BIO 12.
O1 NOTES - Apart from some bacteria that undergo budding,
Cell Division
Prokaryotic Cell Division
Definition of Growth (in Prokaryotic Cells) - the increase in
the number of cells or cell density in a given population, not
in terms of cell size which is usually done in eukaryotic
organisms.
Cell Division
• Binary Fission – a single cell duplicates its cell
components and divides into two.
- Results in a unilateral growth or an equal division of
a single cell.
- Binary fission is observed in most bacteria.
PROCESS OF BINARY FISSION
1. Single cell at the top with its genetic material or DNA
(represented by the red circle)
2. Once binary fission begins, the cell elongates alongside the
replication of its DNA (DNA Replication & Cell Elongation)
3. A septum then forms in the middle of the cell
- Septum – an inward growth of the cell wall in the
cytoplasmic membrane also referred to as inter-
calorie growth which will eventually meet down the
middle effectively dividing the cell into two (2) new
daughter cells (Septum Formation & Cell Separation)
• Budding – begins with a mother cell that spouts an
outgrowth that will eventually become a daughter cell.
The mother cell retains its original identity which is the
opposite of what happens in binary fission.
- Another major difference between the two (2)
processes is the ability of budding microorganisms to
form new cell walls from a single point referred to
as polar growth.
- Some organisms that undergo budding may form
special structures such as hyphae and stalks.
yeasts are also prime examples of budding
microorganisms.
Unequal products of cell division:
1. Simple budding: Pirellula, Blastobacter
2. Budding from hyphae: Hyphomicrobium, Rhodmicrobium,
Pedomicrobium
3. Cell division of stalked organism: Caulobacter
4. Polar growth without differentiation of cell size:
Rhodopseudomonas, Nitrobacter, Methylosinus
Some microorganisms that are capable of growing at a rapid
pace in the laboratory under optimal conditions:
o Escherichia coli (E. Coli) – 15-20 mins generation time
o Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) – 27-50 mins generation
time
o Bacillus sp. (Bacillus species) – 16 mins generation time
GENERATION TIME – refers to the time it takes for the cell
population to double.
Microorganisms that may grow at a slower rate:
o Leptospira sp. – the causative agent of leptospirosis; 6-8
hours
o Mycobacterium tuberculosis (species) – 18-24 hours
Bacterial Growth Curve
Bacterial Growth Curve – track the microorganism’s growth
pattern by employing several techniques and graphing the
results.
- This type of graph can usually be determined by
growing a certain species of organisms in a batch
culture, also known as a close culture system.
- Culture medium – a mixture of substances that
promotes and supports the growth and
differentiation of microorganisms.
- Viable count (red line) – means counting live
replicating organisms using the culture medium
- Turbidity (optical density/green line) – use a
spectrophotometer (a machine that detects how
turbid/cloudy a sample is)
- Cloudy sample = there is a bacterial growth

