Exploring Social Media Addiction Among Student Millennials

Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal
Exploring social media addiction among student millennials

Stacy Grau, Susan Kleiser, Laura Bright,
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Exploring social media addiction among student millennials
ABSTRACT
Purpose: The purpose of this research is to explore the phenomenon of social media addiction among
student Millennials. We use the consumption continuum as a theoretical framework.
Design/methodology/approach: The authors used a “media deprivation” methodology including both

qualitative and quantitative measures.
Findings: We found that social media may exist in some respondents in a “near addiction” phase or the
“social media addiction” phase according to the Consumption Continuum Framework. Several themes
are discussed.
Research limitations/implications: While the sample is small, this paper is an exploratory study of social
media addiction among Millennials and the first to apply the Consumption Continuum framework to this
context (Martin et al., 2013)
Practical Implications: This paper explores the idea of social media addiction and begins to examine the
role that marketing plays in perpetuating this addiction.
Originality/value: This paper expands the idea beyond Facebook Addiction (platform agnostic) and is
the first to apply the Consumption Continuum Framework.
Paper Type: Research Paper
KEY WORDS
social media, social media addiction, Internet addiction, Millennials, Consumption continuum
framework
Running Head: Exploring Social Media Addiction Among Student Millennials
2
Though research has examined the effects of heavy Internet use (Charlton, 2002; Liu and Kuo,
2007; Thomas, 2011; Weinstein and Lejoyeaux, 2010; Widyanto et al., 2011; Widyanto and Griffiths,
2006; Young, 1999; 2009), Internet addiction remains a topic that has proven difficult to define and
challenging to diagnose, but does seem to be growing in importance. The Internet has become an
integral thread in the fabric of the world – increasing everything from connectivity to productivity, but
with studies showing negative side effects of heavy Internet use, some critics have expressed concerns
of widespread Internet addiction in the developed world.
Symptoms similar to those exhibited by people with depression, low self-esteem, disinhibition,
anxiety and hostility are often seen in subjects who are believed to be addicted to the Internet
(Greenfield, 1999; Widyanto and Griffiths, 2006). Some research on Internet addiction has shown side
effects similar to impulse-control disorders, but the way this compulsion is defined varies across studies
(Charlton, 2002). While this problem seems to be widespread across developed countries, research
shows Millennials to be most affected by this condition (Christakis et al., 2011). Indeed, most
Millennials have never known a life without the Internet, and therefore use it constantly. College
students in particular seem to be at a greater risk than other demographics of becoming addicted to the
Internet because they tend to use the Internet not only for pleasure but also for school related work and
other types of work, such as communication with teams.
Researchers argue that Internet addiction is a broad term covering a broad variety of behaviors.
Young (1999) claimed that there are five categories related to Internet addiction: cybersexual addiction
(e.g. cyber sex and cyber porn); cyber relational addiction (e.g. over-involvement in online
relationships); net compulsions (e.g. obsessive online gambling, shopping or daytrading); information
overload (e.g. compulsive web surfing) and computer addiction (e.g. obsessive computer gaming).
Existing research has been primarily conducted on online gaming (Charlton and Danforth, 2010;
3
Mehroof and Griffiths, 2010; Ng and Weimer-Hastings, 2005), specifically massive multiplayer online
gaming (Smahel et al., 2008), cybersex (Griffiths, 2000; Putnam, 2000) and online gambling (Griffiths,
2003). However, there are other platforms that remain relatively underexplored despite their prevalence.
One facet of Internet addiction that has received limited investigation is social media addiction.
A few recent publications have acknowledged this phenomenon (e.g. Andreassen et al., 2012; Kuss and
Griffiths, 2011), but few have been able to tangibly explain its effect on society. This paper will begin to
explore the phenomenon of excessive social media use, particularly by college-aged student Millennials.
We plan to provide a new framework to explain it by employing a consumption continuum framework

