CMBYkTI4

4
sm<½n§elah³
(Metallic Bonding)
sm<½n§enAkñúgelah³RtUv)anBnül;)any:agRbesIrbMputedayRTwsþIGrb‘Ítallm:UelKul
EdleyIg)anBiPakSarYcral;ehIyenAkñúgGtßbTsm<½n§kUv:aLg;. karerobcMGatUmenAkñúgRKIsþal;
elah³GacRtUv)anbkRsaycMeBaHkarpÁúMCiténEsV‘d¾rwg. karpÁúMCitenHKWmanlkçN³TUeTAcMeBaH
TaMgsmasFatuelah³ nigsmasFatuGuIy:ug. dUecñH karsikSaBIsm<½n§elah³pþl;[nUvTMnak;
TMngrvagsm<½n§kUv:aLg; nigsm<½n§GuIy:ug.
eyabkelah³BIEr: KWRsbeBlCamYynwgPaBrIkcMerIn. sMriT§ (bronze) CasMelah³rvag
Tg;EdgnigsMN):ahaMg KWCaelah³dMbUgEdlRtUv)aneKeRbIR)as;y:agTUlMTUlay. edaysarEt
bec©keTsrMlaykan;EtmankarrIkcMerIn Edk)ankøayCaelah³EdleKniym eRBaHvamanlkçN³
rwg nigskþismCagsMriT§kñúgkarplitCadav nigngÁ½l. sRmab;kareRbIR)as;CaeRKOglm¥ mas
nigR)ak;manPaBgayRsYlkñúgkareRbIR)as; eRBaHvaCaelah³EdlGacEp b¤kinCasnøwk)an ¬KWfa
vaGaceFVI[ecjCarUbragepSg²)any:aggay¦.
CaeRcInstvtSmkehIy cMnYnelah³EdleK)ansÁal;mankarekIneLIgrhUtdl;cMnYnd¾
eRcIndUceBlsBVéf¶ vaKwCaFatuKImIEdlmancMnYneRcInelIslubenAkñúgtaragxYbKImI. b:uEnþenAkñúg
BiPBelakshsm½yenH vaenAEtCacMnYnd¾ticénelah³EdlRtUvkarkñúgCIvitrs;enArbs;eyIg
CaBiess KWEdk Tg;Edg GaluymIj:Úm nigs½gásI. elah³EdleyIgeRCIserIs RtUvEtsmeTA
nwgeKalbMngEdleyIgRtUvkarva b:uEnþPaBEdlGacrk)anénEr: k¾dUcCatémøéneyabkCajwkjy
Caehtuplcm,gEdl[eKeRCIserIselah³mYy CaCagelah³mYyeTot.
4/1 sm<½n§elah³
enAkñúgkarBiPakSarbs;eyIgeTAelIcMEnkfñak;Fatu ¬emIlemeronTI2¦ eyIg)aneFVIkar
KUsbBa¢ak;fa karcmøgcrnþGKÁisnIvimaRtbIx<s;enA SATP KWCalkçN³BiessmYyénsm<½n§
elah³. eyIgGaceFVIkarTak;TglkçN³enHeTAnwgsm<½n§enAkñúgelah³. mindUcCaGelah³eT
EdlkarEckcayeGLicRtugPaKeRcInenAkñúgÉktam:UelKuldac;²BIKñaenaH GatUmelah³Eck

4-1
sm<½n§elah³

cayeGLicRtugxageRkA ¬eGLicRtugv:aLg;¦ CamYynwgGatUmCitxagEdlCitbMput. vaKWCa

bmøas;TIesrIéneGLicRtugBaseBjTRmg;elah³ EdlGacRtUv)aneKeRbIedIm,IBnül;BIPaBcmøg
kemþAnigGKÁisnIx<s;énelah³ k¾dUcCaPaBcmñaMgpøatd¾x<s;rbs;va.
kgVHxatTisedAénsm<½n§GacRtUv)aneRbIedIm,IBnül;BIPaBEdlGacEp nighUtCalYs)an
énelah³PaKeRcIn KWfaGatUmelah³GacrGilelIKñaedIm,IbegáItTRmg;sm<½n§elah³fμI. kar
begáItsm<½n§elah³Bnül;BIlT§PaBrbs;eyIgkñúgkarbegáItTRmg;elah³rwg edaykarcak;bMeBj
Bum<CamYynwgemSAelah³ nigdak;emSAenHeRkamlkçxNÐsItuNðPaBnigsm<aFx<s;. enAeRkam
lkçxNÐenHsm<½n§elah³-elah³RtUv)anbegáItkat;tamRBMEdnRKab;emSA edayKμaneFVI[RKab;
elah³TaMgGs;rlay. dMeNIrkarenHeKehAfa rlayesI (sinter).
xN³eBlEdlm:UelKulkUv:aLg;samBaØCaTUeTAmancMNucrlayTab ehIysmasFatu
GuIy:ugmancMNucrlayx<s; elah³mancMNucrlaycenøaHBI -39ºC sRmab;)art eTA +3410ºC
sRmab;tg;Esþn. elah³bnþcmøgkemþA nigcrnþGKÁisnIenAkñúgPaBrlayrbs;va. ¬tamkarBit
elah³Gal;kaLaMgrlay CajwkjyRtUv)aneKeRbICaPñak;garbenÞrkemþAenAkñúgfamBlnuyekø
EG‘¦. enHKWCaPsþútagEdlsm<½n§elah³RtUv)anrkSaenAkñúgpasrav.
vaKWcMNucrMBuHEdlTak;TgCitsñiT§bMputeTAnwgkmøaMgsm<½n§elah³. ]TahrN_ )artman
cMNucrMBuH 357ºC ehIyGg;tal;BIGatUmkmμ 61 kJ.mol ehIytg;EsþnmancMNucrMBuH 5660ºC
-1

