Chapter 12

Lecture
PowerPoint

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Paris Junior College

2401
Anatomy and Physiology I
Chapter 12
Susan Gossett
sgossett@parisjc.edu
Department of Biology
2
 Hole’s Human Anatomy
and Physiology
Twelfth Edition

Shier  Butler  Lewis

Chapter
12
Nervous System III: Senses

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 3
 12.1: Introduction

• General senses
• Receptors that are widely distributed throughout the body
• Skin, various organs and joints

• Special senses
• Specialized receptors confined to structures in the head
• Eyes, ears, nose and mouth

4
 12.2: Receptors, Sensation,
and Perception
• Sensory receptors
• Specialized cells or multicellular structures that collect
information from the environment
• Stimulate neurons to send impulses along sensory
(afferent) fibers to the brain
• Sensation
• A feeling that occurs when brain becomes aware of
sensory impulse
• Perception
• A person’s view of the stimulus; the way the brain
interprets the information 5
Pathways From Sensation to Perception
(Example of an Apple)

6
 Receptor Types
• Chemoreceptors
• Respond to changes in chemical concentrations

• Pain receptors (nociceptors)

• Respond to chemicals released during tissue damage

• Thermoreceptors
• Respond to changes in temperature

• Mechanoreceptors
• Respond to mechanical forces (touch, stretch, pressure)

• Photoreceptors
• Respond to light
7
 Sensory Impulses
• Stimulation of receptor causes local change in its receptor potential

• A graded electrical current is generated that reflects intensity of

stimulation

• If receptor is part of a neuron, the membrane potential may generate

an action potential

• If receptor is not part of a neuron, the receptor potential must be

transferred to a neuron to trigger an action potential

• Peripheral nerves transmit impulses to CNS where they are analyzed

and interpreted in the brain
8
 Sensations and Perception
• Projection
• Process in which the brain projects the sensation back to
the apparent source
• It allows a person to pinpoint the region of stimulation

9
 Sensory Adaptation
• Ability to ignore unimportant stimuli

• Involves a decreased response to a particular stimulus

from the receptors (peripheral adaptation) or along the
CNS pathways leading to the cerebral cortex (central
adaptation)

• Sensory impulses become less frequent and may cease

• Stronger stimulus is required to trigger impulses

10
 12.3: General Senses
• Senses associated with skin, muscles, joints and viscera

• Three (3) groups:

• Exteroceptive senses (exteroceptors)
• Senses associated with body surface such as touch,
pressure, temperature, and pain
• Visceroceptive senses (interoceptors)
• Senses associated with changes in the viscera such as
blood pressure stretching blood vessels and ingestion of a
meal
• Proprioceptive senses
• Senses associated with changes in muscles and tendons
such as at joints 11
 Touch and Pressure Senses
Free nerve endings Tactile (Meissners) corpuscles
• Common in epithelial • Abundant in hairless portions of
tissues skin and lips
• Simplest receptors • Detect fine touch; distinguish
• Sense itching between two points on the skin

Lamellated (Pacinian) corpuscles

• Common in deeper subcutaneous
tissues, tendons and ligaments
• Detect heavy pressure and vibrations

12
Touch and Pressure Receptors
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Free nerve
endings
Section of
skin Epithelial
cells
Epidermis

Sensory (afferent)
nerve fiber
(a)
Epithelial
cells
Dermis
Tactile
(Meissners)
corpuscle
(touch receptor)

Sensory (afferent)
nerve fiber
(b)
Lamellated
(Pacinian)
corpuscle
(pressure receptor)
Connective tissue
cells
Sensory (afferent)
(c) nerve fiber 13
© Ed Reschke
 Temperature Senses
• Warm receptors
• Sensitive to temperatures above 25oC (77o F)
• Unresponsive to temperature above 45oC (113oF)
• Cold receptors
• Sensitive to temperatures between 10oC (50oF) and 20oC
(68oF)

