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An Improved Asphalt Penetration Test Method

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 materials
Article
An Improved Asphalt Penetration Test Method
Zhoujing Ye 1 , Wenjuan Ren 2 , Hailu Yang 1 , Yinghao Miao 1 , Fengyan Sun 1 and Linbing Wang 1,3, *






Citation: Ye, Z.; Ren, W.; Yang, H.;
Miao, Y.; Sun, F.; Wang, L. An
Improved Asphalt Penetration Test
Method. Materials 2021, 14, 147.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14010147
Received: 11 November 2020
Accepted: 25 December 2020
Published: 31 December 2020
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neu-
tral with regard to jurisdictional clai-
ms in published maps and institutio-
nal affiliations.
Copyright: © 2020 by the authors. Li-
censee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and con-
ditions of the Creative Commons At-
tribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Materials 2021, 14, 147. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14010147
1 National Center for Materials Service Safety, University of Science and Technology Beijing,
Beijing 100083, China; yezhoujing@ustb.edu.cn (Z.Y.); yanghailu@ustb.edu.cn (H.Y.);
miaoyinghao@ustb.edu.cn (Y.M.); fysun@ustb.edu.cn (F.S.)
2 Shenzhen Oceanpower New Material Technology Co. LTD, Shenzhen 518042, China; wenjuan_ren@163.com
3 Joint USTB-Virginia Tech Lab on Multifunctional Materials, USTB, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
* Correspondence: wangl@vt.edu
Abstract: A traditional penetration test only measures the total penetration within 5 s. The pene-
tration process is not monitored, and therefore, a large amount of information on the deformation
properties of asphalt is not used. This paper documents a study to use a high-speed camera to
quantify the entire penetration process and use the Finite Element Method (FEM) to interpret the
penetration process using a viscoelastic model. The penetration–time relationships of several asphalt
binders (70#, 90#, a rubber modified binder, and a styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS) modified binder)
have been acquired using the new method, and the FEM modeling of the penetration processes is
performed. The results show that both stress relaxation and creep appear during the penetration
process. The results indicate that the improved test method and its data interpretation procedure
may better characterize the properties of asphalt binder, which may extend the applications of the
traditional penetration test.
Keywords: asphalt penetration test; high-speed camera; image processing; finite element method
1. Introduction
The properties of asphalt materials affect the service life of asphalt pavement. Un-
der different temperatures, load, and time, asphalt shows different properties, including
viscous deformation, elastic deformation, and viscoelasticity [1]. The evaluation index of
asphalt performance consists of penetration, softening point, and ductility. Among them,
penetration indicates the softness and consistency of asphalt and its ability to resist shear
failure. The penetration test has been widely used to test the temperature sensitivity [2–6],
rheology [7–12], and diffusion properties of asphalt materials [13].
However, a traditional penetration test only measures the total penetration within
5 s. The penetration process is not monitored. A large amount of information on the
deformation properties of asphalt is not used. Additionally, the asphalt penetration test
is affected by many factors. Changes in the test condition and operation will result in a
significant variation in the penetration index (PI) [14–18]. The influencing factors include
the material and weight of the standard needle; the cooling, holding, and heating time of
the sample; the material and size of the sample container; the release agent used and the
operation of tester.
In order to solve the above-mentioned problems, the repeated test, comparison test,
and simulation test were used to reduce the error of the penetration test and improve the
efficiency of the asphalt penetration test. Zhang et al. [19] studied the influence of the
difference among laboratory equipment, environment, and personnel on the asphalt pene-
tration test results, thereby enhancing the test detection level and the accuracy of the data.
Sun et al. [20] conducted a penetration test on SBS modified asphalt with different dosages
and types of SBS modifier under three penetration weights and four different temperatures
and then proposed a reasonable penetration test method for evaluating the performance of
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials
 Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 13
Materials 2021, 14, 147 2 of 12

