CALCULUS II: SMA 1218

Course Outline:
Parametric and Implicit dierentiation including second and higher or-

der derivatives, and application to equations of tangent and normal. Curve

sketching and asymptotes. Hyperbolic functions: their dierentiation and

integration. Techniques of integration. Powers of trigonometric functions,

standard substitution including trigonometric and hyperbolic method, parts

and partial fractions. Solution of rst order ordinary dierential equations

by separation of variables. Application of integration to kinematics includ-

ing simple harmonic motion, arc length, plane and surface area, and volume

in Cartesian coordinates. Numerical integration: trapezoidal, mid-ordinate,

Simpson's and primordial rules

1
Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS 2
1 PARAMETRIC DIFFERENTIATION 4
2 IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION 9
2.1 HIGHER ORDER DERIVATIVES FOR IMPLICIT FUNC-

TIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

3 APPLICATIONS OF EQUATIONS OF TANGENT AND

NORMAL 14
4 CURVE SKETCHING AND ASYMPTOTES 23
4.1 CURVE SKETCHING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

4.2 ASYMPTOTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

5 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS 37
6 TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 51
6.1 Powers of Trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

6.2 Integration by substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

6.3 Integration by Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

x


6.4 The Change of variable t = tan 2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

6.5 The change of variable t = tanx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

6.6 Splitting the numerator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

6.7 Further Integration by parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

6.8 Integration by Partial fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

7 Solutions of First order Ordinary Dierential equations by

separation of variables 77
8 APPLICATION OF INTEGRATION 79

2
 8.1 Arc Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

8.2 Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

8.3 Volume: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

9 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS 90

3
1 PARAMETRIC DIFFERENTIATION
In parametric equations, we consider both x and y as functions of some other

variable called a parameter. The variable x and y are dened in ordered pair

(x,y) so that they are functions of some variable t.For example, let x=g(t) and

y=f(t) where the domain of these functions in some interval I. The variable f

is called a parameter and x=g(t) and y=f(t) are called parametric equations.

dy
dy f 0 (t)
= dt = = y0 (1)
dt dx g(t)
dt
Again

dy 0 d

f 0 (t)

d2 y d 0 dt g 0 (t)
= y 00 = (y ) = dt = (2)
dx 2 dx dx g 0 (t)
dt
g 0 (t)f 00 (t) − g 00 (t)f 0 (t)
= (3)
(g 0 (t))3

Example:
1. Let y = cos t +sin t and x=tan t. Obtain the rst and second derivative

of y with respect to x.

Solution
(i) First derivative

dy
d
dy (cost + sint)
= dt = dt
(4)
dt dx sec2 t
dt

4
 dy −sintcost −sint cost
= = + (5)
dx sec2 t sec2 t sec2 t

dy
= −sintcos2 t + cos2 t (6)
dx
(ii) Second derivative

dy 0
2
dy d 0
2
= (y ) = dt (7)
dx dx dx
dt
dy 0
d
dt = dt
(−sintcos2 t + cos3 t)
(8)
dx sec2 t
dt
2
dy −3cos2 tsint + 2sin2 tcost − cos2 t
= (9)
dx2 sec2 t

d2 y −3cos2 tsint 2sin2 tcost cos2 t

= + − (10)
dx2 sec2 t sec2 t sec2 t

d2 y
= −3cos4 tsint + 2sin2 tcos3 t − cos5 t (11)
dx2
Exercise:
dy
1. Ifx = t + sint and y = t + cost, obtain dx = 1−sint
1+cost
. Show that
d2y
(1 + cost)3 dx2 = sint − cost − 1
d2 y
2. If y = sin2tandx = cost, obtain
dx2
= −6cott − 2cot3 t
3 3 dy d2 y 1
3. If x = cos θ andy = sin θ ,obtain and show that 2 = 3cos4 θsinθ
dx dx
  3  
d2 y dx d2 x dy dx


4. Use chain rule to show that
dx 2 dy
+ dy 2 = 0 . Hint
dx dy
= 1.
Dierentiate this.

Example:
dy 1−t2 2t
2. Find
dx
, where x and y are given by x= 1+t2
, y= 1+t2

5
Solution

dy 2(1+t2 )−2t(2t)
dy (1+t2 )2
= dt = −2t(1+t2 )−2t(1−t2 )
(12)
dt dx (1+t2 )2
dt
2(1−t2 )
dy (1+t2 )2
= −4t (13)
dx (1+t2 )2

dy t2 − 1
= (14)
dx 2t
dy
3. If x = tet and y = 1 + logt. Find
dx
.

Solution

dy
1
dy
= dt = t t t (15)
dx dx te + e
dt
1
dy
= t t (16)
dx e (1 + t)

dy 1
= (17)
dt t(t + 1)et
dy
4. If x = e−2t and y = et . Find
dx
for t = 1.
Solution

dy
dy et
= dt = −2t
(18)
dt dx −2e
dt
dy 1
= − e3t (19)
dx 2

6
At t = 1,

dy 1
= − e3 (20)
dx 2
dy
θ + 1θ andy = e−θ θ − 1θ



5. Find
dx
when x = eθ
Solution

dy
−θ 1 −θ 1



dy −e θ − + e 1 +
= dθ = θ
2

θ (21)
dx e θ θ + 1 + eθ 1 − 1
dx θ θ2

dθ
e−θ 1 + θ12 − θ + 1θ


dy
= θ (22)
e 1 − θ12 + θ + 1θ


dx
 
−θ θ2 +1−θ3 +θ
dy e θ2
= θ2 −1+θ3 +θ

(23)
dx eθ θ2

dy e−θ (θ2 + 1 − θ3 + θ) θ2
= · (24)
dx θ2 eθ (θ2 − 1 + θ3 + θ)

dy e−2θ (θ2 + 1 − θ3 + θ)
= (25)
dx (θ2 − 1 + θ3 + θ)
d2 y
6. If x = t + t3 and y = et . Find
dx2
.

Solution

dy
dy 3 − 6t2
= dt = 2
(26)
dx dx 1 + 3t
dt

7
 dy 0 −12t(1+3t2 )−6t(3−6t2 )
2 d 3−6t2
dy ( ) (1+3t2 )2
= dt = dt 1+3t2
= (27)
dx2 dx 1 + 3t2 1 + 3t2
dt
d2 y −30t
2
= (28)
dx 1 + 3t2
d2 y
7. If x = a (t − sint),y = a (1 − cost). Find
dx2
.

Solution

dy
dy asint sint
= dt = = (29)
dx dx a (1 − cost) 1 − cost
dt
dy 0
d sint cost−cos2 t−sin2 t
2
dy
= dt = dt ( 1−cost ) = (1−cost)2
(30)
dx2 dx a (1 − cost) a (1 − cost)
dt
2
dy cost − 1 1
2
= 2· (31)
dx (1 − cost) a (1 − cost)

d2 y − (1 − cost) −1
= 3 = (32)
dx 2
a (1 − cost) a (1 − cost)2
Exercise
  21   12
dy t2 −1 t2 −1
1. Find
dx
, if x=a t2 +1
and y = at t2 +1
t4 +2t2 −1
Ans:
4t
dy a(1−t2 ) 2bt
2. Find , if x= 1+t2
and y= 1+t2
dx 2 
−b 1−t
Ans:
2a t

8
2 IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION
An equation of the form y = f (x)denes y explicitly(i.e. expresses y directly
in terms of x). Given a relation of the formf (x, y) = 0, sometimes it may not
3 3
be possible to express y in terms of x. For example the equation x + y =

3axy,in this case one cannot express y in terms of x. In general, we say that x
and y are given implicitly if they cannot be expresses as an explicit function

of one another.

The derivative of an implicit function may be obtained according to the

following rule; Dierentiate each term of the equation f (x, y) = 0 with re-

spect to x, taking y to be a function of x.

Example
dy
1. Find
dx
if x4 + y 4 − a2 xy = 0
Solution

Taking y to be a function of x,

d d d
x4 + f (x)4 − a2 (xf (x)) = 0



(33)
dx dx dx
Dierentiating with respect to x,

 
3 3 dy dy
2
4x + 4y −a y+x =0 (34)
dx dx

dy dy
4x3 + 4y 3 − a2 y − a2 x =0 (35)
dx dx
dy
Making the subject of the equation,
dx

dy
4y 3 + a2 x = a2 y + 4x3


(36)
dx

dy a2 y + 4x3
= 3 (37)
dx 4y + a2 x
q
dy x−1
2. Find
dx
of y= x+1

9
Solution

x−1
y2 = (38)
x+1

dy −1 (x + 1) − (x − 1) x+1−x+1
2y = 2 = (39)
dx (x + 1) (x + 1)2
2 2 1
dy (x+1)2 (x+1)2 (x + 1) 2
= =
21 = 1 (40)
dx 2y 2 x−1 (x − 1) 2 (x + 1)2
x+1
dy
3. Find
dx
of ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 − 1
Solution

 
dy dy
2ax + 2h y + x + 2by =0 (41)
dx dx

dy dy
2ax + 2hy + 2hx + 2by =0 (42)
dx dx

dy − (2ax + 2hy) − (ax + hy)

(2hx + 2by) = = (43)
dx (2hx + 2by) hx + by
 
x a dy
4. If
x−y
= log x−y .Prove that dx = 2 − xy .
Solution

x
= loga − log (x − y) (44)
x−y

x
+ log (x − y) = loga (45)
x−y

dy


x−y−x 1−
 
dx 1 dy
+ 1− =0 (46)
(x − y)2 x−y dx

10
    
dy dy
(x − y) − x 1 − + (x − y) 1 − =0 (47)
dx dx
 
dy
(x − y) + 1 − (x − y − x) = 0 (48)
dx

dy
(x − y) + (x − y − x) − (x − y − x) =0 (49)
dx

dy
x − 2y + y =0 (50)
dx

dy
y = 2y − x (51)
dx

dy x
=2− (52)
dx y
2
5. Find the slope of the curve x3 = (y − x2 ) at (1,2).

Solution

 
3 2

dy
3x = 2 y − x − 2x (53)
dx
 
3 dy dy
3x = 2 y − 2xy − x2 + 2x3 (54)
dx dx

dy dy
3x3 = 2y − 4xy − 2x2 + 4x3 (55)
dx dx

dy
2y − 2x2 = 3x2 + 4xy − 4x3


(56)
dx

dy 3x2 + 4xy − 4x3

= (57)
dx 2y − 2x2
At (1,2)

11
 dy 3 (1)2 + 4 (1) (2) − 4 (1)3 7
= 2 = (58)
dx 2 (2) − 2 (1) 2
dq
6. If q − p = lnq + lnp, nd
dp
.

Solution.

We assume that q is a function of p and dierentiate both sides with

respect to p.

dq 1 dq 1
−1= + (59)
dp q dp p

dq 1 dq 1
− =1+ (60)
dp q dp p
 
dq 1 1
1− =1+ (61)
dp q p
1
dq 1+ p (1 + p) q
= 1 = (62)
dp 1− q
p(q − 1)

2.1 HIGHER ORDER DERIVATIVES FOR IMPLICIT

FUNCTIONS

We can get the higher order derivatives for implicit functions of rules already

established.

Example:

1.Find y for the function y 3 + y − x.

Solution

dy dy
3y 2 + −1=0 (63)
dx dx

dy 1
y0 = = 2 (64)
dx 3y + 1

12
Dierentiating again to nd y

2
3y 2 y 00 + 6y (y 0 ) + y 00 = 0 (65)

y 00 3y 2 + 1 = −6yy 02


(66)

−6yy 02
y 00 = (67)
3y 2 + 1
 2
1
−6y 3y 2 +1 −6y
y 00 = = (68)
3y 2 +1 (3y 2 + 1)3
Exercise
dy
Find for the following functions.
dx
(a) xysin (xy) + cos (xy) = 0
(1−y)sin(xy)+xycos(xy)
Ans:
xsin(xy)−x2 cos(xy)
4 2 3 3 2
(b) y + (x + 1) y − 5xy −4=0
2
 
− 6x(x2 +1) y 3 −5y 2
Ans:
(4y3 +3y2 (x2 +1)3 −10xy)

13
3 APPLICATIONS OF EQUATIONS OF TAN-
GENT AND NORMAL
For a curve y = f (x), the tangent line at a point (x1 , y1 )on the curve has a
0
slope given by M = f (x1 ) so long as the derivative exists. Let (x1 , y1 )be a

point on the curve y = f (x)dierentiable at x = x1 .

