R=PV/T

Mass number=no. of protons + no. of neutrons>A

Atomic number>Z

Isotopes- atoms of the same element with different number of neutrons in their
nuclei

A chemical compound is a pure substance made up of two or more different

elements in a fixed ratio

Period number - providing the information about the number of main shells an atom
of that element exhibits

Metals: characteristic shininess; good conductor of heat and electricity, almost all
are solids (except Mercury [Hg]) in nature at room temperature

What is the formula of the compound formed by the reaction of sodium and
sulphur?
Ans:
1) Sodium (Na) has 1 valence electron; Sulphur (S) has 6 valence electrons.
2) Na lose 1 electron to form Na+; while S needs two electrons to form S2-
3) Therefore, One S atom reacts with two Na atoms; the formula of the compound
formed will be Na2S

1 mono
2 di
3 tri
4 tetra
5 penta

In ionic compounds, like NaCl, all the anions and cations are held together tightly, in
close contact to their oppositely charged neighbours, by the powerful electrical force
→ a great deal of energy to disrupt the forces (NaCl, melts at the remarkably high
temperature of 801°C and not vaporise until 1413°C)
In covalent compounds, like water H2O, individual covalent water molecules cling
weakly to their neighbouring molecules in ice and in water, held together by
relatively weak intermolecular attractive forces (ice melts at 0°C and vaporise at
100°C)

Water and Other Solutions

Solvent (water)
Solutes

Liquids- Aqueous
Air- gaseous solution
Alloys are solid solutions

A solvent will generally dissolve a given solute if sufficiently strong attractive

forces can form between solvent and solute particles.

Nucleation - a process that initiates the formation of a distinct state of matter within a
solution, like bubbles (gas) or crystals (solid)。
Colloids - fine particles of one
substance suspended in another

Emulsion -
Emulsifiers

 Agent that help form and stabilise emulsions

 Contain compounds with two different kinds of functionality at the molecular

level

 Polar - hydrophilic group & Non-polar - hydrophobic group

 The dual functionality enables the molecule to form attractions to both oil and
water molecules

Henry’s Law :the pressure of the gas above a liquid increases, the
amount or concentration of the gas in the liquid increases as well

Shaking a bottle of soda → cause the drink to float up and spill due to a process called
nucleation

Nucleation - a process that initiates the formation of a distinct state of matter within a

solution, like bubbles (gas) or crystals (solid)

Those bubbles serves as the nuclei for dissolved

CO2 to leave the solution
Consumption of water contaminated with infectious agents, toxic chemicals, or even
radioactive substances may cause various degree of health risks.

Index Organism - focus to the presence of pathogenic organisms – for example, as an

index of faecal pathogens.

Indicator Organism - one that is used to measure the effectiveness of a process – for
example, a process indicator or disinfection indicator.
1.Flocculation .Coagulation.
2. Sedimentation
3 Filtration
Water then undergoes filtration through sand and a porous for of activated
charcoal - remove any remaining particles as well as any organic compounds.
Filtered water is then disinfected by treatment with small amounts of chlorine
or ozone (O3) - removes micro-organisms and any other disease-causing
agents.
Finally, water undergo aeration as air is bubbled to improve its taste, fluorides
and other additives will be introduced as well.
4 Disinfection
5.Biologically Activated Carbon (BAC)
coagulation or flocculation.(Sedimentation) filtration. disinfection. biologically
activated carbon

To purify salt water, high pressure is applied in contact with a semi-permeable

membrane.
The applied pressure counteracts the force of osmosis,

a) Acid
An acid is a substance that dissolves in water to give proton / hydrogen
cation.
(b) Base
A base is a substance that dissolves in water to release OH-.
(c) Neutralization
Neutralization is a chemical reaction in which an acid reacts with a base, or
vice versa.
(d) Buffer solution
A buffer solution, which is a mixture of weak acid and its conjugate base or
weak base and its conjugate acid, maintains an almost constant pH when a
small amount of acid or base is added to it.

(a) What is the difference between a strong acid and weak acid?
A strong acid is one that completely ionizes in water and donates practically
all their H+. A weak acid is one that ionizes partially in water and donates a
small fraction of their H+.
(b) Classify the following species as strong acid, weak acid, strong base
or weak base: HNO3, H2SO4, NaOH, H3PO4, HCl, NH3, CH3COOH

Strong acid: HNO3, H2SO4, HCl, H3PO4

Weak acid: CH3COOH
Strong base: NaOH
Weak base: NH3