NURSING RESEARCH research studies.

 Informed consent means that the subject

NCM 111 – LEC
agrees to participate in the study.
Juliet Hipolito

Week 2
INTRODUCTION OF NURSING RESEARCH
OBJECTIVES

 At the conclusion of this unit, the learner

will be able to:
 Discuss the historical evolution of
nursing research.
 Explain the methods of acquiring knowledge.
 Mention the steps in scientific method.
 Define research and nursing research.
 Enumerate the characteristics and purpose
of research.
 Identify the problems in nursing research,
 Discuss the role of a nurse in Research
process.
Introduction

 Research is a new world to many of you.

A proper understanding of this world can
contribute the delivery of quality of
nursing care. This chapter provides a
broad explanation of the world of nursing
research. The word 'research' means
Research i.e., 'to search again' and 'to
examine carefully.
 Research is a systematic study that
indicates planning, organizing and
persistence. The ultimate goal of research is
the development of a research body of
knowledge for a discipline or profession,
such as nursing. Nursing research is also
needed to generate knowledge about
nursing education, nursing administration, health
care services, and nursing roles. In this
chapter, nursing research is defined as a
scientific process that validates and refines
existing knowledge and generates new
knowledge that directly and indirectly
influences nursing practice.
Basic Research Terms

 Nursing Research is defined as the

systematic, objective process of analyzing
phenomena of importance to nursing.
 Empirical data is the data gathered
through the senses.
 Evidence-based practice means that
nurses make a clinical decision based on
research evidence.
 Research utilization focuses on
implementation of findings from specific
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  Pilot study is the miniature trial version  Journal of Nursing Measurement was
of the study before actual data are first published in 1993
collected.
 Data is the piece of information
collected during the study.

Historical Evolution of Research in Nursing

 We often think that research is new to the

field of nursing. But it is not so. Reviewing
the history of research helps to
understand the current status and to plan
for the future of nursing research. Long
and interesting historical events have
influenced the development of nursing
research over the years. In the beginning,
quantitative research was used and, later
on, the qualitative research in order to get
the holistic understanding of the nursing
phenomena. The historical developments of
the nursing research are the following.

Florence Nightingale (1859)

 The first historical development in

nursing research is the work of Florence
Nightingale. Her work is significant
because it marked as the beginning of
nursing research. Nightingale collected
and analyzed the motricity and mortality
of the soldiers in the Crimean war. Her
notes on nUrsing (1859) are described as
her research activities.

NURSING RESEARCH (1900-1970)

 The American Journal of Nursing was

published in 1900
 First doctoral program for nurses was
launched in 1923
 Nursing Research was published in 1952
 International Journal of Nursing Studies
was published in 1963
 ANA Council of Nurse Researchers
was established in 1970

NURSING RESEARCH (1970-2005)

 First Nursing Diagnosis Conference was

held in 1973
 Western Journal of Nursing was first
published in 1979
 Annual Review of Nursing Research was
first published in 1983 . Agency for
Health Care Policy and Research was
established in 1989
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  Qualitative Health Research was first involves the systematic identification of a
published in 1994 problem, determination of goals related to the
 Evidence based Nursing was first published
in 2004

METHODS OF ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE

Knowledge means an essential information acquired
in a variety of ways, expected to be an accurate
reflection of reality. The common methods of
acquiring knowledge are:

 Tradition
It includes the truth or beliefs that are based on
the customs and trends. Traditions can positively
influence nursing practice because they were
developed from effective past experiences.

 Authority
A person with expertise and power, who is able
to influence opinion and behavior. Students usually
get knowledge from the Instructors or
authorities.

 Borrowing
It is one of the most common methods of
acquiring knowledge. Information borrowed from
other disciplines, such psychology, sociology,
medicine, etc.

 Trial and Error

This method is also used to acquire knowledge.
However, it may be a time-consuming method. Mainly
knowledge acquired through trial and error.

 Personal experience
It enables the nurse to gain skills and expertise
by providing care to patients and families in
clinical setting.

 Role modeling
Knowledge is acquired by imitating the behavior of
an expert, such as teachers or any professional.

