Military warfare and Tactics

The earliest history writing on the military warfare on the topic was done by a German scholar P. Horn
in 1894 followed by William Irvin’s account named ‘The Army of the Indian Moghuls’. His work was
path breaking and highly descriptive about military seizes and tactics of war. Soon after the issue gained
prominence and was taken after by scholars from the Aligarh Muslim University . While scholars like
Athar Ali and Aziz Ahmad focused on the Mansabdari system, Iqtadar Alam khan focused attention
towards the introduction of gunpowder in warfare. Another important work dealing with warfare was
Jadunath Sarkar’s ‘Military History of India’. It was a pioneering work which focused on some of the
most important battles fought in the Indian Subcontinent. Other important scholars who have
contributed significantly to our understanding of warfare and tactics in medieval India include Dirk Kloff,
Jos Gommans, Steward Gordon and Thomas Trautman. While scholars like Gordon and Streusand
follow a more traditional approach, relating warfare and tactics to military issues, on the other hand
scholars like Dirk Kloff have concentrated on issues beyond military nature. He questions the close
relationship between military to socio economic and cultural conditions of the subcontinent. Jos
Gommans in his seminal work, ‘Mughal Warfare, Indian Frontiers and Highroads to empire’ has
argued that the military expansion of the Mughal State in the Indian subcontinent needs to be seen in
the in the wider geographical, social, political and cultural context. He also emphasizes on the role of
technology and the use of Gunpowder and the use of animals.

One of the most significant aspects regarding the military aspect of the Mughal Empire has been on the
role of Firearms and Gunpowder. The Idea that the Mughal State was a gunpowder state was first put
forwarded by scholars like V. Barthoad. As a result of gunpowder being an integral part of central Asian
military in the central Asian empires of the Safavids, Uzbeks and the ottomans, it gave the empires an
initial advantage. This explanation seeks to understand the rise of the Mughals in terms of technical
innovation of the Mughals along with the other Islamic states that emerged in the 16th century that
gunpowder and artillery were responsible for their growth. The theory that the Mughal state was a
gunpowder state has been further supported by scholars like Marshall Hodgson and Mc Neil. Marshall
argues that the use of gunpowder gave the state additional military power and led to the creation of a
centralized state. However, scholars like Iqtadar Alam Khan have argued that the gunpowder theory is
problematic as it overemphasizes the role of gunpowder. He is also critical of the idea that the
knowledge of firearm technology came with the Mughals. Similarly, the idea that the Mughal state
heavily relied on the use of Gunpowder has been criticized by Douglas Streusand. According to Athat Ali
and Jadunath Sarkar, the Mughal State was a military State. However, such a view has been criticized
on the grounds that it cannot account for the long lasting nature of the state.

The Mughals also when expanded into India, they had to learn certain indigenous warfare techniques
that included the use of elephants. In this process the expansion of the Mughal state in the frontier
state located in the monsoon region becomes very important. According to ‘Jos Gommans’ the Mughals
can be called a state in saddle and their success depended on the control of both internal as well as the
external limits of the empire. In this context roads played an important role and the initial phase of the
Empire road building was synonymous with state building .Mughal Rule was established after the
victory of Babar in the first battle of Panipat in 1526 against Ibrahim Lodi. Two significant aspect of
warfare was the use of the Turkish technique of ‘Tubur Jungi’ and the second was the use of Cavalry
archers in contrast to Lodi’s dependence on elephant and archers. Babar used the Ottoman gunner
Ustad Ali Quli who arranged a row of carts joined with ropes of law leather that was hidden across the
Mughal centre and artillery. Historian Douglas Streusand emphasizes the use of Mughal artillery and
Horsemen as the two basic ingredients of success against the Hindustani forces. Irfan Habib attributes
the success of the Mughal Cavalry to the dominance of the Mughal in Horse trade.

