LEXICAL SYSTEMS.

HOMONYMS. SYNONYMS. Lecture 6

ANTONYMS.
1. Definition of homonyms. Classification of
homonyms.
2. Sources of homonymy.
3. Definition of synonyms. Classification of
synonyms.
4. Sources of synonymy.
5. Antonyms and their classification.

OUTLINE
Homonyms are words identical in sound
and spelling or at least in one of these
aspects, but different in their meaning and
distribution.

The term is derived from Greek (homos –

the same, onoma – name, i.e. the same
name combined with the difference of
meaning.

I. Definition of homonyms.
Match
1) (US usually game) a sports competition or event in
which two people or teams compete against each other:
a tennis match // a football/cricket match
2) a short, thin stick made of wood or cardboard and
covered with a special chemical at one end that burns
when rubbed firmly against a rough surface:
a box of matches
You should always strike a match away from you.
3) a person or thing that is equal to another person or
thing in strength, speed, or quality (be no match for
sth/sb)
Gibson ran well but was no match for the young Italian.

+ match (verb)

I. Definition of homonyms.
Tank:
1) a container that holds liquid or gas:
a water tank // a fuel/petrol tank;
2) a large military fighting vehicle designed
to protect those inside it from attack,
driven by wheels that turn inside moving
metal belts.
He was killed when his tank ran over a
mine.

I. Definition of homonyms.
Homonyms exist in many languages but in
English this language phenomenon is
especially frequent, mostly in monosyllabic
words (nearly 90 % of homonyms).

I. Definition of homonyms
Being formally identical but semantically
different, homonyms often serve as a
source of puns:
“Is life worth living?”
“It depends upon the liver.”

“What do you do with the fruit?”

“We eat what we can, and what we can’t
eat we can.”

Homonyms in puns
Homonyms may be divided into:
1. homonyms proper (identical in both
sound and spelling), e.g. bark, match,
spring, band;
2. homophones (identical in sound but
different in spelling), e.g. sweet-suite,
right-write-rite, air-heir, hare-hair, tea – T
(tee), bare-bear (n/v);
3. homographs (the same in spelling but
different in sound), e.g. lead (metal)-lead
(v), read (inf) – read (PP), wind (n) – wind
(v).

Classification of homonyms.
Another classification is based on the part
of speech homonyms belong to.

1) If both homonyms belong to the same

part of speech, they are lexical,
e.g. to read – read (but a good read!),
seal (animal vs stamp, but to seal!),
bat (sport) – bat (living creature)
fit (clothes) – fit (temper).

Classification of homonyms
2) If homonyms belong to different parts of
speech, they are called lexico-
grammatical,
e.g. know-no, right – right, eye – I, sea-
see.

3) If homonyms are different forms of the

same word, they are called grammatical,
e.g. girls-girl’s, worked (Past Simple) –
worked (Past Participle)

Classification of homonyms
The third classification is based on the
similarity of the paradigms (grammatical
forms each homonym possesses).

e.g. match/band/transfer/goal etc.

are full homonyms, because all forms of

their paradigms are coincide.

Classification of homonyms
Homonyms that coincide in some (not in all
members) of their paradigms are called
partial.
e.g. to lie-lying-lied – lied: to lie-lying – lay
– lain; rise – rose – risen – rose (n) – Rose
(proper name).

Homoforms coincide in one form only

(axe/axes vs axis/axes, waters (n) –
waters (v))

Classification of homonyms
There are several sources of homonymy.
1. Phonetic changes. In the course of the
language development two or more words
that were pronounced differently may
develop identical sound form,
e.g. knight-night,
eye – I (sound convergence)
sea - see,
love (v) – love (n) from OE lufu-lufian
write-right.

II. Sources of homonymy

2. Borrowing. A borrowed word may
duplicate in form a native word or another
borrowing,
e.g. write (native) – rite (Latin ritus,
compare with ritual),
fair (adj, native) – fair (noun, French),
bank (shore, native) - bank (institution,
Italian)
case (an event (L-F)/a suitcase (L-
F)/person (later formed in E.) + a verb)

Sources of homonymy
3. Word building:
a) conversion, e.g. mark (n) – mark (v),
must – must, grade (n) – grade (v);
b) shortening, e.g. fan – fan (from
fanatic), van – from vanguard & from
caravan or minivan, AD/ad;
c) sound imitation & conversion, e.g.
crash – to crash; mew – mew – mew,
bang (full vs abbreviated form (be a nice
guy)).

