HUMAN ANATOMY

GENERAL & SPECIAL SENSORY ORGANS

I. INTRODUCTION
II. GENERAL SENSORY ORGANS
III. SPECIAL SENSORY ORGANS

I. INTRODUCTION
* Survival is dependent upon quickly reacting to danger & taking advantage of
opportunities to obtain needed resources

* Sensory receptors
Organs that monitor internal & external environment
Code / translate environmental stimuli into nerve impulses & send to CNS
Messages – can be conscious / unconscious
Perceptions = sensations that are consciously recognized
! View of world = partially determined by how sensory receptors
detect & nervous system processes data

* Vertebrates vary in ability to perceive specific stimuli

High frequency sounds (dogs & bats)
Visual acuity (eagles & hawks)
Infrared light (rattlesnakes)
Color vision (humans)
MOST mammals - see world in black-white
! Perception of world - is limited (or) enhanced by availability &
sensitivity of sensory receptors

* Conscious sensations are SUBJECTIVE INTERPRETATIONS of environment

Ex. Pain = does not exist in environment
Ex. Taste = does not exist in the environment
! Arise from events occurring in the brain

* All stimuli from sensory receptors are carried by sensory nerves

Nerves conduct electrical impulses
Optic & olfactory & auditory & taste nerves – carry the SAME kind of
electrical impulses
! Result = nervous system can be fooled
Ex. Artificial stimulation of auditory nerve = perceived as
sound

Different sensations - result from different interpretations by nervous system

Many stimuli are actually perceived indirectly
Chemical & photic energies (taste & color & pain) – result from a
CNS interpretation of single (or) multiple stimuli from 1 or
several sensory organs
 ! Result - we need to distinguish between… (1) environmental stimuli & (2) the
way it is interpreted

* Makeup of a sensory organ

[2] Components
Sensory neuron
Associated tissues

Sensory neuron = specialized cell for detecting & transmitting information from
the (external (or) internal environment) to the CNS
Components
Dendrites = carry impulse to cell
Axon = carry impulse away from cell
Functional perspective
Acts as a transducer - thus translates energy from 1 form into
another
Ex. Light & mechanical & chemical stimuli are converted
into an electrical impulse
Accessory tissues
Adjacent to tip of sensory fiber (nerve), and often acts to amplify stimulus

Sensory organ classification

Somatic sensory organs = associated with skin, body surface & skeletal
muscles
Visceral sensory organs = associated with viscera

Exteroceptors = receive input from environment

Interceptors = respond to sensations from organs
Proprioceptors = within striated muscles & joints & tendons

General sensory organs = widely distributed – obtain data on touch &

temperature & proprioception
Special sensory organs = localized and highly specialized

II. GENERAL SENSORY ORGANS

* [3] Types
Free receptors
Encapsulated receptors
Receptors associated with nerve endings

* Free receptors (free nerve ending)

NO specialized associations with other structures
Terminus may branch (arborize) – thus function to increase area that is monitored
Function = monitor pain & heat & cold & pressure & touch
 Ex. tissue damage  stimulation (ex. toothache)
Location = skin & cornea & oral cavity & tooth pulp & intestines

* Encapsulated receptors
Terminus is enclosed within some form of specialized structure
Capsules = connective tissue structures that serve to enhance the deformation of
nerve endings
Result = they assist in the initiation of a nerve impulse
Examples
Meissner's corpuscle = located in dermis
Sends information on touch to CNS
Pacinian corpuscles = located in skin & joints & deep tissues
Sends information on pressure
May be present in pancreas
Corpuscle of Ruffini = in dermis  sends information on heat
End-bulb of Krause = in dermis  sends information on cold

* Receptors associated with nerve endings

Terminus (of axon) is wrapped around another organ
Ex. Hair follicle - a nerve ending wrapped around follicle

Proprioception
A sense that is mostly based on data from associated sensory receptors in
muscles & tendons & joints
Primary purpose- to provide information to the CNS on limb flexion &
muscle contraction
Result = CNS informed on limb, body position & the location of
part (eg., brachium) before & after movement
Processed subconsciously – therefore these are automatic adjustments

[2] Receptor types associated with proprioception

1. Muscle spindles
Location = in skeletal muscles
When discussing muscle spindles, ‘normal’ skeletal muscle
cells (those producing force to move a body part)
are often termed extrafusal muscle fibers
[Alpha motor neurons] = are the type of nerves that
innervate these fibers
Soma of AMN located in gray matter of SC
Function = to maintain muscle tone (tonus)- even when
relaxed

Muscle spindles are a complex of specialized muscle fibers

and nerve components that lie among the extrafusal
muscle fibers
Intrafusal muscle fibers
Modified striated muscle cells
 [Gamma motor neurons] = are the type of
nerves that innervate these fibers
[2] types of IMF
Nuclear bag intrafusal fibers
Innervated by an annulospiral
nerve (or a primary
afferent sensory
nerve)
Nuclear chain intrafusal fibers
Innervated by an flower
spray nerve (or a
secondary afferent
sensory nerve)
Mechanism of action
Tonus
Too much relaxation detected in muscle  spindle
sags  afferent sensory neurons fire & send
data to SC  alpha motor neurons in SC
fire  signal sent back out to contract
extrafusal (normal) muscle fibers