dosages and types of SBS modifier under three penetration weights and four different
SBS modified asphalt,
temperatures and then which can better
proposed evaluate
a reasonable the temperature
penetration sensitivity
test method of this kind
for evaluating the of
performance of SBS modified asphalt, which can better evaluate the temperature
asphalt. Sun et al. [21] developed an asphalt virtual simulation experiment based on flash
sensitivityincluding
technology, of this kind ofasphalt
the asphalt.penetration
Sun et al. [21] developed
test. an asphalt virtual
The demonstration modesimulation
provides the
experiment based on flash technology, including the asphalt penetration
standard operation video, while the operation mode realizes the whole operation test. The of
process
demonstration mode provides the standard operation video, while the operation
the real experiment and evaluates the accuracy of the virtual experiment operation results. mode
Therealizes
abovethe whole improves
method operation process of thepenetration
the asphalt real experiment
testand
andevaluates
reduces the
theaccuracy
test errorof but
the virtual experiment operation
lacks the analysis on the whole process. results. The above method improves the asphalt
penetration
In order test and reduces
to monitor the test error process
the penetration but lacksand
the analysis
analyzeonthethe whole process.
information of the de-
In order to monitor the penetration process and analyze the information of the
formation properties of asphalt, the high-speed photography technology and the finite
deformation properties of asphalt, the high-speed photography technology and the finite
element simulation method are adopted to record and simulate the penetration process
element simulation method are adopted to record and simulate the penetration process of
of the asphalt. Then, the creep and stress relaxation phenomena that occur in the asphalt
the asphalt. Then, the creep and stress relaxation phenomena that occur in the asphalt
during this process can be intuitively analyzed, which is of great significance for evaluating
during this process can be intuitively analyzed, which is of great significance for
theevaluating
propertiesthe
ofproperties
asphalt. of asphalt.

2. Asphalt Penetration Test

2. Asphalt Penetration Test
2.1. Test Design
2.1. Test Design
The SYD-2801E1 electronic automatic penetrometer produced by Shanghai Changji
The SYD-2801E1 electronic automatic penetrometer produced by Shanghai Changji
Geological Instrument Co., Ltd was used in the test, and the procedures of the standard
Geological Instrument Co., Ltd was used in the test, and the procedures of the standard
penetration test
penetration testare
areshown
shownbelow:
below:
(1) Heat four different types of asphalt (70# matrix asphalt, 90# matrix asphalt, SBS
(1) Heat four different types of asphalt (70# matrix asphalt, 90# matrix asphalt, SBS
modified asphalt, and rubber modified asphalt) selected for the test.
modified asphalt, and rubber modified asphalt) selected for the test.
(2) Put the heated asphalt into the 35 × 55 mm sample container and make asphalt
(2) Put the heated asphalt into the 35 × 55 mm sample container and make asphalt
samples.
samples.
(3)(3) Cool
Coolthe
theprepared
preparedasphalt samplesat
asphalt samples atroom
roomtemperature
temperature forfor
1.51.5
h. h.
(4)(4) Put the samples into the thermostat water bath preset at 25 ◦ C (the normal temperature
Put the samples into the thermostat water bath preset at 25 °C (the normal
condition)
temperatureforcondition)
1.5 h, as shown
for 1.5 in Figure
h, as shown1. in Figure 1.
(5)(5) Take
Take the sample out of the water bath, put ititinto
the sample out of the water bath, put intothe
the glassware
glassware of asphalt
of asphalt penetration
penetration
instrument, keep the water temperature at 25 ◦ C, and then perform the asphalt
instrument, keep the water temperature at 25 °C, and then perform the asphalt
penetration
penetrationtest.
test.

Figure 1. Asphalt samples and the process of the water bath.

Figure 1. Asphalt samples and the process of the water bath.

InInthis experiment, the relationship curve between the penetration value and time
this experiment, the relationship curve between the penetration value and time
was obtained
was obtained with
withthe
thehigh-speed
high-speed camera shootingmethod.
camera shooting method.The The model
model of the
of the high-speed
high-speed
camera was Olympus i-SPEED 3 (Olympus Corporation, Tokyo, Japan). The
camera was Olympus i-SPEED 3. The high-speed shooting can reach 150,000 fps, with the high-speed
shooting
advantagescan of
reach
high150,000
resolutionfps,
andwith
lowthe advantages
light sensitivity. of
Thehigh resolution
specific and lowarelight
test parameters
sensitivity. The
shown in Table 1.specific test parameters are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Test parameter setting.