ehIymanGg;tal;BIGatUmkmμ 837 kJ.mol . dUecñH sm<½n§elah³enAkñúg)artKWexSaydUc

-1

kmøaMgGnþrm:UelKulxøHEdr cMEnkÉkmøaMgsm<½n§enAkñúgtg;EsþnGaceRbobeFob)aneTAnwgkmøaMg
énsm<½n§kUv:aLg;eRcIn. eTaHbICay:agNak¾eday enAkñúgpas]sμ½nFatuelah³dUcCalIcUmman
enACaKU Li b¤k¾dUcCaebrüÚm EdlenACaGatUmEtÉg ehIydUecñH)at;bg;nUvlkçN³elah³rbs;
2

va. elah³enAkñúgpas]sμ½nemIleTAmindUcCaelah³pgeT ]TahrN_ enAkñúgpas]sμ½n b:Uta

süÚmmanBN’ébtg.
4/2 KMrUsm<½n§
RTwsþIsm<½n§elah³Nak¾eday RtUvEtmankarBnül;BIlkçN³sMxan;énelah³ ehIy
lkçN³sMxan;bMputenaHKWPaBcmøgcrnþGKÁisnIx<s;rbs;elah³¬emIlCMBYkTI2¦. elIsBIenH
eTot KMrUNak¾eday KYrEtmankarBnül;BIPaBcmøgkemþA nigPaBcmñaMgpøatx<s;énelah³
¬PøWrelagelah³ [metallic luster]¦.

4-2
 CMBYkTI4

KMrUsm<½n§elah³samBaØbMput KW KMrUsmuRT-eGLicRtug ¬b¤k¾eGLicRtug-]sμ½n¦. enAkñúg

KMrUenH eGLicRtugv:aLg;Gacpøas;TIedayesrIkat;tamTRmg;elah³ ¬ehtuenHeTIbeRbIBakü
smuRTeGLicRtug¦ ehIyebIeTaHbICaecjBIelah³begáItnUvGuIy:ugviC¢mank¾eday. vaKweGLic
Rtugv:aLg;EdlbegáIt[mancrnþGKÁisnI ehIyvaKwCaclnaéneGLicRtugv;aLg;EdlepÞrkemþAkat;
tamelah³. eTaHbICay:agNak¾eday KMrUenH KWmanlkçN³CaKuNPaB CaCagbrimaN.
RTwsþIGrb‘Ítal;m:UelKulpþl;[nUvKMrUy:agTUlMTUlayénsm<½n§elah³. PaBTUlMTUlay
énRTwsþIGrb‘Ítal;m:UelKulenH eBlxøHRtUv)aneKehAfa RTwsþIbg; (band theory) EdleyIgnwg
bgðajedaykaremIleTAelIGrb‘Ítal;lIcUm. enAkñúgCMBYkTI
3 eyIg)aneXIjfaGatUmlIcUmBIr)anrYmbBa©ÚlKñaenAkñúg
pas]sμ½nedIm,IbegáItCam:UelKulDIlIcUm. düaRkam
Grb‘Ítal;m:UelKul EdlbgðajBIkarlayKñaénGrb‘Ítal;
GatUm 2s BIrRtUv)anpþl;[enAkñúgrUb 4/1. ¬Grb‘Ítal;
GatUmTaMgBIrRtUv)anbgðajenAxageqVg¦. \LÚvenHsnμt
faGrb‘Ítal;GatUménGatUmlIcUmbYn RtUv)anlayKña.
rUb4/1 düaRkamGb‘Ítal;m:UelKul mþgeTot vaRtUvEtmancMnYnGrb‘Ítal;m:UelKul σ dUceTA2s

sMrab;m:UelKulDIlIcUm ¬pas]sμ½n¦ nwgGrb‘Ítal;GatUm2s Edr Grb‘Ítal;Bak;kNþalCasm<½n§

ehIyBak;kNþaleTotCabdism<½n§. edIm,Iecosvag
karbMBanviFankg;Tic famBlénGrb‘Ítal;TaMgLayminGacCadUcKña (degenerate) )aneT.
Grb‘Ítal; σ mYyminGacmantémøfamBlBitdUcnwgfamBlGrb‘Ítal; σ mYyeTotenaHeT.
2s 2s

rUb4/2 bgðajBIlT§plénkarerobcMGrb‘Ítal;.

rUb4/2 düaRkamGrb‘Ítal;m:UelKulsRmab;karrYmbBa©ÚlKñaénGatUmlIcUmTaMgbYn.

4-3
sm<½n§elah³

enAkñúgelah³RKIsþal;FM Grb‘Ítal;énGatUm n Edl n KWCacMnYnd¾FMRtUv)anlaycUlKña.

Grb‘Ítal;TaMgenHmanGnþrkmμBaseBjvimaRtbIénelah³RKIsþal; b:uEnþBYkvaRtUv)aneKarB
eKalkarN_sm<½n§dEdl. vanwgmanGrb‘Ítal;m:UelKul 1 2 nσ ¬sm<½n§¦ nigGrb‘Ítal;m:UelKul
2s

1 nσ ¬bdism<½n§¦. edaysarmancMnYnkMritfamBld¾eRcIndUcenH cenøaHrvagkMritnImYy²

∗
2s
2
køayCaCitrYmcUlKñaCatMN. tMNenHRtUv)aneKehAfabg; (band). sRmab;lIcUm bg;Edl)an
mkBIGrb‘Ítal;GatUm 2s nwgRtUv)anbMeBjBak;kNþal. KWfaEpñkénGrb‘Ítal; σ énbg;nwgRtUv
2s

)anbMeBj ehIyEpñkGrb‘Ítal; σ nwgTeT ¬rUb4/3¦.