with four stages: non-use, non-addictive use, near-addictive use, and addiction (Grover et al., 2011;
Martin et al., 2013). Doing so will help to explore the overall research proposition, can excessive social
media use truly be defined as an addiction, or is it merely a step on the consumption continuum?
In order to examine this question, we conducted a deprivation study containing quantitative and
qualitative questions with college-aged student Millennials. In this study, respondents first abstained
from all social media for four days and then answered several questions about social media in general,
their normal social media usage and the effects of the abstention. These questions centered on the
physical, emotional and psychological issues of abstaining from social media.
Addiction and the Consumption Continuum
Addiction is clinically defined as “dysfunctions in brain reward, motivation, memory, and related
circuitry that lead to biological, psychological, social and spiritual manifestations” (American
Psychiatric Association, 2000). Addictive behavior is described as the pursuit of some reward or relief
from stress in a compulsive manner (Martin et al., 2013). Altman et al. (1996) state that addictive
behavior includes the inability to abstain from certain behaviors, cravings, a lack of self-regulation and
the inability to recognize the harmful consequences of certain behaviors.
Recently, researchers have argued that consumers may move through a consumption continuum
(Grover et al., 2011; Martin et al., 2013) and that consumers may become addicted to the consumption
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of everyday things (e.g. food, exercise). We argue that social media, given the ubiquity and perceived
value of it for college-aged student Millennials, can be considered one of those everyday things that
people consume. Indeed, Grover et al. (2011) cite a University of Maryland study whereby students
were asked to give up all technology for only 24 hours -- this brief media fast led to withdrawal
symptoms in respondents. People are connecting with others, getting news, and creating content on
various social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter or Instagram, thereby embracing the value of
social media such as gaining popularity and fame, making social contact and relationships like dating or
furthering a social cause or initiative (Wang, 2011). In other words, addiction does not always start out
with the consumption of “sin” products like cigarettes, drugs or alcohol, but instead can begin with
“seemingly benign behaviors that through psychological, biophysical and/or environmental triggers can
become harmful and morph into an addiction” (Grover et al., 2011, p. 1). For social media consumption,
the ready availability of the stimulus (e.g. access via smart phones, tablets, laptops and wearables) and
the social comparisons such as “all of my friends are on it” and “fear of missing out” can reduce the
willingness to reduce or delay consumption (Martin et al., 2013). The question then becomes, how do
every day consumption behaviors transform into an addiction? And more specifically, does social media
behavior follow this pattern?
An addiction based on consumption comprises of four stages: non-use; non-addictive use; near-
addiction and addiction. Each of these phases are characterized by the time spent and frequency of
engaging in the behavior, the degree of self-control and the degree of negative consequences associated
with the behavior, whether psychological, economic, physical or social (Charlton, 2002; Martin et al.,
2013). This research is primarily concerned with behavior starting at the near-addiction phase of the
continuum. We are also particularly interested in college-aged student Millennials since they are
considered “digital natives” having grown up with the Internet and, for many, social media in some form
or another be it Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, Snapchat or another social media platform.
[Insert Figure 1 here]

5
Figure 1 is an adaption of the framework presented by Martin et al. (2013), and focuses on the
factors – frequency of use, consequences, control and enjoyment - that have an impact on the near-
addiction stage. This phase is characterized by increased usage in terms of frequency and time spent on
social media. The near-addictive stage has two processes: adaptive consumption and maladaptive
consumption. People in the adaptive consumption phase experience lower frequency and time spent on
social media and the degree of self-control ranges from medium to high. However, it depends on the
consumption domain and the enjoyment derived from that domain. For example, the enjoyment with the
behavior, as manifested in the rewards derived from the behavior, becomes more salient. In a social
media context, someone could gain a psychological rush from seeing growth in views, followers, and
likes in an effort to build an audience. Reward for the behavior may increase the involvement level as
well as the time spent. This adaptive consumption phase differs from the non-addictive phase in terms of
the affective benefits derived from consumption (Martin et al., 2013). From there, maladaptive
consumption is characterized by an increased tolerance for the behavior and its consequences. Again
time spent and frequency of usage continues to increase throughout the near-addiction phase. “As an
individual moves up the continuum, the time spent increases, and usage is now driven by a loop
designed to extract ever decreasing enjoyment resulting in the psychological or physical need to engage
in the behavior. This stage may be characterized by enhanced engagement, where the activity begins to
become something wanted rather than liked” (Grover et al., 2011, p. 3). For example, people may feel
like they have to remain on social media because of the fear that they miss something or become
disconnected from their social circle. So while consumers began to fall into this near addiction phase,
why does it matter? From a marketing perspective, brand managers are increasingly moving their
promotion, communication and marketing towards social media through a presence on Facebook,
Twitter, YouTube and other social media platforms. Indeed, marketers are increasingly emphasizing
engagement with customers on social media as an important goal for campaigns, and given their sheer
size, Millennials are frequently a key target for many brands. Martin et al. (2013) argue that marketing
6
cues are important in this near-addiction phase and future research should examine how a brand’s
increasing presence on social media platforms is contributing to consumption addiction levels.
Internet Addiction
While Internet addiction has been broadly recognized and has raised widespread attention and
concern, it has yet to be clearly defined. A few have attempted to define it, some using specific criteria
to attribute it to people such as those “who lose control over their actions in life and, in general, spend
more than 38 hours a week online are considered to have an Internet addiction” (Liu and Kuo, 2007, p.
801). Others have developed broader definitions for this dependence, defining it as being “characterized
by excessive or poorly controlled preoccupations, urges or behaviors regarding Internet use that lead to
impairment or distress” and as “an impulse-control disorder which does not involve an intoxicant.”
(Young, 2009, p.239) The latter definition is based upon the shared qualities with addictions to gambling
and online shopping, both of which are considered obsessive and compulsive behaviors. Because of a
lack of dependence upon a chemical, these two activities and Internet addiction are defined as impulse-
control disorders.
Internet addiction was first measured using the Internet Addiction Test (Young, 1999). Young
argues that the Internet itself was not addictive, but rather that people are addicted to certain highly
interactive Internet applications. In earlier research (Young,1996), it was found that these applications,
which were ones that enabled users to meet and socialize with others, seemed to be the true cause of
addiction to the Internet. Participants who were found to be dependent upon the Internet also generally
felt that virtual relationships were “highly intimate, confidential, and less threatening than real life
relationships and reduced loneliness” in their lives. These “dependents” cited that their overuse of the
Internet caused problems consistent with other established addictions, such as alcoholism and gambling.
The problems experienced by dependents were classified into five categories—academic, relationship,
financial, occupational and physical (Young, 1996).