 Intuition
It is an insight or understanding to the situation
which cannot be explained logically.

 Reasoning
It is the process of organizing the ideas in
order to reach the conclusion.

Problem Solving

 Problem-solving is a method of gaining

knowledge regarding a specific topic. It
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 problems, identification of the possible
approaches to solve the problem,
implementation of the approaches and
evaluation of the goal achievement. We
can compare the problem-solving with the
steps in the nursing process.

Definition - "Research essentially is a problem-

solving process, a systematic, intensive study
directed towards full, scientific knowledge of the
subject studied."

 Ruth M French (1968)

STEPS IN PROBLEM SOLVING METHOD

Problem definition (Identify the problem and write it down) Analyze the

problem
SCIENTIFIC METHOD Identify the possible solutions

 Scientific method is the systematic Analyze the solution Selectthe best solution Implement the solution
method to acquire knowledge. It finds out
Evaluate the problem
some order in which the things are related
together. Scientific method implies an
objective, logical and systematic method,
i.e., a method free from personal bias or
prejudice. It is self-corrective in nature.
Definition

 Scientific methods are defined as

controlled systematic investigations that
are rooted in objective reality and aimed
to develop general knowledge about
natural phenomena.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD

 Objectivity
 Validity
 Systematic process
 Reliability
 Testability
 Based on empirical evidence
 Objectivity
 Validity
 Systematic process
 Reliability
 Testability
 Based on empirical evidence

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  N - Need for more nursing theories

STEPS IN SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Find out the relevant data Review the related literature Construct

hypothesis
Identify the study population and find out the method

Collect the data Analyze the data

RESEARCH

 The word 'research' comes from the two

words: “RE” meaning “again and again”, and
“search” meaning finding out something
new.
 Research in nursing is a careful, critical,
exhaustive investigation of a problem or
to discover new fact or verifying the old
facts through hypotheses testing.
Definition of Terms

 "Research is systematically searching for

new
facts and relationship.”
o Notter
 "Research is systematic inquiry that uses
disciplined method to answer questions or
solve problems."
o Polit and T Beck
 "Research is a careful inquiry or examination
in seeking facts or principles, a diligent
investigation to ascertain something"
o Webster's New
International Dictionary
 "Research is considered to be the formal
systematic intensive process of carrying that
the scientific methods of analysis; IT
involves a more systematic structure of
investigation usually resulting in some sort
of formal record of procedures and a report
of results of conclusions.”
o CC Crawford
 "Research essentially is a problem
solving process a systematic, intensive
study directed towards full scientific
knowledge For subject studies.”
o Ruth M French

NURSING RESEARCH

 N - Nurturing clients
 U - Understanding clients with empathy
 R - Reviewing clients' problems to
select priority
 S - Systematically planned nursing protocol
 I - Interventions are based on rationale
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  G - Generalized research findings are  It refers to the scientific study and research
applied that seeks to solve practical problems.
 R - Rational way of thinking
BASIC RESEARCH
 E - Exploratory, evaluative and experimental
 S - Survey is to search for facts
 E - Empirical
 A - Analysis of data
 R - Review of literature is essential
 C - Confirmed facts are communicated
 H - High standard of nursing is assured

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH

 Good research is systematic

 Good research is logical
 Good research is empirical
 Good research is replicable
PURPOSES OF RESEARCH

 Identification
o To examine the phenomena about
what Is known and what is
unknown .
 Description
o To understand the nature of
nursing phenomena and
sometimes the relationship among
these phenomena .
 Explanation
o To explain the nature of relationship
 Exploration
o To explore the relationship about
the phenomena and identify the
extent of the relationship
 Prediction and Control
o Research helps to predict and
control to produce the desired
outcome
KINDS OF RESEARCH
1. Quantitative Research and Qualitative
Research QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

 This type of research, data is collected

in numerical form and analyzed by using
descriptive and inferential statistics. It
involves analysis of numerical data
(quantity).
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

 This type of research, data is

collected in descriptive form and
analyzed in words, pictures,
diagrams or objects.
2. Applied Research and Basic
Research APPLIED RESEARCH

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  It is designed to understand the sure that the ethical aspects of the research are
underlying principles behind a human upheld.
behavior.
3. EXPLORATORY AND CONFIRMATORY

 Exploratory research is research into

the unknown.
 Confirmatory research means you have a
good idea what's going on next (i.e., you
have a theory, and the objective of the
research is to find out if the theory is
supported by the fact).