∗
2s

rUb4/3 bg;Edl)anmkBIGb‘Ítal;GatUm
edaykarrYmbBa©ÚlKñaénGatUmlIcUm n .

eyIgGacRsémemIlrUbPaBcmøgcrnþGKÁisnI)any:aggay dUcCakarTTYledayeGLic
RtugénbrimaNd¾tictYcénfamBlEdlRtUvkaredIm,ItMeLIgvacUleTAkñúgGrb‘Ítal;bdism<½n§TeT.
bnÞab;mk vaGacRtUv)anykecjedayesrIkat;tamTRmg;GatUmCacrnþGKÁisnI. RsedogKñaenH
Edr PaBcmøgkemþAénelah³GacRtUv)anKiteXIjdUcCaeGLicRtugesrIEdldwkCBa¢ÚnfamBl
bkERbBaseBjTRmg;elah³. eTaHbICay:agNak¾eday vamansar³sMxan;kñúgkarcgcaMfa
karBnül; d¾BitR)akdén)atuPUtenHRtUvkarkarsikSasuICMerACagenHeTAelIRTwsþIbg;.
enAkñúgCMBYkTI1 eyIg)aneXIjfaBnøWRtUv)anRsUb nigbeBa©jenAeBleGLicRtug
pøas;TIBIkMritfamBlmYyeTAkMritfamBlmYyeTot. karbeB©ajBnøWRtUv)aneKsegáteXIjCa
s,iúcbnÞat;. CamYynwgkMritfamBleRcInGenkenAkñúgelah³ vaswgEtmancMnYnKñanRBMEdnén
PaBqøgkMritfamBl. CalT§pl GatUmenAelIépÞelah³GacRsUbCMhanrlkNak¾)an ehIy
bnÞab;mkbeBa©jBnøWmþgeTotenACMhanrlkEtmYy dUcnwgeGLicRtugbeBa©jfamBldUcKñaenaH
enAeBlEdlvaRtlb;mksNæanRKwHGIcwgEdr. ehtuenH RTwsþIbg; Bnül;BIBnøWrelagelah³.
ebrüÚmk¾RtUveTAnwgKMrUbg;Edr. CamYynwgrUbsNæanGatUm [He]2s TaMgGrb‘Ítal;m:UelKul
2

σ nig σ nwgRtUv)anbMeBjkEnøg. KWfa bg;Edl)anmkBIGrb‘Ítal;GatUm 2s EdlKgelIKña

2s
∗
2s

nwgRtUv)anbMeBjTaMgRsug. CadMbUg karsnñidæannwgfa ebrüÚmminGacbgðajlkçN³elah³

4-4
 CMBYkTI4

edaysarEtvaKμanlMhenAkñúgbg;EdleGLicRtugGaceFVIclna)an. eTaHbICay:agNak¾eday
bg;TMenr 2p KgelIbg; 2s EdleFVI[eGLicRtugmanclnakat;tamTRmg;elah³ ¬rUb4/4¦.

rUb4/4 bg;Edl)anmkBIGb‘Ítal;
RBMEdn ¬2s nig 2p ¦ énebrüÚm

eyIgGaceRbIRTwsþIbg; edIm,IBnül;BImUlehtuEdlsarFatuxøH CaGñkcmøgcrnþGKÁisnI

ehIyxøHeTotminEmn ehIysarFatuxøHeTotCasWmIkugDucT½r (semiconductor) ¬cmøgBak;
kNþal¦. enAkñúgelah³ bg;KgelIKñaehIyGnuBaØat[eGLicRtugeFVIclnaedayesrI. enA
kñúgGelah³bg;RtUv)anEjkdac;BIKña dUecñHBuMmanclnaeGLicRtugNaekIteLIgeT ¬rUb4/5a¦.

rUb4/5 düaRkamTRmg;bg; (a) Gelah³ (b) sWmIkugDucT½rkñúg nig(c) sWmIkugDucT½rminsuT§

FatuTaMgenHRtUv)aneKehAfaCasarFatuGuIsULg; (insulator). kñúgFatumYycMnYntUc bg;enH KW
enACitKñaRKb;RKan; edIm,I[RtwmEtbrimaNtictYcénkarePJaceGLicRtugenAkñúgbg;TMenrenAelI
¬rUb4/5b¦. FatuTaMgenHRtUv)aneKsÁal;faCasWmIkugDucT½rxagkñúg intrinsic semiconductors.
bec©kviTüaTMenIbrbs;eyIgBwgEp¥keTAelIkareRbIR)as;FatusWmIkugDucT½r ehIyva)ankøayCaman
sar³sMxan; edIm,IsMeyaKsWmIkugDucT½rCamYynwglkçN³yfaRbePTxøaMg. enHGacRtUv)aneK
4-5
sm<½n§elah³