7
In Young’s (1996) studies, more than half of respondents experienced severe impairment in the
academic, relationship, financial, and occupational categories. In each of these categories, at least 85
percent of participants cited moderate to severe impairment. A primary finding was that dependents
progressively exchanged in-person relationships for independent Internet use, causing relationship
issues. Problems with productivity at work and accumulating large Internet usage fees also existed. The
only category in which the impairment level was low was at the physical level, with 75 percent citing no
physical impairment and no respondents citing severe physical impairment. Even having experienced
significant negative consequences, 54 percent of participants “had no desire to cut down the amount of
time they spent online”; and 46 percent tried and were unsuccessful in spending less time online. They
hoped to avoid negative consequences but ultimately failed to conquer their dependency (Young, 1996).
Thus, these dependents showed difficulties with impulse-control consistent with other disorders such as
pathological gambling. The largest problem with Internet use was the participants’ incapability to
regulate their usage, even as spending excessive amounts of time online often caused problems in their
lives.
A great deal of research has been performed using college students as subjects, as Millennials are
considered at high risk for behavioral addictions (Christakis et al., 2011). According to the Pew Internet
Center, 86% of people 18-29 use social media as of Nov. 6, 2016 and it skews towards Facebook (88%)
and Instagram (59%) for this age group (http://www.pewinternet.org/fact-sheet/social-media/)
Additionally, because college students have a great amount of free time at their disposal, they are a
prime group in which to observe the prevalence, causes and effects of social media use (Charlton, 2002).
According to Christakis (2011), problematic Internet usage is estimated to affect between 1% and 26%
of college students in the U.S. and 6% to 19% globally. These estimates, however, have limited validity
due to the use of small, unvaried and non-random sample populations, as well as measures that have not
yet been validated as it was exploratory in nature (Christakis, 2011; Cotten, 2008). Additionally,
findings from many prominent studies contradict this estimate, as studies show a wide variance in
8
estimated addiction rates. Another limitation of current research on Internet addiction is that most large
studies on this subject are merely exploratory, not explanatory (Cotten, 2008). Some recent studies on
Internet addiction, however, have utilized the validated Internet Addiction Test (IAT), developed by
Young (1999) and used internationally (Christakis, 2011).
A study of University of Wisconsin and University of Washington undergraduates used the IAT
and found that 4% of students exhibited “problematic Internet usage” by scoring in the “occasional
problems” or “addicted” range of the scale (Christakis, 2011). Additionally, 70% of respondents in this
study reported spending more time on the Internet than they had planned to, suggesting a possible
disadvantage to the widespread access to the Internet that students have today. One study of university
students found that 65 percent of students were online for over three hours a day, and a large-scale
survey (nearly 28,000 students at 103 institutions) found nearly seven percent spent over 40 hours on the
Internet each week (Cotten, 2008). This concern of excessive Internet use by college students is further
validated by the fact that as many as 98% of college students have profiles on social media networks,
with most accessing these sites daily (Christakis, 2011). In 2016, Pew Research found that 76% of
Internet users visited Facebook daily, with 55% of these visiting several times per day (Greenwood et al
2016)
This same study also found that moderate-to-severely depressed students were approximately 24
times more likely to show problematic Internet usage than were their fellow students. This tie between
symptoms of depression and “problematic Internet usage” further suggest that this “problematic use” is
truly an addiction, given the association of depression with other behavioral addictions like gambling
(Christakis, 2011). Consequentially, their study suggests U.S. college campuses take a preventative
stance on Internet addiction, raising awareness through campaigns and even utilizing treatment in some
cases.
While much of the research previously cited examines Internet usage in its totality, recently, the
connection between Internet and social media addictions has been rendered. In their review of Internet
9
and Social Media Addiction, Erfanmanesh and Hossseini (2015) emphasized that the over-checking of
social media can be a signal of Internet addiction, and highlighted that men are more susceptible to both
Internet and social media addiction than are women. Furthermore, Pirouz (2016) drew a connection
between social media usage and Internet addiction, whereby college students in the field of science were
less addicted than those studying humanities or engineering. With the increasing use of social media,
especially amongst college students, research has investigated the potential for social media-specific
addiction.
Social Media Addiction