1. Research characteristics:

 Lack of research design application

 Problems in sample selection
 Problems in data collection method
 Problems in data analysis
2. Nurses' characteristics:

 Lack of skill of the nurses

3. Organizational characteristics:

 Lack of support from the organization

 Lack of qualified supervisors

ROLES OF A NURSE IN RESEARCH

The roles of a nurse are as follows:
1. Principal investigator
2. Member of the research team
3. Identifier of the research problem
4. Evaluator of the research finding
5. User of the research finding
6. As a client advocate during the studies
7. As a subject in studies
USES OF THE RESEARCH FINDING

 The primary goal of the research finding is

better patient care. After eval relevant
finding in their practice.
As a client advocate during the studies

 One of the most important responsibilities

of the nurse is to act as a client making
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THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Define the topic
 embodies a series of actions
that are systematic and  Browse the internet
organized into steps.
 main purpose is to provide direction
for the researcher.
 involves identifying, locating,
assessing, analyzing and then
developing and expressing ideas.
Primary and Secondary Sources

 Primary - original works which include

statistical data, manuscripts. surveys,
speeches, biographies/autobiographies,
diaries, oral histories, interviews, works of
art and literature, research reports ... etc.
 Secondary - usually are studies by other
researchers which describe, analyze and
evaluate information found in primary
sources.
o Examples of secondary sources
are books, journals, magazine
articles, encyclopedias,
dictionaries ... etc.
 Research beginners may be faced
with a barrage of questions when
thinking about research
 Following the Steps in Research Process
will provide a guide while working on
the paper
Ask Yourselves

 What am I going to study?

 Where should I start?

WEEK 4

 Research beginners may be faced

with a barrage of questions when
thinking about research.

 Following the Steps in Research Process

will provide a guide while working on
the paper

STEPS

 Define the topic

 Write a thesis or problem statement
 Make an outline
 Develop a search strategy
 Evaluate identified sources
 Take careful notes
 Write and revise the paper
 Document identified sources

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  Browse current interest magazines, newspapers
for stones of interest
Evaluating Information Sources
 Browse encyclopedia and other
reference books  Currency.
 Listen to radio or television programs o Check the publication date and
 Talk to people, such as teachers, determine whether it is
colleagues, and friends sufficiently current for your topic
 Coverage (relevance):
o Consider whether the source Is
Write a thesis or problem statement relevant to your research and
whether it covers the topic
 Begin with a question adequately for your needs.
 research the topic further  Authority.
 then develop an opinion o Discover the credentials of the
authors of the source and determine
their level of expertise and
knowledge about the subject.
Make an outline
 Accuracy:
 Identify key concepts and subtopics to o Consider whether the source
provide a framework for the study presents accurate information and
whether you can verify that
information
 Objectivity (purpose):
Develop a search strategy
o Think about the author's purpose
 Make a list of subject or keywords that in creating the source and consider
might be useful in upcoming search how that affects Its usefulness to
your research.
 Consider the best sources for information
taking in consideration the type of
information needed
Evaluating Internet Sources with Radar

 Relevance - How is this information relevant

Develop a search strategy to your assignment?
Sources of Information  Authority - Who is the author? What
makes this person or organization an
 books authoritative source?
 periodicals  Date - When was this information
 newspapers published and is the publication date
 government documents important to you?
 biographical sources  Accuracy - Where are they getting their
information from? Does it have citations and
 videos
references? Are they using reputable sources
 reference books or explaining how they gathered their data?
 people (experts)  Reason for writing - Why did the
 archives/special collections author publish this information?
 internet
Adapted from Mandalios, J. (2013). RADAR: An
approach for helping students evaluate Internet
sources. Journal of Information Science, 39(4),
Evaluate Identified Sources 470.478.
: Begin evaluation as early as the first citation and
continue thorough reading of the information
contained in the article, document, book, etc. Evaluating Websites
Consider the following in evaluating identified sources!  Evaluating websites follows the same process
as for other sources but finding the
 authority information you need to make an assessment
 accuracy. can be more challenging with websites. The
 objectivity. following guidelines can help you decide if
 Currency a website is a good choice for a source for
 Coverage your paper.
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  Currency – A useful site is updated
regularly and lets visitors know when
content was published on the site. Can
you tell when the site was last updated?
Can you see when the

