21/10/2022

The Endocrine
system – Part 1
Dr Rebekah Lucas – contact through
canvas or (r.a.i.lucas@bham.ac.uk)

Lecture Aims
Gain an overview of the endocrine system
Understand what a hormone is and it’s function
Understand hormones’:
Structures, Transport, Metabolism, Mechanisms of action
Know what inputs control hormone secretion

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Hormones and Endocrine Glands

In the body there are 2 types of glands
1) Exocrine glands: secrete their
products into duct (e.g., sweat or
the intestines)
2) Endocrine glands: ductless and
release hormones into the blood

The endocrine system

The endocrine system is one of
the body two major
communication systems
- Consists of glands and organs that
secrete hormones
- A single gland may secret multiple
hormones
Hormones are chemical
messengers carried by the blood
to target cells

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Hormones
Releases by glands to elicit a response
- Enhance or inhibit cellular reactions
Present at v. low concentrations
- Much lower than other similar molecules
Response to small amount is possible due to the way the cell
‘behaves’
- This means that although a given hormone travels throughout the
body in the blood, it affects only specific target cells.

Function of Hormones
1. Hormones help regulate:
Chemical composition and volume of internal environment (e.g., interstitial fluid)
Metabolism and energy balance
Contraction of smooth and cardiac muscle fibers
Glandular secretions
Some immune system activities

2. Control growth and development

3. Regulate operation of reproductive system

4. Help establish circadian rhythm

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Hormones
Operate in synchrony with the nervous system
- Endocrine = chemical messengers
Act (relatively) more slowly
Often longer lasting effects
- Nervous system = electrical conduit system
Instantaneous
Short-lived

Endocrine System vs. Nervous System

CHARACTERISTIC NERVOUS SYSTEM ENDOCRINE
Mediator molecules Neurotransmitters released locally in Hormones delivered to tissues
response to nerve impulses throughout body by blood.
Site of mediator action Close to site of release, at synapse; binds to Far from site of release (usually);
receptors in postsynaptic membrane binds to receptors on or in target
cells
Types of target cells Muscle (smooth, cardiac, and skeletal) Cells throughout body
cells, gland cells, other neurons

Time to onset of action Typically within milliseconds (thousandths Seconds to hours or day
of a second)
Time to onset of action Generally briefer (milliseconds) Generally longer (seconds to days)

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Hormone structures and synthesis

Hormones fall into three major structural classes:
1. Amines
E.g., Thyroid hormones, Dopamine, Catecholamines (Epinephrine &
Norepinephrine)
2. Peptides and proteins
The majority of hormones are peptides
E.g., Insulin
3. Steroids
E.g., Aldosterone, Cortisol, Androgens (e.g., testosterone), Estrogens

Hormone transport, metabolism and excretion

Peptide and all catecholamine hormones are water soluble and
therefore circulate dissolved in the plasma.
Some peptide hormones bind to plasma proteins
Steroid and thyroid hormones circulate mainly bound to plasma
proteins.

The liver and kidneys are the major organs that

remove hormones from the plasma by
metabolizing or excreting them.

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Mechanisms of hormone action

Public transport (blood)– specific destinations (target tissues)
The presence of specific receptors for those hormones on or in the target cells
necessary for response
Hormone receptors
For steroid and thyroid hormones, the
majority of receptors are inside target cells
For peptide hormones and catecholamines,
receptors are on the plasma membrane

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Mechanisms of hormone action

The responsiveness of a target cell to a hormone depends on
(1) the hormone’s concentration in the blood,
(2) the abundance of the target cell’s hormone receptors, and
(3) influences exerted by other hormones.
Hormonal interactions can have three types of effects:
Permissive (e.g., epinephrine & thyroid hormones (T3 and T4)
stimulation of lipolysis),
Synergistic (e.g., follicle-stimulating hormone & estrogens)
Or Antagonistic (e.g., insulin & glucagon)

Negative feedback systems regulate the secretion of many hormones.

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Inputs that control hormone secretion

Hormone secretion controlled by:
1. Plasma concentration of an ion or nutrient that the hormone regulates
2. Neural input to the endocrine cells
3. Other hormones

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Inputs that control hormone secretion

1. Plasma concentration of an ion or
nutrient that the hormone regulates
E.g., Insulin secretion

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OYH1deu7-4E&t=8s

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Röder, P. V., Wu, B., Liu, Y., & Han, W. (2016). Pancreatic regulation of glucose
homeostasis. Experimental & molecular medicine, 48(3), e219-e219.

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Set-point

Fed state: Chemosensors

(pancreas)
Fasted state: Chemosensors
( hypothalamus, pancreas) Liver, adipose tissue, and skeletal muscle
Control
Sensor Effector
Centre
Pancreas

Effector response

Blood glucose concentration Alter

Normal Range: 70–110 mg/dl storage/metabolism
/release of glucose
REGULATED
and its related
VARIABLE
compounds

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Inputs that control hormone secretion

2. Neural input to the endocrine cells
The autonomic nervous system
controls hormone secretion via the
adrenal medulla and other
endocrine glands.
Neurons in the hypothalamus also
secrete hormones.
Neural input from the autonomic
nervous system controls the
secretion of many hormones.

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Inputs that control hormone secretion

3. Other hormones
Often the secretion of a particular
hormone is directly controlled by the
blood concentration of another
hormone
A hormone that stimulates the
secretion of another hormone is
often referred to as a tropic
hormone.
E.g., Thyroid-stimulating hormone
(TSH) or Follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH)

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Summary
The endocrine system is one of the body two major communication
systems
Hormones = chemical messengers, that travel in blood, to target cells
Hormones = help regulate, control growth and development, regulate
reproductive system, help establish our circadian rhythm
Hormones = 3 major structural classes and the structure dictates how
hormones travel and interact with target cells
Hormone secretion controlled by: ion or nutrient conc., neural input or
other hormones

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