4 STAGES IN THE BACTERIAL GROWTH CURVE
1. LAG PHASE
- Usually seen when a population of cells is introduced
to a new nutrient-rich environment
- Adapting to a new environment
- Transferring dead cells to a fresh culture media
resulting in the reviving of the cells
- Metabolically active but no replication
- Duration depends on:
o Nutrient availability – preferred nutrient source
o Species of the organism
2. LOGARITHMIC/EXPONENTIAL PHASE
- Is where cells divide (grow) at a rapid rate
- As a result, there is an increase in cell population
- May be maintained via chemostat
- Generation time of organism may be determined
CHEMOSTAT
o Biomass Production - obtaining a continuous supply of
cells that produce a valuable product or the cells
themselves are valuable (ex. Spirulina cells –
superfood)
o Whatever the organism’s purpose may be, one may
maintain this constant growth by creating a
chemostat, also known as an open culture system
(which is the opposite of the batch/close culture
system)
o In contrast to a close culture system where the cells
are growing in an enclosed vessel with a set of
concentration of nutrients…
o A chemostat allows for the continuous addition of
nutrients so the cell population is supplied with a
fresh source of nutrients periodically
o Is to enable harvesting cells while keep adding enough
nutrients so the remaining cells keep growing
factors that govern cell density:
o Dilution rate – the rate of the fresh medium being
introduced into the vessel in relation to the amount
of medium being removed
o Concentration of limiting nutrient – typically a
preferred carbon or a nitrogen source which could
dictate how fast or how slow the organism grows
3. STATIONARY PHASE
- a plateau indicating that there is an equal rate of
cell replication & cell death (as seen in the graph)
- and this is due to the batch culture containing limited
nutrients and the cells are in competition for it
which limits their growth
- slowly becoming an increasingly toxic environment (as
cells grow, it is expected that waste materials also
accumulate in the environment) resulting in a more:
o Highly acidic pH – which for some species of
organisms is not conducive to growth
o Limited oxygen availability – due to more cells;
could be detrimental for some especially aerobic
organisms
4. DEATH PHASE
- Can be seen in the decline in the graph
- The medium is extremely toxic which does not allow
organisms to grow
- NOTE: not all cells die within this phase, some cells
enter a dormant stage, particularly those capable of
producing endospores (since it forms under toxic and
unfavorable conditions such as this)
- Depleted nutrient
- Overwhelming amount of toxic waste
- Cells may undergo involution – refers to cells’
shrinkage
Generation Time
− Time it takes for a given cell population to double
− Can utilize a mathematical formula to determine how
quickly or how slowly an organism double its population
 − Inoculate – this refers to the introduction of cells to the
culture medium (N0 = initial cell count)
− Time – is always in minutes (convert if it isn’t)
− g, n, & t can be derived if not given from the formula
G=t/n -> n=t/g -> t=n/g
− (1) bc – bacterial cells, (2) generations, & (3) mins/gen
Eukaryotic Cell Division (Mitosis &Meiosis)
MITOSIS
− is a process of cell division that produces identical copies of
cells and is involved in growth, cell repair, and asexual
reproduction.
− When cells divide by mitosis, the number of cells
increases, and hence the organism grows
CHROMOSOME
− is made up of two chromatids (1 each from mother &
father)
− each chromosome replicates prior to mitosis
− at the start of mitosis, the chromosomes become compact
Parts of Chromosomes
− Kinetochore proteins (the pinch) & Centromere (a region)
− Chromatin -> Chromosome/Chromatid -> sister chromatids
STAGES OF MITOSIS (IPMATC)
1. INTERPHASE
– the chromosomes duplicate and become two identical
chromatids joined at the centromere (a region of
DNA beneath kinetochore proteins)
– in humans = 46 -> 92
– chromatins start duplicating
– cell grows in size
Parts of Interphase
o G1 (Gap1/First Growth Phase) – the cell individually
grows
o S (Synthesis Phase) – replicates its DNA (synthesis
means to make something, making DNA)
o G2 (Gap2/Second Growth Phase) – the cell grows
some more in preparation for mitosis; chromatids
start to condense
2. PROPHASE
- Chromatins condense -> chromosomes become visible
- Nuclear membrane, the nucleolus disappears
- Formation of microtubules/spindle fibers emerge
from the centromeres
- Nuclear envelope breaks down
- Centrosomes move toward opposite poles
PROMETAPHASE (before Metaphase)
- Chromosomes continue to condense
- Kinetochores appear at the centromeres
- Miotic spindle microtubules attach to kinetochores
3. METAPHASE
- Chromosomes align in the middle of the cell known as
the metaphase plate
- Kinetochore proteins digest the spindle fibers
- Each sister chromatid is attached to a spindle fiber
originating from opposite poles
4. ANAPHASE
- Separation of chromosomes moving towards the poles;
kinetochore proteins eating
- Chromosomes separate at the kinetochore
- Centromeres spilt in two (2)
- Sister chromatids (now called chromosomes) are
pulled toward opposite poles
- Certain spindle fibers begin to elongate the cell
5. TELOPHASE
- The membrane starts to form cleavage furrow
(animals) or cell plate (plants) - expand
- Chromosomes arrive at opposite poles and begin to
decondense
- Nuclear envelope material surrounds each set of Chr
- The mitotic spindle breaks down
- Spindle fibers continue to push poles apart
- Nuclear membrane forms
6. CYTOKINESIS
- Referring to the formation of new cells (daughter
cells)
- Animal cells – a cleavage furrow separates the
− Meiosis I (Reduction Division) – to reduce the number of
daughter cells
- Plant cells – a cell plate, the precursor to a new cell
wall separates the daughter cells
• PROPHASE I
Note: the number of chromosomes will always be the same in
mitosis.
Meiosis
MEIOSIS
- The reduction in the number of chromosomes
- Not all organisms will look exactly alike
- 46 of mother and father will become 23 before the
formation
- Sexual reproduction
- Primary basis for genetic variation
- Gamete production (gametes – egg & sperm cells)
• INTERPHASE
- Same functions in Mitosis as well
- Growth, DNA Replication, & Cell Functions
- DNA is replicated
- Chromosomes – the diploid structure; made up of DNA
and protein
- Chromatid – the half structure of the chromosome,
but still a chromosome
- After interphase, there will be 46 chromosomes, but
92 chromatids since it is counted by the centromeres
- 23 per daughter cell
Meiosis I (Reduction Division)
chromosomes (PMAT I)
- Where the chromosomes condense and thickened.
- Line up with their homologous pairs (Homologous –
means that the chromosomes are approximately the
same size and contain the same types of genes in the
same location)
- Chromosomes coil and align as homologous pairs:
o Chromosomes have identical: DNA length, Amount
of DNA, and Genes present
o Centromeres – the precise location of this
occurrence
o Bi-valent – 2 homologous chromosomes
overlapping/pairing (aka tetrads) (2
chromosomes, 4 chromatids)
- Nuclear envelope and nucleolus disintegrate
- CROSSING-OVER Synapsis occur:
o introduction of genetic variation
o how it overlaps and sometimes exchange genetic
information (homologous pairs) (shuffling of
genes)
o genetic lottery & variation comes in
o Recombinant chromatids/chromosomes –
contribute to the variety of physical
characteristics (recombination of alleles in
homologous chromosomes)
• METAPHASE I • ANAPHASE II
- Tetrads align on the metaphase plate (or the middle - This time, it is now the chromatids that are pulled A-
of the cell) way by the spindle fibers (sister chromatids
o Random arrangement/alignment results in genetic separate)
variation - Centromeres divide
- Difference from Mitosis:
o Chromosomes are now in pair (not chromatids – • TELOPHASE II + CYTOKINESIS
single strand) - Complete cell division
o Chromosomes attach to the Spindle Fibers - The nuclei reforming
o Spindle Fibers attached to the centrioles - Results into 4 cells (sister chromatids)
- One representative for each homologous pair at each
• ANAPHASE I cell
- The chromosomes are pulled A-way by the spindle
fibers
- Chiasmata (structure that forms between a pair of
homologous chromosomes) separates
- Each pole receives a random combination of maternal
and paternal chromosomes
- Only one member of each homologous pair is present
each pole

