Practical work 9

THE EYE – AN OPTICAL SYSTEM

A. Introduction into the optical systems - description and alignment of optical

system components
B. The practical use of the optical system
C. Experimental techniques
D. Physiological optics

A. Introduction into the optical systems - description and alignment of optical

system components

1. Theoretical part

Lens represents a transparent body bounded by two surfaces (diopters) with at least one
of them has to be curved. A diopter is a spherical interface between two media of
different refractive indices. A diopter spherical (figure 1) is described by two indices of
refraction (n1 and n2) and a radius of curvature (R).

C- Curve center

O O- Optical center of the

lens

Fig.1 The diopter

Properties:
- A lens is considered thin if its thickness is small compared to the radius of curvature
of its surfaces.
- Optical main axis of the lens is the line that passes through the centers (C1- C2) of the
diopters.
- We can consider that the intersection points of the main axis with the two surfaces of
the lens are combined in a point O named the optical center.
- For a converging lens, the focus is, by definition, a point onto which the parallel light
rays to the axis are focused. It is located on the optical axis at the distance f, called the
focal length. Every lens has two focal points, symmetrically situated on both sides of
the optical center, as shown in figure 2.

1
 R2
C1 F1 O F2 C2

R1 f

Fig. 2 Important features of a lens

2. Spherical lens
For a convergent lens, any light coming from infinity (parallel with the optical
main axis), will converge to the image focus F2, figure 3A.
For a diverging lens, any light coming from infinity (parallel with the optical main
axis), will diverge having the direction of the F1, figure 3B.
A converging lens is a lens whose edge is thinner than the central part. A parallel
beam becomes a converging beam after passing through such a lens.
The edge of a diverging lens is thicker than its central part. A parallel beam
becomes divergent after passing through such a lens. The focal length of a converging
lens is considered to be positive while that of a diverging lens is negative.
Important: take care to represent dotted "all" that is virtual (virtual object or image (the)
virtual radius) and full line "everything" what is real (real object or image (the) real
radius).

F2
F1
F2 F1

A B

Fig. 3 Definitions for focal points for a convergent lens (A) and for a divergent lens (B)

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 For simplifying the discussion on thin lenses, we have to take into consideration
the so called Gaussian approximation (or paraxial approximation): we will consider a
paraxial ray which makes a small angle to the optical axis of the system and lies close to
the axis throughout the system (paraxial rays). An optical system which does not match
these two conditions will be presenting aberrations.
In figure 4 we present different ways to represent thin lenses:

Convergent lens Divergent lens

Fig. 4 Convergent and divergent lens representations

3. Main ray beams and the optical construction of images

The geometric (optical) construction of the image of an object by a lens is performed

using the rays from each point of the object. The image point is located at the intersection
of these rays after they pass through the lens or at the intersection of the extensions of
these rays after the passage of the lens. Usually, we use any two radii of the following
three principal rays (the third is useful for checking the construction):
1. A ray will propagate without deviation whenever it passes through the optical
center of the lens.
2. Consider one ray parallel to the optical axis. After refraction by the lens, this
ray or its extension passes through the image focus F2 of the lens.
3. The ray or its extension which passes through the object focus of the lens F1.
After refraction by the lens, this ray is directed parallel to the optical axis.
Those three rays are illustrated in figure 5:

L
B

f A
O
A F F
O
I
x x B

Fig. 5 Image construction for an object using a convergent lens

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 B. The practical use of the optical system

1. Determination of focal length;

The focal length of thin lens depends, as one might expected, of the refractive
index of the material and geometrical properties of spherical diopters. A thin lens is a
combinations of two such diopters almost superposed, it is enough just to add the two
contributions to the total convergence. Note that the first interface is the passage air -
glass while for the second interface the opposite situation. On writing this relationship we
have to recall that the radius of curvature of a surface is positive if its center of curvature
is located to the right in the considered area, and negative otherwise, the reference
direction being that of incident light.

Convergence C (or optical power) is the reverse of the lens focal length f:

If the lens is convergent, then C > 0,

If the lens is divergent, then C <0.

n - refractive index of the lens

R1, R2 – radius for the two diopters

The unit of convergence is the diopter in the international system of units (one diopter =
1 m-1).

Thin lens formula (Descartes) and magnification

According to the figure 5 the image of an object at a distance x from the optical
center of a lens with focal length f, is formed on the optical axis in a clearly defined
position, measured by the distance x' from the optical center. This distance can be
obtained experimentally. It is confirmed by the construction of the image with the
principal rays (mentioned above). The thin lens formula relates the distances x and x' to
the focal length f:

(1)

Also known as lateral or transverse magnification (G) it represents the ratio of the
size of the image I to the size of the object O. These quantities are measured
perpendicular to the optical axis. It is easily to observe in Figure 5 that the magnification
is related to the distances x and x':

(2)

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 2. Determination of the longitudinal spherical aberration;