Now the change of x by 4x = dxand the change of y by 4y = dy

dy
yields the point (x, y)on the tangent line. But
dx
= f 0 (x1 ) = M =⇒ dy =
f 0 (x1 )dx...................................(i)
y − y1 = 4y = dy
x − x1 = 4x = dx
Then form (i), the equation of the tangent on the curve y = f (x)at point
0
(x1 , y1 )is given by y − y = M (x − x1 ). The normal line to the curve at point
(x1 , y1 )is the line perpendicular to the tangent at the point (x1 , y1 ). If M' is
0 −1
the slope of the tangent at point (x1 , y1 ), then M = where M is the slope
M
of the tangent at point(x1 , y1 ). Therefore the equation of the normal to the
0 −1
curve y = f (x)at point (x1 , y1 ) is y − y = (x − x1 )
M

14
 Example:

1. Determine the equation of the tangent on the circle x2 +y 2 = 1at point

(x1 , y1 ).
Solution

Equation of tangent line at a point (x1 , y1 )is given by y−y 0 = f 0 (x1 ) (x − x1 ).

Dierentiating x2 + y 2 = 1with respect to x implicitly,

dy
2x + 2y =0 (69)
dx

dy
2y = −2x (70)
dx

dy −x
= (71)
dx y
At point (x1 , y1 ),
dy −x1
= (72)
dx y1
dy
Replacing
dx
in the tangent line equation, y − y1 = f 0 (x1 ) (x − x1 ).

x1
y − y1 = − (x − x1 ) (73)
y1

yy 1 − y12 = −xx1 + x21 + x21 (74)

yy 1 + xx1 = 1 (75)

2. Determine the equations of the tangent and the normal at the point
2
(1, 2)on the curvexy − x3 = y + x2 .
Solution

(i) Tangent

Dierentiate xy 2 − x3 = y + x2 with respect to x,

15
 dy dy
y 2 + 2xy − 3x2 = + 2x (76)
dx dx

dy
(2xy − 1) = 2x − y 2 + 3x (77)
dx

dy 2x − y 2 + 3x
= (78)
dx 2xy − 1
at point (1, 2)

dy 2 (1) − (2)2 + 3 (1) 1

= = (79)
dx 2 (1) (2) − 1 3
dy
Replacing
dx
in the tangent line equation, y − y1 = f 0 (x1 ) (x − x1 ).

1
y−2= (x − 1) (80)
3

3y − 6 = x − 1 (81)

3y = x + 5 (82)

(ii) Normal
dy
Replacing
dx
in the tangent line equation, y − y1 = − f 01(x) (x − x1 ).

y − 2 = −3 (x − 1) (83)

y − 2 = −3x + 3 (84)

y + 3x = 5 (85)

2. Determine the equations of the tangent and the normal at the point

16
 3
(1, 2)on the curvex − y 3 = 3bxy at point

Solution

(i) Tangent

 
2 dy dy
3x − 3bx = 3b y + x (86)
dx dx

dy
3y 2 − 3bx = 3by − 3x2 (87)
dx

dy 3by − 3x2 by − x2
= 2 = 2 (88)
dx 3y − 3bx y − bx
3b 3b


at point ,
2 2

3b 2
b 3b



dy 2
− 2 6b2 − 9b2 −3b2
= 2 = = = −1 (89)
dx 3b 3b 9b2 − 6b2 3b2



2
−b 2
dy
Replacing
dx
in the tangent line equation, y − y1 = f 0 (x1 ) (x − x1 ).
 
3b 3b
y− =− x− (90)
2 2

3b 3b
y = −x + + (91)
2 2

y + x = 3b (92)

(ii) Normal
dy
Replacing
dx
in the tangent line equation, y − y1 = − f 01(x) (x − x1 ).

3b 3b
y− =x− (93)
2 2

y=x (94)

17
 Note: The same procedure is followed if the curve is dened parametri-

cally.

3. Determine the equation of the tangent and the normal in the curve at

point t = t0 dened by

x = t2 + sin2t
y = 2t + 2cos2t
Solution

(i) Tangent

dx
= 2 − 4sin2t (95)
dt

dy
= 2t − 2cost (96)
dt

dy
dy dt 2 − 4sin2t 1 − 2sin2t
= dx
= = (97)
dx dt
2t − 2cost t + cost
dy
Replacing
dx
in the tangent line equation, y − y1 = f 0 (x1 ) (x − x1 ).

1 − 2sin2t
x − t2 − sin2t


y − 2t − 2cos2t = (98)
t + cos2t

(y − 2t − 2cos2t) (t + cos2t) = (1 − 2sin2t) x − t2 − sin2t

(99)

(t + cos2t) y−(1 − 2sin2t) x = (1 − 2sin2t) −t2 − sin2t +2 (t + cos2t) (t + cos2t)

(100)

(t + cos2t) y−(1 − 2sin2t) x = 2t2 +2tcos2t+2tcos2t+2cos2 2t−t2 −sin2t+2t2 sin2t+2sin2 t

(101)

18
 (t + cos2t) y − (1 − 2sin2t) x = t2 + 2 + 4tcos2t + 2t2 sin2t − sin2t (102)

At point t = t0 , the equation of the tangent is given by:

(to + cos2to ) y − (1 − 2sin2to ) x = t2o + 2 + 4to cos2t + 2t2o sin2t − sin2to (103)

(ii) Normal
dy
Replacing
dx
in the normal line equation, y − y1 = − f 01(x) (x − x1 ).
 
t + cos2t
x − t2 − sin2t


y − 2t − 2cos2t = − (104)
1 − 2sin2t

(y − 2t − 2cos2t) (1 − 2sin2t) = − (t + cos2t) x − t2 − sin2t

(105)

(t + cos2t) x−(1 − 2sin2t) y = 2 (t + cos2t) (1 − 2sin2t)+(t + cos2t) t2 + sin2t

(106)

(t + cos2t) x − (1 − 2sin2t) y = (t + cos2t) 2 − 4sin2t + t2 + sin2t

 
(107)

(t + cos2t) x − (1 − 2sin2t) y = (t + cos2t) 2 − 3sin2t + t2

 
(108)

At point t = t0 , the equation of the tangent is given by:

19
 (to + cos2to ) x − (1 − 2sin2to ) y = (to + cos2to ) 2 − 3sin2to + t2o
 
(109)

4. Determine the tangent and the normal to the curve dened by x=

p2 + p − 1, y = 2p2 + 3p + 5at point p = p0 .
Solution

dy
dy dp 4p + 3
= dx
= (110)
dx dp
2p + 1

(i) Tangent
dy
Replacing
dx
in the tangent line equation, y − y1 = f 0 (x1 ) (x − x1 ).

4p + 3
y − 2p2 − 3p − 3 = x − p2 − p + 1


(111)
2p + 1

(2p + 1) y − (4p + 3) x = 2p2 + 3p + 5 (2p + 1) + (4p + 3) −p2 − p + 1

(112)

(2p + 1) y−(4p + 3) x = 4p3 +3p2 +10p+2p2 +3p+5+4p−4p3 −4p2 −3p2 −3p+3

(113)

(2p + 1) y − (4p + 3) x = p2 + 14p + 8 (114)

Therefore at p = p0 , the equation of tangent becomes

(2po + 1) y − (4po + 3) x = p2o + 14po + 8 (115)

(ii) Normal
dy
Replacing
dx
in the normal line equation, y − y1 = − f 01(x) (x − x1 )

20
  
2 2p + 1
x − p2 − p + 1


y − 2p − 3p − 3 = − (116)
4p + 3

(2p + 1) x + (4p + 3) y = 2p2 + 3p + 5 (4p + 3) + (2p + 1) −p2 − p + 1

(117)

(2p + 1) x+(4p + 3) y = 8p3 +12p3 +20p+6p2 +9p2 +15+2p3 +2p2 −2p+p2 +p−1
(118)

(2p + 1) x + (4p + 3) y = 22p3 + 21p + 14 (119)

Therefore at p = p0 , the equation of normal becomes

(2po + 1) x + (4po + 3) y = 22p3o + 21po + 14 (120)

5. Find the equation of tangent and normal of x = 3p − 5, y = 2p + 7at

any general point p.

Solution

dy
dy dp 2
= dx
= (121)
dx dp
3

(i) Tangent
dy
Replacing
dx
in the tangent line equation, y − y1 = f 0 (x1 ) (x − x1 ).

2
y − 2p − 7 = (x − 3p + 5) (122)
3

3y − 6p − 14 = 2x − 6p + 10 (123)

21
 3y − 2x − 31 = 0 (124)

(ii) Normal
dy
Replacing
dx
in the normal line equation, y − y1 = − f 01(x) (x − x1 )

3
y − 2p − 7 = − (x − 3p + 5) (125)
2

2y − 4p − 14 = −3x − 9p + 15 (126)

2y + 3x − 13p + 1 = 0 (127)

Exercise

Determine the equation of the tangent and the normal to the curves

dened by the following parametric equations.

(a) x = 3cosht,y = sint.

(b) x = 3cosht,y = 2sinht.

(c) x = 3cosht,y = 2sinht.

(d) x = sect,y = tant.

22
4 CURVE SKETCHING AND ASYMPTOTES
4.1 CURVE SKETCHING

A geometric picture of a function is often easier to comprehend than its

abstract formula. A sketch of the graph of a function f(x) is dened and

where it is increasing and decreasing; where concave up or concave down.

Key points should also be indicated such as the points of inection and the

x and y intercepts.

The maximum and minimum points in a curve are called stationary points

since the gradient at this point is zero. The rst derivatives of the given

equation enables us to get the factors of the stationary points; and equate

them to zero in order to get the x values. The value of y is obtained by

replacing the x value in the given equation. This enables us to get the

coordinate (x, y)of the stationary point. The second derivative is used to

determine whether the computed stationary point is maximum or minimum.

i.e.

d2 y
• If
dx2
> 0, then the stationary point is a minimum point.

d2 y
• If
dx2
< 0,then the stationary point is a minimum point.

d2 y
• If
dx2
= 0,then the stationary point is inconclusive and we need to go to
the higher order derivatives to determine if the given point is maximum

or minimum.

The second derivative and other higher order derivatives are used to give us

the point of inection which are points where the curve strongly appears to

be changing. It is denes as the point on a graph where concavity changes

i.e. from concave up to concave down.

Example

1. Sketch y = 14 x2 − x + 2
Solution

23
 1
f (x) = x2 − x + 2 (128)
4

1
f 0 (x) = x − 1 =⇒ x = 2 (129)
2
Therefore when x = 2, y = 1
4
(2)2 − (2) + 2 = 1. Therefore (2, 1)is a

turning point

1
f 00 (x) = ≥ 0. (130)
2
Therefore (2, 1)is a minimum point.

For the intercept, when x = 0,y = 14 (0)2 − (0) + 2 = 2. Therefore (0, 2)is
the y -intercept.

2. Sketch y = x3 − 3x2 + 5
Solution

f 0 (x) = 3x2 − 6x (131)

0 = f 0 (x) = 3x (x − 2) =⇒ x = 2, x = 0

Therefore, when x = 2, y = 23 − 3(2)2 + 5 = 11and when x = 0, y =

03 − 3(0)2 + 5 = 5

24
 This shows that (2, 11)and (0, 5)are the turning points.

f 00 (x) = 6x − 6 (132)

At turning point (0, 5),

f 00 (x) = 6(0) − 6 = −6 < 0

hence the point (0, 5)is a maximum point(concave down)

At turning point (2, 11)

f 00 (x) = 6(2) − 11 = 6 > 0

hence the point (2, 11)is a minimum point(concave up)

For the point of inection,

0 = f 00 (x) = 6x − 6 (133)

0 = 6 (x − 1) =⇒ x = 1

When x = 1, y = 13 − 3(1)2 + 5 = 3. This shows that (1, 3)is a point of

inection.