• Pain receptors
• Respond to temperatures below 10oC
• Respond to temperatures above 45oC

14
 Sense of Pain
• Free nerve endings

• Widely distributed

• Nervous tissue of brain lacks pain receptors

• Stimulated by tissue damage, chemical, mechanical forces, or

extremes in temperature

• Adapt very little, if at all

15
 Visceral Pain
• Pain receptors are the only receptors in viscera whose
stimulation produces sensations
• Pain receptors respond differently to stimulation
• Pain receptors are not well localized
• Pain receptors may feel as if coming from some other part of
the body
• Known as referred pain…

16
 Referred Pain
• May occur due to sensory impulses from two regions
following a common nerve pathway to brain
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Lung and Liver and

Liver and gallbladder
gallbladder diaphragm

Heart

Stomach

Pancreas
Small Ovary
intestine (female)

Appendix Colon

Kidney
Ureter Urinary bladder

17
 Pain Nerve Pathways
• Acute pain fibers • Chronic pain fibers
• A-delta fibers
• Thin, myelinated
• Conduct impulses rapidly
• Associated with sharp pain
• Well localized
• C fibers
• Thin, unmyelinated
• Conduct impulses more
slowly
• Associated with dull,
aching pain
• Difficult to pinpoint
• Blocked by narcotics
(controlled substances)
• CCC (Chronic, C fibers,
Controlled substances) 18
 Regulation of Pain Impulses
• Thalamus
• Allows person to be aware of pain

• Cerebral cortex
• Judges intensity of pain
• Locates source of pain
• Produces emotional and motor responses to pain

• Pain inhibiting substances:

• Enkephalins
• Serotonin
• Endorphins
19
12.1 Clinical Application

Treating Pain

20
 Proprioception
• Mechanoreceptors

• Send information to spinal cord and CNS about body

position and length, and tension of muscles

• Main kinds of proprioceptors:

• Pacinian corpuscles – in joints
• Muscle spindles – in skeletal muscles*
• Golgi tendon organs – in tendons*

*considered to be stretch receptors

21
 Stretch Receptors
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Sensory
(afferent)
nerve fiber

Sensory
nerve endings Golgi tendon organ

Sensory
(afferent) Tendon
nerve fiber

Intrafusal
fiber

Skeletal muscle
fiber
Muscle spindle
Skeletal muscle fiber

Connective
tissue sheath
(a) (b)
22
 Visceral Senses

• Receptors in internal organs

• Convey information that includes the sense of fullness
after eating a meal as well as the discomfort of intestinal
gas and the pain that signals a heart attack

23
Summary of Receptors of the
General Senses

24
 12.4: Special Senses
• Sensory receptors are within large, complex sensory
organs in the head

• Smell in olfactory organs

• Taste in taste buds

• Hearing and equilibrium in ears

• Sight in eyes

25
 Sense of Smell
• Olfactory receptors
• Chemoreceptors
• Respond to chemicals dissolved in liquids
• Olfactory organs
• Contain olfactory receptors and supporting epithelial
cells
• Cover parts of nasal cavity, superior nasal conchae, and a
portion of the nasal septum

26
 Olfactory Receptors
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Nerve fibers within

the olfactory bulb

Olfactory Olfactory Cribriform

tract bulb plate
Olfactory area of
nasal cavity

Superior nasal
concha
Nasal cavity
Cilia Olfactory Columnar Cribriform
receptor cells epithelial cells plate

(a) (b)

27
 Olfactory Nerve Pathways

• Once olfactory receptors are stimulated, nerve impulses

travel through
• Olfactory nerves olfactory bulbs olfactory tracts
limbic system (for emotions) and olfactory cortex (for
interpretation)

28
 Olfactory Stimulation
• Olfactory organs located high in the nasal cavity above the
usual pathway of inhaled air
• Olfactory receptors undergo sensory adaptation rapidly
• Sense of smell drops by 50% within a second after
stimulation