eFVIedaykarykFatuEdlmancenøaHbg;FM ehIybEnßmFatudéTepSgeTottictYc (impurity) Edl

eKehAfa doping. FatuEdl)anbEnßmmankMritfamBlenAcenøaHkMritfamBlénFatupSM Ed;l
)anbMeBjnigkMritfamBlEdlTeT¬rUb4/5c¦. bg;EdlminsuT§enHGacRtUv)anbBa©Úleday
eGLicRtug enAkñúgbg;Edl)anbMeBjehIyeFVI[PaBcmøgxøHekIteLIg. edaysarmeFüa
)ayenH lkçN³eGLicRTicénsWmIkugDucT½rGacRtUv)aneKEkERb edIm,IbMeBjnUvtMrUvkarNamYy.
4/3 TRmg;elah³
meFüa)ayEdlGatUmelah³pÁúMCitCamYyKñaCaRKIsþal; KWKYr[cab;GarmμN_ b:uEnþ
edaymansar³sMxan;esμIKñacMeBaHGñkKImIEr: vak¾pþl;[nUvmUldæanRKwHedIm,IBiPakSaBIkarpÁúMCit
GuIy:ugenAkñúgsmasFatuGuIy:ug ¬EdleyIgnwgBiPakSaenAkñúgCMBYkTI5 cMNuc 5/5¦. KMnitén
karbgÁúMCitRKIsþal;):an;sμanfaGatUmKWCaEsV‘rwg. enAkñúgelah³RkamGatUmRtUv)anerobcMCalMdab;
CYrdEdl²EdlRtUv)aneKehAfa bNþajRkam. karbgÁúMCitGatUmelah³KWBitCabBðaaenAkñúg
FrNImaRt. KWWfaeyIgRtUvKitBIPaBxusKñaCaeRcInEdlEsV‘manTMhMdUcKñaGacRtUv)anerobcM.
vamankargayRsYlbMputedIm,IKiteXIjBIkarcMerobCYrGatUm edayeFVIkarerobcMRsTab;
mYy ehIybnÞab;mkdak;RsTab;bnþeTotBIelIva. karerobcMsamBaØbMputEdlGaceTArYc
KWfaGatUmenAkñúgRKwHRtUv)anpÁúMCitRCugTl;RCug. RsTab;bnÞab;énGatUmRtUv)andak;edaypÞal;
BIelIRsTab;xageRkam. kartMerobenHRtUv)aneKsÁal;faCa bgÁúMhab;KUbsamBaØ (simple cubic
packing) (sc)¬rUb4/6¦ b¤ehAfaKUbedIm primitive cubic . GatUmnImYy²RtUv)anb:HCamYynwg

GatUm4epSgeTot enAkñúgbøg;rbs;va bUkCamYynwgGatUm1xagelI nig1xageRkam naM[

GatUmCitxagmansrub6. CalT§plvaRtUv)aneKniyayfaGatUmnImYy²mancMnYnkUGrDINasüúg
cMnYn 6.

rUb4/6 karevcx©b;KUbFmμta. RsTab;bnÞab;

RtUv)andak;enAxagelIRsTab;CYrTImYy

karerobcMKUbFmμtaKwminsUvCaENneT ehIyvaRtUv)aneKsÁal;faRtwmEtcMeBaHb:ULÚj:Úm
enAkñúgTRmg;elah³ ebIeTaHbICaeyIgnwgeXIjenAkñúgemeronTI5 vaRtUv)anrkeXIjenAkñúgsmas
FatuGuIy:ugxøH. karerobcMpÁúMCitKUbepSg KWRtUvdak;RsTab;TIBIrénGatUmeTAelIrn§TMenrénRsTab;

4-6
 CMBYkTI4

TImYy. bnÞab;mk RsTab;TIbIdak;enABIelIrn§énRsTab;TIBIr EdlekIteLIgy:agc,as;elIRsTab;

TImYy. karerobcMEdlENnCagenHRtUv)aneKehAfa KUbp©itxagkñúg (body-centered cubic)
(bcc) ¬rUb4/7¦. GatUmnImYy²RtUv)anb:HedayGatUmbYnxagelI nigbYnGatUmxageRkambøg;

rbs;va. dUecñH pþl;plCacMnYnkUGrDINasüúg 8.

rUb4/7 bgÁúMCitKUbp©itenAxagkñúg. RsTab;TIBIr ¬pat;BN’¦

RtUv)andak;elIrn§énRsTab;TImYy ehIyRsTab;TIbI dak;xag
elIrn§énRsTab;TIBIr.

lT§PaBEdlGacmanBIrepSgeTotKWBwgEp¥kelIkartMerobCaqekaNsRmab;RsTab;GatUm
nImYy². GatUmnImYy²RtUv)anrMuB½T§edayGatUm6enACitxagenAkñúgbøg;. enAkñúgkartMerobCa
qekaN rn§TMenrenAcenøaHGatUmTaMgLayKWCitKñaxøaMg ebIeRbobeFobeTAnwgkartMerobCaKUb
¬rUb4/8¦.

rUb4/8 RsTab;TI1énkartMerobCaqekaN
enAeBlEdlRsTab;qekaNTI2RtUv)andak;elIRsTab;TI1 vaminGaceTArYceTkñúgkar
dak;GatUmTaMgLayelIrn§TaMgGs;énRsTab;TI1. CakarBit RtwmEtrn§TMenrBak;kNþalb:ueNÑaH
EdlGacRtUv)anRKbBIelI. RbsinebIRsTab;TI3RtUv)andak;elIrn§TMenrénRsTab;TI2 dUecñHvaRtUv
)andak;enAxagelIRsTab;TI1 bnÞab;mkkartMerobCa pÁúMCitqekaN (hexagonal close-packed)
(hcp)RtUvekIteLIg. RsTab;TI4RtUv)andak;BIelIRsTab;TI2. dUecñH vaRtUv)aneKsÁal;fa

CakarbgÁúMhab; abab ¬rUb4/9¦.

kartMerobpÁúMCitCaqekaNepSg Tak;TgeTAnwgkardak;RsTab;TI3enABIelIrn§TMenrén
RsTab;TI1 nigTI2. bnÞab;mkRsTab;TI4mankartMerobdUcKñanwgRsTab;TI1Edr. kartMerob

4-7
sm<½n§elah³

abcabc RtUv)aneKsÁal;Ca pÁúMCitKUb (cubic close-packed) (cpp) b¤k¾ KUbp©itépÞxagmux (face-

centered cubic) (fcc) ¬rUb4/10¦. karpÁúMCitTaMgBIrEdlBwgEp¥kelIkartMerobCaqekaNenH

mancMnYnkUGrDINasüúg 12.
rUb4/9 enAkñúgkarevcx©b;CaqekaNRsTab;TI2
RtUv)andak;BIelIrn§TMenrqøas;KñaénRsTab;TI1.
kartMerobCapÁúMCitqekaNTak;TgeTAnwgkardak;
RsTab;TI3 ¬TItaMgEdlmandak;sBaØapáay¦ elI
kMBUlRsTab;TI1.

rUb4/10 kartMerobCapÁúMCitKUbmanRsTab;TI3
¬TItaMgEdlmandak;sBaØapáay¦EdlRtUv)an
dak;elIrn§TMenrénRsTab;TI1 nigTI2.