Stretch reflex
Muscle fibers stretch  muscle spindles are
stretched  afferent sensory fiber sends
data to SC  alpha motor neurons in SC
fire  signal sent back to out to contract
extrafusal muscle fibers
Important = in postural muscles
Action = modulated thru cerebellum

2. Golgi tendon organs

Located in tendons
Result = they lie along line of muscle action
Function as tension recorders - thus send info on muscle
force to CNS

III. SPECIAL SENSORY ORGANS

* Restricted to specific types of stimuli: chemical, electromagnetic, mechanical,
electrical

CHEMORECEPTORS
* Chemical stimuli causes an electrical impulse (mechanism remains uncertain)
Ex. Taste & smell
Taste = salty & sweet & sour & bitter
 The mechanical texture & aroma of (food) are both important in
determining taste
Result… Smell is closely associated with taste!

* Pheromones
Chemicals that serve as messages
Released to influence behavior (or) physiology of another individual
Produced by exocrine glands

* Classification (by location)

Nasal passages
Olfaction = sense of smell
Chemoreceptors are specialized cells and associated structures located
within nasal passages that act to translate chemical reactions into
‘smell’

[3] structural components

Olfactory epithelium
Specialized patch of epithelium in the superior area of the
nasal cavity
Olfactory sensory cells – modified nerve cells that act as
chemoreceptors
Apical end – there is a tuft of cilia
Basal end – becomes an axon (!) that extends up
thru cribiform plate  into olfactory bulb
Olfactory nerve = made up of all these SHORT
axons joined together
Olfactory bulb
Mitral cells = synapse with the axons extending from
olfactory epithelium
Send LONG axons (together called the olfactory
tract) to the brain
!! Result = the limbic system (emotions) & corpus
striatum (group of important nuclei) receive
DIRECT olfactory input
Mouth
Taste buds = are the mouths chemoreceptors of taste
Life span = [1] week
Located on tongue
Reside on the walls of projections called papillae
Filiform = pointed & thread-like
NO taste buds present
Fungiform = mushroom shaped
Some taste buds
Circumvallate = largest, mushroom shape (has moat
around each)
Many (100+) taste buds
RADIATION RECEPTORS
* Radiation is energy in the form of electromagnetic waves
All wavelengths within the electromagnetic spectrum are considered to be
‘radiation’
Range = high energy (cosmic/gamma waves)  to low energy (radio
waves)
Human perceive radiation within a narrow band of wavelengths (visible light -
380-760nm)
Variation in vision- is based upon…
Intensity of radiation
Wavelength of radiation (measured in nanometers’nm’)
Direction that the radiation is traveling

* Photoreceptors within the EYE

Certain cells within the eye are sensitive to visible light
Eye structures (cornea, lens, iris) focus light on photosensitive cells – which
translate this pattern and intensity of light (wavelengths) into an image
Accomodation = capacity to focus light on objects at various distances
Color = brain interpretation of different wavelengths
Contrast = brain interpretation of different intensities

Eye structure = [3] layers

1. Sclera
OUTER layer (white of eye)
Tough connective tissue capsule
All extrinsic muscles that move the eye are attached here
2. Uvea
MIDDLE layer = [3] regions
Choroid
Highly vascular – nutrients are diffused to other
ocular tissues
Pigmented
Ciliary body
Circle of smooth muscle - located around the
anterior portion of eyeball
Ciliary muscle = controls accommodation (focus)
Attaches to lens via the suspensory ligament
When muscle contracts  it deforms
(bends) the lens
Iris
Thin continuation of uvea across front of eyeball
Pupil = an OPENING defined by the free edge of
the iris
Smooth muscles act to close/open pupil (like
diaphragm)  which controls the amount of
light entering the eye
3. Retina
 Layer of photosensitive cells on the posterior inner aspect of
eyeball
[6] Cell types
Deepest
Rods = detect LOW levels of light
Does NOT detect color – only black/white
Cones = detect BRIGHT light
Detects COLOR
Cells connecting rods & cones to ganglion cells
Horizontal cells
Biopolar cells
Amacrine cells
Most shallow
Ganglion cells

!! Arrangement is designed so that light waves must pass thru 4+

layers of cells BEFORE reaching photoreceptors (rods &
cones)

Fovea = area of indentation on retina

Location on retina where light waves converge
ONLY cones present
Area providing the sharpest focus

[3] chambers
Function = to maintain shape of eye
[2] chambers in front of lens
Anterior chamber = between iris & cornea
Hold a watery transparent fluid called the aqueous
humor
Functions in nutrient/waste transfer & to
maintain shape
Posterior chamber = between iris & lens
Holds aqueous humor
[1] chamber behind lens
Vitreal chamber
Holds vitreous humor – a semi-solid gel material
that functions to maintain eye shape