• Olfactory code
• Hypothesis
• Odor that is stimulated by a distinct set of receptor cells and
its associated receptor proteins

29
12.2 Clinical Application

Mixed-Up Senses: Synesthesia

30
 Sense of Taste
• Taste buds
• Organs of taste
• Located on papillae of tongue, roof of mouth, linings of
cheeks and walls of pharynx
• Taste receptors
• Chemoreceptors
• Taste cells – modified epithelial cells that function as
receptors
• Taste hairs –microvilli that protrude from taste cells;
sensitive parts of taste cells

31
 Taste Receptors
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Papillae

Taste buds

Epithelium
of tongue

Taste cell
(a)
Taste hair
Supporting
cell Connective
tissue
Taste
pore Sensory (afferent)
nerve fibers 32
(b)
 Taste Sensations
• Four primary taste sensations
• Sweet – stimulated by carbohydrates
• Sour – stimulated by acids
• Salty – stimulated by salts
• Bitter – stimulated by many organic compounds

• Spicy foods activate pain receptors

33
 Taste Nerve Pathways
• Sensory impulses from taste receptors travel along:
• Cranial nerves VII, IX, and X to…
• Medulla oblongata to…
• Thalamus to…
• Gustatory cortex (for interpretation)

34
12.3 Clinical Application

Smell and Taste Disorders

35
 Sense of Hearing
• Ear
• Organ of hearing

• Three (3) sections:

• External ear
• Middle ear
• Inner ear

36
 External Ear
• Auricle
• Collects sounds
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Semicircular
Auricle canals
waves
• External auditory meatus Incus Stapes Cochlea
Malleus
• Lined with Vestibulocochlear
nerve

ceruminous glands Oval window

(under stapes)

• Carries sound to Round window

Tympanic cavity
tympanic membrane
• Terminates with Tympanic
membrane

tympanic membrane
Pharynx
• Tympanic membrane External acoustic
meatus
Auditory tube

• Vibrates in response
to sound waves 37
 Middle Ear
• Tympanic cavity Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Air-filled space in Semicircular

Auricle canals
temporal bone
Incus
• Auditory ossicles Stapes Cochlea
Malleus
• Vibrate in response to Vestibulocochlear
nerve

tympanic membrane Oval window

(under stapes)
• Malleus, incus and stapes Round window

• Hammer, anvil and stirrup Tympanic cavity

• Oval window Tympanic

• Opening in wall of membrane

tympanic cavity External acoustic Auditory tube Pharynx

• Stapes vibrates against it to meatus

move fluids in inner ear

38
 Auditory Tube

• Also known as the Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Semicircular
Eustachian tube Auricle canals

• Connects middle ear to Incus Stapes Cochlea

throat Malleus
Vestibulocochlear
nerve
• Helps maintain equal Oval window
(under stapes)
pressure on both sides of Round window

tympanic membrane Tympanic cavity

• Usually closed by valve- Tympanic

membrane
like flaps in throat
External acoustic Auditory tube Pharynx
meatus

39
 Inner Ear
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Complex system of
Bony labyrinth
labyrinths Perilymph
• Osseous labyrinth Membranous
labyrinth
Bony labyrinth
• Bony canal in (contains perilymph)
Endolymph

Membranous labyrinth
temporal bone (contains endolymph)

• Filled with Semicircular

canals
Utricle Vestibular nerve
perilymph Saccule Cochlear nerve
• Membranous labyrinth Scala
vestibuli (cut)
• Tube within osseous Scala
tympani (cut)
labyrinth Cochlear
duct (cut)
• Filled with containing
endolymph
endolymph Ampullae OvalVestibuleRound Maculae
window window Cochlea
(a) 40
 Inner Ear
• Three (3) parts of labyrinths: Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Cochlea Bony labyrinth

• Functions in hearing Perilymph
Membranous
• Semicircular canals Bony labyrinth
(contains perilymph)
labyrinth
Endolymph