RbePTénkarpÁúMCit cMnYnkUGrDINasüúg nigPaKryénkarbMeBjénmaDsrub RtUv)an

bgðajenAkñúgtarag4/1. karbMeBjkEnøgEdlesμI60PaKrymann½yfa 60PaKryénmaDRkam
KWRtUv)andak;bMeBjedayGatUm ehIylMhcenøaHGatUmesμInwg40PaKry. dUecñH PaKryénkar
bMeBjGatUmkan;Etx<s; GatUmk¾kan;EtRtUv)anpÁúMCit²KñaEdr.
tarag4/1 lkçN³énRbePTénkarpÁúMCitGatUmxus²Kña
RbePTbgMÁú cMnYnkUGrDINasüúgcMnYn karbMeBj (%)
KUbsmBaØ (sc) 6 52

KUbp©itxagkñúg (bcc) 8 68

pÁúMCitqekaN (hcp) 12 74

pÁúMCitKUb b¤KUbp©itépÞxagmux (ccp/fcc) 12 74

elah³PaKeRcInmankartMerobNamYykñúgcMeNamkartMerobTaMgbIEdlmanPaBENn
(bcc, hcp, fcc). b:ULÚj:Úm KWCaelah³EtmYyKt;EdlmankarpÁúMCitCaKUbsamBaØ. elah³xøH

4-8
 CMBYkTI4

CaBiess elah³EdlsßitenAxagsþaMédéntaragxYb mankartMerobGatUm ekag b¤minsþg;da. KMrU

EsV‘rwgénkarpÁúMCitminGac[eyIgeFIVkarTsSn_Tayfa kartMerobGatUmBiessRbePTNa Edl
elah³nwgmanenaHeT. b:uEnþ vahak;dUcCamanviFanTUeTA EdlfaenAeBlEdlcMnYneGLicRtug
RsTab;eRkAekIneLIg kartMerobGatUmEdlmankarcUlcitþpøas;bþÚrBI bcc eTA hcp ehIycug
eRkayKW fcc. rUb4/11 bgðajkarerobcMpÁúMCitGatUmTUeTAsRmab;elah³. karerobcMpÁúMCitGatUm
sRmab;elah³mYycMnYnKWBwgEp¥kelIsItuNðPaB. ]TahrN_ EdkmanTRmg; bcc ¬ α − iron)
enAsItuNðPaBbnÞb; ehIyTRmg;enHbþÚreTACaTRmg; fcc (γ − iron) kalNasItuNðPaBelIs
910ºC ehIyk¾Rtlb;eTATRmg; bcc vij (δ − iron) enAsItuNðPaBRbEhl 1390ºC.

dUcEdleyIg)aneXIjenAkñúgemeronTI14 cMNuc14/23 karGaRs½ynwgsItuNðPaBénkarpÁúMCit

GatUmKWCasar³sMxan;BiessénkrNIsMN):ahaMg.

rUb4/11 EpñkéntaragxYb EdlbgðajkartMerobGatUmefr énelah³enA SATP

4/4 ftÉkta Unit cell

kartMerobd¾samBaØbMputénEs‘V EdlenAeBlEdlmankartMerobdEdl² nwgbegáIteLIg

vijTRmg;RkamTaMgmUl EdlRtUv)aneKehAfaftÉkta. ftenHKWgayRsYlnwgemIleXIjbMput
enAkñúgkrNIKUbFmμta¬rUb4/12¦. enAkñúgftÉkta eyIg)ankat;KUbmYyBIcMNuckNþalén
GatUm8. enAxagkñúgftÉktaxøÜnvaman8duMGatUm EdlduMnImYy²tMNag[mYyPaKR)aMbIén
GatUm. edaysarEt 8( 18 ) = 1eyIgGacniyayfaftÉktanImYy²manGatUmmYy.

rUb 4/12 ftÉktaKUbEdlsamBaØ

4-9
sm<½n§elah³

edIm,ITTYl)anftÉktasRmab;KUbp©itxagkñúg eyIgRtUvEtykRkumEdlFMCagenH KWRkum

EdlbgðajTRmg;RsTab;bIdEdl². karkat;KUbmYypþl;[nUvGatUmkNþalmYYy CamYynwg
GatUmmYyPaKR)aMbI cMnYn8enARKb;RCug. dUecñH ftÉktaman 1 + 8( 18 ) EdlesμI nwg2GatUm
¬rUb4 /13¦.