Asphalt Penetration Test High-Speed Camera Test

Asphalt Sample
Parameter Setting Parameter Setting
Size (mm) Time (s) Load (g) Temperature (◦ C) Shooting Time (s) Shooting Frequency (fps)
Φ55 × 35 5 100 25 5 300
 Table 1. Test parameter setting.

Asphalt Asphalt Penetration Test High-Speed Camera Test

Sample Parameter Setting Parameter Setting
Materials 2021, 14, 147 3 of 12
Size (mm) Time (s) Load (g) Temperature (°C) Shooting time (s) Shooting frequency (fps)
Materials
Ф55 × 35 2021, 14, x FOR
5 PEER REVIEW
100 25 5 300 3 of 13

In
In order
order totorecord
recordthe
thevertical
verticaldisplacement
displacementof ofthe
theneedle
needleduring
duringthethetest,
test,the
theneedle
needle
connecting
connecting rodrod part
part was
was used
used as
as the
the shooting
shooting target
target
Table 1. Test parameter setting. object
object and
and kept
kept in
inthe
thesame
same straight
straight
line
line with
with the
the lens
lens of
ofthe
thehigh-speed
high-speedcamera.
camera. In
In addition,
addition, the
the reference
referencewas
wasaastraightedge
straightedge
Asphalt fixed on the automatic penetrometer. The test process is shown in Figure2.2.Test
Asphalt
fixed on Penetration
the automatic Test
penetrometer. The test process High-Speed
is shown in Camera
Figure
Sample Parameter Setting Parameter Setting
Size (mm) Time (s) Load (g) Temperature (°C) Shooting time (s) Shooting frequency (fps)
Ф55 × 35 5 100 25 5 300

In order to record the vertical displacement of the needle during the test, the needle
connecting rod part was used as the shooting target object and kept in the same straight
line with the lens of the high-speed camera. In addition, the reference was a straightedge
fixed on the automatic penetrometer. The test process is shown in Figure 2.

Figure2.
Figure 2. The
The penetration
penetration test
test process
processrecorded
recordedby
bythe
thehigh-speed
high-speedcamera.
camera.

asphalt, 90#
70# matrix asphalt, 90# matrix
matrix asphalt,
asphalt, SBS
SBS modified
modified asphalt,
asphalt, and
and rubber
rubbermodified
modified
asphalt were
asphalt were tested
tested for
for penetration,
penetration, respectively.
respectively. Three
Threeparallel
paralleltests
testswere
werecarried
carriedout
outonon
the same
the sameasphalt,
asphalt,and
andthe
the standard
standardneedle
needlewas
wasreplaced,
replaced,once
oncefor
foreach
eachtest.
test.The
Thefinal
finalresult
result
wasthe
was theaverage
averageofofthree
threetest
testvalues
valuesto
tominimize
minimizeerrors
errorscaused
causedbybyoperating
operatingconditions.
conditions.

2.2.
2.2. Image
Image Acquisition
Acquisition and and Processing
Processing
Through
Figure 2. The
Through i-SPEED
i-SPEED Viewer
penetration software
test
Viewer (version
process recorded
software, 22.0.3.2),
by
the videosthewere the videos
high-speed were
into converted
camera.
converted 1500 images into
in
1500 images in the JPG format, and then a total of 6 images were taken
the JPG format, and then a total of 6 images were taken out at a ratio of 1/300 to directly out at a ratio
of 1/300 the
observe 70#
to matrixobserve
directly
vertical asphalt,the
90#vertical
displacement matrix asphalt, SBS
displacement
of the standard modified
needle,of the asphalt,
standard
as shown and 3.
needle,
in Figure rubber
as shownmodified
asphalt
in Figure 3. were tested for penetration, respectively. Three parallel tests were carried out on
the samethe
Through asphalt,
MATLAB and the standard
program needlethe
(R2017a), was replaced,
color pictureonce
was for each test.
converted to The final result
grayscale,
was the average
thus improving of three test
the efficiency values
of pixel to minimize
extraction. Theerrors caused by operating
needle-connecting rod partconditions.
was
positioned as the feature point. The straightedge was used as a reference scale to calculate
2.2. Image
the vertical Acquisition of
displacement and
theProcessing
standard needle. Through image processing, the length
of every 35Through
pixels was i-SPEED Vieweractual
equal to the distance
software, of 1 cm.
the videos Theconverted
were gray valueinto
of 51500
pixels at
images in
the needle connecting rod part was extracted as the feature point. The image processing
the JPG format, and then a total of 6 images were taken out at a ratio of 1/300 to directly is
displayed
observein Figure 4.
the vertical displacement of the standard needle, as shown in Figure 3.