• TELOPHASE I
- The chromosome count is now 23 mainly because the
homologous are separated
- Only completed when 2 cells have been formed
- No new nuclear membrane forms
- Nucleolus may appear
- Nuclear Membrane – holds the genetic material
- Cleavage furrow – will soon become the cell MEIOSIS AND GENETIC VARIATION
membrane − Occurs during:
- There now 2 newly formed nuclei - Crossing over in Meiosis I
- Recombination of chromosomes
Meiosis II (Equational Division) - Gamete fusion
− Skips interphase

• PROPHASE II
- Not similarly eventful as Prophase I
- DNA is not replicated
- Similar to mitotic prophase
- No pairing of homologous chromosomes
- No crossing-over
- There are now 2 cells
- Spindle fiber forms

• METAPHASE II Genetic Disorders

- Alignment of chromosomes at the metaphase plate
(middle of the cell)
- In single file line (compared to metaphase I which are
in pairs)
− Occurs when there is a nondisjunction of the chromosomes
o Nondisjunction – when a cell can receive too many or
too few chromosomes in the separation.
o Homologous chromosomes do not separate in Meiosis I
o Sister chromatids do not separate in Meiosis II
− Chromosomal mutations • JACOBS SYNDROME
o Changes in chromosome number (ex. Polyploidy, - Also known as 47, XYY
monosomy, or trisomy) - Nondisjunction during spermatogenesis
o Changes in chromosome structure

MONOSOMY & TRISOMY

− Monosomy (2n-1)
− Trisomy (2n+1)
− Results from nondisjunction of chromosomes
o In meiosis I: both members of a homologous pair are
in one daughter cell
o In meiosis II: sister chromatids failed to separate

• DOWN’S SYNDROME
- Also known as trisomy 21
- Characteristics:
o Flat face, broad nose, large tongue, upward-
slanting eyes

• PATAU SYNDROME (Trisomy 13)

- The presence of Y chromosomes determines the
maleness (or the biological), not the number of X
chromosomes
- Characteristics:
o Small head
o Absent eyebrows
o Cleft lip and/or palate
o Dysplastic, or malformed ears
o Clenched hands and polydactyly, or extra fingers
o Undescended or abnormal testes

• KLINEFELTER SYNDROME
- Also known as 47, XXY
- 2 X chromosomes, 1 Y
- Considered male

• TURNER SYNDROME
- Also known as XO
- No Y chromosome
- Develop as females