LEAF BASED ON FUNCTION

1. Foliage leaves: normal green, photosynthetic leaves.
2. Reproductive leaves:
e.g., Begonia, Bryophyllum

@ Such leaves contain adventitious foliar buds or
epiphyllous buds,
Fig. Reproductive leaf of Bryophyllum
3. Cotyledonary leaves: These are the embryonic leaves of seed, e.g. Cucumber,
Bean, Castor
@ Cotyledonary leaves appear during epigeal germination of seeds.
4. Sporophylls: Spore bearing leaves or leaves with sporangia. e.g. Dryopteris

5. Cataphylls: Non-green brown scaly leaves which protect vegetative buds as
in rhizomes, corms, etc.
6. Scale leaves: Extremely reduced leaves as found in the cladode of
Asparagus.

VENATION
@ The arrangement of veins and the veinlets in the leaf lamina is known as
venation.
@ Two principal types of venation are:
1. Reticulate venation:
@ Common in dicot leaves.
@ …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
@ …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. Parallel venation:
@ Common in monocots.
@ …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………..
Simple and Compound leaves

A. Simple leaf: Leaf lamina is not divided into leaflets and marginal
incisions do not touch the mid rib or petiole.
e. g. Peepal, Mango, members of family Brassicaceae, etc.
B. Compound leaves: Marginal incisions touch the mid rib or petiole and leaf
lamina is broken into a number of segments called leaflets.
@ A compound leaf may be:

1. Pinnately compound: Leaflets are pinna shaped.
@ Leaflets remain attached to the central rib or mid rib called Rachis.
A. Unipinnate: Leaf lamina divides once.
i. Paripinnate: Leaflets are in even number.
ii. Imparipinnate: Rachis is terminated by an odd leaflet. e.g. Rose
B. Bipinnate: Leaf lamina is twice pinnate. e.g. Acacia catechu (Khayar), Aibizzia
sps. (Shiris), Mimosa pudica, etc.
C. Tripinnate: Leaf lamina is thrice pinnate, e.g. Moringa (Drum stick or Soijan)
D. Decompound or Multipinnate: Leaf lamina is more than thrice pinnate, e.g.
Coriander (Dhaniya), Daucas carota, etc.
2. Palmately compound:
@ Leaflets are attached to a common point, i.e., tip of the petiole.
@ Rachis is absent.
A. Unifoliate: Single leaflet is attached to the tip of the petiole, e.g. Citrus
B. Bifoliate: Two leaflets are attached to the tip of the petiole, e.g., Balanites,
Hardwickia, Zornia

C. Trifoliate: Three leaflets are attached to the tip of the petiole, e.g.
Trifolium, Oxalis (chari amilo), Aegle marmelos (wood apple/bel)
D. Quadrifoliate: ………………………………….. …………………., e.g. Marsilea, Paris
quadrifolia
E. Multifoliate or digitate: ……………………………………………………………………….

e.g. Bombax ceiba (Silk cotton tree “Simal”)
Leaf Leaflet
Bears a bud in No axillary bud.
its axil called
axillary bud.
Stalk of a leaf Stalk of a leaflet
is called is called
petiole. petiolate.
May bear May bear
stipules. stipules.

Phyllotaxy
@ Arrangement of leaves on the stem or its branches is called phyllotaxy. [MOE
2069]
@ Purpose of phyllotaxy: ……………………………………………………………………………….
@ Prefoliation - …………………………………………………………………………………………...
@ Vernation: Arrangement of leaves with respect to each other in bud
condition.
@ Ptyxis: Arrangement or infoldings of an individual leaf lamina during bud
condition., e.g., Circinate ptyxis in fern leaves.
Types of phyllotaxy
A. Alternate (Spiral): Single leaf develops from each node. e.g. China rose,
mustard, sunflower, etc.
B. Opposite: Two leaves arise at each node standing opposite to each other.
i. Opposite superposed: Two opposite leaves from adjacent nodes lie just above
or just below.e.g. Syzyzium (Jamun).
ii. Opposite decussate: The opposite leaves of adjacent node lies at right angle.
e.g. Calotropis (Aank) Ocimum sanctum (Holy basil or Tulsi).
C. Whorled or verticillate: Three (e.g. Nerium or Oleander) or more than three (e.g.
Alstonia) leaves develop at each node.
@ Anisophily: Presence of dissimilar leaves on the same node.