Sources of homonymy
4. Splitting polysemy, e.g. board / bar / table /
capital / reader. It is difficult to establish exact
criteria by which disintegration of polysemy
could be detected.
The knowledge of etymology and other
languages will help to supply the missing links.
The imprecision of the criterion is recorded in
the data of different dictionaries which often
contradict each
other.

Sources of homonymy
1a: a straight piece (as of wood or metal) that is
longer than it is wide and has any of various uses
(as for a lever, support, barrier, or fastening)
windows with bars across them / a door secured
by an iron bar
b: a solid piece or block of material that is longer
than it is wide: a bar of gold / a candy bar
c: a usually rigid piece (as of wood or metal)
longer than it is wide that is used as a handle or
support esp.: a handrail used by ballet dancers to
maintain balance while exercising

BAR
2: something that obstructs or prevents
passage, progress, or action: such as a
law:
His poor attitude was a bar to his success.

BAR
3 law
a(1): the railing in a courtroom that encloses the place about the judge where
prisoners are stationed or where the business of the court is transacted in civil
cases
(2): COURT, TRIBUNAL
The younger judge brought a fresh viewpoint to the bar.
(3): a particular system of courts
practices at the New York bar
(4): an authority or tribunal that hands down judgment
will be judged at the bar of public opinion
b(1): the barrier in the English Inns of Court that formerly separated the seats of
the benchers or readers from the body of the hall occupied by the students
(2): the whole body of barristers or lawyers qualified to practice in the courts of
any jurisdiction
dreams of being admitted to the bar
(3): the profession of barrister or lawyer
… heighten respect for members of the bar and judiciary …
— W. L. Hoyt
(4) US : the test that a person must pass in order to become eligible to work as a
lawyer passed the bar and went into private practice
the bar exam/examination

BAR
4: a straight stripe, band, or line much longer than it is
wide: such as a heraldry: one of two or more horizontal
stripes on a heraldic shield
b: a metal or embroidered strip worn on a usually military
uniform especially to indicate rank (as of a company officer)
or service (see SERVICE entry 1 sense 6b)
a second lieutenant's bar
5a: a counter at which food or especially alcoholic
beverages are served
We sat at the bar while we waited for a table.
b: a room or establishment where alcoholic drinks and
sometimes food are served : BARROOM
They went to a bar for drinks.
c: SHOP
a coffee bar

BAR
6 music
a: a vertical line across the musical staff before the initial
measure accent
b: measure
Sing the first two bars.
7 textiles: a lace and embroidery joining covered with
buttonhole stitch for connecting various parts of the pattern
in needlepoint lace and cutwork
8: standard
wants to raise the bar for approving new drugs
9: computers a strip along the edge of a computer window
that contains commonly used options or icons
The horizontal navigation bar across the top and bottom
enables users to move quickly from primary section to
primary section within the site …

BAR
Paronyms (“near homonyms”) are the words
which are usually derived from a word with the
same root, similar in sound and spelling, but
having a different lexical meaning.
farther/further /// whether/weather///
alternately/alternatively ///
economic/economical/// interested/interesting
///
corrupted/corrupt /// adopt/adapt ///
foster/fester

Paronyms
Hyponymy (=subordination,
superordination) is a semantic relationship
of inclusion. The hierarchical relationship
between the meaning of the general and
individual terms.
Hyponym is a specific term while a
hypernym/hyperonym is more general.

Tree – birch/oak/pine/maple
Animal – fox/dog/tiger/hippo/horse

Hyponymy
Hyponymy-hyperonymy
Source: World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology
International Journal of Computer and Systems Engineering
Vol:13, No:6, 2019

Hyponymy-hyperonymy
 a. man [+MALE] [+ADULT] [+HUMAN]
 b. bachelor [+MALE] [+ADULT]
[+HUMAN] [+UNMARRIED]
 c. boy [+MALE] [-ADULT] [+HUMAN]

The relation of hyponymy between and is

clear because all the features of the word
man are
contained in the feature set of the word
bachelor.

Lexical semes in hyponymy

Hyponymy relation to semantic
triangle
Synonymy is one of the most controversial
points in linguistics.
Roughly we may say that when two or
more different words are associated with
the same or nearly the same denotative
meaning, the words are synonyms.

III. Definition of synonyms.

Classification of synonyms.
Sometimes the criterion of
interchangeability is applied to the
definition of synonyms. Accordingly,
synonyms may be defined as words, which
are interchangeable in at least some
contexts without any considerable changes
in their denotative meaning.

III. Definition of synonyms.

Classification of synonyms.
This criterion of interchangeability (or
substitution), however, has been much
criticized. If all synonyms were
interchangeable, they would become
useless ballast in the language.