2. Sketch y = 13 x3 + 3x2 − 5x

25
 Solution

f 0 (x) = −x2 + 6x − 5 (134)

0 = f 0 (x) = (x − 1) (x − 5) =⇒ x = 1, x = 5

Therefore, when x = 1, y = − 31 (1)3 + 3(1) + 5 = − 37 and when x = 5, y =

− 31 (5)3 + 3(5) + 5 = 25
3
7 25



This shows that 1, − and 5, − are the turning points.
3 3

f 00 (x) = −2x + 6 (135)

1, − 73


At turning point ,

f 00 (x) = −2 (1) + 6 = 4 > 0

1, − 37 is a minimum


hence the point point(concave up)
25


At turning point 5, −
3

f 00 (x) = −2 (5) + 6 = −4 > 0

5, − 25


hence the point is a maximum point(concave down)
3
For the point of inection,

0 = f 00 (x) = −2x + 6 (136)

0 = −2 (x + 3) =⇒ x = −3

When x = −3, y = − 31 (−3)3 + 3(−3)2 + 5 = 3. This shows that (3, 3)is

a point of inection.

For the intercept, when x = 0,y = 0.

26
 4. Sketch the graph for y = 12 x2 − 4x + 7
Solution

f 0 (x) = x − 4 (137)

0 = f 0 (x) = (x − 4) =⇒ x = 4

Therefore, when x = 4, y = 21 (4)2 − 4 (4) + 7 = −1

This shows that (4, −1)is the turning point.

f 00 (x) = 1 (138)

At turning point (4, −1),

f 00 (x) = 1 > 0

hence the point (4, −1)is a minimum point(concave up)

For the intercepts,

y intercept: when x = 0, y = 12 (0)2 − 4 (0) + 7 = 7

x-intercept: when y = 0, 0 = 12 x2 − 4x + 7. This is a quadratic equation;
√
applying the quadratic formula to get the values for x, x = 4± 2. Therefore
√ √
x=4+ 2 and x=4− 2are the x-intercepts.

27
 5. Sketch the graph of y = 16 x3 − 23 x2 + 5x + 1
Solution

1
f 0 (x) = x2 − 3x + 5 (139)
2
f '(x) gives complex roots, hence thee are no maximum and minimum

points.

For the point of inection,

0 = f 00 (x) = x − 3 (140)

0 = (x − 3) =⇒ x = 3

When x = 3, y = 1
6
(3)3 − 32 (3)2 + 5 (3) + 1 = 3. This shows that (3, 7)is
a point of inection.

For the intercept, when x = 0,y = 61 (0)3 − 32 (0)2 +5 (0)+1 = 1.Therefore,

(0, 1)is the y intercept.

Sketching the graph at the point of inection, get the slope at the point(3, 7).

i.e. f 0 (x) = 12 (3)2 − 3 (3) + 5 = 1

2
.

Ensure that the gradient at the point (3, 7)is 12 .

28
 1
6. Sketch the graph of f (x) = x + x
, for x > 0.
Solution

1
f 0 (x) = 1 − (141)
x2

1
0=1− =⇒ x2 = 1 ⇒ x = 1 (142)
x2
00
The graph has a horizontal tangent at (1, 2). Now, f (1) = 2 > 0and so

the graph is concave up at x = 1and (1, 2) is a relative minimum point. In

fact testing with the second order derivative,

2 2
0 = f 00 (x) = 3
= 3 =2>0 (143)
x 1
Notice that as x → 0, the formula for f(x) becomes arbitrarily large. This
1
makes the y axis to become an asymptote. For large values of x, f (x) = x+ is
x
only slightly larger than x i.e. the graph y = xbecomes an asymptote.

29
 Exercise

Sketch the following graphs

a) f (x) = x3 − 6x2 + 12x − 6

3
b) f (x) = x + 3x + 1
4 3 2
c) f (x) = x − 2x + x
3
1
d) f (x) =
x
+ x4
9
e) f (x) = +x+1
x
12
f ) f (x) = + 3x + 1
x
√
g) f (x) = 6 x − x

4.2 ASYMPTOTES

Vertical Asymptotes

30
We dene the line x = c as a vertical asymptote of the graph of f(x) if

and only if f(x) approaches an innity(or negative innity) as x approaches

c from the right or left. The concept of an asymptote is best illustrated

2x
in the following examples. Take the function f (x) = 1−x
, we cannot take

the value of 1, otherwise f(x) would be undened. Also lim f (x) = ∞and
x→1+
lim f (x) = −∞. In this case, the line x= 1is a vertical asymptote.
x→1−

The fact that f(x) is undened at x = 1is not enough to conclude that

we have a vertical asymptote. The function must also approach innity

or negative innity as x approaches the value of which f(x) is undened.

x2 +3x+2
Consider the problem f (x) = x+2
. The function f(x) is undened at

x = −2but we cannot have an asymptote since it is possible to remove

x2 +3x+2 (x+2)(x+1)
the factor (x+2). i.e. lim = lim = lim (x + 1) = −1.
x→−2 x+2 x→−2 x+2
x→−2
Therefore, we conclude that the function does not have av asymptote but it

has a hole at the value which f(x) is undened.

31
 Horizontal asymptote
We dene the line y = L as a horizontal asymptote of the graph of
if and only if f(x) approaches L a x approaches innity(or negative innity).
f(x),
2x
For the function f (x) = , the line y = −2 is the horizontal asymptote
1−x
of 2x
the graph of f(x). The following limit shows why this is true, lim 1−x =
x→+∞
lim 1 2 = −2and lim 1−x 2x
= lim 1 −12
= −2
x→+∞ x −1 x→−∞ x→−∞ x
When x approaches positive innity, f(x) approaches the line y = −2, and
when x approaches negative innity, f(x) also approaches the line y = −2.

A quick way to determine the position of the horizontal asymptote of a

rational function(having no common factors) is with the following method.

Look at the highest order degree in the numerator and the denominator,

If the highest degree is in the denominator, then the horizontal asymptote

32
is y=0
If the highest degree is in both the numerator and denominator, then the

horizontal asymptote is the ratio of the coecient of this highest term in the

numerator and denominator.

If the highest degree is one degree larger than the highest degree in the

denominator, then the function has aslant asymptote.

Oblique/Slant Asymptote
If the highest degree in the numerator of a rational function(having no

common factors) is one degree larger than the highest degree in the denom-

inator, we say that the function has a slant asymptote.

To determine the asymptote, rewrite the function in terms of another

−x2 +3x+3
rational function. For example, let f (x) = x−1
, the numerator is one

degree larger than the denominator. Using long division, divide the numera-
5 5
tor by (x − 1). We get f (x) = −x+2+ x−1 . Since the fraction
x−1
approaches

innity and negative innity, the function f(x) approaches the line y = −x+2
as x approaches innity and negative innity. y = −x + 2 is called the slant

asymptote.

Remarks

• Vertical asymptotes are never crossed by f(x). However the graph of

f(x) may sometimes cross a horizontal or slant asymptote.

• Asymptotes help to determine the slope of the graph

33
 • Polynomials functions never have asymptotes

Exercise
x−1
1. Sketch the graph f (x) = x2 −x−6
Solution

x−1 x−1
f (x) = = (144)
x2 −x−6 (x + 2) (x − 3)
Vertical asymptotes (roots of the denominator but not the numerator)

are x = −2,x = 3.
1
− 12
 
x
Horizontal asymptotes is lim x
1− x1 − 62
= 0. Therefore y=0 is a hori-
x→∞ x
zontal asymptote.

Intercepts
0−1
y intercept: when x = 0, y = 02 −0−6
= 16
x−1
x-intercept: when y = 0, 0 = x2 −x−6
=⇒ 0 = x − 1 =⇒ x = 1.
0, 61


is the y intercept, while (1, 0)is the x-intercept.

2x2
2. Sketch the graph f (x) = x2 +x−2
Solution

2x2 2x2
f (x) = = (145)
x2 + x − 2 (x + 2) (x − 1)
Vertical asymptotes (roots of the denominator but not the numerator)

are x = −2,x = 1.

34
  2 
x2
Horizontal asymptotes is lim 1− x1 −2
= 2. Therefore y =2 is a hori-
x→∞
zontal asymptote.

Intercepts
2(0)2
y intercept: when x = 0, y = 02 +0−2
=0
2x2
x-intercept: when y = 0, 0 = x2 +x−2
=⇒ 0 = 2x2 =⇒ x = 0.
(0, 0)is the x and y intercept.

x3 +3x2 +x+1
3. Sketch the graph f (x) = x2 +2x−1
Solution

We begin by nding the vertical asymptotes and the x and y intercepts.

(0)3 +3(0)2 +0+1
y intercept: when x = 0, y = (0)2 +2(0)−1
= −1. Therefore, (0, −1)is the
y intercept.

For the vertical asymptotes, these are the roots of the quadratic equation
√ √
in the denominator. x = −1 − 2and x = −1 + 2. Dividing the numerator
2
by the denominator we obtain f (x) = x + 1 + 2 . As x → ∞then
x +2x−1
2
x2 +2x−1
→ 0, hence the line y = x + 1is a slant asymptote.

35
36
5 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
These are combinations of exponential functions. The most common hyper-

bolic functions are dened as:

ex − e−x
sinhx = (146)
2

ex + e−x
coshx = (147)
2

sinhx ex − e−x
tanhx = = x (148)
coshx e + e−x

1 ex + e−x
cothx = = x (149)
tanhx e − e−x

1 2
sechx = = x (150)
coshx e + e−x

1 2
cosechx = = x (151)
sinhx e − e−x
Derivatives of hyperbolic functions

We use the basic denitions to get the derivatives of the hyperbolic func-

tions. i.e.

ex − e−x
 
d d 1 x
e + e−x = coshx


(sinhx) = = (152)
dx dx 2 2

ex + e−x
 
d d 1 x
e − e−x = sinhx


(coshx) = = (153)
dx dx 2 2

ex − e−x
   
d d sinhx d 4 1
(tanhx) = = = 2 = = sech2 x
dx dx coshx dx ex + e−x (ex −x
+e ) cosh2 x
(154)

37
 ex + e−x
   
d d 1 d
(cothx) = = = −cosech2 x (155)
dx dx tanhx dx ex − e−x

   
d d 1 d 2
(sechx) = = = −sechxtanhx (156)
dx dx coshx dx ex + e−x

   
d d 1 d 2
(cosechx) = = = −cosechxcothx (157)
dx dx sinhx dx e − e−x
x

Derivatives involving hyperbolic functions

Example
dy
1. Let y = ln (sinhx) , nd
dx
.