@ Heterophylly: Presence of dissimilar leaves on the same plant.
@ Heterophylly is common in attached emergent hydrophytes like Limnophilia,
Sagittaria (Environmental adaptive heterophylly).
@ Finely dissected leaves occur in submerged hydrophytes.
Modifications of Leaves
1. Leaf tendrils:
a. Whole leaf tendrils: e.g. Wild pea (L. aphaca)
b. Leaflet tendrils: e.g. Sweet pea (L. odoratus), Garden pea (Pisum sativum)
@ Upper leaflets are modified into tendrils. [IOM 1996]
c. Petiolar tendrils: e.g. ………………………
d. Rachis and petiolate (stalk of the leaflet) tendrils: ..........................................................
e. Stipular tendrils: e.g. ……………………
2. Leaf spines:
@ Whole leaf modified into spines. e.g. Opuntia.
@ Margins of lamina modified into spines, e.g. Argemone maxicana.
@ Stipules are modified into spines, e.g. Zizyphus, Acacia.
3. Leaflet hooks: Three terminal leaflets of compound leaf are modified hooks in
Doxantha ungiscati (Bignonia unguis-cati) commonly called cat's nail,
4. Phyllodes: Phyllode is a green, flattened leaf like structure which is the

modification of petiole.
@e.g. Acacia auriculiformis (Australian acacia) and Parkinsonia
5. Leaf bladders:

Leaf bladder of utricularia
@ They occur in the rootless aquatic insectivorous plant Utricularia

(Bladderwort).
@ Each bladder has a valve and sensitive hairs at its mouth.
6.Leaf pitchers: The leaf lamina is modified to form a large pitcher in pitcher
plant (Nepenthes) for the purpose of capturing insects.
@ The pitcher is provided with a lid which itself is an outgrowth of the
leaf-apex. The petiole is modified into a tendrillar structure to hold the
pitcher in a vertical manner.
@ A pitcher like modification of leaf lamina for water storage is found in
Dischidia.
[BPKIHS 2005, 2009]
7. Leaf tentacles: e.g., Drosera (Sundew plant)…………………………………………………
………………………………
8. Scale leaves: These are small, dry, brownish and membranous as in Asparagus
to reduce transpiration or thick and fleshy as inner leaves of onion to store
the food material.
9. Bract leaves or hypsophylls: In Euphorbia pulcherrima (Lalu pate), the leaves

borne near the cyathia are brightly coloured to attract insects for pollination.
@ Beauty of Bougainvillea (Glory-of-the-garden) is due to petaloid bracts.

INFLORESCENCE
@ The mode of arrangement and distribution of flowers on a specialized branch
of shoot (Inflorescence axis or Peduncle) is called inflorescence.
@ Stalk of inflorescence is peduncle.
@ A flattened peduncle is known as receptacle.
@ Purpose of inflorescence: to ensure pollination.
TYPES OF INFLORESCENCE
1. Solitary
@ Single flower born on peduncle. It is of two types.
A. Solitary axillary: e.g. ..........................................................
B. Solitary terminal: e.g. ………………………………………………………………………………
2. Racemose inflorescence (Indefinite type or Indeterminate type)
@ Main axis never terminates into a flower and it grows indefinitely.
Types of racemose inflorescence:
A. Main axis elongated.
1. Typical raceme: Pedicellate flowers borne acropetally on a long, elongated
and unbranched axis, e.g., Radish.
@ A branched raceme or compound raceme is called ....................... e.g., Cassia fistula,
Delonix regia, Agave, male flowers in maize etc.

Examples:
......................................................................................
..................................................................
1.Spike: Similar to raceme but flowers are sessile.
@ Spikelet is a very small spike with few small, sessile flowers called florets.
@ Each spikelet are covered by glumes.
@ Glumes are modified bracts. [IOM 1996]
@ Spike of spikelets is the compound inflorescence of grasses like Wheat. [KUMET
2007]
2. Catkin or amentum: A unisexual spike with long pendulous peduncle is
called catkin or amentum.
e.g.--> Mulberry (morus alba).....................
Note: After fertilization, this catkin inflorescence of mulberry form a
composite or multiple fruit called sorosis. [MOE 2066]
3. Spadix: Sessile flowers borne on a thick and fleshy axis surrounded by one
or more large bracts(spathe) called ...........................................................
eg. Banana (Musa Spcs), Coconut(cocos nucifera), Female part of
maiza................................................................................................................ ............................................................
(B) Main axis shortened:

(1) Umbel:
@ Flowers arise from same point but terminate at different levels.
@ Pedicels have same lengths.
@ A whorl of bract called involucre(only closing peduncle) is present.
@ eg.Centella,
Note: Compound umbel or umbel of umbels:
e.g., Coriander and other members of family Umbliferae.

(2) Corymb:
@ Flower originate from different levels but terminate at the same level.
@ Pedicels are of …………………………………………….
@ Example: ………………………………………….
@ Note: Edible inflorescence of Brassica oleracia var. botrytis (cauliflower) is

…………………………………………….[BPKIHS 2010]
(vii) Head or capitulum:
@ Most advanced or highly evolved inflorescence.
@ Characteristic inflorescence of family Compositae (asteraceae) e.g.,
…………………………………………….
@ The peduncle is flattened to form a receptacle that bears centripetally
arranged small, sessile flowers called florets.
@ Two types of florets:
Disc florets (@ABCD) Ray florets
Bisexual Unisexual
Actinomorphic Zygomorphic
Central Peripheral
@ Surrounded by one or more whorls of bracts called involucre.