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 content you head was added? Does the This is useful when your reader sees the author's own
site show signs of not being maintained words
(broken links, out-of-date information,
etc.)? Example:
 Relevance – think about the target
audience for the site. Is it appropriate for
you or your paper's audience?
 Authority – Look for an about us link or
something similar to learn about the site's
creator the more you know about the
redenies and mission of a site's creator’s,
as well as their sources of information, the
better idea you will have about the site's
quality.
 Accuracy – does the site present references
or links to the sources of information it
present? Can you locate these sources so
that you can read and interpret the
information yourself?
 Purpose – consider the reason why the site
was created. Can you detect any bias?
Does the site use emotional language? Is
the site trying to persuade you about
something?

Take Careful Notes

Document sources noting the following
Book
1. Author
2. Title
3. Publisher (location, name, date)
4. Page Numbers
5. Subject Searched

Document sources noting the following information:

Article
1. Article title
2. Authors name (if any)
3. Title of periodical
4. Volume and issue number (if any)
5. Page numbers
6. Date
7. Index searched
8. Subject searched

Taking down notes can be done through

the following:
1. Direct Quotation from a Source
 A direct quotation is copying words exactly
as they appear in the source.
 When you quote a source, you must
use quotation marks before and after
the quotations then identify who
made the statement.

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  Roberta Israel off explained that "the
sense of touch develops so early that a
three-month old fetus can react to the CD-ROM or Diskette
pressure of a hair around the sensitive
area of its mouth."

Taking down notes can be done through the

following:
2. Paraphrase from a source
 It is a statement of the ideas from a
source using slightly different words
 Keep in mind, though, that you are still
using the author's ideas.
 To avoid plagiarism, you must
identify the author as the source of
those ideas

Taking down notes can be done through the

following:
3. Summary of a source
 A summary is a statement of the main
ideas of a source using your own words.
 It is a shortened version of the
information in the passage.
 It can be either a statement of fact or your
own idea.

Write and revise the paper

 Allow plenty of time for the writing process.

 The thesis and outline may need to be
revised to reflect what was discovered
during the research.

Document identified sources

 Give credit for the intellect work of others.

 Citing sources can be done in three ways:
1. Endnotes followed by a bibliography
2. Footnotes followed by a bibliography
3. Parenthetical citations followed
by a worked cited list

Book or Pamphlet (APA)

 Author(s), article or part title (if any),

Book or pamphlet title, Editor (if any),
Edition, Volume (s), City where published,
published, Publisher, Year
Example:

 Avery, G ., Fletcher, M.A. and MacDonald,

M.G Neonatology 4th Edition. Philadelphia; J.B
Lippincott Company, 1985
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  Author(s), article or part title (if any), Title conduct research
of CR-Rom or Diskette, Edition, Source Type  Base their professional practice on evidence
(e.g., CD-ROM), City where published,
Publisher, Year
Example:

 Avery, G ., Fletcher, M. A. and MacDonald,

M.G Neonatology 4th Edition. CD-ROM.
Philadelphia; J.B Lippincott Company, 1985

Print Encyclopedia

 Author(s), article or part title (if

any), Encyclopedia title, Edition, City
where published, published,
Publisher, Year
Example:

 Avery, Gordon, Mary Ann Fletcher and

Mhairi
G. MacDonald. "Touch Therapy"
Encyclopedia of Neonates. Philadelphia;
J.B Lippincott Company, 1985

Journal

 Author(s), article or part title (if any),

Journal Title, Editor (if any), Volume(s),
Issue, Page number(s), Year
Example:
 James, Andrew J. "Why Are We Saving
More Premature Babies?" Journal of
Pediatrics and Gynecology. pp67, 1190

Types of Nursing Research

Qualitative Research Quantitative Research
 Phenomenological  Descriptive
 Grounded Theory  Correlational
 Ethnographic  Quasi – experimental
 Historical  Experimental

WHY ISRESEARCH IMPORTANT IN NURSING?