Lenses do not form perfect images. The distortions of images in optical systems
are called aberrations.
The geometrical aberration (spherical) is the default image that appears in the
optical system due to the use of large beams or beams of monochromatic light inclined
(they do not match the paraxial approximation).
Chromatic aberration is the image distortion due to the phenomenon of
dispersion of the non-monochromatic light (white light) in the lenses of the optical
system.
Spherical aberration is an aberration occurring when large geometric ray beam
passes through a spherical lens. The image of a point is no longer a point but a circular
area with a diameter not negligible; the rays emitted by each point, situated on various
remote areas of the object, through the lens do not converge at a single point (blur
printing).
In particular, incident parallel rays to the optical axis falling on different areas of
the lens intersect the axis at several distinct points; the image is no longer a point but a
line (segment Fm-F0 on optical axis).
The distance (λ) between the paraxial (FO) and marginal (Fm) focus is called
longitudinal spherical aberration, as shown in figure 6:

Image
Fo

Fm λ

Fig. 6 Longitudinal spherical aberration

3. Chromatic aberration
Chromatic aberration is a consequence of the change in the refractive index of the
medium as a function of the wavelength of light (the phenomenon of dispersion). The
position of the focus varies as a function of wavelength. The image of a white light
source is shaped variously colored concentric rings.

blue
red

Fig. 6 Chromatic aberration

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 C. Experimental techniques

1. Determining the focal length of a convergent lens by the lens formula.

(3)
Device to be used: The optical bench
An optical bench (figure 7) is a platform that has a ruler on each external side and on its
metallic surface can be placed various devices as:
• a lamp illuminating a plate in which an object is engraved
• a support for the lens to be studied,
• a support for a screen,
• a thin convergent lens (L)
• a screen.

Light
source

Screen

Lens

Fig.7 Optical bench

Working procedure:
1. Place the lens L on the appropriate support.
2. Choose a position of the lens, set the aperture and determine the position of the
image on the screen.
3. Do the same for 3 independent settings of the screen and calculate the average
focal length. Summarize in a table the results obtained.

2. Determining the focal length of a convergent lens by the transversal magnification

formula:
Using the expression of transverse magnification (2) and the lens formula (1), we obtain
the relationship for calculating the focal length:

(4)

Working procedure:
1. Measure the size of the object (O - object) and mark down that value in a table.
2. At the end of the bench, set the light source and the object AB.

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 3. Position the lens (L) and then place a screen (E) in the position in which a clear
image denoted A'B' is obtained.
4. Note the values for x and x' on your notebook.
5. Measure the size of the image A'B'(I - image).

3. Determining the focal length of a convergent lens by the method of Bessel.

L L
x
B Ecran

A A

B
x d

B
A

Fig. 8 focal length of a converging lens by the method of Bessel

Consider – d – be the distance between the two positions (L and L’) of the lens which
forms a sharp image corresponding to the same object on a screen at the distance A.
As shown in figure 8 the distance A is:

x  x  A (5)
And

x  x  d (6)
Replacing these relations in the thin lens formula (1), we obtain the relationship for
calculating the focal length:

(7)
Equation (7) is called the Bessel formula.
Working procedure:
1. Set on position the components of the optical bench as you did previously.
2. Place the screen on a distance A, superior to 60 cm.
3. Move slowly the lens until on the screen an image A’B’ is seen, as shown in
figure 8, mark the position L and note the values for X and X’.
4. Continue to move the lens towards the screen until you will obtain another image
of the object, this time a smaller one, (A’B”) and mark the position L’.
5. Calculate d and than f.

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 D. Applications in physiological optics
The eye
“The anterior part (cornea) of the outer membrane (sclera) is transparent and
allows light to pass. The iris diaphragm is used as the pupil diameter varies between 2
and 8 mm according to the brightness. The crystalline, transparent disc acts as a convex
lens and divides the globe into two regions: the aqueous humor and vitreous humor. The
latter is lined inside with a thin membrane; the retina consists of light sensitive cells and
connected to the brain via the optic nerve fibers, as presented in figure 9:

Fig. 9 The diagrammatic representation of eye

If the light emitted or reflected by an object reaches the retina, we see this object.
This light stimulates cells in a part of the retina and information is transmitted to the
brain. The vision is the result of complex phenomena. For the perception of a luminous
object, the lens acts as a converging lens of focal length 17 mm for a normal eye. This is
substantially the distance that separates the retina. Thus the image of an object at infinity
is formed on the retina in the case of a normal eye. For the vision of near objects, muscles
act on the lens to change shape and make it equivalent to a more convergent lens: The
phenomenon of accommodation of the eye. The distance-eye near point (NP) is about
ten centimeters for an individual 20 years. So for a normal eye, the vision is clear if the
object is between 10 cm to infinity.

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 FP NP

Visible distance domain

Fig. 10. Diagrammatic representation of accommodation of the eye

Thanks to deformation of the lens, the eye can see clearly objects at distances
greatly. But these distances should remain between two limits (which correspond to the
limits of deformation of the lens).The outer limit is the far point. (FP): the far point is
seen clearly when accommodation is at the maximum. The aging of the individual make
the lens becomes less flexible and accommodation is more limited. A clear vision of near
objects became impossible: the distance eye - near point lengthens with age. The
corresponding defect is called presbyopia. It is corrected using converge glasses.
The lens of a myopic eye is far too consistent for the image of a point at infinity is
formed on the retina. A nearsighted person cannot clearly distinguish a distant object
because the image of this object is formed in front of the retina. This defect is corrected
by divergent glasses. The lens of a hyperopic eye is not quite converging: the image of a
point at infinity can be seen clearly because his position is beyond the retina. The
hyperopic eye is corrected using convergent glasses.

Fig. 11 Diagrammatic representation of the ways that image can be formed on

retina