3. Cymose inflorescence (Defenite type or Determinate type)
Onion(Cyme Umbel)
@ Main axis terminates into a flower and has ……………………………….. growth.

@ Flower are arranged in …………………………………….. (older at the apex and younger
towards the base). [BPKIHS 2009]
Types:
(A) Monochasial cyme or uniparous cyme:
@ Main axis terminates into a flower by producing a single lateral branch.
@ Monochasial cyme can be of two types:

(i) Helicoid cyme or one-sided cyme:Successive lateral branches are produced on

same side forming a short helix. e.g. Begonia, Drosera, Heliotropium, etc
(ii) Scorpoid cyme: Successive lateral branches are produced on both sides
forming a zig-zag development of inflorescence axis, e.g. Ranunculus
(B) Dichasial cyme or biparous cyme:

@ Main axis terminates into a flower by producing two lateral branches.
@ eg. Dianthus (Pink), Jasmine, Bougainvillea.
c. Polychasial cyme or multiparous cyme: e.g. Calotropis
4. Special types of inflorescence
(A) Hypanthodium: [IOM 2009] (fruit like inflorescence)
It looks like a fruit and after
fertilization develops into ........................

@ Characteristic inflorescence of…………………………………
@ Peduncle is flattened to form a ……………………………………..
@ Enclosing three types of unisexual, sessile flowers.
@ Female flower towards the base,
@ Male flowers towards ostiole and
@ In between are borne gall flowers (sterile female flowers).(scent producer of
female gall wasp to attract male gall wasp for nism trap door mechanism
pollination).
(B) Cyathium:
@ Characteristic inflorescence of family Euphorbiaceae e.g., Euphorbia pulcherima
(lalupate phool) [MOE 2068]
@ It looks like a single flower.
@ A cup-shaped involucre is formed by the fusion of bracts (usually 5).
@ Single achlymadous female flower in the centre is surrounded by many

achlamydous male flowers. [BPKIHS 2003]
@ Ratio of female to male flower is 1: many
(C) Verticellaster: [IOM 2005] @VCD
@ Characteristic inflorescence of Labiatae. e.g…………………………………………………….
@ It is a condensed dichasial cyme type of inflorescence.
@ Involucre is whorl of bracts surrounding an inflorescence. e.g., capitulum,
cyathium and umbel.
@ Cauliflory or trunkiflory .........................................
................................................................................... eg. Ficus, Artocarpus (Jack fruit or Rukh
katahar).
@ Edible inflorescence:
@ Compound corymb in cauliflower (B. oleracea var. botrytis)
@ Catkin in mulberry (Morus alba).
@ Hypanthodium in fig (Ficus carica).
@ Spadix in female maize (Zea mays).
FLOWER
@ Anthology -->………………………………………………………..
@ Anthesis- …………………………………………………………….
@ Cleistogamous flower: Flower donot open after maturation, e.g.,Viola,
Oxalis,Commelina, ground nut(Arachis Hypogaea),etc
@ Chasmogamous flower: Flower open after maturation. Both cleistogamous and
chasmogamous flower occurs in Chomelina benghalensis.
@ Smallest flower -Wolffia microscopica.
@ Largest flower – Rafflessia arnoldi(total root parasite) ((Cuscutta (
total stem parasite)(aakashe beli lahara))
@ Flower is a reproductive shoot of definite growth.
@ Floral parts like sepal, petal, stamen and carpels are modified leaves.
@ Perennial monocarpic plant: eg: bambusa (bash) and Agave(ketuke)
@ Monocarpic: flowering once in lifetime (mostly annual plant)
@ Polycarpic: flowering many times in lifetime( mostly perennial plant).
@ Homogamous=(male and female mature at same time )( suitable for self
pollination)
A typical flower has 4 whorls
Non-essential or Essential or reproductive whorls

vegetative whorls Androecium and gynoecium
Calyx and corolla

wr
@ Stalk in flower = pedicel and so flower with stalk is called pedicellate
flower.
Characters:
@ Complete flower: All the four whorls are present, e.g., Cruciferae, Solanaceae,
Malvaceae, Leguminosae, Disc florets of Sunflower etc.
@ Incomplete flower: Any one of the four whorls is missing, e.g., Liliaceae,
Graminae, Ray florets of Sunflower etc.
@ Bisexual or Monoclinous flower or Perfect flower: Both androecium and
gynoeciumare present in the same flower. e.g., Cruciferae, Solanaceae,
Malvaceae, Leguminosae, Disc florets of Sunflower etc.
@ Unisexual or Diclinous or Imperfect flower: Flower has either androecium or
gynoecium.
• Pistillate or female flower: only gynoecium.
• Staminate or male flower: only androecium.
• Ray florets of Sunflower are unisexual (female flowers or pistillate).
• Monoecious plant: Both male and female reproductive parts are borne by
the same plant (but not by the same flower). e.g., Maize (Zea mays),
Ricinus, Cucurbitaceae
• Dioecious plant: Male and female reproductive parts are borne by
different plants. Eg.Cycas, papaya, mulberry, lapsi (Choreospondius).