Knowledge generated through research is essential to
provide a scientific basis for:

 Description
o What exists in Nursing/ practice and
discover a new knowledge.
 Explanation
o Explains the existing knowledge in
relation to the effect and the outcome
 Nursing cultural change
 Nurses expected to understand and
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 Evidence Based Practice defined as the use
of the best clinical evidence in making
patient care decisions, and such evidence
typically comes from research conducted by
the nurses and other health care
professionals.

NURSING RESEARCH PRIORITIES

To Improve:

 Nursing as a profession
 Nursing practice
 Patient outcomes

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

 Is a formal, objective, systematic process in

which numerical data are used to obtain
information about the world.
 Is "hard science" it is perceived as rigorous
(exact), systematic and objective focusing on
numerical data and using statistical analysis
and controls in an attempt to eliminate bias.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
It is conducted to test theory by:

 Describing variables
 Examining relationship among variables
 Determine cause and effect
interaction between variables.
Types of Quantitative Research:
1. Descriptive – explore new
areas/describe situations.
2. Co-relational – examine relationships
3. Quasi-experimental –
effectiveness of intervention.
4. Experimental – producing positive
outcomes.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Types of Qualitative Research:
1. Phenomenological – describes
experience as lived.
2. Grounded theory – formulate, test and
refine a theory about a phenomena.
3. Ethnographic – investigates cultures in
depth.
4. Historical – description analysis of events
that occurred in past.

OUTCOME RESEARCH
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  Is focused on examining the end results of
care or determining the changes in health
status for the patient.
GROUNDED THEORY
Four essential areas require for this reason:
 E.g., King et al (2006) conducted a series
 The patients responses to medical or of grounded theory studies with men and
Nursing Intervention. women from five ethnocultural groups in
 Functional maintenance/improvement of Canada who had been diagnosed with
physical functioning for the patient. Coronary Artery, Disease risk. (CAD)
 Financial outcome achieved with the
provision of health care services.
 Patients satisfaction with the health  The analysis of the process through which
outcomes care received and the health patients met the challenge of managing
care provider. Coronary Artery Disease risk.

Quantitative & Qualitative Research Characteristics ETHNOGRAPHY

Quantitative Qualitative
 E.g., Schoenfeld and Juarbe (2005) conducted
1 Hard science Soft Science
ethnographic fieldwork in two rural
2 Focus: Concise and Focus: Complex and
Narrow Broad Ecuadorian communities and studied the
3 Reductionistic Holistic burdens of women's roles, the women's
4 Objective Subjective perceived health needs, and their health care
resources.
5 Reasoning: Reasoning:
 Logistic  Dialectic,
 Deductive  Inductive
Consumer Producer Continuum in Nursing
6 Basis of knowing: Basis of knowing: Research
cause and effects, meaning discovery  Consumers of nursing research: Read
relationships
research reports to develop new skills and to
search for relevant findings that may affect
Major Classes of Quantitative and Qualitative their practice.
Research  Producers of nursing research: Nurses
who actively participate in designing and
Quantitative Qualitative implementing studies.
Experimental Research Disciplinary Traditions
Non Experimental
Research
An Introduction to Research
Experimental Research: Originated in the
 Researchers actively disciplines of  Qualitative vs. quantitative: Will your
introduce an anthropology, sociology & data take the form of words or numbers?
intervention or psychology  Primary vs. secondary: Will you collect
treatment. original data yourself, or will you use data
Non Experimental It is based on that has already been collected by someone
Research grounded theory, else?
 Researchers are phenomenology.  Descriptive vs. experimental: Will you take
bystanders: The Ethnography. measurements of something as it is, or will
data collected you perform an experiment?
without introducing To describe and
treatments or understand the key social,
making changes." psychological and
structural processes First, decide how you will collect data.
In medical & occurring in a social
Epidemiologic research, setting.
an Experimental study Second, decide how you will analyze the
usually called a controlled data.
trial or clinical trial &+
Non Experimental inquiry  For quantitative data, you can use
called as an observational statistical analysis methods to test
study. relationships between variables.
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  For qualitative data, you can use methods
such as thematic analysis to interpret
patterns and meanings in the data.