(a) Initial state (b) 300th Frame

(a) Initial state (b) 300th Frame

Figure 3. Cont.
Materials 2021, 14, 147 4 of 12
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 13

(c) 600th Frame (d) 900th Frame

(e) 1200th Frame (f) 1500th Frame

Figure
Figure 3. Converting
3. Converting videovideo
to JPGtoimages:
JPG images: (a) Initial
(a) Initial state;
state; (b) (b) frame;
300th 300th frame; (c) frame;
(c) 600th 600th frame; (d)
(d) 900th
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 13
frame;900th frame;frame;
(e) 1200th (e) 1200th frame;frame.
(f) 1500th (f) 1500th frame.

Through the MATLAB program, the color picture was converted to grayscale, thus
improving the efficiency of pixel extraction. The needle-connecting rod part was
positioned as the feature point. The straightedge was used as a reference scale to calculate
the vertical displacement of the standard needle. Through image processing, the length of
every 35 pixels was equal to the actual distance of 1 cm. The gray value of 5 pixels at the
needle connecting rod part was extracted as the feature point. The image processing is
displayed in Figure 4.

Figure4.
Figure 4. The
The image
image processing.
processing.

A set of data was selected every 30 frames in this test for needle penetration
displacement analysis so as to reflect the change of displacement more accurately.
As shown in Figure 5, in the range of 0–300 fps, the asphalt penetration value shows
an overall upward trend because the standard needle moves in free fall when it first
 Materials 2021, 14, 147 5 of 12

A set of data was selected every 30 frames in this test for needle penetration displace-
ment analysis so as to reflect the change of displacement more accurately.
As shown in Figure 5, in the range of 0–300 fps, the asphalt penetration value shows an
overall upward trend because the standard needle moves in free fall when it first descends,
and the displacement changes obviously. In the range of 300–600 fps, the penetration
values of rubber modified asphalt and SBS modified asphalt gradually increase with time,
and the maximum increase range is about 0.5 mm. The penetration value of 70# matrix
asphalt experiences a slight oscillation, with the fluctuation range within 1.2 mm. The
penetration of 90# matrix asphalt is featured with a relatively dramatic oscillation, with the
maximum fluctuation amplitude up to 1.8 mm. In the range of 700–1200 fps, 90# matrix
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
asphalt still has a small vibration and presents an overall upward trend. The other three
6 of 13
kinds of asphalt show a slow upward trend. In the range of 1200–1500 fps, the penetration
values of the four types of asphalt gradually stabilize and tend to be constant.

Figure 5. The
Figure relationship
5. The between
relationship thethe
between penetration value
penetration and
value thethe
and image frame
image number.
frame number.

From
From thethe abovephenomenon,
above phenomenon,90# 90#matrix
matrix asphalt
asphalt has weak
weak recovery
recoveryability.
ability.When
Whenthe
standard needle penetrates 90# matrix asphalt, it first produces certain displacement.
the standard needle penetrates 90# matrix asphalt, it first produces certain displacement. Due
to the influence of shear force, the internal structure of the asphalt changes,
Due to the influence of shear force, the internal structure of the asphalt changes, which which leads
to obvious
leads fluctuations.
to obvious According
fluctuations. to the to
According fluctuation range and
the fluctuation trend
range of the
and penetration
trend of the
value, the value,
penetration stabilitythe
of stability
SBS modified
of SBSasphalt and asphalt
modified rubber modified asphalt
and rubber is better
modified than that
asphalt is
of 70#
better matrix
than that asphalt and 90#
of 70# matrix matrix
asphalt asphalt.
and 90# matrix asphalt.