@ Bracteate: Flower covered by involucre or bract. e.g,.Compositae, Euphorbiaceae,
Gramineae etc.
@ Ebracteate: Flower not covered by involucre or bract. e.g., Brassicaceae, Solanaceae
etc.
@ Actinomorphic (Regular = Symmetrical): Flower is radially symmetrical, e.g.
Cruciferae, Mimoseaceae, Malvaceae, Liliaceae, Compositae (disc floret).
@ Zygomorphic (Mono symmetrical): Flower is bilaterally symmetrical, eg.
Graminae, Papilionaceae, Caesalpinaceae and Composite (ray florets)
@ In family Solanaceae, flower is more actinomorphic and less zygomorphic
(slightly zygomorphic) due to obliquely placed ovary.
Relative position of ovary on thalamus with respect to other floral whorls:
@ Hypogyny: Ovary superior (rest of the floral members inferior). e.g.Brassicaceae

, Solanaceae, Malvaceae, Poaeceae etc.
@ Epigyny: Ovary is inferior (rest of the floral members superior). e.g.
Compositae, Cucurbitace.
@ Perigyny: In this condition ovary is half superior and half inferior. e. g.rose,
pear, peach etc.
@ Achlamydous: Absence of accessory floral whorls i.e., Calyx and Corolla remain
absent.e.g. Euphorbiaceae, Piperaceae (Piper betel).
@ Monochlamydous: Single whorl of perianth covers the essential whorls. e.g.,
Liliaceae.
@ Dichlamydous: Both calyx and corolla cover the essential whorls as in
Cruciferae, Solanaceae, Leguminosae etc.
@ Dichogamy: Maturation of pollen grains and ovules at different time.
@ Protandry: Maturation of pollen grains earlier than ovules. E.g., Salvia,
Cotton, Helianthus.
@ Protogyny: Maturation of ovules (carpels) earlier than pollen grains. E.g., Ficus,
Magnolia.

PARTS OF TYPICAL flower
1. Calyx:
@ Outermost whorl of a flower
@ Unit structure is sepal.
@ Sepals may be free (Polysepalous) or fused (Gamosepalous).
@ Function of sepal is to protect the flower during bud stage.
@ Persistent sepals: Sepal do not drop down even after fertilization, e.g,.
Solanum melongena, Lycopersicum esculentum, Capsicum annum etc.
@ In family Compositae, sepals are modified into Pappus (hairy sepals) for
dispersal of fruits by Parachute mechanism.
@ Epicalyx (whorl of bractiole) in ……………………………………
2. Corolla:
@ Second whorl of a flower, brightly coloured.
@ Unit structure - ……………………………………….
@ Petals may be either free ………………………………… or fused ………………………….
FORMS OF COROLLA
1. Cruciform: Four free petals arranged in the form of a cross. e.g. Cruciferae.
@ Each petal is called Clawed petal or Ungiculate petal.
2. Campanulate or bell shaped: as in Cucurbita
3. Infundibuliform or funnel shaped: as in Datura stramonium, Petunia etc.
4. Tubular: e.g., Disc florets of Sunflower.
5. Rotate or wheel shaped: as in Solanum melongena (Brinjal or egg plant).
6. Papilionaceous or butterfly-shaped: Three are five petals. The large, posterior
petal is called Vexillum or Standard.
@ Vexillum covers two lateral, free petals called Wings or Alae.
@ Wings or Alae further cover two innermost (anterior) fused petals which
are together known as Keel or Carina. Keel or Carina is a boat shaped cavity.
7. Bilabiate or two lipped: Limb of the corolla has two lips- the upper and the
lower, with the mouth gaping wide open. e.g. Members of family Labiatae
8. Personate (Masked): In this case the two lips are placed so near to each other
as to close the mouth of the corolla, as in Antirrhinum (Snap dragon)
[IOM 2007]