In order to analyze the addictive potential of social media, it is important to first identify why
people use social media. Kaplan and Haenlein (2010) define social media as “a group of Internet-based
applications that build on the ideological and technological foundations of Web 2.0 and that allow the
creation and exchange of user-generated content” (p. 61). Social networking sites, which are what most
people think of as social media, are considered high on self-presentation/self-disclosure, defined as any
“type of social interaction people have with the desire to control the impressions other people form of
them” (Kaplan and Haenlein, 2010, p. 62). Social presence and media richness are the other element in
classification. When reviewing various types of conline entities (from blogs to virtual social worlds)
these sites are classified as medium on social presence/media richness, Social presence and media
richness is defined as “the acoustic, visual, and physical contact that can be achieved – that allows to
emerge between two communication partners” since social media allows communication feedback
(Kaplan and Haenlein, 2010, p. 61). Given the number of people using social networking sites and
associating social media primarily with social networking sites, we have chosen to concentrate on this
technology type. Seventy eight percent of adults in 2016 had at least one social media profile
(Statista.com, 2017) and spend an average of 118 minutes per day on social media. In comparison to the
start of the decade, two-thirds of adults who use the Internet are on social media, and social networking
is the fourth most common Internet activity (Smith, 2011; Kittinger et al., 2012). Nevertheless, the
10
majority of social media users utilize these sites primarily for social purposes, with two thirds of users
recognizing that “staying in touch with current friends and family members is a major reason they use
these sites” and half saying the same about reconnecting with old friends (Smith, 2011). This research
conceptualizes social media addiction as a subset of Youngs (200) Internet Addiction since the primary
purpose of social media seems to be establishing and maintaining relationships (Kuss and Griffiths,
2011). To recognize specific aspects of social media addiction, Esgi (2016) operationalized this
construct through the development of the SMAT17 scale.
Social media addiction is a phrase sometimes used to refer to someone spending too much time
using Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, or other social media platforms -- so much so that it interferes with
other aspects of daily life. Social media sites are especially important to Millennial college students,
who have been shown to spend a great deal of time online and use the Internet often for social purposes.
One study showed that college students who were found to have problematic Internet use according to
Young’s Internet Addiction Test more commonly reported experiencing “problems related to their
Facebook use” (Kittinger et al., 2012). Not surprisingly, time management was the major issue that these
students experienced. More recently, Kircaburun (2016) found that social media addiction directly
influenced daily Internet usage, and indirectly led to depression amongst adolescents.
Another study attempting to determine whether or not Millennials are in fact addicted to social
media revealed that subjects reported experiencing salience, tolerance, the intrapsychic element of
conflict, and relapse associated with their social media use (Cabral, 2011). According to Cabral (2011),
the association of these aspects of addiction with social media use shows that Millennials prioritize
social media above other activities and need to use social media more to achieve satisfaction. Subjects of
this study acknowledged that they needed to cut back on using these networks but found that it was
difficult to do. This finding relates to themes seen in Internet addiction research, suggesting that
Millennials are in fact addicted to social media.

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With the permeation of technology into every aspect of Millennials’ lives today, social media has
truly become essential to Generation Y. In his book The Shallows, Nicholas Carr (2010) argues that
Internet technologies now “guide people’s behavior and shape their perceptions” and that because of
this, today’s society exists in a world of interruptions. These interruptions are no accident, however; in
fact they exist because of people’s compulsion to constantly be connected. Carr proposes that these
disruptions are changing the way people think and process information and that the Internet is in part
responsible for an extensive loss of ability to focus. Because of a widespread and constant reliance on
Internet technology, people are no longer able to avoid distractions, and what is more—they do not want
to. Interruptions have become the norm, and focus has become next to impossible (Carr, 2010; Mott,
2013). The technology ramifications are further shown in Roberts et al. (2014). These authors explored
the social component of cell-phone addiction, whereby the use of mobile devices for social activities,
such as social media platforms like Pinterest and Instagram, can lead to cell-phone addiction.
Because of the availability of access to social media networks on mobile devices, people are able
to check their pages anytime, and however many times, they wish. According to a study by analytics
firm IDC, smartphone users “check their Facebook pages an average of 14 times each day”
(Subbaraman, 2013). People now check Facebook while exercising, shopping, dining with family and
even while driving. With notifications popping up throughout the day, it is next to impossible for many
people to stay away from their social networks for more than a few hours. Social media has thus become
a constant presence in today’s society, with Millennials being the most attached. For this reason, it is not
something easily given up. As stated, we opted to use the Martin et al. (2013) model of consumption
continuum as a theoretical foundation for this exploratory research. This research explores the following
questions:
RQ1: When asked to abstain from social media, do college-aged student Millennials exhibit
addictive-like behaviors (e.g. near addiction phase)?

12
RQ2: Is social media usage by college-aged student Millennials reflective of later stages of the
consumption continuum based on their time and frequency on social media platforms (e.g. near
addiction or addiction phase)?
RQ3: Are college-aged student Millennials likely to follow the adaptive or maladaptive
consumption process within the near addiction phase?
Methodology
The primary focus of this exploratory study was to understand social media usage by college-
aged student Millennials, especially when they were asked to abstain from it. To answer our research
questions, we adopted a two stage approach and studied a group of 129 students at a private university in
the Southwestern region of the United States. First, we asked each respondent to complete a short online
survey administered via Qualtrics on his or her social media usage. Next, we asked them to abstain from
all social media (e.g. Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, blogging) for four consecutive days. They were
instructed not to access anything on their computers, tablets or smart phones. Although there was no
way to make sure all subjects completed the social media abstention, researchers were hopeful that they
would take it more seriously since it was part of an assignment for class. After the four-day period, they
then answered several qualitative questions, using a self-administered written survey, related to their
feelings about abstaining from social media (The qualitative survey questions and instructions are
provided in the Appendix.).
An overview of the participants and their usage are provide in Table 1. Of the 129 participants,
all fell between the ages of 19 and 22, and more than half were male. All subjects had access to a smart
phone, with the majority (72%) indicating the Apple iPhone as their device of choice. Interestingly, the
majority of subjects had previously and voluntarily taken a break from social media. Participants
indicated that they spent more than an hour and a half using social media on a typical weekday,
engaging in these platforms to communicate with others among other reasons.
[Insert Table 1 here]