• Functions in Membranous labyrinth

(contains endolymph)
equilibrium Semicircular

• Vestibule canals
Utricle Vestibular nerve
Saccule Cochlear nerve
• Functions in Scala
vestibuli (cut)
equilibrium Scala
tympani (cut)
Cochlear
duct (cut)
containing
endolymph

Ampullae OvalVestibuleRound Maculae

window window Cochlea
(a) 41
 Cochlea
• Scala vestibuli
• Upper compartment Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Stapes vibrating in
• Leads from oval oval window
Helicotrema
Scala vestibuli
window to apex of filled with perilymph

spiral Vestibular
membrane
• Part of bony labyrinth
Basilar
• Scala tympani membrane
Scala tympani
• Lower compartment filled with
perilymph
Membranous
labyrinth
• Extends from apex of Round window
Cochlear duct
filled with endolymph
the cochlea to round
window
• Part of bony labyrinth 42
 Cochlea
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Cochlear duct
• Portion of
membranous labyrinth
in cochlea
• Vestibular membrane
• Separates cochlear Scala vestibuli
(contains perilymph)
Vestibular membrane
duct from scala Cochlear duct
vestibuli Branch of
(contains endolymph)
Spiral organ (organ of Corti)

• Basilar membrane cochlear

nerve Basilar membrane

• Separates cochlear Scala tympani

(contains perilymph)

duct from scala

tympani (a)
43
12.4 Clinical Application

Getting a Cochlear Implant

44
 Organ of Corti
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Group of hearing receptor

cells (hair cells)
• On upper surface of basilar Scala vestibuli
(contains perilymph)

membrane Vestibular membrane

Cochlear duct

• Different frequencies of Branch of

(contains endolymph)
Spiral organ (organ of Corti)
cochlear
vibration move different parts nerve Basilar membrane
Scala tympani

of basilar membrane (contains perilymph)

(a)
• Particular sound frequencies Tectorial
membrane

cause hairs of receptor cells to Hair cells

bend
• Nerve impulse generated Basilar
membrane

Branch of Nerve Supporting 45

(b) cochlear nerve fibers cells
 Organ of Corti
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Cochlear duct
Tectorial membrane

Scala tympani Hair cells Basilar

membrane
(a)

(b) 46
a: © John D. Cunningham/Visuals Unlimited; b: © Fred Hossler/Visuals Unlimited
Auditory Nerve Pathways
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Auditory cortex
(temporal lobe)

Thalamus

Medial geniculate
body of thalamus
Midbrain

Pons

Cochlear
Superior nuclei
olivary
Vestibulocochlear
nucleus
nerve
Medulla
47
oblongata
12.5 Clinical Application

Hearing Loss

48
Summary of the Generation of
Sensory Impulses from the Ear

49
 Sense of Equilibrium
• Static equilibrium • Dynamic Equilibrium
• Vestibule • Semicircular canals
• Senses position of • Senses rotation and
head when body is not movement of head and
moving body

50
 Vestibule
• Utricle
• Communicates with Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

saccule and membranous

portion of semicircular Ampullae of Vestibulocochlear
nerve
semicircular Cochlea
canals canals Utricle
Cochlear
• Saccule duct

• Communicates with
cochlear duct
• Macula
• Hair cells of utricle and
Maculae Saccule Vestibule
saccule

51
 Macula
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Responds to changes
Hairs of
in head position hair cells bend

• Bending of hairs Otoliths Gelatinous

material sags
Macula
of utricle
results in generation of
nerve impulse
Hair cells
Sensory (afferent) nerve fiber Supporting cells Gravitational
force

52
(a) Head upright (b) Head bent forward
 Semicircular Canals
• Three (3) canals at right angles
• Ampulla Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Swelling of membranous
labyrinth that communicates Ampullae of
Vestibulocochlear
nerve
with the vestibule semicircular
canals Utricle Cochlea
Cochlear
• Crista ampullaris duct

