Effective Writing

Using the Right Words

Spelling

 One of the most damaging mistakes that one can make in

writing
 A misspelt word is like a speed bump; it slows down the
reader.
 The reader is also likely to lose interest in what you are
trying to say.
 This lecture series will cover the basic rule of English
spelling.
American/ British Spelling

 There are differences in the meaning and spelling of words

in the British and American dialects of the English
language.
 See the following examples:
American/ British English

British American
Maize Corn
Sweet Candy
Flat Apartment
Bonnet Hood
Boot Trunk
Chips French Fries
Football Soccer
Timetable Schedule
American/ British Spelling

 There are also variations in spelling between the two dialects:

 British English words ending in ‘our’ usually end in ‘or’ in
American English:
British American
Labour Labor
Colour Color
Neighbour Neighbor
American/ British Spelling

 Verbs in British English that can be spelled with

either ‘ize’ or ‘ise’ at the end are always spelled
with ‘ize’ at the end in American English:
British American
Organise Organize
Appetiser Appetizer
Familiarise Familiarize
American/ British Spelling

 In British spelling ‘L’ is doubled in verbs ending in a

vowel plus ‘L’. In American English, the ‘L’ is not
doubled:
British American
Travelling Traveling
Travelled Traveled
Traveller Traveler
American/ British Spelling

 Some nouns that end with ‘ence’ in British English are

spelled ‘ense in American English:’
British American
Licence License
Offence Offense
Pretence Pretense
Defence Defense
American/ British Spelling

 British English words that are spelled with the double

vowels ae or oe tend to be just spelled with an e in
American English:
British American
Oestrogen Estrogen
Manoeuvre Maneuver
Paediatrician Pediatrician
Other Examples

British American
Tyre Tire
Cheque Check
Centre Center
Analogue Analog
Burnt Burned
American/ British Spelling

 While there may be certain differences between British

and American English, the key takeaway is that the two
have more similarities.
 Using one dialect instead of the other will not
automatically lead to miscommunication.
 The key consideration is consistency.
Forming Plurals of Nouns

1. To form the plural of most English word that don’t end –

s, -z, -ch, -sh, -x, or –ss, add –s at the end.
Examples:
Books Tables
Chairs Pans
Forming Plurals of Nouns

2. To form the plural of most word in English that end in –s, -z, -ch, –sh, -x, and –
ss, add –es.
Examples:
Buses Churches Wishes
Buzzes Boxes Kisses
Some exceptions to the rule
 Some words that end in –z have the –z doubled as shown below”
Quizzes
Whizzes
Forming Plurals of Nouns

3. To form the plural of some words that end in –o, add –es
Potatoes Heroes
Tomatoes Vetoes
4. For some words that end in –o, add –s.
Pianos Zoos Autos
Forming Plurals of Nouns

5. For most words that end in a consonant plus –y, replace the –y with –i and add –
es.
Lady –Ladies Penny –Pennies
6. To form the plural of most English words that end in a vowel plus –y, add –s.
Mondays Keys Boys
7. To form the plural of most words in English that end in –f or –fe, change the –f
to –v and add –es.
Wife –Wives, Knife –Knives Leaf –Leaves
Forming Plurals of Nouns

 Exceptions to this rule include: chef, oaf, cliff, belief,

tariff, chief, cliff, plaintiff. For these words, simply add –s.
7. Some words such as child, mouse, ox, tooth, and foot
form plurals in ways that defy categories thus: children,
mice, oxen, teeth and feet.
Forming Plurals of Nouns

8. Words borrowed from other languages such as Latin and Greek often have
irregular plural
 E.g., alumnus alumni
index indexes or indices
analysis analyses
crisis crises
9. Some words in the same language are the same in both singular and plural
 E.g., Deer, Water, headquarters, series
Adding Prefixes and Suffixes

 A prefix is a group of letters that is added to the beginning

of a word. 
 Prefixes modify the meaning of a word i.e. make a new
word with a different meaning.
 E.g., They can create the opposite of the word the prefix is
attached to (the root). They can also make a word negative
or express relations of time, place or manner.
Adding Prefixes and Suffixes