Depth perception
Eye position on head = TRADE-OFF - between scope of visual field &
depth perception
Lateral eye position = each eye has separate field - thus total view
of world is extensive
Monocular vision = visual fields don't overlap
Common = prey animals
Rare = in some salamanders & penquins & whales
Binocular vision = visual fields overlap
 MOST vertebrates
Humans = 140o overlap (thus 30o monocular on
each side)
Stereoscopic vision = both visual fields merge into 1 image
- allows depth perception
Ex. close 1 eye = lose perception of depth
Results from the way visual data is processed
Ex. Binocular vision
Visual data from each eye divided  2 paths
1 = optic centers on that side of brain
2 = crosses (at optic chaisma) to optic centers on
other side of brain
Result = information from both eyes  sent to both sides
of brain
Brain compares the 2 images
Parallax = slightly different view of distant object
from 2 points of view
! Result = difference in 2 images is enough for brain to
produce a sense of depth

MECHANORECEPTORS
* Specialized receptors that respond to small changes in mechanical force
Maintain balance
Detect vibrations (hearing)

* Transducers that translate mechanical stimuli into electrical signals

* Hair cell
Epithelial cells
MISNOMER = has NOTHING to do with hair (!!!)
Name from ‘hair-like’ processes on apical surfaces
Processes are actually…
Microvilli (or long microvilli called stereocilia)
[1] Kinocilium – a long cilium
Hair bundle = tuft of stereocilia and a kinocilium

NO axons are present

Cells synapse directly with sensory neurons
These neurons detect ionic changes in hair cell  send data to
CNS

Respond selectively to certain mechanical stimulation

Ex. Stimuli from 1 direction triggers cell
Ex. Stimuli from opposite direction DOES NOT trigger
Reason - the asymmetry of hair bundle (due different lengths of
stereocilia) result in the hair bundle bending more in 1 direction
* Neuromast organ
MOST common mechanoreceptor in the human body
Small collection of hair cells & supporting cells & sensory nerve fibers
Fundamental component within the…
Vestibular apparatus
Auditory system

Cupula = a gelatinous cup that holds hair bundles

Purpose- to magnify mechanical movements
Result = increases sensitivity of neurons that are stimulated by
movements in the hair bundle

* Vestibular apparatus (membranous labyrinth)

Organ of equilibrium
Location = within bones of head
Fluid filled system of channels
Fluid = called endolymph
Surrounded by fluid called perilymph
Both fluids are very similar to lymph
Components
[3] semicircular canals
Poisitioned along the x & y & z axis
Cristae = the sensory receptors in this area
Each is actually an expanded neuromast organ (hair cells &
cupula)
Ampullae = region at base of each semicircular canal
which holds the cristae
Sends signal to CNS in response to head rotation
Ex. Head turning
Inertia causes fluid (endolymph) to move slower
than canal
Fluid moves cupula  hair cells are stimulated 
electrical impulse pattern altered

[2] connecting chambers

Open into the semicircular canals
Both are lined by vestibular epithelium (holds neuromast organs)
Connected to endolymphatic duct

1. Saccule
Components
Macula (otolith receptors) = sensory receptor here
Modified neuromast organ (hair cells & cupula)
Otoconia = tiny CaCO3 crystals sitting on the
cupula surface
 Functions- to magnify movements of hair
bundles
Respond to changes within gravitational field and
angular acceleration
Ex. Head tilting or turning
Ex. Body acceleration
Lagena = specialized region of sacculus that is involved
with detecting sound
2. Utricle

* Auditory system
Lagena = group of structures involved in hearing
Cochlea = coiled (seashell shaped) structure
Organ of Corti = sensory receptor of sound
Strip of neuromasts that sends information to auditory nerve 
sends sound data to CNS
External ear anatomy
Pinna = external cartilaginous flap that channels sounds from different
directions into external auditory meatus
[2] ears – needed to provide stereo

Middle ear anatomy

[3] Components
1. Tympanum (eardrum)
Thin membrane
Separates external auditory canal from middle ear cavity
2. Middle ear cavity
Fluid filled cavity
Holds [3] ear ossicles
Eustachian tube = connects middle ear cavity to pharynx

[3] Middle ear ossicles

Malleus (hammer)
Attaches to tympanum
Incus (anvil)
Attaches malleus to stapes
Stapes (stirrup)
Attaches to the oval window – thin membrane
separating middle ear cavity from inner ear
cavity
Function
Sound waves produce a mechanical vibration of
tympanic membrane  ossicles conduct
vibrations to inner ear

Inner ear anatomy

Vestibular apparatus = [3] coiled fluid filled channels holding sensory
cells that are stimulated by sound.
Cochlea
Organ of Corti
Runs within the scala media (cochlear duct) – the central
channel of the cochlea
Hair bundles - are embeded in a plate called the tectorial
membrane

[2] other fluid filled channels run on either side of the scala media
Scala vestibuli
Scala tympani

Result = when sound waves hit the tympanic membrane, it vibrates

causing the 3 ossicles to vibrate. These in turn cause the
oval window to vibrate, which vibrates the fluid within the
cochlea. When the cochlear fluid moves, hair cells
embedded within the organ of Corti.are stimulated and
send sound data to the brain.