Solution

Letu = sinhx
Therefore y = lnu

dy dy du 1 coshx
= · = ·coshx = = cothx (158)
dx du dx u tanhx
dy
2. Find
dt
given y = tsinh(t2 + 1).
Solution

dy
= sinh t2 + 1 + tcosh t2 + 1 ·2t



(159)
dt

dy
= sinh t2 + 1 + 2t3 cosh t2 + 1



(160)
dt
dy
√

3. Calculate
dx
of y = cosh x3 + 1
Solution
1
−1
Letu = (x3 + 1) 2 , du
dx
= 12 (x3 + 1) 2 (3x2 )
dy
Therefore y = coshu,
du
= −sinhu

38
  
dy dy du
− 1 1 3
− 21
= −sinh x3 + 1 2 2


= · x +1 3x (161)
dx du dx 2

dy 3x2
− 1
=− √ sinh x3 + 1 2 (162)
dx 2 x3 + 1
Integration involving hyperbolic functions

1. Evaluate:
´
(a) tsech2 t2 dt
Solution
dv
Let v = t2 . Therefore dv = 2tdt ⇒ 2
= tdt
ˆ ˆ
2 2 1 1
tsech t dt = sech2 vdv = tanh(v) + c (163)
2 2
Replacing v = t2
ˆ
1
tsech2 t2 dt = tanh(t2 ) + c (164)
2
´
(b) tanhxdx
Solution

ˆ ˆ
sinhx
tanhxdx = dx (165)
coshx
Let v 0 = sinhxand v = coshx

ˆ ˆ ˆ
sinhx v0
tanhxdx = dx = dv = −ln(v) + c = −ln(coshx) + c (166)
coshx v

The following integrals directly corresponds to the derivatives formula

above
´
(a) sinhxdx = coshx + c
´
(b) sech2 xdx = tanhx + c

39
 ´
(c) coshxdx = sinhx + c
´
(d) csch2 xdx = −cothx + c
´
(e) sechxtanhxdx = −sechx + c
´
(f ) cschxcothxdx = −cschx + c
´ dx
(g) √ = sinh−1 xa + c
´ xdx2 +a2 1 −1 x
(h) 2 = a tanh + c, x2 < a2
´ adx−x
2 a
1 −1 x
(i) 2 = − a coth + c, x2 > a2
´ x −adx
2 a
(j) √
x2 −a2
= cosh−1 xa + c, x > a > 0
Examples
´ 1


a) sinh 2
x dx
Solution
x
Let u= 2
. Thus 2du = dx.
ˆ   ˆ
1
sinh x dx = 2 sinh(u)du = 2coshu + c (167)
2
x
Replacing u= 2
ˆ  
1 x
sinh x dx = 2cosh +c (168)
2 2
´
b) cosh (2x) dx
Solution
du
Let u = 2x. Thus
2
= dx.
ˆ ˆ
1 1
cosh (2x) dx = cosh(u)du = sinhu + c (169)
2 2
x
Replacing u= 2
ˆ
1
cosh (2x) dx = sinh (2x) + c (170)
2
´
c) sech2 (2x − 1) dx
Solution
du
Let u = 2x − 1. Thus
2
= dx.

40
 ˆ ˆ
2 1 1
sech (2x − 1) dx = sech2 (u)du = tanh (u) + c (171)
2 2
Replacing u = 2x − 1
ˆ
1
sech2 (2x − 1) dx = tanh (2x − 1) + c (172)
2
´
d) csch (3x) coth (3x) dx
Solution
du
Let u = 3x. Thus
3
= dx.

ˆ ˆ
1 1
csch (3x) coth (3x) dx = csch (u) coth (u) dx = − csch(u) + c (173)
3 3

Replacing u = 3x
ˆ
1
csch (3x) coth (3x) dx = − csch (3x) + c (174)
3
´
e) sech (x) dx
Solution

ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
1 cosh(x) cosh(x)
sech (x) dx = dx = dx = dx = arctan(sinhx)+c
cosh(x) cosh2 (x) 1 + sinh2 (x)
(175)
´
f) sinh2 xdx
Solution

ˆ ˆ
2 1 1 x
sinh xdx = cosh(2x) − 1dx = sinh(2x) − + c (176)
2 4 2
´
g) tanh2 (2x) dx
Solution

41
 du
Let u = 2x. Thus
2
= dx.

ˆ ˆ ˆ
2 12 u 1
tanh (2x) dx = tanh u = 1 − sech2 (u)du = − tanh(u) + c
2 2 2
(177)

Replacing u = 2x
ˆ
1
tanh2 (2x) dx = x − tanh(2x) + c (178)
2
´ 1


h) cosh2 2
x dx
Solution

Let u = 21 x. Thus 2du = dx.

ˆ   ˆ ˆ
2 1 2 1 u
1 + sinh2 (u) du = 2u+ sinh(2u)− +c


cosh x dx = 2 cosh (u)du = 2
2 4 2
(179)
x
Replacing u= 2
ˆ  
2 1 1 x
cosh x dx = x + sinh(x) − + c (180)
2 4 4
´
i) ex coshxdx
Solution

ˆ ˆ ˆ
x xe
x
+ e−x 1 1 1
e2x + 1 dx = e2x + x + c


e coshxdx = e dx = (181)
2 2 4 2
´
j) xsinhxdx
Solution

42
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
ex − e−x 1 1 1 x
x
xe−x dx = (xe − ex ) − −xe−x − e−x +c =


xsinhxdx = x dx = xe dx−
2 2 2 2
(182)

ˆ
xsinhxdx = xcosh(x) − sinh(x) + c (183)

´√
k) x2 + 4dx
Solution

Let x = 2sinhz . Then dx = 2cosh(z)dz ,

ˆ √ ˆ q ˆ ˆ
2 2
x2 + 4dx = (2sinhz) + 4·2cosh(z)dz = 4 cosh zdz = 2 (cosh(2z + 1)) dz
(184)

ˆ √
x√ 2 x
x2 + 4dx = sinh(2z)+2z+c = 2sinh(z)cosh(z)+2z+c = x + 4+2sinh−1 ( )+c
2 2
(185)
´
l) √dx
x 1−x2
Solution

Let x = sechz . Then dx = −sechztanhzdz , 1 − x2 = 1 − sech2 z = tanh2 z

ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
dx −sechztanhzdz sechztanhzdz
√ = √ =− =− dz = z + c
x 1 − x2 sechz tanh2 z sechztanhz
(186)
−1
Replacing z = sech x
ˆ
dx
√ = sech−1 x + c (187)
x 1 − x2
Exercise.
´
a) sinh(3x)dx = 13 cosh (3x) + c

43
 ´
coth 32 x dx = 23 ln sinh 32 x + c




b)
´
c) sech(2x)tanh(2x)dx = − 21 (sinhx + x) + c
´
cosh2 12 x dx= 21 (sinhx + x) + c


d)
´
e) sinh3 (x)dx = 13 cosh3 x − cosh(x) + c
´
cosh 41 x dx = 4sinh 14 x + c



f)
´
g) csch2 (1 + 3x)dx = − 31 coth (1 + 3x) + c
´ q
coshx−1

h) cschxdx = ln +c
´ coshx+1
i) coth2 (3x) dx = x − 31 coth (3x) + c
´ x
j) e sinh(x)dx = 14 e2x − 21 x + c
Denition of an Inverse Hyperbolic Function

−1
 √ 
sinh (x) = ln x + 1+ x2 , ∀x (188)

−1
√
 
2
cosh (x) = ln x + x − 1 , x ≥ 1 (189)

 
−1 1 1+x
tanh (x) = ln , x2 < 1 (190)
2 1−x
 
−1 1 x+1
coth (x) = ln , x2 > 1 (191)
2 x−1
 √ 
−1 1+ 1 − x2
sech (x) = ln ,0 < x ≤ 1 (192)
x
√ !
1 1 + x2
csch−1 (x) = ln + , x 6= 0 (193)
x |x|

Dierentiation formulas

d 1
sinh−1 (x) = √


(194)
dx 1 + x2

44
 d 1
tanh−1 (x) = , x2 < 1


(195)
dx 1 − x2

d −1
sech−1 (x) = √


,0 < x < 1 (196)
dx x 1 − x2

d 1
(cosh(x)) = √ ,x > 1 (197)
dx x2 − 1

d 1
coth−1 (x) = , x2 > 1


(198)
dx 1 − x2

d −1
csch−1 (x) =


√ , x 6= 0 (199)
dx |x| 1 + x2
Exercise

1. Prove that cosh2 u − sinh2 u = 1

Solution

2  u 2
eu + e−u e − e−u

1 2u
1
2 2
e + 2 + e−2u − e2u − 2 + e−2u = 1


cosh u−sinh u = − =
2 2 4 4
(200)

2. Examine

a) y − sinh(x)
b) y = cosh(x)

c)y = tanh(x)

for points of inection.

Solution

a) f 0 (x) = cosh(x), f 00 (x) = sinh(x), f 000 (x) = cosh(x)

f 00 (x) = sinh(x) = 0when x = 0, and f 000 (0) 6= 0. Hence the point (0, 0)is
a point of inection.

b) f 0 (x) = sinh(x), f 00 (x) = cosh(x)

f 00 (0) = cosh(0) 6= 0, for all values of x.

45
 c) f 0 (x) = sech2 (x), f 00 (x) = −2sech2 (x)tanh(x) = − 2sinh(x)
cosh3 (x)
, f 000 (x) =
4sinh2 (x)−2
cosh4 (x)
00
f (x) = 0when x = 0, and f 000 (0) 6= 0. Hence the point (0, 0)is a point of

inection.

Exercise

Derive the following:

√
sinh−1 (x) = ln x +


a) 1 + x2 , ∀x
Solution
ey −e−y
Let y = sinh−1 (x).Thereforex = sinh(y) = 2

ey − e−y ey e2y − 1
 
x= · = (201)
2 ey 2ey
2xey = e2y − 1 (202)

0 = e2y − 2xey − 1 (203)

Let ey = p

p2 − 2xp − 1 = 0 (204)

√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
p=
2a
√
2x ± 4x2 + 4 √
p= = x ± x2 + 1
2

√
ey = x ± x2 + 1 (205)

 √ 
ln (ey ) = ln x ± x2 + 1 (206)

46
  √ 
y = ln x ± x2 + 1 (207)

 √ 
1+ 1−x2
b) Derive sech−1 (x) = cosh−1
1
(x)
= ln x
,0 < x ≤ 1
Solution

Let y = sech−1 (x).Thereforex = sech(y) = 1

cosh(y)

1
cosh(y) = (208)
x

y = cosh−1 (x) (209)

Let y = sech−1 (x).Thereforex = sech(y) = 2

ey +e−y

ey 2ey
 
2
x= y · = (210)
e + e−y ey e2y + 1
xe2y + x = 2ey (211)

0 = xe2y + 2ey + x (212)

Let ey = p

p2 − 2xp − 1 = 0 (213)

√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
p=
2a
√ √
2± 4 − 4x2 1 ± 1 − x2
p= = ,0 < x < 1
2x x
√
1± 1 − x2
ey = (214)
x

47
  √ 
y 1± 1 − x2
ln (e ) = ln (215)
x
 √ 
1± 1 − x2
y = ln (216)
x
c) Derive
d
dx
(tanh−1 (x)) = 1
1−x2
, x2 <1
Solution

Let y = sech−1 (x).Thereforex = sech(y) = 2

ey +e−y

ey − e−y ey e2y − 1
 
x= y · = (217)
e + e−y ey e2y + 1
x e2y + 1 = e2y − 1


(218)

0 = e2y − xe2y − x − 1 (219)

0 = e2y (1 − x) − 1(1 + x) (220)

(1 + x) = e2y (1 − x) (221)

1+x
e2y = (222)
1−x
 
 2y  1 + x
ln e  = ln   (223)
1 − x
d) Derive
d
dx
(sinh−1 (x)) = √ 1
1+x2
Solution

Let y = sinh−1 (x)Therefore sinh(y) = x, sinh2 (y) = x2

Dierentiating implicitly

48
 dy
cosh(y) =1
dx
Thus

dy 1 1 1
= =p =√
dx cosh(y) 2
1 + sinh (y) 1 + x2
e)Find (sinh−1 (3x))
d
dx
Let y = sinh−1 (3x)Therefore sinh(y) = 3x, sinh2 (y) = 9x2
Dierentiating implicitly

dy
cosh(y) =3
dx
Thus

dy 3 3 1
= =p =√
dx cosh(y) 1 + sinh2 (y) 1 + 9x2
f ) Find
d
dx
(cosh−1 (ex ))
Solution

Let y = cosh−1 (ex )Therefore sinh(y) = ex , sinh2 (y) = e2x

Dierentiating implicitly

dy
cosh(y) = ex
dx
Thus

dy ex ex ex
= = p = √
dx cosh(y) sinh2 (y) − 1 e2x − 1
d
2tanh−1 tan 12 x




g) Find
dx
Solution

49
 sec2 12 x
      

dy 2 d 1 2 2 1 1
= 1

· tanh x = 1

sec x =
= secx
dx 1 − tan2 x dx 2 1 − tan2 x 2 2 1 − tan2 1x
2 2 2
(224)
d
coth−1 1



h) Find
dx x
Solution

− x12
 
dy 1 d 1 −1
=
2 · = 1 = 2 (225)
dx 1− x1 dx x 1 − x2 x −1

i) Find
d
dx
(sech−1 (cosx))
Solution

dy −1 d sinx
= √ · (cosx) = p = secx (226)
dx cosx 1 − cos2 x dx cosx 1 − cos2 (x)

Exercise on dierentiation
dy
Determine of the following
dx
a) y = sinh(3x) Ans: 3cosh(3x)
1 1
b) y = cosh( x) Ans:
2 2
cosh( 21 x)
2 2 2
c) y = tanh(1 + x ) Ans: 2xsech (1 + x )
1 1 2 1


d) y = coth( ) Ans: 2 csch
x x x
2 2 2 2 2
e) y = csch (x + 1)Ans:−4xcsch (x + 1) coth (x + 1)
1 1 2 1
f ) y = sinh(2x) − x Ans: sinh xor (cosh(2x) − 1)
4 2 2
2
g) y = ln(tanh(2x) Ans: = 4cosh(4x)
sinh(2x)cosh(2x)
−1 1 1
i) y = sinh ( x) Ans: √ 2
2 x +4
−1
j) y = tanh (sinx)Ans:sec(x)

− a2 − y 2 Ans: √ −y
−1 y

p
k) x = asech
a a2 −y 2
−1 1 −1


l) y = cosh Ans: √
x x 1−x2

50
6 TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION
6.1 Powers of Trigonometric functions

Here we study the various methods of integrating some classes of trigono-

metric functions.