9. Ligulate or strap shaped: e.g., Ray florets of Sunflower.
Perianth:
@ Indistinct calyx and corolla is called perianth.
@ Unit structure - tepal.
@ Tepals free - …………………………………………….
@ Tepal fused - ……………………………………………..
@ In family Graminae, tepals are reduced into ………………………….. and their
number is usually two. [MOE 2066]
@ Structures equivalent to perianth is lodicules. [MOE 2067]
Aestivation:
@ Mode of arrangement of floral members (sepals or petals) w.r.t to each other
in the same floral whorl during bud stage is called aestivation. [IOM 2007]
4. Valvate aestivation : ………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………….. [IOM 2006] e.g., Brassicaceae, Mimosaceae etc.
5. Twisted or contorted aestivation: e.g., China ros.
6. Imbricate aestivation : ……………………………………………………………………….. ……. ……
………………………………………………………………………………………………….., e.g., Caesalpiniaceae
7. Quincuncial aestivation : ……………………………………………………………………….. ……. ……
………………………………………………………………………………e.g., Calyx of Cucurbita maxima
8. Vexillary aestivation: as in Papilonaceous corolla. [MOE 2055]
Male reproductive part (Androecium):

@ Unit structure - stamen (equivalent to microsporophyll).

@ Each stamen has three main parts; anther (fertile part), connective and
filament.
@ Generally, anther is dithecous (bi-lobed) and tetrasporangiate (having 4
pollen chambers or microsporangia)
@ Anther is monothecous in family....................................
@ Anther is monosporangiate in.......................................
Conditions related to the length of stamens:
a. Didynamous: four stamens; outer two long and inner two short. eg., Labiateae
(Ocimum).
b. Tetradynamous:..........................................................................................................................................................
........................
c. Heterostemony: Stamens are of variable lengths. e.g. Cassia fistula
(Caesalpinaceae).
Note: In family Caesalpiniaceae, some stamens are sterile and are
called..............................................................
Cohesion of stamen:
@ Union of stamens among themselves.
A. Adelphous condition: Filament fused and anther free
• Monoadelphous condition: Filamenys forming single bundle (staminal
tube), e.g,, China rose,Members of family Malvaceae
• Diadelphous condition: Filaments are united in two two bundles, e.g.,
Papilionaceae.
• Polyadelphous condition: e.g., Citrus, Ricinus, Bombax.
B. Syngenesious condition: …………………………………………………………………. eg sunflower
C. Synandrous condition: ………………………………………………………………….. CUcurbitaece

Adhesion of stamen:
@ Union of stamens with other floral parts.
A. Epipetalous condition: Stamen are fused with petals.
e.g., Compositae, Solanaceae, Malvaceae.
B. Epiphyllous condition: ..............................................................................................................................
C. Gynandrous condition: Stamens attached with gynoeciume. e.g., Calotropis.
Attachment of filament to the anther:

@ Basifixed: Filament attached at base of stamen. e.g., Solanaceae, Brassicaceae.
@ Dorsifixed: Filament attached to back of stamen. e.g., Legumes (pea, bean).
@ Adnate: Filament attached along the whole length of anther. E.g., Magnoliaceae
family
@ Versatile: e.g,. Graminae.

Female reproductive part (Gynoecium or Pistil)

@ Unit structure is carpel.
@ Each carpel has three parts; stigma, style and ovary.
@ Part of pistil which receives pollen is ................ [IOM]
@ Carpel free-..............................................
@ Carpel fused -.........................................
@ Styles originate at lateral side of ovary in........................
@ Gynobasic style occurs in family.........................................
No of carpels in a pistil:
@ Monocarpellary condition or simple pistil: as in Leguminosae
@ Bicarpellary condition: Brassicaeae, Solanaceae
@ Tricarpellary condition: Liliaceae
@ Pentacarpellary or multicarpellary condition: Malvaceae
No of lucules or chambers in a ovary:
@ Unilocular: e.g. Graminae, Compositae, Legume.
@ Bilocular: e.g. Cruciferae, Solanaceae.
@ Trilocular: e.g. Liliaceae.
@ Tetralocular: e.g. Ocimum.
@ Pentalocular: e.g. Malvaceae (China rose).
@ Multilocular: e.g. Lady's finger.
@ Ovules are attached to the wall of ovary by .................
@ Ovule is attached to the placenta by funicle.
Placentation (Arrangement of ovules in ovary)

1. Marginal placentation: [IOM 1999, Ind. Emb. 2003]
@ Always develops in a monocarpellary, unilocular ovary. e.g.,……………………………
………………………………………………………………
2. Parietal placentation:
@ Ovary is unilocular and bears two or more longitudinal placentae. e.g.,
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
@ In family Cruciferae, ovary is originally unilocular but later on becomes

bilocular due to the development of a false septum called replum.
3. Basal placentation:
@ The ovary is unilocular and a single ovule is borne at the base of the ovary.
@ A placenta formed directly from thalamus. [MOE]
e.g. , Asteraceae, Graminae.
4. Axile placentation:
@ In a multicarpellary, syncarpous gynoecium the fusing margins grow
inwards to meet in the centre of the ovary to form an axis thus making the
ovary multichambered (multilocular). The ovules are borne on central axis.
e.g,,............................. ..........................................................................................................................................
5. Superficial:
@ The gynoecium is multicarpellary syncarpous. e.g. Nymphaea, Lotus (Nelumbo
nucifera).
6. Free central: e.g. Dianthus, Salvia.