rUb 4/13 ftÉktaKUbp©itxagkñúg rUb 4/14 ftÉktaKUbp©itépÞxagmux

cMeBaHkarBinitüBic½ydMbUg karerobcMpÁúMCitKUbmin)anpþl;[ftÉktasamBaØeT. eTaHbI
Cay:agNak¾eday RbsinebIcMNitmYyRtUv)anykecjBIRCugénbNþajKUbp©itépÞxagmux eyIg
Gacsg;KUbp©itépÞxagmux EdlmanGatUmmYyenARCugnImYy² ehIyGatUmmYyenAcMkNþal
muxnImYy² ¬rUb4/14¦. enAeBlEdleyIgeFVIdUcenH KUbmanbMENk 6( 1 2) + 8( 18 ) EdlesμI
nwgbYnGatUm.
elah³cgcaM ³ rUbragénvtßúenAGnaKt
ebIeTaHbICaviTüasaRsþCaTUeTARtUv)aneKBN’nafaCakarbnþqøgkat;tamkarrIkcMerInKMnit
)anl¥k¾eday karrkeXIjEdlmancMnYnKYr[PJak;ep¥IlénkarrkeXIjviTüasaRsþ KWminGac
sgÇwmTukeT. ]TahrN_mYykñúgcMeNam]TahrN_d¾KYr[cab;GarmμN_ énmuxgaredayécdnü
énviTüasaRsþ KWkarrkeXIj elah³cgcaM (memory metal) . erOgenHvaekIteLIgeday
sarEteKalbMNgkñúgkarbegáItsMelah³ EdlFn;nwgbMEbksRmab;k,almIsuIlrbs;TahaneCIg
TwkGaemric. elak William J. Buehler Caelah³viTU )anrkeXIjsMelah³ Edlmanm:UlesμI
KñaénTItannignIEkl BitCamanlkçN³EdlKat;RtUvkar. Kat;dak;eQμaHsMelah³enHfa nITINul
nitinol (nickel titanium Naval Ordnance Laboratory). edIm,IbgðajBIlkçN³nITINul

Kat;)anyksMelah³Evg ehIyRtg;ehIybt;vaCarUbrag . Kat;nwgbgðajrebob Edl

elah³GacRtUv)aneFVI[ywtdEdl²edayminmankar)ak;Ebk. PaBEdlGacbt;Ebn)anén

4-10
 CMBYkTI4

elah³KWCalkçN³Edlmansar³RbeyaCn_Nas;. enAeBlEdlmaneFVIkarbgðajdUcenaHGñk
cUlrYm)anbegáItEdkekHehIydutelah³enaHbnþicmþg². GVIEdleFVI[Gñkral;KñaPJak;ep¥IlenaH
KWfabnÞHelah³enaHmansPaBRtg;vij¡ elah³enH)ancgcaMrUbragedImrbs;va.
CamYynwgelah³Fmμta karbt;vaGacbNþal[RkamCitxagrGilelIKña. nITINul
manTRmg;RkamminFmμtaEdlfavamankartMerobbNþajKUbsamBaØénGatUmnIEkl CamYynwg
GatUmTItanenAcMkNþalKUbnIEklnImYy² cMEnkGatUmTItanxøÜnvaKWsßitenAbNþajKUbsamBaØ
CamYynwgGatUmnIEklenAcMkNþalKUbTItannImYy²¬rUb4/15¦. TRmg;cak;eRsHenHKWCaGVIEdl
min[RkamenACitxagBIkarpøas;TIeTAkan;RkamepSgeTot nigeFVI[manlkçN³yWtxøaMgénvtßú.

GatUmnIEkl
GatUmTItan

rUb4/15 pas austenite énnITINul. GatUmnIEklmankartMerobCaKUbCamYynwgGatUm

TItanj:ÚmenAcMkNþalKUbnImYy². GatUmTItan ¬BN’exμA¦ mankartMerobCaKUbEdlcak;eRsH
CamYynwgGatUmnIEklenAcMkNþalKUbnImYy².
enAsItuNðPaBx<s; passuIemRTI ¬austenite) KWmanesßrPaB b:uEnþenAsItuNðPaBRtCak;sMelah³
rgkarERbRbYlpaseTACaKUbrmYl ¬pas martensite). enAkñúgpasenH Rkam martensite
GacBt;bt;Ebn)anRKb;RKan;Edlelah³FM GacRtUv)aneFVI[ekagmþgehIymþgeTotedayKμan
eFVI[)ak;Ebk. kardutkemþAtic²GacRtUv)aneRbIedIm,IeFVI[RkamRtlb;eTArkPaB edImvij.
edIm,IeFVI[manTRmg;fμI elah³RtUvEt)andutkemþAenAxagelIsItuNðPaBqøgpasrbs;va ¬Edlva
GaRs½ynwgpleFobm:UlBitR)akdénFatupSMTaMgBIr¦.
nITINulmankareRbIR)as;CaeRcIn rYmTaMgkareRbIR)as;enAkñúgkarpliteRKOgeFVI[eFμj
Rtg;nigKMrbkBa©k;Ev:ntaEdlmingayEbk nigmanRbsiT§PaBgayRsYleRbICagmun. cenÞos
sV½yRbvtþ KWCakareRbIR)as;mYyepSgeTot. GñkCMnajxagRtecokGacbt; ebIk cuccenÞos
ehIydak;vaeTAkñúgRtecokrbs;GñkCMgWrhUtTal;EtcugenaHRtUv)anh‘MuB½T§edayvtßúEdlmkBIxag
eRkA ehIybnÞab;mkdak;crnþd¾TabeTAkan;ExS. kareFVI[ExSeLIgkemþA ehIynwglT§pl

4-11
sm<½n§elah³

Rtlb;eTATRmg;GatUmedImnwgbNþal[cugbiTenAxagelIvtßú dUecñHvaGacRtUv)andkecj
edaysuvtßiPaB.