2.3.
2.3. Dynamic
Dynamic Shear
Shear Rheological
Rheological Test
Test
In In order
order to to further
further verify
verify thethe results
results of of
thethe penetration
penetration test,
test, thethe four
four kinds
kinds of of asphalts
asphalts
were subjected to dynamic shear rheological tests with an Anton
were subjected to dynamic shear rheological tests with an Anton Paar MCR302 multi-Paar MCR302 multi-
functional rheometer (Anton Paar GmbH, Graz, Austria), respectively. Two parallel plates
functional rheometer, respectively. Two parallel plates with a diameter of 25 mm were
with a diameter of 25 mm were used, and the distance between plates was 1 mm. Four
used, and the distance between plates was 1 mm. Four kinds of asphalts were tested by
kinds of asphalts were tested by frequency scanning at 25 ◦ C, and the angular frequency
frequency scanning at 25 °C, and the angular frequency was 0.1~100 rad/s. Among them,
was 0.1~100 rad/s. Among them, the strain control loading was adopted with a value of
the strain control loading was adopted with a value of 1%. In this test, two sets of parallel
1%. In this test, two sets of parallel tests were carried out for each asphalt sample, and
tests were carried out for each asphalt sample, and the average value was used. Figure 6
the average value was used. Figure 6 shows the variation of rheological parameters G’,
shows the variation of rheological parameters G’, G*/sinσ, and tanσ at the same
G*/sinσ, and tanσ at the same temperature but different frequencies.
temperature but different frequencies.

Materials 2021, 14, 147
functional rheometer (Anton Paar GmbH, Graz, Austria), respectively. Two parallel plates
with a diameter of 25 mm were used, and the distance between plates was 1 mm. Four
kinds of asphalts were tested by frequency scanning at 25 °C, and the angular frequency
was 0.1 ~ 100 rad/s. Among them, the strain control loading was adopted with a value of
1%. In this test, two sets of parallel tests were carried out for each asphalt sample, and the
average value was used. Figure 6 shows the variation of rheological parameters G’, 6 of 12
G*/sinσ, and tanσ at the same temperature but different frequencies.

Figure
Figure6.6.The
Thevariation
variationofof
rheological parameters
rheological at the
parameters same
at the temperature
same butbut
temperature different frequencies.
different frequencies.

InInFigure 6, 6,
Figure G’G’
and
andG*/sinσ of the
G*/sinσ four
of the kinds
four of asphalts
kinds show
of asphalts an upward
show trend
an upward withwith
trend
the
theincrease
increaseofof
angular frequency.
angular With
frequency. thethe
With increase of the
increase angular
of the frequency,
angular the the
frequency, phase
phase
angle of the four asphalts decreases gradually. In terms of asphalt viscoelasticity, rubber
modified asphalt has the best elastic property and strong recovery ability. In contrast, 90#
matrix asphalt has high viscosity and strong high temperature rheological property, but
poor recovery ability. In the process of the dynamic shear rheological test, the viscosity
and elasticity of asphalt material were quantified, which was consistent with the analysis
results of the penetration test. This explained the variation of the penetration value of
asphalt taken by the high-speed camera.

3. Asphalt Penetration Simulation

The geometric modeling of the asphalt penetration test was divided into two parts,
which were the standard needle model and the asphalt model.

3.1. Standard Needle Model

The size of standard needle model is provided in the Test Regulation for Asphalt
and Asphalt Mixture for Highway Engineering (JTG E20-2011). The tip of the standard
needle was assumed to a hemispherical shape to avoid the deviation of simulation results
caused by stress concentration. Since the deformation of the standard needle was much
smaller than that of the asphalt, the standard needle was set as a rigid body. The specific
parameters are shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Material parameter setting of the standard needle.