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The authors elected to use a qualitative approach for exploratory research. We used thematic
analysis, which allowed us to understand how these college-aged student Millennials interpreted their
social reality (Jensen, 2002). We elected to focus on college-aged student Millennials given that they are
likely to also use social media for school purposes as well. The goal was to explore the possible themes
and see if that matched up with the theoretical framework being used in the paper. We reviewed each of
the responses from the subjects and attempted to identify and record patterns in the data. After
establishing several key patterns, we then applied these to the overall theoretical framework to examine
whether the patterns matched the phases in the consumption continuum model. We used a “unit of
thought” such as comments as a starting point and then grouped various units into categories. Two
researchers independently coded the data into the units of thought and categories. Themes are included
here as well as representative quotes from respondents, in conjunction with our research questions.
Results
The results are organized by key themes related to the four phases of the consumption
continuum. These themes include: relative time and frequency spent on social media; degree of self
control and harmful consequences; and enjoyment and rewards. From these key themes, evidence from
respondents emerged and pointed to social media use being primarily in the non-addictive use phase and
aspects of the near addiction phase of the consumption continuum model. We did not find many
students self-reporting that they were in the last stage of the consumption continuum (e.g. addiction).
Research question one (RQ1) centered on whether college-aged student Millennials exhibit addictive-
like behaviors (e.g. near addiction phase), when asked to abstain from social media. Given the lack of
respondents falling into the addiction phase and only a few exhibiting near addiction behaviors, we
found mixed results for research question one. However, a few respondents did exhibit symptoms from
the abstention consistent with Internet addiction.
Relative time & frequency spent on social media