4/5 sMelah³ Alloys

karrYmbBa©ÚlKñaénelah³rwgBIr b¤eRcInRtUv)aneKehAfa sMelah³. cMnYnsMelah³Edl

Gacman KWeRcIn. sMelah³edIrtYnaTIy:agsMxan;enAkñúgCIvitrbs;eyIg b:uEnþKImIviTUkMrnwgGFib,ay
BIvaNas;. GatUmenAkñúgsMelah³RtUv)anP¢ab;CamYyKñaedaysm<½n§elah³ dUcnwgFatuelah³pSM
déTeTotEdr. sm<½n§enHKWRsbeTAnwgsm<½n§kUv:aLg;énGelah³. sm<½n§kUv:aLg;P¢ab;CamYyKñanUv
m:UelKulEdl)anbegáIteLIgBIKUénFatuGelah³epSgKña k¾dUcCaP¢ab;m:UelKulEdl)anBIKUGela
h³dUcKñaEdr. RsedogKñaenH sm<½n§elah³énsMelah³P¢ab;CamYyKñanUvGatUménFatuelah³
epSgKña.
sMelah³manBIrRbePT³ sUluysüúgrwg nigsmasFatusMelah³. kñúgsUluysüúgrwg
elah³rlayRtUvlayKñaedIm,IbegáItCal,ayesμIsac;. edIm,IbegáItCasUluysüúgrwg GatUmén
elah³TaMgBIrRtUvmanTMhMb:unKña ehIyRkamelah³RtUvEtmanTRmg;dUcKña. bEnßmBIelIenH
elah³RtUvmanlkçN³KImIRsedogKña.
masnigTg;Edg Ca]TahrN_ begáItnUvpasEtmYytamPaKryNak¾edayBI 100 PaK
rymas nig 100 PaKryTg;Edg. elah³TaMgBIrenH mankaMGatUmRsedogKña ¬masmankaM
144pm nigTg;EdgmankaM 128pm ¦ehIyelah³TaMgBIrenHmanTRmg;KUbbiTCit. sMN

nigsMN):ahaMgmankaMelah³RsedogKñaNas; ¬sMNmankaM 175pm nigsMN):ahaMgmankaM

162pm¦b:uEnþsMNmanTRmg;KUbp©itépÞxagmux ehIysMN):ahaMgmanTRmg;pÁúMCitCakuMpøic.
elah³mYyEdleLIgRkamCamYynwgelah³epSgeTot KWmantictYcNas;. elah³sRmab;pSar
b:MBg;TwkmansMN):ahaMg30PaKry nigsMN 70PaKry ehIyenHKWCaPaBminGaclaycUlKña
)anrbs;vaEdlGac[vaedIrtYnaTICakavelah³. kMLúgeBleFVI[GgÁFaturavRtCak; vaman
cenøaHRbEhlCa100ºC EdleFVI[kMNkRkamekIteLIg. sUluysüúgrwgminGacmansMN
)a:haMgelIsBI20PaKryeT. CalT§pl RkamKWmaneRcInenAkñúgsMNrlay ehIysUluy
süúgEdlenAsl;mansItuNðPaBkMNkTabCag. lkçxNÐenHGac[GñkpSarbMBg;TwkeFVIkar
CamYYynwgelah³pSar)an.

4-12
 CMBYkTI4

tarag4/2 sMelah³TUeTA
eQμaH smasPaKpSM¬PaKry¦ lkçN³ kareRbIR)as;
Brass
Tg;Edg 70-85/ sgá½sI rwgCagTg;EdgsuT§ bMBg;Twk
15-30
mas 18-karat; mas75/ R)ak;10-20/ rwgCagmassuT§ eRKOgGlgáar
Tg;Edg5-15 ¬24karat¦
EdlEfbGIunuc Edk65-85/ RkUm12- Fn;nwgPaBeRcH ]bkrN_epSg²/
20/ nIWEkl 2-15/ sMPar³KImI
m:g;kaENs1-2/
kabUn0/1-1/
suIlIcUm0/5-1

enAkñúgkrNIxøHEdlTRmg;RkaménsmasPaKpSMxusKña karlayelah³rlaypþl;CakMN
énpasesÞIrsüÚemRTI. ]TahrN_ Tg;Edg nigs½gásIbegáItCasmasFatubI³ CuZn, Cu Zn , nig 5 8

CuZn . tarag4/2 bgðajnUvsMelah³TUeTAmYycMnYn smasPaKpSM nigkareRbIR)as;.

3

bBaØtþisMxan;
• sm<½n§elah³RtUv)anBiBN’na)any:agl¥bMputedayeRbIRTwsþIbg; Edl)anmkBIRTwsþI
Grb‘Ítal;m:UelKul.
• GatUmelah³GacpÁúMCit)anEtbYnrebob.
• kartMerobpÁúMCitTaMgenHmanÉktasamBaØftÉkta.
• sMelah³ Cal,ayénelah³BIr GacCasUluysüúgrwg b¤k¾smasFatusMelah³.
BaküKnøwH
sMelah³ alloy 4-12