FRUIT
@ Fruit is ripened and fertilized ovary.
@ Pomology is the science and practice of fruit culture.
@ Largest fruits and seeds are recorded in ............. .........................................
@ Smallest fruits and seeds are recorded in Orchidaceae (also called dust
seeds).
Fruit
Eucarp Pseudocarp Parthenocarp

Entirely from Ovary + other Fruits having
ovary. floral parts. sterile seeds /
Fertile seeds Fertile seeds no seeds.
present present eg. Banana,
eg. Mango eg. Apple grapes.
@ Usually, a typical fruit consists of two parts: fruit wall (pericarp) and seeds
@ Pericarp is made up of three layers epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp
@ True fruit: develops from ovary
@ False fruits: develops from any part other than ovary.
Types of fruits:
Simple fruit:
@ Develops from monocarpellary or polycarpellary syncarpous ovary.
A. Dry fruits: Pericarp is not distinguished into three layers.
Dry fruits are of following three types:
I. Dry Dehiscent or Capsular fruits:

a. Legume or pod:

@ Develops from monocarpellary, superior, unilocular ovary, having marginal
placentation.
@ Dehiscence occurs from two sutures.
@ Characteristics feature of family……………
b. Follicle:
@ Similar to legume but dehiscence occurs through only one suture (usually
ventral suture). e.g., Calotropis.
c. Siliqua:
@ Multi-seeded fruit developing from a bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior
ovary.
@ Dehiscence occurs by both the haves from base to the apex.
@ Example: ……………………………………
d. Silicula: A short, broad and flattened siliqua is called silicula. e.g., Iberis
amara (Candytuft), Capsella-bursa-pastoris (Shepherd’s purse).
d. Capsule:
@ These are multi-seeded and dehisce by various methods.
1. Porocidal dehiscence: …………………...
2. Loculocidal dehiscence: ………………
3. Septa breaks down into segments (septifragal dehiscence) as in Datura.
II. Dry Indehiscent or Achenial fruits: These are single seeded, indehiscent
dry and simple fruits.
a. Achene:
@ Develops from monocarpellary pistil having superior, unilocular ovary. e.g.,
Mirabilis jalapa
b. Caryopsis:
Caryopsis is the characteristic fruit of family ……………………………..
c. Cypsela:
@ Characteristic fruit of family ……………….
@ Develops from a bicarpellary, syncarpous, unilocular and inferior ovary.
d. Samara or winged fruits:

@ One or two seeded, developing from bi or tricarpellary ovary.
@ In samara wings develops from pericarp e.g., …………………………………
@ Note: In case of Shorea robusta (sal), wings are formed by …………………………..
e. Nut:
@ One seeded fruits with pericarp hard and woody or leathery
III. Schizocarpic or Spliting fruits:

@ Intermediate between dry dehiscent and dry indehiscent fruits.
@ At maturity, these fruits break up into one seeded parts called mericarps.
a. Lomentum: It is a constricted pod e.g. Acacia, Mimosa, Cassia etc.
Note: Fruit of ground nut is ………................... [MOE 2066]
b. Cremocarp: e.g., Coriandrum sativum (Coriander = Dhaniya), Daucas carota
(Carrot).
d. Double Samara: e.g., Acer (Maple).
e. Regma: e.g. Ricinus (castor), Euphorbia, Jatropha.

B. Succulent and Fleshy fruits:

· Pericarp is divided into three distinct regions: epicarp, mesocarp and
endocarp.
I. Drupe or stone fruits: Mostly single seeded fruits with hard and stony
endocarp.
Examples Edible parts

Mangifera indica (mango)
Cocos nucifera (coconut )
Juglans regia (wall nut = okhar) Cotyledons are edible
II. Bacca or Berry: developing commonly from syncarpous pistil (rarely

from single carpel) with axile placentation.
Examples Edible part
Lycopersicon esculentum (tomato)
[MOE 2066]
Solanum melongena (brinjal = egg
plant = bhenta)
Musa paradisiaca (banana)
Vitis vinifera (grapes) Pericarp and placenta edible.
Parthenocarpic fruit.