Case 1:
´
sinm xcosn xdxwhere either m or n is an odd integer. If m is odd, we
m m−1
substitutesin xwith sin x, If n is odd, we substitute cosn xwith cosn−1 x.
m and n can be positive or zero integers.

Example
´
1. sin6 xcos3 xdx
Solution

m=6 and n=3

Substituting cos3 x = cos2 xcosxdx

ˆ ˆ
6 3
sin6 x cos2 xcosx dx


sin xcos xdx = (227)

ˆ
sin6 x 1 − sin2 x cosxdx


= (228)

ˆ ˆ
6
= sin xcosxdx − sin8 xcosxdx (229)

Let v = sinx ⇒ dv = cosxdx

ˆ ˆ
6
= v dv − v 8 dv (230)

v7 v9
= − +c (231)
7 9

sin7 x sin9 x
= − +c (232)
7 9

51
 ´
2. cos5 xdx
m=0 and n=5

Substituting cos5 x = cos4 xcosxdx

ˆ ˆ
5
cos xdx = cos4 xcosxdx (233)

ˆ

2
= 1 − sin2 x cosxdx (234)

ˆ
1 − 2sin2 x + sin4 x cosxdx


= (235)

ˆ ˆ ˆ
2
= cosxdx − 2 sin xcosxdx + sin4 xcosxdx (236)

Let v = sinx ⇒ dv = cosxdx

ˆ ˆ ˆ
2
= vdv − 2 v dv + v 4 dv (237)

v 2 2v 3 v 5
= − + +c (238)
2 3 5

sin2 x 2sin3 x sin5 x

= − + +c (239)
2 3 5
Case 2:
´
sinm xcosn xdxwhere both m and n are even integers. Here we use the

identities:

a) sin2x = 2sinxcosx
2 1
b) sin x =
2
(1 − cos2x)
2 1
c) cos x = (1 + cos2x)
2
b and c above are called the double angle formulas.

Example
´
sin6 xdx

52
 m=6 and n=0

ˆ ˆ
6

3
sin xdx = sin2 x dx (240)

ˆ  3
1 − cos2x
= dx (241)
2
ˆ
1
1 − 3cos(2x) + 3cos2 (2x) − cos3 (2x) dx


= (242)
8

ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ 
1 2 3
= dx − 3 cos2xdx + 3 cos 2xdx − cos 2xdx (243)
8

 ˆ ˆ 
1 3 3 2


= x − sin2x + (1 + cos4x) dx − cos2x 1 − sin 2x dx (244)
8 2 2

sin(2x) sin3 (2x)

   
1 3 3 1
= x − sin2x + x + sin(4x) dx − + (245)
8 2 2 4 2 6

x 3 3 3 1 1
= − sin2x + x + sin(4x) − sin(2x) + sin3 (2x) + c (246)
8 16 16 64 16 48

Case 3:
´ ´ ´
tann xdxor ctnn xdxor secn xdx
where n is an integer.

Here we use the following identities

1 + tan2 x = sec2 x
ctn2 x + 1 = csc2 x
Example

53
 ´
a) tan5 xdx
m=5

ˆ ˆ
5
tan xdx = tan3 xtan2 xdx (247)

ˆ
tan3 x sec2 x − 1 dx


= (248)

ˆ ˆ
3 2
= tan xsec xdx − tan3 xdx (249)

ˆ ˆ
3 2
tanx sec2 x − 1 dx


= tan xsec xdx − (250)

ˆ ˆ ˆ
3 2 2
= tan xsec xdx − tanxsec xdx − tanxdx (251)

Let v = tanx ⇒ dv = sec2 xdx

ˆ ˆ ˆ
3
= v dv − vdv + tanxdx (252)

ˆ
v4 v2
= − + tanxdx (253)
4 2
ˆ
tan4 x tan2 x sinx
= − + dx (254)
4 2 cosx

tan4 x tan2 x
= − + ln |cosx| + c (255)
4 2
´
b) cot3 3xdx
Solution

ˆ ˆ
3
cot 3xdx = cot2 3xcot(3x)dx (256)

54
 ˆ
cosec2 3x − 1 cot(3x)dx


= (257)

ˆ ˆ
2
= cosec 3xcot(3x)dx − cot(3x)dx (258)

du
Let u = cot(3x) =⇒ 3
= cosec2 3x
ˆ ˆ 
1
= udu − cot(3x)dx (259)
3
ˆ
1 u2
 
= − cot(3x)dx (260)
3 2

cot2 (3x)
 
1
− − ln |sin(3x)| + c (261)
3 2
Case 4:
´
tanm xsecn xdx, where n is even. We use 1 + tan2 x = sec2 xand break

o a term of the form sec2 x.

´
For tanm xsecn xdx,where m and n is odd, break o a term of the form

tanxsecx.
´ m n
For tan xsec xdx,where m is even and n is odd. Rewrite everything in

terms of secx.

Example
´
a) tan3 xsec5 xdx
Solution

ˆ ˆ
3 5
tan xsec xdx = tan2 xsec4 x · secxtanxdx (262)

ˆ
sec2 x − 1 sec4 xsecxtanxdx


= (263)

ˆ
sec6 x − sec4 x secxtanxdx


= (264)

55
 Let u = secx ⇒ du = secxtanxdx
ˆ
u6 − u4 du


= (265)

u7 u5
= − +c (266)
7 5

sec7 x sec5 x
= − +c (267)
7 5
´
b) tan3 xsec4 xdx
Solution

ˆ ˆ
3 4
tan3 x 1 + tan2 x sec2 xdx


tan xsec xdx = (268)

ˆ ˆ
3 2
= tan xsec xdx + tan5 xsec2 xdx (269)

Let u = tanx =⇒ du = sec2 xdx

ˆ ˆ
3
= u du + u5 du (270)

u4 u6
= + +c (271)
4 6

tan4 x tan6 x
= + +c (272)
4 6
Case 5:
´ ´ ´
To evaluate cos(mx)cos(nx)dx, sin(mx)sin(nx)dxor sin(mx)cos(nx)dxfor
m 6= n, we use the following identities:
sin(mx)cos(nx) = 21 [sin(m + n)x + sin(m − n)x]
sin(mx)sin(nx) = 12 [cos(m − n)x − cos(m + n)x]
cos(mx)cos(nx) = 21 [cos(m + n)x + cos(m − n)x]
Example:

56
 ´
a) cos(4x)cos(3x)dx
Solution

ˆ ˆ
1
cos(4x)cos(3x)dx = (cos(7x) + cos(x)) dx (273)
2
ˆ ˆ 
1
= cos(7x)dx + cosxdx (274)
2
 
1 sin7x
= + sinx + c (275)
2 7

1 1
= sin(7x) + sinx + c (276)
14 2
´
b) sin(5x)sinxdx
Solution

ˆ ˆ
1
sin(5x)sinxdx = (cos(4x) − cos(6x)) dx (277)
2
ˆ ˆ 
1
= cos(4x)dx − cos(6x)dx (278)
2
 
1 sin(4x) sin(6x)
= − +c (279)
2 4 6

1 1
= sin(4x) − sin(6x) + c (280)
8 12

6.2 Integration by substitution

In substitution we choose a parameter u, calculate du and substitute to

change the initial form to an integration formula. It is uses to solve integrals

of the following form:

´ f 0 (x)
(i) The numerator is a derivative of the denominator i.e.
f (x)
=
ln |f (x)|

57
 (ii) The numerator is a constant multiple of the derivative of the denom-
´ 4x
inator e.g.
x2 +1
(iii) The numerator is a function of the derivative of the denominator.

Example
´
a) √ x dx
x2 +1
Solution
du
Let u = x2 + 1 ⇒ du = 2x ⇒ 2
= xdx

ˆ ˆ ˆ " 1#
√
x 1 1 1 − 12 1 u2 1
√ dx = 1 du = u du = 1 = u 2 + c = x2 + 1 + c
x2 + 1 2 u2 2 2 2
(281)
´ 1+x2
b) √
4
3x+x3
dx
Solution
du
Let u = 3x + x3 ⇒ du = (3 + 3x2 ) dx ⇒ 3
= 1 + x2

ˆ ˆ ˆ
1 + x2 1 + x2 du 1 1 4 3 4
3
√
4
dx = 1 · 2
= u− 4 du = u 4 +c = 3x + x3 4 +c
3x + x3 u 4 3 (1 + x ) 3 9 9
(282)
´
c) tanxdx
Solution

ˆ ˆ
sinx
tanxdx = dx (283)
cosx
Let u = cosx ⇒ du = −sinxdx
ˆ
−1
= (−1) · du = −ln |u| + c = −ln |cosx| + c (284)
u
´ sec2 x
d)
1−tanx
dx
Solution

58
 ˆ ˆ
sec2 x −sec2 x
dx = − dx = −ln |1 = tanx| + c (285)
1 − tanx 1 − tanx
´ √
e) x x + 1dx
Solution

Let u = x + 1 ⇒ du = dx, x = u − 1

ˆ ˆ ˆ 
√ √ 3 1
 2 5 2 3 2 5 2 3
x x + 1dx = (u−1) udu = u 2 − u 2 du = u 2 − u 2 +c = (x + 1) 2 − (x + 1) 2 +c
5 3 5 3
(286)
´ dt
f)
1+et
Solution

ˆ ˆ ˆ
e−t e−t
 
dt dt
= = dt (287)
1 + et e−t 1 + et e−t + 1
Let u = e−t + 1 ⇒ du = −e−t dt

ˆ ˆ ˆ
e−t e−t 1 du
= −ln |u| + c = −ln e−t + 1 + c
 
dt = − · du = −
e−t + 1 u e−t u
(288)
´ dx
g) 1 1
x 2 +x 4
Choose the smallest integer divisible by 2 and 4.