• Sensory organ of ampulla

• Hair cells and supporting
cells
• Rapid turns of head or body
stimulate hair cells
Maculae Saccule Vestibule

53
 Crista Ampullaris
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Endolymph

Semicircular canal
(a) Head in still position Ampulla
Cupula Crista
ampullaris Crista ampullaris

Hairs
Hair cell
Supporting cells

Sensory (afferent)
nerve fibers

(b) Head rotating (c)

54
 Sense of Sight
• Visual accessory organs
• Eyelids
• Lacrimal apparatus
• Extrinsic eye muscles

55
 Eyelid
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Palpebra
• Composed of four (4) layers:
Tendon of levator
• Skin palpebrae superioris

• Muscle
• Connective tissue Superior
rectus
• Conjunctiva
• Orbicularis oculi – closes eyelid Orbicularis
oculi
• Levator palpebrae superioris – Eyelid
opens eyelid
• Tarsal glands – secrete oil onto Tarsal glands

eyelashes Eyelash
• Conjunctiva – mucous
membrane; lines eyelid and covers Cornea

portion of eyeball Conjunctiva

Inferior
rectus
56
 Lacrimal Apparatus
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
• Lacrimal gland
• Lateral to eye
• Secretes tears
• Canaliculi Lacrimal gland

• Collect tears Superior and

inferior canaliculi
• Lacrimal sac
• Collects from Lacrimal sac

canaliculi
Nasolacrimal
• Nasolacrimal duct duct

• Collects from lacrimal

sac
• Empties tears into nasal
cavity 57
 Extrinsic Eye Muscles
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Superior rectus
• Rotates eye up and Medial Superior Superior
rectus rectus oblique

medially

• Inferior rectus
• Rotates eye down
and medially

• Medial rectus
• Rotates eye
Lateral
medially rectus
(cut)

Inferior rectus Inferior oblique

58
 Extrinsic Eye Muscles
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Lateral rectus
• Rotates eye Medial Superior Superior
rectus rectus oblique

laterally

• Superior oblique
• Rotates eye down
and laterally

• Inferior oblique
Lateral
• Rotates eye up and rectus
(cut)
laterally
Inferior rectus Inferior oblique
59
 Structure of the Eye
• Hollow Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Spherical Lateral rectus

• Wall has three (3) layers: Ciliary body
Retina
Choroid coat
• Outer fibrous tunic Suspensory
ligaments
Sclera
Vitreous humor
• Middle vascular tunic Iris
Lens
• Inner nervous tunic Pupil Fovea centralis

Cornea
Aqueous
humor
Anterior
Optic nerve
Anterior chamber
cavity Posterior Optic disc
chamber
Posterior cavity
Medial rectus

60
 Outer Tunic

• Cornea Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Anterior portion Lateral rectus

Retina
• Transparent Ciliary body
Suspensory
Choroid coat
Sclera
• Light transmission ligaments Vitreous humor
Iris
• Light refraction Lens
Pupil Fovea centralis

Cornea
• Sclera Aqueous
humor
• Posterior portion Anterior
Optic nerve
Anterior
• Opaque cavity
chamber
Posterior Optic disc
chamber
• Protection Posterior cavity
Medial rectus

61
 Middle Tunic
• Iris
• Anterior portion Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Pigmented Lateral rectus

Retina
• Controls light intensity Ciliary body Choroid coat
Suspensory Sclera
ligaments
• Ciliary body Iris
Vitreous humor

• Anterior portion Lens

Fovea centralis
Pupil
• Pigmented Cornea
• Holds lens Aqueous
humor
• Moves lens for Anterior
Optic nerve
Anterior chamber
focusing cavity Posterior Optic disc
chamber
Posterior cavity
• Choroid coat Medial rectus

• Provides blood supply

• Pigments absorb extra light
62
 Anterior Portion of Eye
• Filled with aqueous humor