Model Young’s Modulus Pa Poisson’s Ratio Density kg/m3

Standard needle 2.068 × 1011 0.3 7800

3.2. Asphalt Sample Model

70# matrix asphalt sample was selected for finite element simulation; the specific
parameters are shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Material parameter setting of the asphalt sample model.

Young’s
Model Poisson’s Ratio Density kg/m3 Size
Modulus Pa
70# matrix ϕ 55 mm
1.7 × 106 0.35 1030
asphalt sample depth 35 mm

The size of the asphalt sample model is consistent with the test size, which was
ϕ 55 mm and had a depth of 35 mm. The Young’s modulus of asphalt was set as 1700 KPa,
 The size of the asphalt sample model is consistent with t
mm and had a depth of 35 mm. The Young’s modulus of as
Materials 2021, 14, 147 Poisson’s ratio was 0.35, and the viscoelasticity of asphalt 7 of 12 was

The bottom of the asphalt sample was restrained in three direc

and symmetrical boundary were restrained in the horizontal d
Poisson’s ratio was 0.35, and the viscoelasticity of asphalt was simulated by Prony series.
was the four-node
The bottom linear
of the asphalt sample reduction
was restrained integral
in three unit
directions. The CAX4R.
standard needle Figu
and symmetrical boundary were restrained in the horizontal direction. The element type
the
was asphalt
the four-nodepenetration model.
linear reduction integral unit CAX4R. Figure 7 shows the 360◦ scan of
the asphalt penetration model.

als 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW

In this case, the standard needle performed a free fall motion

process; the fall time was set as 5 s and the gravity was set as 9.8 N/k
standard
Figure 7. Theneedle and asphalt
asphalt penetration model. sample was set as surface-to-surface c
Figure
coefficient 7. Thewas asphalt penetration
set to zero. model.
In this case, the standard needle performed a free fall motion during the simulation
process; the fall time was set as 5 s and the gravity was set as 9.8 N/kg. The contact between
standard needle and asphalt sample was set as surface-to-surface contact, and the friction
3.3. Model
coefficient Validation
was set to zero.

TheValidation
3.3. Model simulation results of 70# matrix asphalt were compare
results. The point
The simulation results a0 inmatrix
of 70# Figure
asphalt8 was
were selected
compared with theto obtain
measured the rela
results.
The point a0 in Figure 8 was selected to obtain the relationship between the penetration
penetration value
value and the time. Figureand thethetime.
9 shows Figure
comparison 9 shows the comparison res
results.

Figure
Figure 8.8. The
The location
location of monitoring
of monitoring points. points.
Materials 2021, 14, 147 8 of 12
Figure 8. The location of monitoring points.

Figure 9. Comparison
Figure of simulation
9. Comparison result and
of simulation measurement
result result. result.
and measurement

Although the Finite

Although Element
the Finite Method
Element (FEM) (FEM)
Method model was a simplification
model of the actual
was a simplification of the actual
situation, the displacement obtained by the two tests had the same trends with the time;
situation, the displacement obtained by the two tests had the same trends with the time;
the simulation method could reflect the change of the asphalt penetration value in a
the simulation method could reflect the change of the asphalt penetration value in a
certain extent. The reason for the difference is that there was a deviation between the fitted
certain extent. The reason for the difference is that there was a deviation between the
viscoelastic parameters and the real value. Second, the temperature and personnel
fitted viscoelastic
operation parameters
in the sample process may and theinstability
cause real value. Second,
of the the temperature and personnel
results.
operation in the sample process may cause instability of the results.
4. Result Analysis
4. Result Analysis
Figure 8 shows the selected monitoring points, namely a0–a4, and b0-b4. The
Figure stress,
displacement, 8 showsandthe selected
strain monitoring
of each monitoringpoints,
point namely a0–a4, during
were analyzed and b0–b4.
the The dis-
placement,
asphalt stress,
penetration and strain of each monitoring point were analyzed during the asphalt
test.
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 13
penetration test.

4.1. Analysis on Surface Monitoring Points

4.1. Analysis on Surface Monitoring Points
a0 a0
(b0)(b0)
is theiscontact
the contact point the
point between between theand
needle tip needle tip and
the asphalt theFigure
surface. asphalt
10 surface. Figure 10
shows
shows thethe
timetime variation
variation curves
curves of of displacement,
displacement, stress,
stress, and strain of a0.and strain of a0.