III. Definition of synonyms.

Classification of synonyms.
Even seemingly interchangeable synonyms (called
total by V.V.Vinogradov) still differ in their
distribution, use, etc.
cosmonaut vs astronaut.
offer + a noun vs suggest + a gerund.
courgette vs zucchini
egg plant vs aubergine
Scarlet fever vs scarlatina
Fatherland vs matherland
Functional affix vs flection
Thus, the prevailing majority of synonyms are
partial.
III. Definition of synonyms.
Classification of synonyms.
Synonyms are united into synonymous rows, or
synonymic sets (about 8000 in English). In each row
there is one word, which presents a kind of centre of
the group of synonyms and conveys the most general
idea.
Its semantic structure is usually simple.
This is the dominant synonym characterized by:
1. high frequency of usage;
2. broad combinability;
3. broad general meaning;
4. lack of connotations.
E.g. in look-stare-glare-gaze-peer-peep-glance-
glimpse… the dominant synonym is the word look.

III. Definition of synonyms.

Classification of synonyms.
In famous, celebrated, well-known,
notorious, renowned, illustrious – the
dominant synonym is ???

leave – depart – quit – retire – clear out –

escape – retreat = ???

cord – rope – string – cable – line – wire –

thread - twine – strand – filament - ???

III. Definition of synonyms.

Classification of synonyms.
A polysemantic word may enter
synonymic groups according to the
number of its lexical semantic variants, e.g.
the word “fresh” goes into 5 synonymic
sets:
Fresh – original – novel – striking – up-to-
date
Fresh – another – different – new

Synonyms to polysemantic words

Synonyms can be classified as stylistic and
ideographic.
Stylistic synonyms differ in their stylistic connotation
only:
Father
-parent-daddy-Dad;
Girl –
maid – chick – female baby – baby girl - child
Stomach –
belly – (archaic) abdomen – gut – gaster,
Friend –
fellow (man) – buddy - buddy-buddy, old chap, lad, bro
Television –
TV – TV set – telly – idiot box

Classification of synonyms
Euphemisms (forming synonyms) are
always stylistically coloured. They mitigate
the expressiveness of the prototype.

die –
pass away – go – depart – perish –
decease - kick the bucket – join the silent
majority – cross the Great Divide – go
meet Maker - dine with Mohammed etc.

Classification of synonyms
 Ideographic synonyms may differ in a
number of connotations:
 degree or intensity, e.g. to devour – to
gobble – to eat – to bite – to nibble – to
gulp – to sip ; fine – pretty – cute –
beautiful – handsome – gorgeous -
awesome;
 duration, e.g. to glimpse - to gaze - to;
to say – to talk - to utter - have a (quick)
word – communicate – negotiate;

Classification of synonyms
Ideographic synonyms may differ in a
number of connotations (continued):

 manner, e.g. to drag – to stroll – to

loiter – to pace – to march, to ascent – to
mount – to climb, to whisper – to murmur
– to mumble – to speak – to shout – to
cry – to yell – to scream, etc.;

Classification of synonyms
ideographic synonyms classification
(continued)

 cause, e.g. to shiver – to shudder - to

startle; to trigger – to ignite – to start – to
fire – to set off;
 emotive connotation, e.g. alone – lonely,
few – a few;
 evaluative connotation, e.g. well-known –
renowned - famous – celebrated – notorious
– odious – prominent, etc.

Classification of synonyms
We can also single out contextual synonyms
that are similar in meaning only under some
specific distributional conditions,
e.g. Go and buy some bread – Go and get
some bread.
I cannot stand it any longer – I cannot bear
it any longer.
The rainfall in April was abnormal. - The
rainfall in April was exceptional/unique.

These words are not synonyms outside the

specified contexts.

Classification of synonyms
1) Borrowings from other languages or from
dialects and regional variants, e.g.

 ask (native) – question (French) – interrogate

(Latin)
 teach (native) – guide (French) – instruct
(Latin)
 end (native) – finish (French) –
complete/terminate (Latin)
 Lake - loch (Scottish),
 Underground – metro (from French) – Tube
(London) – subway (AmE)
 mobile phone – cell phone(AmE) – handy
(used by English speaking Germans);

IV. Sources of synonymy.

2) Word building:
conversion, e.g. a read (from to read) – reading,
a go (from to go) – a try, a must (from modal
verb must) – obligation;
shortening, e.g. vocabulary – vocab,
representative – rep, neighbourhood – hood;
3) Euphemisms, e.g. drunk/intoxicated – merry
– high – in high spirits, toilet/WC – restroom –
bathroom etc.;
4) Phraseology, e.g. correct/in order – as right
as rain; healthy – as fresh as a daisy; hesitate –
sit on the fence, (know) fully / very well - like the
back of my hand / inside out etc.