Base Word Prefixed Word Type of Meaning

possible impossible opposite
able unable opposite/negation
payment non-payment negation
war pre-war time (before)
terrestrial extraterrestrial place (outside of/beyond)
cook overcook manner (too much)
Adding Prefixes and Suffixes

 When a prefix is added to form a new word, the root word

usually remains unchanged.
 The words disappear (a combination
of dis- and appear), unhappy, and undo all illustrate this
guideline.
 Follow this rule even if the spelling results in double
consonants, such as in the
words misspell, irredeemable, and cooperation.
Adding Prefixes and Suffixes

 Use a hyphen when joining a prefix to a proper noun, as in mid-July.

 There should always be a hyphen after the prefix self- (as in self-esteem),
and after the prefix ex- when it means former (as in ex-husband).
 Hyphens should also be used when the new word formed from adding the
prefix to a root can be confused with another word that is spelt the same
way. For example, you should hyphenate re-cover (to cover again) to
avoid confusing it with recover (to regain or repair) and re-creation
(versus recreation).
Adding Prefixes and Suffixes

 A suffix is an affix that is added to the end of a word.

 Some suffixes add to or change a word’s meaning.
 Others can signal the word’s part of speech or indicate
verb tense.
Words Suffix New Words
forget, use -ful forgetful, useful
state, govern -ment statement, government
complicate, create -ion complication, creation
Adding Prefixes and Suffixes

 Often, the suffix causes a spelling change to the original

word.
 E.g., If the original word is one syllable and ends with a
single consonant, double the last letter.
 E.g., tip becomes tipping or tipped,
and run becomes running.
Adding Prefixes and Suffixes

 When adding the suffix –full, change the ending to –ful.

E.g. mouthful, grateful, colourful, careful, useful
Commonly confused words

 Below are some of the words that are often confused and misused. Use a dictionary to find
the meaning of the words and how they should be used.
 am/ I’m
 Accept/except
 Adapt/ adopt
 Advise/advice
 Affect/effect
 Complement/compliment
 Loose/lose
 Stationery/stationary
Practice: Underline the correct spelling for
the words in italics
1. Your account will not be debitted/debited until your package has been shipped.
2. Before you send that letter, ensure that you did not mispell/misspell any word.
3. Learning all these spelling rules will be very usefull/useful for John’s studies.
4. “Three pop quizzes/quizes in one day is too much,” lamented Jane.
5. When driving in the park, be on the lookout for deer/deers.
6. To find the cause of my rash, I have seen two doctors and received two different
diagnosises/diagnoses.
Idiomatic Expressions
Idiomatic expressions

 What is an idiom?
 An idiom is an expression or phrase whose meaning does
not relate to the literal meaning of its words.
 I.e., Idioms mean something different than the individual
words.
 Idiomatic expressions

Burn your boats/bridges Doing something that makes it

impossible to go back to the
original state.

Break fresh/ new ground Doing something that has never

been done before

Sell like hot cakes Quick sellout

Run around in circles Putting efforts into something that

is not worthwhile result
 Idiomatic expressions

Left out in the cold Being ignored

Blow hot and cold Alternate inconsistently between
moods and actions

Cut corners Doing something in an easier and least

expensive manner

Boil the ocean Taking up an almost impossible or

overly ambitious project

Keep an ear to the ground Staying informed and updated about

everything
Eat like a horse Eating excessively
Idiomatic expressions

 Idioms shouldn’t be used in academic writing.

 Idioms add color and imagery to the writing, but they could be seen as too
informal.
 Readers unfamiliar with a certain phrase might take it literally. For example, a
man was so angry that he was “foaming at the mouth.” 
 Using idiomatic phrases could be distracting for readers who expect a formal
tone.
 Scholars in scientific fields are likely to be accustomed to more formal writing,
and a phrase such as “the icing on the cake” might be seen as out of place in
academic writing.