Figure
Figure 10. 10. Curves
Curves of displacement,
of displacement, stress, andstress,
strain ofand strain
surface of surface
monitoring pointsmonitoring
with time. points with time.

In Figure 10, the needle displacement increases significantly during 0–1 s. At 0.9s, the
vertical displacement increases from 0 mm to 5.764 mm. Then, the displacement appears
with the vibration phenomenon at 1–3 s. The displacement is 5.696 mm at 2.9 s, which
shows unobvious change compared with that at 0.9 s. After 3 s, the displacement increases
slowly and reaches 6.799 mm at 3.5 s. At 4–5 s, the displacement reaches the maximum
Materials 2021, 14, 147 9 of 12

In Figure 10, the needle displacement increases significantly during 0–1 s. At 0.9 s, the
vertical displacement increases from 0 mm to 5.764 mm. Then, the displacement appears
with the vibration phenomenon at 1–3 s. The displacement is 5.696 mm at 2.9 s, which
shows unobvious change compared with that at 0.9 s. After 3 s, the displacement increases
slowly and reaches 6.799 mm at 3.5 s. At 4–5 s, the displacement reaches the maximum
value of 7.304 mm and tends to be constant.
According to the stress–strain curve with time, the stress–strain increases and reaches
the maximum value at 0–0.4 s. At 0.4–3 s, for the stress, a certain amplitude of oscillation
and instability appear, presenting a downward trend. Meanwhile, the strain of asphalt
fluctuates, which reflects the rheological properties of asphalt. At 3–4 s, the stress oscillation
weakens, and the strain increases with time. At 4–5 s, the stress gradually decreases, while
the strain tends to be stable.

4.2. Analysis on Vertical Monitoring Points

Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 13
Figure 11 shows the time variation curves of displacement, stress, and strain of the
vertical monitoring points a1–a4.

Figure11.
Figure Curvesofofdisplacement,
11.Curves displacement,stress,
stress,and
andstrain
strainofofvertical
verticalmonitoring
monitoringpoints
pointswith
withtime.
time.

InInFigure
Figure11,
11,the
thedisplacement,
displacement,stress,
stress,and
andstrain
strainofofthe
themonitoring
monitoringpoint
pointdecrease
decreaseas
as
thedepth
the depth increases.
increases. At
At 0–1.2
0–1.2s,s,the
thedisplacement,
displacement,stress, andand
stress, strain of each
strain monitoring
of each point
monitoring
change significantly. The stress and strain reach the maximum at 0.3 s, while the increase
point change significantly. The stress and strain reach the maximum at 0.3 s, while the
amplitude of displacement is not obvious. At 0.3–1.2 s, the stress and strain obviously
increase amplitude of displacement is not obvious. At 0.3–1.2 s, the stress and strain
fluctuate up and down, and the displacement rapidly increases to the maximum value.
obviously fluctuate up and down, and the displacement rapidly increases to the
The elastic deformation occurs in this stage, and the maximum stress of elastic deformation
maximum value. The elastic deformation occurs in this stage, and the maximum stress of
elastic deformation is maintained. At 1.2–3 s, the displacement of each monitoring point
fluctuates up and down, where a1–a3 are more obvious. At the same time, the stress and
strain remain stable without obvious fluctuation. As the loading time increases, the
structure of asphalt changes under the action of force, which leads to the instability inside
Materials 2021, 14, 147 10 of 12

is maintained. At 1.2–3 s, the displacement of each monitoring point fluctuates up and

down, where a1–a3 are more obvious. At the same time, the stress and strain remain stable
without obvious fluctuation. As the loading time increases, the structure of asphalt changes
under the action of force, which leads to the instability inside asphalt and the phenomenon
that the displacement first decreases and then increases. After 3 s, the displacement of each
monitoring point gradually stabilizes and tends to be a constant value. Moreover, the stress
gradually decreases, and the strain is featured with an increase trend.