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According to the consumption continuum framework, people in the near-addiction phase should
exhibit high levels of the relative time and frequency spent on social media platforms. Respondents were
asked to describe the ways they use social media. Nearly every participant had active accounts on
Facebook and Twitter, and many also cited Instagram, Pinterest and LinkedIn as additional sites they
used (see Table 1). Some respondents used different social media platforms for very specific purposes.
For example, many Facebook users used the platform to keep up with friends and social circles, while
others used Twitter to scan for news and gossip. Many respondents expressed that they use social media
when they are bored at work, in between classes, waiting in lines or during other down times. Several
also admitted that social media serves as an “escape” from class or homework, consistent with prior
research findings (Whiting and Williams, 2013). While some respondents admitted that they spend a
great deal of time every day on social media sites, some indicated that social media played only a minor
role in their lives. The ones who cited that they spend multiple hours on social media during a typical
day said that this time is spent primarily on Facebook and women on Pinterest, as these sites offer a
great deal of avenues to explore. Respondents indicated that on the whole, they use social media
primarily to keep up with news from friends and to stay in touch and up-to-date with what is going on in
their social circles, as also found by Whiting and Williams (2013). Interestingly, a few respondents
spoke about how little time they spend on social media and how unimportant it is but described how
they maintained up to five social media profiles. This seemed to indicate that, for some respondents,
there could be some level of denial about their own behavior. Additionally there does seem to be a lack
of understanding about what social media really is. One female wrote after abstaining from social media
“Instead of spending time on social media, I spent more time on Reddit, more time watching TV and
more time reading news on my iPad”. She likely did not realize that Reddit and some of the news sites
can be classified as having aspects of social media. Based on this qualitative feedback, college-aged
student Millennials seemed to exhibit behavior consistent with near-addictive consumption, which lends
support to research question two (RQ2). Thus, social media usage by college-aged student Millennials
15
is reflective of later stages of the consumption continuum based on their time and frequency on social
media platforms (e.g. near addiction or addiction phase).
Degree of self-control & harmful consequences
In the near-addiction phase, respondents should also have a medium level of self-control over
social media as well as a medium level of harmful consequences. Many respondents experienced self-
control regarding their own usage. After abstaining from social media for four consecutive days, most
actually enjoyed the abstention. Many said that though they missed being connected and knowing what
was happening, they actually relished the break from the distraction of social media. As one male
participant put it, “Abstaining from social media proved to be less mentally taxing, as I did not
experience online overload.” Another female said, “I do not actually like social media because I waste
so much time on it, so not being able to log on was refreshing… I think that the time that I spend staring
at a computer screen dulls me… I feel just a little bit sharper.” Many respondents felt refreshed and
freed from the constant presence of social media in their lives. One male stated “I feel much less
connected to people in the online world but this allowed for greater connections to people in the offline
world. This was perhaps the most enlightening part …that I was able to focus and build relationships
with people around me.” The lack of negative side effects experienced by most during the abstention
suggests that the majority of respondents do not seem to exhibit the behavior that is present in near
addiction phase.
However, this was not universal. Though most respondents enjoyed the break from social media,
many did feel a lack of connection to their friends who they did not physically spend time with during
the abstention. Many respondents felt that that they were missing out on social news by not being able to
check their online feeds, as they normally use their social network accounts to keep up with friends’ life
events, such as finishing a marathon or becoming engaged. Several respondents also cited difficulty in
holding conversation with friends, as others were talking about things that happened that they had all
seen on social media. Similarly, people also said that they had difficulty bringing up topics to talk about
16
with friends, as they often initiated conversations based on things they had seen on their social
networking sites. One male stated, “Physically I don’t feel differently (after abstaining) but emotionally
and mentally I feel tolled. I felt unconnected and often bothered. I want to look so many times due to
push notifications on my phone.”
One aspect of this lack of connection that many participants alluded to is the fear of missing out.
This phenomenon, dubbed “FOMO”, was a strong theme when respondents discussed the lack of
connection they felt during the abstention. They said that they often use social media to find out their
friends’ plans, specifically about parties and other social events, and it was difficult to keep up during
the abstention. Many also said that they enjoy seeing what their friends are doing on the weekends
through posts and photos, and they missed being able to stay informed and know what everyone was up
to. One female stated, “Emotionally and mentally I feel as if something is missing. I almost feel anxiety
from feeling that I don’t know what is going on with family/friends. I also had to delete my social media
apps, otherwise my subconscious mind wanted to take over and just automatically click on the social
media app anytime I was bored.”
This research indicated that Millennials use social media as a way to keep up with their more
distant friends, the ones they do not socialize with on a regular basis or talk to often in person. Some
also used it to talk with different types of friends. One male responded “I did miss talking with people
about topics most of my friends in real life don’t discuss.” Because social media offers an easy,
convenient way to keep up with hundreds of people at once, there is really no offline substitute for what
these sites offer. While most participants said that their more close, personal relationships were either
not affected or were strengthened by the abstention, many still felt disconnected from their larger social
world. Respondents indicated that they used social media primarily to keep up with the people that they
do not talk to regularly, but that they still wish to receive updates on major life events.
Despite this feeling of a lack of connection, respondents did note that they felt more connected to
those they physically spent time with, that they felt more “present” and were better able to build
17
relationships. One referred to social media as a distraction that normally keeps him from interacting with
his friends face-to-face. Another said that he noticed that the time he spent in-person with friends, rather
than on social media, felt “more genuine than online connections.” A few respondents even noted
feeling uncomfortable and becoming frustrated when spending time with friends because their friends
were constantly checking social media even while spending time together in-person.
Enjoyment & Rewards
Different respondents derive varying benefits from social media. Generally, respondents should
get medium to high levels of enjoyment. One strong trend that emerged from responses was the use of
social media as a time “filler.” In line with Whiting and Williams’ (2013) findings, many respondents
said that they primarily accessed their social media accounts during downtime, such as in between
classes or while waiting in line. Responses indicated that students use social media most when they are
bored, not necessarily in place of other important activities. Quite a few participants also cited that they
get on social media at specific times of the day, such as when they wake up or go to sleep. These
responses seem to point to social media use being a habit, rather than an addiction that gets in the way of
other important things.
One of the major concerns voiced about social media use is the lack of productivity that results
from it. Many respondents said that going into this deprivation study, they felt that they would be far
more productive without the distraction of social media. After the abstention, some respondents did in
fact feel more productive. Many spent more time doing homework or spending time with friends in
person. When forced to abstain from social media, people replaced the time they would normally spend
on those sites with other social activities. Many said that they spent the extra time texting, talking on the
phone, spending time with friends in person, or otherwise socializing. This brings up a point that was
emphasized throughout virtually all responses, that is, the feeling of connection that social media offers.
These people said that it was due to a break from the “online overload” that they normally live in, which
goes back to Nicholas Carr’s arguments in The Shallows. With a plethora of ways to waste time on
18
social networking sites, some said they normally use these sites to procrastinate when they should be
doing other things. Without social media as a distraction, they were able to accomplish things more
efficiently.
About half of the respondents said that they did not replace the time they normally spend on
social media with productive activities; they simply spent their time doing things like looking at other
websites, watching television or texting. Additionally, a surprisingly large number stated that they
normally did not struggle with social media negatively impacting their productivity level, so there was