bg; band 4-4

RTwsþIbg; band theory 4-3

KUbp©itxagkñúg body-centered cubic (bcc) 4-7

4-13
sm<½n§elah³

sMriT§ bronze 4-1

bNþajRkam crystal lattice 4-6

pÁúMCitKUb cubic close-packed (cpp) 4-8

KMrUsmuRT-eGLicRtug electron sea model 4-3

KUbp©itépÞxagmux face-centered cubic (fcc) 4-8

pÁúMCitqekaN hexagonal close-packed (hcp) 4-7

GuIsULg; insulators 4-5

sWmIkugDucT½rxagkñúg intrinsic semiconductors 4-5

PøWrelagelah³ metallic luster 4-4

nITINul nitinol 4-10

sWmIkugDucT½r¬cmøgBak;KNþal¦ semiconductor 4-5

pÁúMCitKUbsmBaØ simple cubic packing 4-6

rlayesI sinter 4-2

ftÉkta unit cell 4-9

lMhat;
4/1 cUr[niymn½yBaküTaMgenH (a) KMrUsmuRTeGLicRtugénsm<½n§ (b) ftÉkta (c) sMelah³.
4/2 Bnül;BIGtßn½yénBaküdUcteTA (a) bNþajRkam (b) cMnYnkUGrDINasüúg (c) Gam:ahÁam.
4/3 etIlkçN³sMxan;TaMgbIénelah³manGVIxøH?
4/4 etIkareRbIR)as;y:agTUlMTUlayTaMgbYny:agénelah³manGVIxøH?
4/5 edayeRbIdüaRkambg; Bnül;faetIm:aej:süÚmGacbgðajlkçN³Caelah³edayrebobNa
enAeBlEdlbg; 3s rbs;vaRtUv)aneBjTaMgRsug?
4/6 cUrKUsdüaRkambg; sRmab;GaluymIj:Úm?
4/7 cUrBnül;faetIehtuGVIlkçN³elah³minekIteLIgenAkñúgpas]sμ½n?
4/8 etIrUbmnþEdlGacmansRmab;b:UtasüÚmenApas]sμn½KWGVI? cUrKUrdüaRkamGrb‘Ítal;m:UelKul
edIm,Ibgðajehtuplrbs;Gñk.
4/9 etIkartMerobRsTab;TaMgBIrRbePTenAkñúgelah³KWGVIxøH? etImYyNamankarpÁúMCitCitCag?
4/10 etIGVICaPaBxusKñaenAkñúgTRmg;RsTab; rvagkartMerobpÁúMCitKUb nig pÁúMCitqekaN?

4-14
 CMBYkTI4

4/11 cUrKUrftÉktaKUbsamBaØmYy ehIybgðajrebobEdlcMnYnGatUmkñúgmYyftÉkta

GacTajrk)an.
4/12 cUrKUrftÉktaKUbp©itxagkñúg ehIybgðajrebobEdlcMnYnGatUmkñúgmYyftÉktaGac
Tajrk)an.
4/13 etIlkçxNÐGVIEdlcaM)ac;sRmab;karbegáItsMelah³sUluysüúgrwg?
4/14 cUr[mUlehtuBIrEdls½gásI nigb:UtasüÚmminGacbegáItCasMelah³sUluysüúgrwg.
lMhat;elIsBImYldæanRKwH
4/15 eRbIR)as;FrNImaRtedIm,Ibgðajfa RbEhlCa48PaKryénbNþajKUbsamBaØ KWCalMh
TeT.
4/16 eRbIR)as;FrNImaRtedIm,Ibgðajfa RbEhlCa32PaKryénbNþajKUbp©itxagkñúg
KWCalMhTeT.
4/17 enAkñúgÉktaKUbp©itépÞxagmux GatUmEtgEtb:Hkat;tamGgát;RTUgénmux. RbsinebIkaM
GatUm r cUrKNnaRbEvgRCugnImYy²énftÉkta.
4/18 enAkñúgftÉktaKUbp©itxagkñúg GatUmEtgEtb:Hkat;tamGgát;RTUgBIRCugmYykat;tam
cMNuckNþalénftÉktaeTARCugTl;mux. RbsinebIkaMGatUm r cUrKNnaRbEvgRCugnImYy²én
ftÉkta.
4/19 RkUmbegáItbNþajKUbp©itxagkñúg EdlenAkñúgenaHRbEvgEKménftÉkta KW 288pm.
cUrKNna (a) kaMelah³énGatUmRkUm nig (b)dg;suIeténelah³RkUm.
4/20 GatUmelah³)arüÚmRtUv)anerobcMCaftÉktaKUbp©itxagkñúg. cUrKNnakaMGatUm)arüÚm
RbsinebIdg;suIetGatUm)arüÚmKW 3.50g.cm . cMnaM³ eRbIcMelIyGñkenAkñúglMhat; 4/18.
-3

4/21 GatUmelah³R)ak;RtUv)anerobcMCaftÉktaKUbp©itépÞxagmux. cUrKNnakaMGatUmR)ak;

RbsinebIdg;suIetGatUmR)ak;KW 10.50 g.cm . cMnaM³ eRbIcMelIyGñkenAkñúglMhat; 4/17.
-3

4/22 cUrENnaMfaetIGVICabBaðaCamYynwgkardak;épÞelah³s¥atBIreTAlMhxageRkA.
cemøIy
4.1 (a)KMrUmYyEdlkñúgenaHvaRtUv)aneKcat;Tukfaelah³manGIuyu:gelah³CamYyeGLicRtug
esrI.
(b) bMENktUcbMputénbNþajRkamEdlnwgbegáIteLIgvijnUvTRmg;TaMgRsug.

4-15
sm<½n§elah³

(c)karbBa©ÚlKñaénelah³rwgBIr b¤eRcIn.
4.5 PaBRtYtsIuKñaénbg; 3s nig 3p Edlmann½yfaeGLicRtugkñúgbg; 3s eBjGacehor
eTAkñúgbg; 3p EdlGac[eGLicRtugeFIVclnatambNþajRkam.

4.9 KUb nigqekaN EdlqekaNRtUvpÁúMCitCag.

4.13 GatUmRtUvmanTMhMdUcKña EdlBYkvaRtUvTTYl)anTRmg;dUcKña ehIyBYkvaRtUvman

KImIRsedogKña.
4.17 RbEvgépÞviCÆekaNnwgCa 4r. edayeRbIRTwsþIbTBItaK½r RbEvgéncugÉktanwgCa
[4/(2)½]r = 2.83r
4.21 ÉktaKUbp©itépÞxagmuxmanGatUmbYn.
−1
dUcenH ma:s = 46×.02107× 10
.9 g ⋅ mol
23
mol
= 7.17 × 10 g
−1
−22

−22
× 10 g
maD = 107.17
.50 g ⋅ cm −3
−23
= 6.83 × 10 cm = 6.83 × 10 pm3 7 3

RbEvgénRCug = √(6.83 × 10 pm ) = 409 pm

3 7 3

edayeRbIlT§plBIlMhat;TI 4.17, kaMénGatUmR)ak; = (409 pm)/(2.83)

= 145 pm.

4-16