Solution
1
Let u = x 4 , u4 = x ⇒ 4u3 du = dx

ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
dx 4u3 du 4u3 4u2
1 1 = 1 1 = du = du (289)
x +x2 4 (u4 ) + (u4 )
2 4 u2 + u u+1

By long division

59
 4u2 4
= 4u − 4 +
u+1 u+1
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
4u2 4
du = 4udu − 4du + du (290)
u+1 u+1

u2
 
=4 − u + ln |u + 1| + c (291)
2

1
" #
x2 1
 1 
=4 − x 4 + ln x 4 + 1 + c (292)
 
2

Exercise

ˆ
dx 1 1 1
 1

= 2x 2 − 3x 3 + 6x 6 − 6ln 1 + x 6  + c

1 1
x3 + x2
ˆ
4dx 1 1 1 3  1 
= 4x 2 − 3x 3 + 3x 6 − ln 2x 6 + 1 + c

1 1
2

x 3 + 2x 2
Trigonometric substitution
√ √ √
Integrals containing terms of the form a2 + x 2 , a2 − x2 and x2 − a2 an
be evaluated by use of trigonometric substitution. If the term is of the form:
√
(i) a2 − x2 , then set x = asinθ
√
(ii) a2 + x2 ,then set x = atanθ
√
(iii) x2 − a2 , then set x = asecθ

Example
´
a) √ dx
a2 −x2
Let x = asinθ ⇒ x2 = a2 sin2 θ, dx = acosθdθ

ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
dx acosθdθ cosθdθ cosθ
√ = √ = √ = dθ = dθ = θ+c
a − x2
2 a − a2 sin2 θ
2 1 − sin2 θ cosθ
(293)
x
= sinθ ⇒ θ = sin−1 x


But
a a

60
 ˆ
dx x
√ = θ + c = sin−1 +c (294)
a2 − x 2 a
´√
b) 4 − t2 dt
Solution

Let t = 2sinθ ⇒ t2 = 22 sin2 θ, dt = 2cosθdθ

ˆ √ ˆ √ ˆ ˆ
4− t2 dt = 4− 4sin2 θ · 2cosθdθ = 2cosθ · 2cosθdθ = 4 cos2 θdθ
(295)

ˆ ˆ
1 + cos2θ
=4 dθ = 2 (1 + cos2θ) dθ = 2θ + sin2θ + c (296)
2
t
= sinθ ⇒ θ = sin−1 t


but
2 2
√ q
t2 t
√
2
sin2θ = 2sinθcosθ = tcosθ = t 1 − sin θ = t 1 − = 4 − t2
4 2
ˆ √
t√
 
−1 t
4 − t2 dt = 2sin + 4 − t2 + c (297)
2 2
´
c) √ dx
9−x2
Let x = 3sinθ ⇒ x2 = 9sin2 θ, dx = a3cosθdθ

ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
dx 3cosθdθ 3cosθdθ cosθ
√ = √ = √ = dθ = dθ = θ+c
9 − x2 32 − 32 sin2 θ 3 1 − sin2 θ cosθ
(298)
x −1 x


But
3
= sinθ ⇒ θ = sin 3
ˆ
dx x
√ = θ + c = sin−1 +c (299)
9 − x2 3
´
d) √ dt
1+t2
Solution

61
 Let t = tanθ ⇒ t2 = tan2 θ, dt = sec2 θdθ
ˆ ˆ
dt sec2 θdθ
√ = √ (300)
1 + t2 1 + tan2 θ

ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
sec2 θdθ secθ (secθ + tanθ) dθ sec2 θ + secθtanθdθ
= = secθdθ = = = ln |secθ + tanθ|+
secθ secθ + tanθ secθ + tanθ
(301)

√
but tanθ = t ⇒ cosθ = √ 1 ⇒ secθ = 1 + t2
1+t2

√ 
 2
ln |secθ + tanθ| + c = ln  1 + t + t + c

(302)

´ dx
e)
a2 +b2 x2
Solution

Let bx = atanθ ⇒ b2 x2 = a2 tan2 θ ⇒ dx = ab sec2 θdθ

ˆ ˆ
a sec2 θ 1 θ
2 2
= dθ = +c (303)
b a (1 + tan θ) ba ba
bx
= tanθ ⇒ θ = tan−1 bx


but bx = atanθ ⇒ a a

62
  
θ 1 bx
+ c = tan−1 (304)
ba ba a
´
f) √ dx
x2 −4
Solution

Let x = 2secθ ⇒ x2 = 4sec2 θ, dx = 2secθtanθ

ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
dx 2secθtanθdθ secθtanθ
√ = √ = dθ = secθdθ = ln |secθ + tanθ|+c
x2 − 4 4sec2 θ − 4 tanθ
(305)
x
But secθ = 2 √
x2 −4
From the trigonometric triangle, tanθ = 2

 √ 
x x 2 − 4
ln |secθ + tanθ| + c = ln  + +c (306)
2 2 
´
g) √ dx
4x2 −1
Solution

Let 2x = secθ ⇒ 4x2 = sec2 θ, 2dx = secθtanθdθ

ˆ ˆ 1
dx 2
secθtanθ
√ = √ dθ (307)
4x2 − 1 sec2 θ − 1
ˆ
1 1
= secθdθ = ln |secθ + tanθ| + c (308)
2 2
But secθ = 2x
From the trigonometric triangle,

1 1  √ 
2
ln |secθ + tanθ| + c = ln 2x + 4x − 1 + c

(309)
2 2
Exercise

Evaluate the following integrals

´ 2
a)
4+x2
dx

63
 ´ 3
b) 2 dx
´ 1+4x
4
2 dx
c) √
´ 9−x
1
d) √ 2 dx
´ 1−9x
1
e) 2 dx
´ 2+25x
√ 2
f) 2 dx
´ 3−4x
1
g) 2 dx
´ 3−2x+x
i) √ 5 2 dx
9−(x+2)

6.3 Integration by Parts

If u and v are two functions of x, then

d du dv
(uv) = v +u
dx dx dx

Integrating each side with respect to x

ˆ ˆ
du dv
uv = v dx + u dx
dx dx
ˆ ˆ
dv du
u dx = uv − v dx
dx dx
Example
´
a) Find xcosxdx
Solution

ˆ ˆ
dv du
u dx = uv − v dx
dx dx
Let u = x ⇒ du = dx
´
Let dv = cosx ⇒ v = cosx = sinx
ˆ ˆ
xcosxdx = xsinx − sinxdx (310)

64
 = xsinx + cosx + c (311)

´
b) Determine xsinxdx
Solution

ˆ ˆ
dv du
u dx = uv − v dx
dx dx
Let u = x ⇒ du = dx
´
Let dv = sinx ⇒ v = sinx = −cosx
ˆ ˆ
xsinxdx = −xcosx + cosxdx (312)

= −xcosx + sinx + c (313)

´
c) tan−1 xdx
Solution

ˆ ˆ
dv du
u dx = uv − v dx
dx dx
Let u = tan−1 (x) ⇒ tan(u) = x, sec2 udu = dx ⇒ du
dx
= 1
sec2 u
= 1
1+tan2 u
=
1
1+x2
´
Let dv = 1 ⇒ v = dv = x
ˆ ˆ
−1 −1 1
tan xdx = xtan x − x· dx (314)
1 + x2

1 
= xtan−1 x − ln 1 + x2  + c

(315)
2
´
d) x2 sinxdx
Solution

ˆ ˆ
dv du
u dx = uv − v dx
dx dx

65
 ´
Let u = x2 ⇒ du = 2xdxand dv = sinx ⇒ v = sinxdx = −cosx
ˆ ˆ
2 2
x sinxdx = −x cosx + 2 xcosxdx (316)

´
Let u = x ⇒ du = 2dxand dv = cosx ⇒ v = cosxdx = sinx
ˆ ˆ
xcosxdx = xsinx − sinx = xsinx + cosx + c (317)

ˆ
x2 sinxdx = −x2 cosx+2 [xsinx + cosx]+c = −x2 cosx+2xsinx+2cosx+c
(318)

Exercise

Evaluate the following integrals

´ 3
a) x cos(2x)dx
´
b) xsinxcosxdx
´
c) xsin−1 xdx
´
d) utan−1 udu
´
e) tsin2 tdt

x


6.4 The Change of variable t = tan 2
x


The change in variable t = tan 2
is applied to the trigonometric identity
2tanA
tan2A = 1−tan 2A .
x
Let A =
2
⇒ 2A = x
It is also possible to express sinx and cos x using the trigonometric triangle

in terms of t to obtain
2t 1−t2
sinx = 1+t2
and cosx = 1+t2
These identities are also found in page two of the SMP tables.
x


When we make the change of variable t = tan 2

66
 dt 1 x dx 2 2 2
= sec2 ⇒ = x = x =
dx 2 2 dt sec2 2 1 + tan2 2 1 + t2
Example
´ 1
a)
1+cosx
dx
Solution
1−t2
cosx = 1+t2

dt 1 x dx 2 2 2
= sec2 ⇒ = 2 x = 2 x =
dx 2 2 dt sec 2 1 + tan 2 1 + t2

ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
1 1 2 1 2
dx = 1−t2
· dt = 2 · dt = dt = t + c
1 + cosx 1 + 1+t2 1 + t2 1+t2
1 + t2
(319)
x


But t = tan 2

x
= tan +c (320)
2
Exercise
´ 1
a) dx
´ 1+sinx
1
b) dx
´ 5+3cosx
1
c) dx
´ 3sinx+4cosx
1
d)
1−sinx
dx

6.5 The change of variable t = tanx

An integrand of the form sinx and cosx, particularly even powers of these my

often be expressed as function of tanx and secx . In such a case the change

of variable t = tanxis used.

Example
´ 1
a)
1+sin2 x
dx
Solution

67
 Dividing the numerator and denominator by cos2 x, we have

ˆ ˆ
1 sec2 x
dx = dx (321)
1 + sin2 x sec2 x + tan2 x

ˆ ˆ ˆ
sec2 x sec2 x 1 + t2 1
= dx = dx = · dt (322)
1 + tan2 x + tan2 x 1 + 2tan2 x 1 + 2t 1 + t2
2

ˆ
1
= dt (323)
1 + 2t2
√ √
Let 2t = tanθ ⇒ 2dt = sec2 θdθ, 2t2 = tan2 θ

ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
1 sec2 θdθ sec2 θdθ
dt = = = dθ = θ + c (324)
1 + 2t2 1 + tan2 θ sec2 θ
√
But 2t = tanθ ⇒ θ = √1 tan−1 t
2

1 √
= √ tan−1 2t + c (325)
2
But t = tanx

1 √ 
−1
= √ tan 2tanx + c (326)
2
Exercise
´ 1
a) dx
´ 1+cos2 x
2tanx
b) dx
´ cos2x
1
c)
1+2sin2 x
dx

6.6 Splitting the numerator

When a fractional integrand with a quadratic denominator cannot be written

in simple partial fractions, it may be expresses as two fractions by splitting

68
the numerator.

ˆ ˆ  
1+x 1 x
dx = + dx
1 + x2 1+x 2 1 + x2
√ 
−1 2
= tan x + ln  1 + x  + c
 

The key to a more general application of this method is to express the

numerator in two parts, one which is a multiple of the derivative of the

denominator.

Example
´ 5x+7
a) Find
x2 +4x+8
dx
Solution
d
Since
dx
(x2 + 4x + 8) = 2x + 4

5x + 7 = A(2x + 4) + B
5
ThereforeA = 2
and B = −3
ˆ ˆ  5 
5x + 7 2
(2x + 4) 3
2
dx = 2
− 2 dx (327)
x + 4x + 8 x + 4x + 8 x + 4x + 8
ˆ
5   1
= ln x2 + 4x + 8 − 3 dx (328)
2 (x + 2)2 + 4
Let x + 2 = 2tanθ ⇒ dx = 2sec2 θdθ, (x + 2)2 = 4tan2 θ

ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
1 2sec2 θdθ 2sec2 θdθ 1 1
dx = = = dθ = θ + c
(x + 2)2 + 4 4tan2 θ + 4 2
4sec θd 2 2

x + 2 = 2tanθ ⇒ θ = tan−1 x+2

But
2
 
1 x+2
= tan−1 +c
2 2

69
  
5   3 x+2
= ln x2 + 4x + 8 − tan−1 +c (329)
2 2 2
´ 2cosx+3sinx
b)
cosx+sinx
dx
Solution

Let2cosx + 3sinx = A(−sinx + cosx) + B(cosx + sinx)

1 5
Therefore A = − and B =
2 2

ˆ ˆ ˆ
2cosx + 3sinx − 21 (−sinx + cosx) 5
2
(cosx
+ sinx)
dx = dx + dx
cosx + sinx cosx + sinx cosx + sinx
(330)

1 5
= − ln |cosx + sinx| + x + c (331)
2 2
Exercise
´ 2x+3
a)
´ x2 +2x+10
b) √ 1−2x
9−(x+2)2
´ sinx
c) dx
´ cosx+sinx
2cosx+9cosx
d)
3cosx+sinx
dx

6.7 Further Integration by parts

Example
´
a) eax cosbxdx
´
Let I = eax cosbxdx

d du dv
(uv) = v +u
dx dx dx
´
Let u = cosbx ⇒ du = −bsinbxand dv = eax ⇒ v = dv = a1 eax
ˆ
1 b
I = eax cosbx + eax sinbxdx (332)
a a

70
 ´
Let u = sinbx ⇒ du = bcosbxand dv = eax ⇒ v = dv = a1 eax
ˆ ˆ
1 1 ax
e sinbxdx = eax sinbx −
ax
e bcosbx (333)
a a
ˆ ˆ
1 b
e sinbxdx = eax sinbx −
ax
eax cosbx (334)
a a
ˆ
1 b
eax sinbxdx = eax sinbx − I (335)
a a
Replacing back,

 
1 ax b 1 ax b
I = e cosbx + e sinbx − I (336)
a a a a

1 b b2
I = eax cosbx + 2 eax sinbx − 2 I (337)
a a a
Eliminating the denominator by multiplying both sides by a2 ,

a2 I = aeax cosbx + beax sinbx − b2 I (338)

I a2 + b2 = eax (acosbx + bsinbx) + c

(339)

ˆ
eax
I= eax cosbxdx = (acosbx + bsinbx) + c (340)
a2 + b 2
Exercise
´ 3x
a) e cos(2x)dx
´ 4x
b) e sin(3x)dx
´ −t t


c) e cos dx
´ x 2
d) e sin(2x + 1)dx
´ 2θ 2
e) e cos θdθ

71
6.8 Integration by Partial fractions

Case 1: The denominator contains linear non-repeated factors only.