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Cornea Anterior chamber

Iris
Posterior
chamber
Suspensory Ciliary process
ligaments Ciliary
Ciliary muscles body
Conjunctiva
Vitreous Lens Sclera
humor

63
 Lens
Transparent, Biconvex , Lies behind iris, Composed of lens fibers,
Elastic, Held in place by suspensory ligaments of ciliary body
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Cornea Anterior chamber

Iris
Posterior
chamber
Suspensory Ciliary process
ligaments Ciliary
Ciliary muscles body
Conjunctiva
Vitreous Lens Sclera
humor

64
 Ciliary Body
• Forms internal ring around the front of the eye
• Ciliary processes – radiating folds
• Ciliary muscles – contract and relax to move lens
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Ciliary processes
of ciliary body
Suspensory
ligaments
Lens
Retina
Choroid coat
Sclera 65
 Accommodation
• Changing of lens shape to view objects
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Ciliary muscle
fibers contracted
Suspensory
ligaments relaxed
Lens thick

(a)

Ciliary muscle
fibers relaxed
Suspensory
ligaments taut
Lens thin

66
(b)
 Iris
• Composed of Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

connective tissue and Sympathetic

motor nerve
smooth muscle fiber

• Pupil is hole in iris

• Dim light stimulates
radial muscles and In dim light
Radially arranged
pupil dilates Smooth muscle fibers
of the iris
• Bright light Circularly arranged
Parasympathetic
ganglion
smooth muscle fibers
stimulates circular of the iris

muscles and pupil Pupil

Parasympathetic
motor nerve fiber
constricts
In normal light In bright light

67
 Aqueous Humor
• Fluid in anterior cavity of eye
• Secreted by epithelium on inner surface of the ciliary body
• Provides nutrients
• Maintains shape of anterior portion of eye
• Leaves cavity through Canal of Schlemm
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Cornea

Aqueous humor

Iris Anterior
Scleral venous sinus chamber
(canal of Schlemm)
Lens
Sclera
Ciliary Ciliary process
body Ciliary muscles
Vitreous humor
Posterior
chamber 68
 Inner Tunic
• Retina
• Contains visual receptors
• Continuous with optic nerve
• Ends just behind margin of the ciliary body
• Composed of several layers
• Macula lutea – yellowish spot in retina
• Fovea centralis – center of macula lutea; produces
sharpest vision
• Optic disc – blind spot; contains no visual receptors
• Vitreous humor – thick gel that holds retina flat against
choroid coat

69
 Posterior Cavity
• Contains vitreous humor – thick gel that holds retina flat
against choroid coat
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Lateral rectus
Retina
Ciliary body Choroid coat
Suspensory Sclera
ligaments Vitreous humor
Iris
Lens
Pupil Fovea centralis

Cornea
Aqueous
humor

Anterior
Anterior chamber Optic nerve
cavity Posterior
Optic disc
chamber
Posterior cavity 70
Medial rectus
 Major Groups of Retinal Neurons
• Receptor cells, bipolar cells, and ganglion cells - provide pathway
for impulses triggered by photoreceptors to reach the optic nerve
• Horizontal cells and amacrine cells – modify impulses
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Sclera
Pigmented
choroid Retinal pigment
coat epithelium

Rod
Receptor cells
Cone

Horizontal cell
Retina
Bipolar neuron Layer of
Amacrine cell connecting
neurons
Ganglion cell

Nerve fibers
Vitreous humor
Impulses
to optic
nerve 71
Light waves
Layers of the Eye

72
 Light Refraction
• Refraction
• Bending of light
• Occurs when light waves pass at an oblique angle into
mediums of different densities
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Perpendicular line

Air
Light wave

Glass

Refracted 73
light wave
 Types of Lenses
• Convex lenses cause • Concave lenses cause
light waves to converge light waves to diverge

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Light
wave

Air
Concave
surface
Convex
Glass
surface

Converging Diverging
light waves light waves
(a) (b)