II. Pepo:
@ Characteristic fruit of family Cucurbitaceae.
@ It develops from a tricarpellary, syncarpous, inferior ovary with parietal
placentation.
III. Pome:
@ Develops from a syncarpous, inferior ovary which is surrounded by fleshy
thalamus.
@ e.g., …………………………………
@ Edible part is …………………….
IV. Hesperidium:
@ Develops from a multicarpellary, multilocular, syncarpous, superior, ovary
with axile placentation.
@ E.g.,
@ Edible part is- ……………………….. …………………………………………
VI. Balausta:
@ e.g., Punica granatum (Pomegranate = Anar)
@ Edible part: …………………..
VII. Amphisarca:
@ Develops from a multicarpellary, syncarpous, multilocular and superior
ovary.
@ e.g., Aegle marmelos (Wood apple = Bel)
AGGREGATE FRUITS (ETAERIO):

@ Develops from a multicarpellary apocarpous pistils (free carpels) of a flower.
a. Etaerio of follicles: Michelia, Calotropis, Vinca (periwinkle)
b. Etaerio of achenes: Rose, Fragaria spp. (Strawberry); edible part: Thalamus
c. Etaerio of drupes: Rubus idaeus (Raspberry). Edible part: Thalamus
d. Etaerio of berries Anona squamosa (Custard apple = Sharifa). Edible part:
Mesocarp
COMPOSITE OR MULTIPLE FRUITS:

Fruit develops from complete inflorescence.
a. Sorosis:
@ This is a multiple fruit developing from spike, catkin or spadix inflorescence
e.g.
@ Ananas sativus (Pineapple = Bhuin katahar); Edible parts: Rachis, bracts and
perianth.
@ Morus alba (Mulberry = Kimbu = Kain kaphal); Edible part is perianth.
@ A multiple fruit is exemplified by Mulberry [MOE 2066]
@ Artocarpus integrifolia (Jack fruit = Rukh katahar); Bracts, perianth and seeds
become succulent and are used for eatning.
b. Syconus or Syconium:
@ Develops from ...............................
@ e.g,. ...................................................................
TAXONOMY OF ANGIOSPERMS

NAME BOTANY || 48 ||
Family CRUCIFERAE (BRASSICACEAE)

Commonly known as ………………………
@ Members includes hairy herbs with
pungent smelling watery sap.
@ Pungent smell is due to suphur
containing glucosides.
@ Iimportant anatomical feature is
presence of
............................................................................
@ Inflorescence – .............................................
...........................................................................
@ Flowers are hypogynous and
tetramerous, actinomorphic. Rarely
zygomorphic as in Iberis amara. [MOE
2053]
@ Petals are unguiculate (clawed) and
cruciform (cross like).
Androecium: .........................................................
Gynoecium:
..................................................................
............................................................................
@ Placentation: ............................
@ Fruit: ....................................................
@ Floral formula (Mustard):
[IOM 2005]
Important plants of the family:
Brassica campestris (Mustard)

B. oleracea var. botrytis (cauliflower): Edible part: Inflorescence [MOE 2000,

BPKIHS 2010]
B. oleracea var. capitata (cabbage). Edible part: Vegetative bud (largest vegetative
bud of plant kingdom)
Cherianthus cheiri (Wall flower)
Lepidium sativum (Garden cress)
Iberis amara (Candytuft)
Raphanus sativus (Radish)
Capsella bursa-pastoris (Shepherd’s purse) Nasturtium officinale (Water-
cress)

FAMILY SOLANACEAE
@ Bicollateral vascular
bundles in the stem.

@ Flowers:……………………………………......................................... .........................
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................
..................................................................................
@ Placentation - ............................................
@ Fruit: ............................................................
@ Floral formula:............................
[IOM 2006, 2005]
Common plants of family Solanaceae are:

Solanum tuberosum (Potato)
Solanum melongena (Brinjal)
Solanum nigrum (Black night shade / Jangali bihin)
Lycopersicum esculentum (Tomato)
Capsicum annum (Khursani)
Physalis peruviana (Rasbhari)
Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha / Winter cherry)
Nicotiana tabaccum (Tobacco) [IOM 2008]
Datura metel (Dhatura or thorn apple)
Atropa belladonna (Belladona)
Cestrum noctuermum (Night Jasmine / Raat Ki Rani) [IOM 1996]

FAMILY LILIACEAE
@ Commonly known as lily family or onion family.

@ Inflorescence usually raceme, umbellate cyme in case onion.
@ Flowers…………………………..........................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................