´ 3x
a)
(x−1)(x−2)(x−3)
dx
Solution

3x A B C
= + +
(x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3) (x − 1) (x − 2) (x − 3)

3x = A(x − 2)(x − 3) + B(x − 1)(x − 3) + C(x − 1)(x − 2)

Solving for A, B and C simultaneously

A = 23 , B = −6, C = 9
2

ˆ ˆ 3 9
3x 2 −6 2
dx = + + dx (341)
(x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3) (x − 1) (x − 2) (x − 3)

ˆ ˆ ˆ
3 dx dx 9 dx
= −6 + (342)
2 (x − 1) (x − 2) 2 (x − 3)

3 9
= ln |x − 1| − 6ln |x − 2| + ln |x − 3| + c (343)
2 2
´ x+4
b)
x(x−2)(x+5)
dx
Solution

x+4 A B C
= + +
x(x − 2)(x + 5) x (x − 2) (x + 5)

3x = A(x − 2)(x + 5) + B(x)(x + 5) + C(x)(x − 2)

Solving for A, B and C simultaneously

−1
A = − 52 , B = 73 , C = 35

72
 ˆ ˆ
x+4 − 25 3
7
1
− 35
dx = + + dx (344)
x(x − 2)(x + 5) x (x − 2) (x + 5)
ˆ ˆ ˆ
− 25 3
7
1
− 35
= dx + dx + dx (345)
x (x − 2) (x + 5)

2 3 1
= − ln |x| + ln |x − 2| − ln |x + 5| + c (346)
5 7 35
Case 2: The degree of the numerator is equal or higher to that of the

denominator.
´ x3
a)
(x−1)(x−2)(x−3)
dx
Solution

By long division

ˆ ˆ
x3 6x2 − 11x + 6
dx = 1+ dx
(x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3) (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3)

6x2 − 11x + 6 A B C
= + +
(x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3) x−1 x−2 x−3

6x2 − 11x + 6 = A(x − 2)(x − 3) + B(x − 1)(x − 3) + C(x − 1)(x − 2)

Solving for A, B and C simultaneously

A = 21 , B = −8, C = 27
2

ˆ ˆ  1 27
x3

2 8
dx = 1+ − + 3 dx (347)
(x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3) x−1 x−2 x−3

1 27
= x + ln |x − 1| − 8ln |x − 2| + ln |x − 3| + c (348)
2 2

73
Case 3: The denominator contains repeated roots
´ 3x−5
a)
(x+1)2 (3x−2)
dx
Solution

3x − 5 A B C
2 = + 2
+
(x + 1) (3x − 2) (x + 1) (x + 1) (3x − 2)

3x − 5 = A(x + 1)(3x − 2) + B(3x − 2) + C(x + 1)2

Solving for A, B and C simultaneously

9 −27
A= 25
,B = 85 , C = 25

ˆ ˆ 9 8 −27
3x − 5 25 5 25
= + + (349)
(x + 1)2 (3x − 2) (x + 1) (x + 1)2 (3x − 2)

ˆ ˆ ˆ
9 1 8 1 27 1
= dx + 2
dx − dx (350)
25 (x + 1) 5 (x + 1) 25 (3x − 2)

9 8 1 27 1
= ln |x + 1| + · − · ln |3x − 2| + c (351)
25 5 x + 1 25 3

9 8 1 9
= ln |x + 1| + · − ln |3x − 2| + c (352)
25 5 x + 1 25
Case 4: The denominator containing quadratic functions
´ x
a)
(x−1)(x2 +4)
dx
Solution

x A Bx + C
= +
(x − 1)(x2 + 4) (x − 1) (x2 + 4)

x = A(x2 + 4) + (Bx + C)(x − 1)

74
Solving for A and B simultaneously

A = 15 , B = − 15 , C = 4
5

ˆ ˆ 1
x 5
− 51 x + 45
= + 2 dx (353)
(x − 1)(x2 + 4) (x − 1) (x + 4)
ˆ ˆ ˆ
x 1 1 1 x−4
2
= dx − dx (354)
(x − 1)(x + 4) 5 (x − 1) 5 (x2 + 4)

ˆ ˆ ˆ
1 1 1 2x 4 1
= dx − dx + dx (355)
5 (x − 1) 10 (x2 + 4) 5 (x2 + 4)

1 1   4 1 x
= ln |x − 1| − ln x2 + 4 + · tan−1 +c (356)
5 10 5 2 2

1 1   2 x
= ln |x − 1| − ln x2 + 4 + tan−1 +c (357)
5 10 5 2
´ x3 +1
b)
x3 −1
dx
Solution

ˆ ˆ
x3 + 1 2
dx = 1+ dx
x3 − 1 (x − 1)(x2 + x + 1)

2 A Bx + C
2
= + 2
(x − 1)(x + x + 1) x−1 x +x+1

2 = A(x2 + x + 1) + (Bx + C)(x − 1)

Solving for A, B and C simultaneously

A = 32 , B = − 23 , C = − 43
ˆ ˆ  2
x3 + 1 − 2 x − 43

3
dx = 1+ + 23 dx (358)
x3 − 1 x−1 x +x+1

75
 ˆ
2 1 2x + 4
= x + ln |x − 1| − dx (359)
3 3 x2 + x + 1

ˆ ˆ
2 1 2x + 1 3 1
= x + ln |x − 1| − 2
dx − dx (360)
3 3 x +x+1 3 x2 +x+1

ˆ
2 1   dx
= x + ln |x − 1| − ln x2 + x + 1 −  √ 2 (361)
3 3 1 2

3
x+ 2
+ 2

 
2 1  2 2x + 1
= x + ln |x − 1| − ln x2 + x + 1 − √ tan−1

√ +c (362)
3 3 3 3

Exercise

Show that
´ 2x−3 9 13
a) dx = 11 ln(x + 6) + 11 ln(x − 5) + c
´ (x+6)(x−5)
x2 4 25
b)
x2 +7x+10  + 2) −
dx = 3 ln(x  3 ln(x + 5) + c
´ x2 −3x−1
 12 (x+2) 23 
c)
x3 +x2 −2x
dx = ln  x (x−1) +c
´ x4

1 2 6 4 1
d) 3 dx = − 2 x − 3x − ln(1 − x) − 1−x + 2(1−x2 ) + c
´ (1−x)
2x3
e) = ln(x2 + 1) + x21+1 + c
´ x2 +3x−4
(x2 +1)2
dx = ln |x2 + 4| − 21 arctan 21 x + x24+4 + c


f)
x2 −2x−8

76
7 Solutions of First order Ordinary Dierential
equations by separation of variables
A dierential equation is said to be separable if the variables can be separated.

That is, a separable equation is one that can be written in the form

F (y)dy = G(x)dx

Once this is done, all that is needed is to solve the equation through

integration of both sides. The method of solving separable equations can

therefore be summarized as follows:

Step 1: separate the variables

Step 2: Integrate

Example

a) Solve the equation 2ydy = (x2 + 1) dx

Solution

ˆ ˆ
x2 + 1 dx


2ydy = (363)

2y 2 x3
= +x+x (364)
2 3

x3
y2 = +x+x (365)
3
dy
b) Solve the equation
dx
= (1 + e−x ) (y 2 − 1)
Solution

dy −x


= 1 + e dx (366)
y2 − 1
ˆ ˆ
dy
1 + e−x dx


2
= (367)
y −1

77
 ˆ ˆ
dy − 12 1
1 1
2
= + 2 dy = − ln |y + 1| + ln |y − 1| + c
y −1 y+1 y−1 2 2

ˆ
1 + e−x dx = x − e−x + c

1 1
− ln |y + 1| + ln |y − 1| = x − e−x + c (368)
2 2
c) xydx − (x2 + 1) dy = 0
Solution

x dy
dx = (369)
x2 +1 y
ˆ ˆ
x dy
2
dx = (370)
x +1 y

1  2 
ln x + 1 = ln |y| + c (371)
2
dy
d) Solve
dx
= e3x−2y + x2 e−2y
Solution

dy
e2y = e2y e3x−2y + x2 e−2y


(372)
dx

dy
e2y = e3x + x2 (373)
dx
ˆ ˆ
2y
e dy = e3x + x2 dx (374)

e2y 1 x3
= e3x + +c (375)
2 3 3

78
 e) Solve (1 − x2 )(1 − y)dx = xy(1 + y)dy
Solution

1 − x2 y(1 + y)
dx = dy (376)
x 1−y
ˆ  ˆ 
y2
 
1 y
− x dx = + dy (377)
x 1−y 1−y

ˆ 
x2
  
1 1
ln |x| − = −1 + + −y − 1 + dy (378)
2 1−y 1−y

y2
= −y − ln |1 − y| − − y − ln |1 − y| + c (379)
2

x2 y2
ln |x| − = −2y − 2ln |1 − y| − +c (380)
2 2

8 APPLICATION OF INTEGRATION
8.1 Arc Length

To determine the length of a continuous sectiony = f (x)on the interval

[a, b]we'll need to estimate the length of the curve. We'll do this by di-

viding the interval up into n equal sub intervals each of width 4xand we'll

denote the point on the curve at each point by Pi.We can then approximate

the curve by a series of straight lines connecting the points. Here is a sketch

of this situation for n=9 .

79
 Now denote the length of each of these line segments by |Pi−1 Pi |and the
P
length of the curve will then be approximately,L = |Pi−1 Pi |.and we can
get the exact length by taking n larger and larger. In other words, the exact
P
length will be lim |Pi−1 Pi |
x→∞
Now, let's get a better grasp on the length of each of these line segments.

First, on each segment let's dene

4yi = yi − yi−1

We can then compute directly the length of the line segments as follows:

q q
|Pi−1 Pi | = (xi − xi−1 ) + (yi − yi−1 ) = (4x)2 + (4yi )2
2 2

By the mean value theorem, we know that on the interval [xi−1 , xi ]there
is a point x?i , so that

f (xi ) − f (xi−1 ) = f 0 (x?i ) (xi − xi−1 )

80
 4yi = f 0 (x?i ) (xi − xi−1 )

4yi = f 0 (x?i ) (4x)

Therefore the length of the curve may now be written as:

q q q
|Pi−1 Pi | = (xi − xi−1 ) + (yi − yi−1 ) = (4x) + (4yi ) = (4x)2 + (f 0 (x?i ))2 4x
2 2 2 2

The exact length of the curve is

X q
lim |Pi−1 Pi | = lim (4x)2 + (f 0 (x?i ))2 4x
x→∞ x→∞

However, using the denition of the denite integral, this is nothing more

than

ˆ q
L= 1 + (f 0 (x))2 dx (381)

In a similar fashion we can also derive a formula for x = h(y)to obtain

ˆ q
L= 1 + (f 0 (y))2 dy (382)

Before we work any examples we need to make a small change in notation.