74
 Focusing On Retina
• As light enters eye, it is refracted by:
• Convex surface of cornea
• Convex surface of lens
• Image focused on retina is upside down and reversed from left
to right
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Light waves

Image

Retina

Cornea
Object

75
 Visual Receptors
• Rods
• Long, thin projections
• Contain light sensitive
pigment called rhodopsin
• Hundred times more sensitive chlorolabe, and cyanolabe
to light than cones
• Provide vision in dim light
• Produce colorless vision
• Produce outlines of objects
• Cones
• Short, blunt projections
• Contain light sensitive
pigments called erythrolabe,
• Provide vision in bright
light
• Produce sharp images
• Produce color vision
76
Rods and Cones
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Retinal
pigment
epithelium

Rods Cones

Single sensory Many sensory (afferent)

(afferent) nerve fiber nerve fibers
(a) (b)

Rod

Cone

77
(c) c: © Frank S. Werblin, PhD.
 12.6 Clinical Application
Refraction Disorders
• Concave lens corrects • Convex lens corrects
nearsightedness farsightedness
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Point
Lens Uncorrected
of focus
Cornea point of focus
Light waves
Light waves

(a) Eye too long (myopia)

Point Corrected
Concave lens
of focus point of focus
(a)
Light waves

Retina Uncorrected
point of focus
(b) Normal eye
Point
of focus

Light waves

Convex lens Corrected

78
(b) point of focus
(c) Eye too short (hyperopia)
 Visual Pigments
• Rhodopsin
• Light-sensitive pigment in rods
• Decomposes in presence of light
• Triggers a complex series of
reactions that initiate nerve
impulses
• Impulses travel along optic nerve
• Pigments on cones
• Each set contains different light-
sensitive pigment
• Each set is sensitive to different
wavelengths
• Color perceived depends on which
sets of cones are stimulated
• Erythrolabe – responds to red
• Chlorolabe – responds to green
• Cyanolabe – responds to blue
79
 Rod Cells
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Discs of
membrane
within cell

Mitochondria

Nucleus

Synaptic 80
ending
 Stereoscopic Vision
• Provides perception of distance and depth
• Results from formation of two slightly different retinal images
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Light
waves

81
Left eye Right eye
Visual Nerve Pathway
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Eye
Optic
nerve Fibers from
nasal (medial) half
Optic of each retina
chiasma crossing over

Lateral Optic tract

geniculate
body of
thalamus

Optic
radiations

82
Visual cortex of
occipital lobe
 12.5: Lifespan Changes
• Age related hearing loss due to:
• Damage of hair cells in organ of Corti
• Degeneration of nerve pathways to the brain
• Tinnitus
• Age-related visual problems include:
• Dry eyes
• Floaters (crystals in vitreous humor)
• Loss of elasticity of lens
• Glaucoma
• Cataracts
• Macular degeneration
83
 Important Points in Chapter 12:
Outcomes to be Assessed
12.1: Introduction
 Explain the difference between general senses and special senses.
12.2: Receptors, Sensation, and Perception
 Name the five types of receptors and state the function of each.
 Explain how receptors stimulate sensory impulses.
 Explain how a sensation is produced.
12.3: General Senses
 Distinguish between general and special senses.
 Describe the differences among receptors associated with the senses
of touch, pressure, temperature, and pain.
84
 Describe how the sensation of pain is produced.
 Important Points in Chapter 12:
Outcomes to be Assessed

 Explain the importance of stretch receptors in muscles and tendons.

12.4: Special Senses
 Explain the relationship between the senses of smell and taste.
 Name the parts of the ear and the function of each part.
 Distinguish between static and dynamic equilibrium.
 Name the parts of the eye and the function of each part.
 Explain how the eye refracts light.
 Explain how the brain perceives depth and distance.
 Draw a diagram of the visual nerve pathways.
85
 Quiz 12
Complete Quiz 12 now!

Read Chapter 13.

86