4.3. Analysis on Transverse Monitoring Points

Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 13
Figure 12 shows the time variation curves of displacement, stress, and strain of the
transverse monitoring points b1–b4.

Figure 12. Curves of displacement,

Figure 12. stress, and stress,
Curves of displacement, strain of transverse
and strain of monitoring points withpoints
transverse monitoring time. with time.

In Figure
In Figure12, 12,
there is no
there is instantaneous
no instantaneous andand
large displacement
large displacement at each transverse
at each transverse
monitoring point during 0–0.3 s, but the stress and strain increase
monitoring point during 0–0.3 s, but the stress and strain increase significantlysignificantly andand
reach
reach
the the
maximum value. At 0.3–0.7 s, the displacement increases dramatically
maximum value. At 0.3–0.7 s, the displacement increases dramatically and reaches and reaches the the
maximum,
maximum, while the stress
while and strain
the stress and remain
strain stable.
remainCompared with the vertical
stable. Compared monitor-
with the vertical
ingmonitoring
point, the displacement of the transverse monitoring point reaches
point, the displacement of the transverse monitoring point reaches thethe maximum first.
In this case, when
maximum first.the
In standard
this case,needle
when penetrates
the standard theneedle
asphaltpenetrates
sample, it thefirstasphalt
produces rela- it
sample,
tively large displacement in the transverse direction, and then the displacement
first produces relatively large displacement in the transverse direction, and then the increases
significantly
displacementin theincreases
vertical direction.
significantlyIn addition, the stress
in the vertical and strain
direction. of the transverse
In addition, andand
the stress
strain of the transverse and vertical monitoring points basically reach the maximum at the
same time. With the increase of time, in all the displacement, stress, and strain of each
monitoring point in the transverse direction, the oscillatory instability phenomenon
appears. Compared with the vertical direction, the change trends of displacement, stress,
Materials 2021, 14, 147 11 of 12

vertical monitoring points basically reach the maximum at the same time. With the increase
of time, in all the displacement, stress, and strain of each monitoring point in the transverse
direction, the oscillatory instability phenomenon appears. Compared with the vertical
direction, the change trends of displacement, stress, and strain concerning the transverse
monitoring points are relatively gentle. After 4 s, the displacement and stress changes tend
to be stable, while the strain of some monitoring points is inclined to increase.
To sum up, the asphalt penetration test can be considered as a continuous loading
process. In the initial stage, the surface of asphalt was featured with a large deformation,
and the stress–strain inside the asphalt increased with time. As the loading time increased,
the internal structure of the asphalt changed under the action of the force, which caused
the fluctuation of displacement, stress, and strain. Since the load continued to be applied to
the asphalt, the displacement tended to be a constant value. The stress tended to decrease,
while the strain tended to increase, which showed the phenomena of stress relaxation
and creep.

5. Conclusions
1. The improved penetration test using high-speed imaging and FEM modeling has
enabled better data interpretation of the traditional penetration test. It may revive the use
of the penetration test as a regular test for asphalt binder characterization.
2. The weaker vibrations during the penetration into rubber modified asphalt and SBS
modified asphalt may indicate a strong material structure of the two binders in comparison
with the two base asphalt binder 70# and 90#.
3. The viscosity and elasticity of the four kinds of asphalts were quantified in the
process of the dynamic shear rheological test, which was consistent with the analysis
results of the penetration test. In other words, the modified penetration test may have the
capability to characterize viscosity and modulus of asphalt binder.
4. It is anticipated that subsequent research to expand the test temperature range,
penetration time and applied load, and to improve the FEM model of asphalt penetration
may allow the test to become a comprehensive test for asphalt binder.

Author Contributions: Methodology, L.W., H.Y. and Y.M.; software, W.R. and F.S.; validation, Z.Y.
and W.R.; formal analysis, Z.Y. and F.S.; writing—original draft preparation, Z.Y. and W.R.; writing—
review and editing, Z.Y. and L.W.; supervision, L.W. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by Fundamental Research Funds for the Central University
(FRF-TP-19-050A1, FRF-BD-19-001A, FRF-MP-19-014).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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