Instead of having two formulas for the arc length of a function we are going

to reduce it, in part, to a single formula. From this point on we are going to

use the following formula for the length of the curve.

ˆ
L= ds

s  2
dy
ds = 1+ dx,
dx

81
if y = f (x), a ≤ x ≤ b
s  2
dx
ds = 1+ dy,
dy
if x = h(y), c ≤ y ≤ d
Examples
π
a) Determine the length of the arc y = ln (secx)between 0 ≤ x ≤ 4
Solution

ˆ
s  2
dy
L= 1+ dx
dx

dy tanxsecx
= = tanx
dx secx

ˆ q ˆ √ 
2
L= 1 + (tanx) dx = secxdx = ln |secx + tanx| = ln  2 + 1
 

(383)
3
2
b) Determine the length of x = (y − 1)
3
2 between 1≤y≤4
Solution

ˆ
s  2
dx
L= 1+ dy
dy

dx 1
= (y − 1) 2
dy
ˆ r ˆ
 1 2
 √ 2 3 14
L= 1 + (y − 1) 2 dy = ydy = y − 2 =
3 3
2 2 2
c) Find the perimeter of the astroid x3 + y 3 = a3
Solution

82
 2 − 1 2 − 1 dy
x 3+ y 3 =0
3 3 dx
or
dy  y  31
=−
dx x

ˆ
s  2
dy
L=4 1+ dx
dx

ˆ ˆ ˆ p 2
s s
   1 2 2 2
y 3 x3 + y 3 a3 1 3 h 2i
L= 1+ − dx = 4 2 dx = 4 2 dx = 4a · x 3 = 6a
3
x x3 x3 2
(384)

8.2 Area

Consider the diagram below;

83
 The area of the solid generated by revolving the area bounded by the

curve y = f (x) about the x-axis is given by:

ˆ x=b
ds
s = 2π y dx
x=a dx
If the revolution is about the y-axis, then;

ˆ y=b
ds
s = 2π y dy
y=a dy
s  2
dy
ds = 1+ dx,
dx
if y = f (x), a ≤ x ≤ b
s  2
dx
ds = 1+ dy,
dy
if x = h(y), c ≤ y ≤ d
EXAMPLE:
√
a) Determine the area obtained by revolving y = 9 − x2 bounded by

y=-2 to y=2about the x axis,

ˆ x=b
ds
s = 2π y dx
x=a dx
s  2
dy
ds = 1+ dx,
dx

dy 1
− 1 x
= 9 − x2 2 · −2x = √
dx 2 9 − x2

s  2 r r
x x2 9 3
ds = 1+ √ = 1+ = =√
9 − x2 9 − x2 9−x 2
9 − x2

84
 ˆ 2 √ 3
s = 2π 9 − x2 · √ dx
−2 9 − x2
ˆ 2
= 2π 3dx
−2

= 24π

(b) Determine the surface area generated by revolving about the y-axis,

the curve x = y 3 from y=0 to y=2.

ˆ y=b
ds
s = 2π y dy
y=a dy
s  2
dx
ds = 1+ dy,
dy

dx
= 3y 2
dy

p
ds = 1 + 9y 4 dy

ˆ y=2 p
s = 2π y3 · 1 + 9y 4 dy
y=0

ˆ y=2
1
21
= 2π · 1 + 9y 4 36y 3 dy
36 y=0

Let z = 1 + 9y 4 =⇒ dz = 36y 3 dy = dz
ˆ
π 1
= z 2 dz
18

85
 3
!
π z2 π h √ i
= 3 = 145 145 − 1
18 2
27

(c)Find the surface area of a solid generated when one arch of the cycloid

x = a (θ + sinθ), y = a (1 − cosθ)revolves about the x-axis. The limits of

half arch are θ = 0to θ = π

dx
x = a (θ + sinθ) =⇒ = a (1 + cosθ)
dθ

dy
y = a (1 − cosθ) =⇒ = asinθ
dθ
 2  2  2
ds dx dy
= +
dθ dθ dθ
s 2  2
ds dx dy
= +
dθ dθ dθ
q
= (a (1 + cosθ))2 + (asinθ)2

r
p θ θ
= a2 (2 + 2cosθ) = 4a2 cos2 = 2acos
2 2
ˆ π
s=2 2πyds
0

ˆ π
θ
= 4π a (1 − cosθ) · 2acos dθ
0 2
ˆ π
2 θ θ
= 8πa 2sin2 cos dθ
0 2 2

86
 ˆ π 
2 2θ
1 θ
= 32πa sin cos dθ
0 2 2 2
" #π
sin3 2θ 32πa2
= 32πa2 = dθ
3 3
0

(d) Find the surface of the solid generated by revolution of the ellipse

x + 4y 2 = 16,
2
about the x axis. The limits are for x=-4 to x=4.

(e) Find the surface area of the solid generated by revolution of the curves
π
x = acos3 t, y = asin3 t. The limits are from 0 to
2
.

8.3 Volume:

The area of the solid generated by revolving the area bounded by the curve

y = f (x) about the x-axis is given by:

ˆ x=b
v=π y 2 dx
x=a

The area of the solid generated by revolving the area bounded by the

curve y = f (x) about the y-axis is given by:

ˆ y=b
v=π x2 dy
y=a

Example:

a) Calculate the volume of the solid generated by revolving the plane re-

87
 √ 1
gion bounded by y= x, x = 4and y = 2
about the x-axis

Solution
1 2
y = 12 , x = 1


When
2
= 4
1
The volume obtained above has a cylindrical hole of radius y= 2
.

ˆ 4 ˆ 4  2
√
2 1
v=π x dx − π dx
1 1 2
ˆ 4  
2 1
=π x − dx
1 4
4
x3 1

225π
=π − x = = 22.09cubic units
3 4 1 32
b)Compute the volume of the solid generated by revolving the plane re-

gion bounded byy = x2 , y = 9, and x = 0 about the y-axis.

Solution

88
 ˆ y=b
v=π x2 dy
y=a

ˆ 9
√
=π ( y)2 dy
0

9
y2 92
  
=π =π − 0 = 127.23cubic units
2 0 2

89
9 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
A) Trapezoidal rule:
Trapezoidal rule denes area under a curve as the summation of individual

trapezium areas that constitutes a given space under a curve.

Area of trapezium =1/2(sum of parallel sides*perpendicular distance be-

tween them)
1
Area of trapezium 1=
2
h (y0 + y1 )
1
Area of trapezium 2=
2
h (y1 + y2 )
1
Area of trapezium 3=
2
h (y2 + y3 )
1
Area of trapezium 4=
2
h (y3 + y4 )
1
Area of trapezium 5=
2
h (yn−1 + yn )
Summing up the above areas,

h
A= [(y0 + yn ) + 2 (y1 + y3 + y4 + ... + yn−1 )]
2
which is the trapezoidal rule of nding area under a curve.

90
 b−a
The equal spacing h is given by h= n
B) Simpson's rule:

h
A= [(y0 + 4y1 + y2 ) + (y2 + 4y3 + y4 ) + (y4 + 4y5 + y6 ) + ......]
3

h
A= [(y0 + yn ) + 2 (y2 + y4 + y6 + ...) + 4 (y3 + y5 + y7 + ....)]
3
b−a
The equal spacing h is given by h= n
Examples:
´1 dx
1. Evaluate the integral I= 0 1+x
using,

(i) composite trapezoidal rule

(ii) composite Simpson's rule

using 2, 4 and 8 equal sub intervals.

case 1:n=2

• composite trapezoidal rule

b−a 1−0
h= n
= 2
= 0.5
x 0 0.5 1.0

1
y= 1+x
1 0.667 0.5

0.5
A= [(1 + 0.5) + 2 (0.667)]
2

= 0.70833

• composite Simpson rule

0.5
A= [1 + (2 × 0.667) + 0.5]
3

= 0.69444

91
 case 2: n=4

• composite trapezoidal rule

b−a 1−0
h= n
= 4
= 0.25
x 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0

1
y= 1+x
1 0.800 0.667 0.5714 0.5

0.25
A= [(1 + 0.5) + 0.800 + 0.667 + 0.5714]
2

= 0.697024

• composite Simpsons rule

0.25
A= [(1 + 0.5) + 4 (0.800 + 0.5714) + 2 (0.667)]
3

= 0.693254

case 3: n=8

• composite trapezoidal rule

b−a 1−0
h= n
= 8
= 0.125

92
 1
x y= 1+x

0 1

0.125 0.8889

0.25 0.800

0.375 0.7273

0.5 0.667

0.625 0.6154

0.750 0.5714

0.875 0.5333

1.0 0.5

0.125
A= [(1 + 0.5) + 0.8889 + 0.800 + 0.7273 + 0.667 + 0.6154 + 0.5714 + 0.5333]
2

= 0.694122

• composite Simpsons rule

0.125
A= [(1 + 0.5) + 4 (0.8889 + 0.7273 + 0.6154 + 0.5333) + 2 (0.800 + 0.667 + 0.5714)]
3

= 0.693155

Exercise:

Compute the following integrals using both trapezoidal and Simpsons

rules of sub-intervals 4,6 and 8.

´1 1
a) 2 dx
´01 1+x
x
b)
0 1+x2
dx

93
10 ERROR ANALYSIS
(a) Trapezoidal Error Bound
´b
The absolute value of error made when
a
f (x)dxis approximated by the

trapezoidal approximation with n subdivisions is given by:

k (b − a)3
ξ=
12n2
00
where k is any number such that |f (x)| ≤ k for all x in the closed interval,

[a, b].
(b) Simpson's Rule Error bound
´b
The absolute value of the error made when
a
f (x)dx is approximated by
Simpsons rule with n subdivisions is given by:

m (b − a)5
ξ=
180n4
4
where m is any number such that |f (x)| ≤ m for all x in the closed

interval, [a, b].

Example:

1. Estimate the absolute value of the maximum error that can occur
´1√
when approximating
0
1 + x3 dxby
(a) The trapezoidal approximation with n=4

(b) Simpson's rule with n=4

Solution

(a)The trapezoidal approximation

k (b − a)3
ξ=
12n2

0 1
1
3 −2 2 3x2
f (x) = 1+x · 3x = √
2 2 1 + x3

94
 3
− 3
f 00 (x) = x 1 + x3 2 x3 + 4


4
By choosing the maximum value of each term over the interval [0,1], we

nd;

3 3 15
f 00 (x) = · 1 (1 + 1)− 2 (1 + 4) =
4 4
15
Hence we can take k= 4
, so that the maximum error can be at most

15
4
(1 − 0)3
ξ= ' 0.02
12 · 42
(b) Simpsons rule

m (b − a)5
ξ=
180n4

9
− 7
f 4 (x) = 1 + x3 2 x8 + 56x5 − 80x2


16
This is on the interval [0,1], we have

513
m=
16
Therefore the maximum error will be

513
16
(1 − 0)5
ξ= ' 0.007
180 · 44

2. How many subdivisions n, should be taken to ensure that the absolute

´2 1
value of the error in the approximation of is at most ξ = 0.001when
1 x2
using

(a) Trapezoidal approximation

(b) Simpsons approximation

Solution

95
 f (x) = x−2

f 0 (x) = −2x−3

f 00 (x) = 6x−4

f 000 (x) = −24x−5

f 4 (x) = 120x−6

f 5 (x) = −720x−7

Both f 4 (x)and f 5 (x)are decreasing functions because their derivatives are

negative in this interval .

Hence each achieves its maximum on [1,2] at the left end point, x=1

k = |f 00 (x)| = |f 00 (1)| = 6

   
m = f 4 (x) = f 4 (1) = 120

(a) Using the trapezoidal approximation with n subdivisions, the absolute

value of the error is at most;

k (b − a)3
ξ'
12n2

6 (2 − 1)3
0.001 '
12n2

96
 n = 22.36 = 23

(b) Using Simpsons rule approximation with n subdivisions, the absolute

value of the error is at most;

m (b − a)5
ξ'
180n4

120 (2 − 1)5
0.001 '
180n4

n=6

97