little change during the abstention. This is interesting as research in other areas is starting to uncover
issues with multitasking. Millennials often believe that they are pretty good doing more than two or
three things at once. There may be a certain level of denial about their productivity effectiveness. This
deserves attention in future research on this topic.
Near-Addiction versus Addiction
The feedback from the themes of “Degree of Self Control and Harmful Consequences” and
“Enjoyment and Rewards” offers support for both the adaptive and maladaptive processes under near-
addictive consumption, which is the focus of research question three (RQ3). Students experienced
positive benefits from social media, indicative of the adaptive process, yet felt the negative impact of
social media usage at high levels, reflective of the maladaptive process.
Many participants experienced effects from the abstention that pointed to social media being
closer to “near-addiction”. One female stated, “While I was abstaining, I found myself constantly
opening up the apps on my phone… I found that spending time on social media was not as deliberate as
I had originally thought, as it was much more habitual than anything else.” Another female stated that
she was “surprisingly excited to be able to access my social media accounts when it was over.” This is
consistent with the resulting themes of social media as being a time filler and something that people
access during certain times of the day. Because participants reported accessing the sites during their
downtime or when they were bored, their use of social media seems more habitual than addictive in
19
nature. Additionally, the fact that participants simply replaced social media with other social activities
shows that people care about the connection that social networking sites offer them, not necessarily the
networks themselves.
The ease with which most people replaced social media with other activities seems to disqualify
their use of social media as being an addiction. The vast majority of participants experienced very minor
or no negative side effects, thus disqualifying their behavior as being an addiction. As seen in current
research on Internet addiction, significant negative side effects must occur in order for addiction to exist.
Because most participants actually experienced positive effects from the abstention, it is impossible to
say that they are addicted. This is, however, only the result for the majority of the participants. A few
participants did show significant negative side effects and did seem to exhibit addiction.
When asked whether or not they thought they were addicted to social media, a few participants
self-reported that they believed they were. Not surprisingly, these were the same respondents who
exhibited negative side effects from the abstention. The most significant side effect that these people
experienced was withdrawal. These subjects also admitted experiencing euphoria when they logged onto
social media, and they craved this feeling when they were unable to log on due to the abstention.
Respondents also experienced salience, as they reported social media being their primary focus, taking
precedence over other things. This salience was apparent in responses because participants admitted
being unable to focus on other things, placing social media as their highest priority. Additionally, they
said that they sometimes “get lost” on Facebook or Pinterest for extended periods of time.
Based on the time of usage (92 minutes per day, on average), respondents did not appear to be at
the latter stages of the consumption continuum. However, their comments do show indication of near-
addictive consumption which lends some support to research question two (RQ2). Finally, the themes
and comments from the qualitative analysis do highlight college-aged student Millennials’ following
both the maladaptive and adaptive processes of the near-addictive consumption stage; however, not one
clear path could be identified, as posited in RQ3. The aim of the research was not to put respondents into
20
a category of addiction vs. non-addiction. As such we cannot say that a certain percentage of
respondents fell into each mutually exclusive category. Given the exploratory nature of the research, we
wanted to instead examine respondents’ thoughts about abstention and see how these could be used to
explain their relevance to attributes on the consumption continuum model.
Discussion & Implications
The purpose of this research was to explore the phenomenon of social media addiction among
college-aged student Millennials. Given the rising numbers of users on most platforms (e.g. Facebook at
more than a billion users; the growth of Twitter, Instagram, Snapchat and the rise of social media
influencers), research indicates significant amounts of time is being spent on these activities. Therefore,
we feel this research makes several contributions to this new area of research. First, this study found that
social media addiction may in fact exist in some respondents and may be in the near-addiction phase for
others. But, in our study, this represented a minority of respondents. This shows that at least right now,
most respondents indicated that they were able to exhibit self-control regarding their social media usage.
Second, we put forth at least the start of a working definition and conceptualization of social media
addiction. This definition and conceptualization will likely change once more empirical research has
been done on the antecedents and consequences of social media addiction and its relationship to other
constructs such as Internet addiction. Our definition deals with overall social media addiction, as
opposed to only one platform (e.g. Facebook Addiction) (see Bergen Facebook Addiction Scale,
Andreassen et al., 2012; Griffiths, 2012; Andreassen and Pallesen, 2013). We feel that it is important to
consider social media addiction holistically, given that people are likely to be on multiple platforms for
multiple purposes. As such, future research should begin to conceptualize a robust definition of social
media addiction. Third, we do believe that college-aged student Millennials may be susceptible to social
media addiction because (1) they use it to connect with their friends and social circle making it a lifeline
to their social lives; (2) they use it to procrastinate or “waste time” while doing other things like
studying; and (3) there seems to be a lack of connection when social media is taken away from them. Of
21
course different individuals have varying levels of usage, making some more likely to become addicted
whereas some will never leave an earlier phase of the consumption continuum. Fourth, this was one of
the first studies that we know of that uses the consumption continuum framework (Martin et al., 2013)
as a theoretical foundation for any type of technology related addiction. This shows another context that
could be used to further explore the consumption continuum.
As with all research, limitations do exist. First, as in any self-reported study, there may have
been error due to false reporting by participants. Additionally, because this study was performed as part
of a class assignment, participation was not explicitly voluntary (although they were given other
options). This could have caused a higher than usual number of participants to report false results. The
sample size of this study was also small and the university from which the sample was taken typically
serves students of relatively high socioeconomic status. This has implications in that smartphones are
highly prevalent at the university, which could cause social media use to be higher than in an average
population of Millennials. These were also undergraduate students and therefore do not represent all
students or all Millennials. And the sample size was small and not generalizable to a larger Millennial
audience.
Despite these limitations, this research serves as a good platform for future research. Because of
the overall lack of research on social media addiction, more empirical research should be conducted to
study this phenomenon in general, particularly to (1) explore the relationship between Internet addiction
and social media addiction to understand the differences; and (2) to determine the overall consequences
of social media addiction from a biological, psychological or social perspective. Millennials are a prime
group to study because of the volume of social media use that occurs within this age group. However,
future research should also include social media addiction for older cohorts (e.g. Generation X and Baby
Boomers) as well as younger cohorts (e.g. Generation Z). The findings from this study also merit the
exploration of the habitual nature of social media. Further research on social media use as a near-
addiction would help to further define the reasons people use social media and would likely help in the
22
identification of early tendencies toward social media addiction. Additionally, research that explores
how people become addicted to social media would be helpful in diagnosing and treating the addiction.
It is unclear from the current research and this study how precisely people become addicted to social
media. It is possible that people may start early on the consumption continuum but may experience other
intervening factors, such as a predisposition to addiction, or even marketing intervention. Last, it is
important to further explore the role of marketing and advertising on this phenomenon. Future research
can explore places where marketing cues are particularly effective at moving people through the
continuum and the ethical implications of that should also be considered. Indeed, there are also likely
ethical questions that marketers could tackle. For example, as marketers continue to move more and
more of their marketing activity and spend online, how does that affect potential customers? The
concern that marketers may compromise a customer’s well-being in the name of profit should be
explored. In conclusion, we feel that this research is a positive first step in better understanding the
pathway to social media addiction for college-aged student Millennials.