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Methods for collecting data

 Data is the information that you collect for

the purposes of answering your research
question. The type of data you need
depends on the aims of your research.

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QUALITATIVE OR QUANTITATIVE
PROS CONS
QUALITATIVE Flexible - you can often Can't be analyzed statistically DESCRIPTIVE VS. EXPERIMENTAL DATA
adjust your methods as you or generalized to broader
go to develop new populations. PROS CONS
knowledge. DESCRIPTIVE Allows you to describe No control over confounding
Difficult to standardize your research subject variables.
Can be conducted with small research. without influencing it.
samples. Can't establish cause and
Accessible - you can effect relationships.
QUANTITATIVE Can be used to Requires statistical training to gather more data on a
systematically analyze data. larger scale.
describe large collections of
things Requires larger samples. EXPERIMENTAL More control over You might influence your
confounding research subject in unexpected
Generates reproducible variables. ways.
knowledge.
Can establish cause and effect Usually requires more
relationships. expertise and resources to
PRIMARY VS. SECONDARY DATA collect data.
 Primary data is any original information that you collect for the
purposes of answering your research question (e.g., through surveys,
observations and experiments). RESEARCH METHODS FOR COLLECTING DATA
 Secondary data is information that has already been collected by other RESEARCH PRIMARY OR QUALITATIVE OR WHEN TO USE
researchers (e.g., in a government census or previous scientific METHOD SECONDARY QUANTITATIVE
studies). Experiment Primary Quantitative To test cause-and-
PROS CONS effect
relationships.
PRIMARY Can be collected to answer More expensive and time
your specific research question. consuming to collect.
Survey Primary Quantitative To understand
general
You have control over the Requires training in data
characteristics of a
sampling and measurement collection methods
population.
methods.
Interview / Primary Qualitative To gain more in-
SECONDARY Easier and faster to access. No control over how data was Focus depth
generated. Group understanding of a
You can collect data that
topic.
spans longer timescales and Requires extra processing to
broader geographical make sure it works for your
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 locations. analysis.

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 Observation Primary Either To understand  Inductive reasoning is a method of drawing conclusions by going from
how something the specific to the general. It's usually contrasted with deductive reasoning,
occurs In its where you go from general information to specific conclusions.
natural setting.  Inductive reasoning is also called inductive logic or bottom-up reasoning.
Literature Review Secondary Either To situate your  Inductive reasoning is a logical approach to making inferences, or
research in an conclusions. People often use inductive reasoning informally in
existing body of everyday situations.
work, or to
evaluate trends Specific Observation Pattern Recognition General Conclusion
within a research
Examples
topic.
Cheap medications A and All observed cheap All cheap medications
Case study Either Either To gain an in- B both cause major side medications cause major cause major side effects.
depth effects. side effects.
understanding of a
specific group or
context, or when
you don't have the
resources for a
large study.

1. Observation
 A low-cost airline flight is delayed
 Dogs A and B have fleas
 Elephants depend on water to exist
2. Observe a pattern
 Another 20 flights from low-cost airlines are
delayed
 All observed dogs have fleas
 All observed animals depend on water to exist
3. Develop a theory or general (preliminary) conclusion
 Low cost airlines always have delays
 All dogs have fleas
 All biological life depends on water to exist

INDUCTIVE REASONING

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INDUCTIVE REASONING IN RESEARCH

 In inductive research, you start by making

observations gathering data. Then, you take a
broad view of your data and search for
patterns. Finally, you make general
conclusions that you might incorporate into
theories.

What is Deductive Reasoning?

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