IV. Sources of synonymy.

Antonyms may be defined as two or more words
of the same language belonging to the same part
of speech and to the same semantic field,
identical in style and nearly identical in
distribution, associated and often used together
so that their denotative meanings render
contradictory or contrary notions.

NB
Still antonymy is rather relative: small
elephants are big animals. Here small can
easily be a way bigger than big.

V. Antonyms and their

classification.
Contradictory (complementary antonyms)
notions are mutually opposed and deny each
other,
e.g. dead – alive, husband – wife.

NB
They usually form antonymous pairs, but
sometimes there may be multiple incompatibility:
North – West – East – South
Hearts – diamonds – clubs – spades
Week days/planets/months…

Antonyms. Semantic perspective

Contrary notions (proper antonyms) are
also mutually opposed but they are
gradable,
e.g. neonate - young - teenage – adult –
middle-aged - old – senior – senile
Hot –
warm – cool – chilly – icy – cold
Poor –
middle class - well-off – rich – wealthy.

Antonyms. Semantic perspective

 Beautiful ………………………………………ugly

 White …………………………………………..black

 Tiny …………………………………………….. Giant

???
Antonyms may be classified according to the
way they are built.

Root, or absolute antonyms feature

different roots, e.g. light – dark, soft - hard,
good - bad

Derivational antonyms are created by

adding negative affixes to the same root, e.g.
competent-incompetent, regular-irregular,
careful-careless, understanding-
misunderstanding.

Antonyms. Morphological
perspective
In derivational antonyms morphological
motivation is clear, there is no necessity in
contexts containing both members to prove
the existence of derivational antonyms. The
word displeased presupposes the existence of
the word pleased.

In this case, we can identify markedness of

such antonyms: capable (unmarked) –
incapable (marked)

Antonyms. Morphological
perspective
However, these derivational patterns are
typical, but not universal. Morphologically
similar formations may show different
semantic relationships.
e.g. done (completed) is not the antonym to
undone (with no hope for future)
Still (about an ongoing action) is not the
antonym distill (a process of making a liquid
stronger or purer)
disappoint (frustrate) is not the antonym to
appoint (assign to a position)

Antonyms. Morphological
perspective
The words, which are contrasted in actual
speech and are opposed in certain contexts
only, are called contextual antonyms.
e.g. Some people have much to live on but
little to live for.
On and for are antonyms in this context.

Though most antonyms are lexemes, there

are also phrasal antonyms,
e.g. by accident – on purpose

Antonyms. Continued.
 Almost every word can have one or more synonyms.
Comparatively few have antonyms.
It is common to find antonyms among:
 qualitative adjectives, e.g. ancient – new, long – short,
horrible/ terrible/ terrifying – terrific;
 words derived from qualitative adjectives, e.g.
happily-sadly, horror/ terror, happiness-sadness;
 words denoting feelings or states, e.g. victory-failure,
hope-despair, love-hatred, war-peace, silence-noise;
 words denoting direction, e.g. back and forth, to and
from, up and down;
 words denoting position in space and time, e.g.
distant/remote-near/close, above-below, past-present-
future, day-night.

Synonyms/antonyms Frequency
Polysemantic words may have different antonyms
when used in different meanings, e.g.
short – long
(a long / short life),
short - tall
(a short / tall person),
short - civil
(to be short / civil with somebody).
Polysemantic words may have antonyms in some
of their meanings and no antonyms in the others,
e.g. criticism (blame) – praise, criticism (literary
critical essay) – (no antonym).

Antonyms of polysemantic words

Another type of semantic opposition is
conversives. They denote one and the same
referent or situation as viewed from different
perspectives (subject-object), with a reversed
order of participants and their roles,
e.g. buy-sell, give-take, parent-child, pull-push.

Conversive relations are possible within one word,

e.g. to sell: He sells books. This book sells well.
The same pair of words may function as antonyms
or as conversives, e.g.
mothers/fathers/parents vs
daughters/children/sons.
Conversives
There is another traditional way of vocabulary
grouping within the lexical system of a
language. It is called a word family.
Such a family includes the words with the
same root morpheme.
e.g.
Construct, construction, deconstruction,
constructional, constructive
Love, loving, lovingly, beloved, lovable, love-
in

Word families