@ Placentation - .........................................
@ Fruits - ..........................................
Important plants of the family:

Allium cepa (Onion)
A. sativa (Garlic)
Aloe vera (Ghiukumari)
Agave americana (Century plant/Ketuki)
Asparagus racemosus (Kurilo)
Colchicum autumnale
Dracaena sp.
Gloriosa superba (Glory lily / Kewari)
Lilium sp. (Lily)
Ruscus aculeatus
Smilax aspra (Kukurdaino)
Yucca gloriosa (Spinach dagger / Hattibar)


FAMILY GRAMINEAE (POACEAE)

@ Commonly known as ......................................
@ Stem with distinct nodes and internodes (Culm) [IOM 2008]
@ Leaves with sheathing leaf base and parallel venation.
@ Inflorescence: ..............................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................
@ Flowers are trimerous, bracteate and bracteolate, sessile zygomorphic,
bisexual, sometimes unisexual and monoeciuous and hypogynous.
@ Perianth is represented by two mermbranous structures called lodicules.

@ Stamens are usually 3, (6 in

case of rice and bamboo), anthers
are versatile.
@ Gynoecium: tricarpellary,
single, ovary superior, style
usually two and stigma
feathery.
@ Placentation -
.........................................................
@ Fruits -
..........................................................
@ Seeds: Endospermic
(Albuminous)
Important plants of the

family:
Triticum aestivum (Wheat)
Zea mays (Maize)
Oryza sativa (Rice)
Avena sativa (Oat / Jai)
Bambusa sp. (Bamboo)[MOE 2067]
Cynodon dactylon (Dog grass /
Dubo)
Eleusine coracana (Finger millet
/ Kodo)
Hordeum vulgare (Barley / Jau)
Saccharum officinarum (Sugarcane)

NAME BOTANY
|| 58 ||

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Complete Biology Noters 2022/23 || 1 ||

Body of typical angiospermic plant is differentiated into:

Dr. Kabir’s Lectures 2022/23

Root cap zone:

Tap root system Adventitious root system

® Develops from radicle of an embryo.

@ In dicots, radicle elongates, tapers, swells, becomes prominent as primary

Dr. Kabir’s Lectures 2022/23

b. Nodulated tap roots/Tuberculate roots (Root nodules):

@ Found in plants of sub-family Papilionoideae of family

c. Pneumatophores or respiratory roots or breathing roots:

@ Pneumathodes anatomically resemble lenticels.

@ These adventitious roots arise from

2. Stilt roots or brace roots:

4. Buttress roots/ Plank roots:

e.g., Bombax ceiba (Simal), Ficus

5. Modifications of adventitious roots for other vital functions:

Dr. Kabir’s Lectures 2022/23

2. Parasitic roots or haustorial roots or sucking roots:

3. Epiphytic roots or hygroscopic roots:

a. Fixing root/Clinging root: for fixation.

Dr. Kabir’s Lectures 2022/23

Aerial Sub-aerial Underground

Aerial stem (Epiterranean):

Weak aerial stem

(hooks using plants)

Note: Creepers may be both twiners and climbers.

Figure : A. Twinner (Dioscorea) and B. Climber (Vitis)

Dr. Kabir’s Lectures 2022/23

Dr. Kabir’s Lectures 2022/23

Underground (Sub-terranean) Modifications of Stems

Dr. Kabir’s Lectures 2022/23

@ e.g. Musa paradisiaca (Banana), Zingiber officinale (Ginger), Curcuma domestica

Figure : Corm of Colocasia ( “Pidalu”)

@ Corm is a condensed form of rhizome growing in the vertical direction.

Dr. Kabir’s Lectures 2022/23

@ Bulb stores food in fleshy scaly leaves/swollen leaf bases.

Dr. Kabir’s Lectures 2022/23

Sub-aerial Modifications of Stem (Prostate weak stem modifications)

@ It is a long, thin, green stem with long internodes growing horizontally on

@ It is a non-green underground stem which grows obliquely upwards.

Dr. Kabir’s Lectures 2022/23

Aerial (Epiterranean) Modifications of Stems

Dr. Kabir’s Lectures 2022/23

@ Axillary bud into tendril, e.g.,…………………..

Dr. Kabir’s Lectures 2022/23

@ Vegetative reproduction in agave takes place by bulbil. [BPKIHS]

Dr. Kabir’s Lectures 2022/23

a. Leaf base (Hypopodium)/Vagina:

Dr. Kabir’s Lectures 2022/23

Dr. Kabir’s Lectures 2022/23

2. Floating petiole or spongy petiole or bulbous (swollen) petiole in

3. Tendrillar petiole in Pitcher plant (Nepenthes), Nasturtium and Clematis

4. Phyllode (a flattened, green and photosynthetic petiole) in Parkinsonia,

KINDS OF LEAF BASED ON FUNCTION

e.g., Begonia, Bryophyllum

Fig. Reproductive leaf of Bryophyllum

4. Sporophylls: Spore bearing leaves or leaves with sporangia. e.g. Dryopteris

Dr. Kabir’s Lectures 2022/23

Simple and Compound leaves

Dr. Kabir’s Lectures 2022/23

Dr. Kabir’s Lectures 2022/23

E. Multifoliate or digitate: ……………………………………………………………………….