Historians have not commented much upon the military tactics used by Humayun. His most important
battle was the Battle of Chau which isn’t considered to be of much military significance to historians.
During the period of Akbar military engagements commenced in 1556 when Akbar and Bairam Khan
engaged with the Afghans and Hemu. In this battle the Mughals did not use artillery as there were no
guns and thus could not apply the strategy of Tabur Jungi. The victory was secured through the use of
Mounted archers. Another significant component of the Mughal Army was the use of Elephants. He
did use a lot of elephants in warfare and they formed an important component in the battle of
Haldighati. However according to Simon Digby, Elephants under the Delhi Sultanate were much more
important which changed radically under Akbar. Digby cites examples of battles in which Akbar
defeated many armies who relied on Elephants.

Another significant aspect developed by Akbar was the use of ‘firearms’. However, scholars like A.J
Qaiser are of the opinion that the knowledge of firearms was known in the subcontinent far before the
Mughals came. In the literature of the sultanate period Amir Khusrao makes reference to the use of the ‘
Manjanique’ which has been described as a very large catapult. The Babarnama also mentions the use
of a lot of cannons. Texts from the earlier also refer to kind of rudimentary cannon known as the Ban-
Cannon technology. Hence Qaiser argues that that the use of firearm technology developed
simultaneously in the subcontinent and in Europe. However, he concedes that the use of firearms on a
large scale in India began in the 16th century.

An important aspect of warfare was to succeed in laying seizes. It is in this context that Akbar’s military
campaigns against the forts of Ranthambore, Chittor needs to be a analysed. The seize of the fort of
Chittor was a long process. In order to penetrate the Rajput fortresses, Jos Gommans argues that the
Mughals had to develop special strategies. The failure of the use of Gunpowder to breach the walls of
the fort led to use of alternative techniques like the creation of ‘Trenches’. It was in this context that
scholars have argued that it was evident that the Mughals were ill equipped. Streusand has argued that
the Mughal seizes of the Rajput suggest that the Mughals were ill equipped and it would be wrong to
assume that it was a gunpowder empire.

Another important tactic applied by the Mughals was known as Tulugh-uma. It was a technique widely
used in the Ottoman Empire which was adopted by the Mughal state. In this technique attack is carried
out only after protecting your own army from all sides. The cavalry was the superior branch of the
Mughal army. Normally they used swords, lances, shields, more rarely guns. Mughal artillery consisted
of heavy cannons and light artillery. Heavy cannon were very expensive and very heavy for
transportation. Using it in in battlefield was also somewhat risky. They were dragged by elephants to
battlefields. They were slow to load and sometimes exploded, killing the crew members. Hence to
rectify this lighter cannon know as the Zarb-Zan was developed, which could be drawn by horses and
taken atop the hills to the Rajput fortresses. An elementary form of the Gun known as the ‘Firangi’
also came to be used. Another significant aspect of Mughal Warfare was the use of Mining technology
in seizes. They were used to make breaches in the forts. Thus while digging under the walls, wooden
barrier with combustible materials was placed. In order to counter this technique, Moats became an
important part of Mughal forts. Catherine Asher argues that the Mughal concern for security and
protection is best manifested in the Agra Fort which its huge bastions and deep moats. From the
period of Akbar, references are also made to ‘Gajmal’, which refers to a lighter cannon place on the
forts to attack intruding armies. A significant aspect of the Mughal Army was the Mansabdari system
where the Mansabdars were expected to maintain an armed contingent. Apart from the Mansabdars
the King also maintained his own personal troops known as the ‘Walasahis’.

Recent historiography has focused on the superiority of the European technology vis-à-vis Mughal
warfare. However, such claims have been severely critiqued by A.J Qaiser. He further critiques the
claims that the European Navy was superior. The Indians used the technology of tying through ropes,
which was not inferior but it was only that it could not be used to carry ships for long distances.

To conclude it can be said that the Mughals developed a fairly advanced form of military tactics and
warfare. Jos Gommans argues that the Mughals changed their land tactic in different geographical
terrains and adapted themselves accordingly.