23
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Table 1: Overview of participants and their social media usage a
Gender 52% Male

48% Female
Voluntary social media abstention in 66% Yes
the past 34% No
Smartphone Access 100% Yes (majority choose iPhone as platform)
0% No
Social Media usage (per weekday) 𝑥 = 92.24 minutes
Percentage having an account on 100% Facebook
Social Media platform b 62% Instagram
79% LinkedIn
34% Pinterest
86% Twitter
Percentage indicating reason to use 93% To communicate with others

Social Media 89% To gather information on people
64% To gather information on products or services
aTotal n=129 for study. All subjects were between 19-22 years of age.
bAt the time of the study, Snapchat was not included in the list of social media platforms. Instagram
was relatively new at the time, as well.
28
Appendix
Qualitative Survey Questions (and Instructions)
Instructions: For FOUR (4) days, I would like for you to TOTALLY ABSTAIN from all social media
(e.g. any of the social networks that you belong to, Facebook, LinkedIn, Pinterest, Instagram, blogs,
Twitter and so forth). Then I want you to answer the following questions. Please take this seriously
and not fake it. Use as much typing space as you see fit.
DATES YOU ABSTAINED: _________________
1. Describe the ways you use social media (e.g., Facebook, Twitter, Pinterest, Instagram, etc.) that
you have active accounts for.
2. What role does social media play in your life? Explain.
3. How do you feel after abstaining from all social media? Consider physical, emotional and
mental aspects.
4. Did you feel that you were more or less connected to people? Explain.
5. Did you feel that you were more or less productive? Explain.
6. Did you feel that you were missing anything? Explain.
7. What did you miss most? What did you miss least?
8. What else did you do instead of spending time on social media?
9. How do you view social media? As a habit? Is it a good habit or bad habit? Explain.
10. Do you think you are addicted to social media? Explain. If so, what implications do you think
this has for you?
11. Have you ever thought about deactivating your Facebook account? Twitter? What did you
ultimately do and why?
12. If you did deactivate your account, did you reactivate? Why or why not?
Figure 1: Adaption of Consumption Continuum

Framework presented in Martin et al. (2013; p 1221)
Near-
addictive use
Non-
Non-use addictive
use
Adaptive Maladaptive
Consumption Consumption
Time & Frequency

Harmful Consequences
Self Control
Enjoyment & Rewards

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Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal

Exploring social media addiction among student millennials

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Design/methodology/approach: The authors used a “media deprivation” methodology including both

Paper Type: Research Paper

of widespread Internet addiction in the developed world.

other types of work, such as communication with teams.

We plan to provide a new framework to explain it by employing a consumption continuum framework

physical, emotional and psychological issues of abstaining from social media.

Addiction and the Consumption Continuum

the inability to recognize the harmful consequences of certain behaviors.

behavior follow this pattern?

or another be it Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, Snapchat or another social media platform.

[Insert Figure 1 here]

increasing presence on social media platforms is contributing to consumption addiction levels.

financial, occupational and physical (Young, 1996).

and Instagram (59%) for this age group (http://www.pewinternet.org/fact-sheet/social-media/)

Young (1999) and used internationally (Christakis, 2011).

Social Media Addiction

construct through the development of the SMAT17 scale.

Millennials are in fact addicted to social media.

addictive-like behaviors (e.g. near addiction phase)?

addiction or addiction phase)?

consumption process within the near addiction phase?

provided in the Appendix.).

engaging in these platforms to communicate with others among other reasons.

[Insert Table 1 here]

the abstention consistent with Internet addiction.

Relative time & frequency spent on social media

media platforms (e.g. near addiction or addiction phase).

Degree of self-control & harmful consequences

push notifications on my phone.”

media app anytime I was bored.”

Enjoyment & Rewards

other important things.

deserves attention in future research on this topic.

Near-Addiction versus Addiction

social media usage at high levels, reflective of the maladaptive process.

explain their relevance to attributes on the consumption continuum model.

Discussion & Implications

could be used to further explore the consumption continuum.

intervening factors, such as a predisposition to addiction, or even marketing intervention. Last, it is

pathway to social media addiction for college-aged student Millennials.

addiction scale”, Psychological Reports, Vol. 110 No. 2, pp. 501-517.

Greenfield, D.N. (1999), “Psychological characteristics of compulsive internet use: A preliminary

Griffiths, M. (2012), “Facebook addiction: Concerns, criticism and recommendations – A response to

Social Media Fact Sheet (2017) Pew Internet Research http://www.pewinternet.org/2016/11/11/social-

Contemporary Psychotherapy, Vol. 39 No. 4, pp. 241-246.

Gender 52% Male

Percentage indicating reason to use 93% To communicate with others

Qualitative Survey Questions (and Instructions)

DATES YOU ABSTAINED: _________________

Figure 1: Adaption of Consumption Continuum

Time & Frequency

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