Higher Institute of Technological Studies_Gafsa-Tunisi Calculation and Sizing in boilermaking

Department of Mechanical Engineering Reminder

Chapter 1. Reminder

1. Pressure

1.1. Concept

The pressure [1] is a physical quantity that describes a distributed contact force F applied
perpendicularly to a surface S per unit area of this surface. The common symbol of the
pressure is p or P.

F
P=
S

N
The international system of units [2] gives the unit Pascal denoted by Pa = as a
m2
derived unit for the pressure. Table 1.1 summarizes the different units used for the pressure as
well as the conversion between units.

Table 1.1. Units for pressure and conversion

Conversion
Units Pa MPa Bar
-6
Pascal (Pa) 1 10 10-5
Bar (b) 105 10-1 1
5
Atmoshpere (atm) 1.013×10 0.1013 1.013
MPa or N/m2 106 1 10
2 5 -1
daN/cm 10 10 1
-6
mm H2O (water) 9.8 9.8×10 9.8×10-5
10m H2O (water) 9.8×10-4 9.8×10-2 0.98
mm H2O (Mercury) 133 133×10-6 133×10-5
Psi (pounds per square inch) 6.9×103 6.9×10-3 6.9×10-2

There principal types of pressure are:

• Atmospheric pressure

• Fluid pressure:

o Static pressure P: It reflects the pressure potential energy of the fluid at the
considered point.

o Hydrostatic pressure ρ × g × h : It reflects the gravity potential energy of the fluid at

the considered point.

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Higher Institute of Technological Studies_Gafsa-Tunisi Calculation and Sizing in boilermaking
Department of Mechanical Engineering Reminder

1
o Dynamic pressure × ρ × v 2 : It reflects the kinetic energy of the fluid at the
2
considered point.

For a fluid with constant density, the pressure, at every point of the fluid, is governed by
the Bernoulli’s equation [3-4]:

P v2
+ + z = const
ρg 2 g

P : Pressure at the considered point of the fluid

ρ : Density of the fluid
with g : Acceleration of gravity
v : Velocity at the considered point of the fluid
z : Elevation of the considered point of the fluid

In boilermaking, the fluid pressure [3] is the most encountered type and it is usually
measured using a manometer.

1.2. Fluid pressure

The fluid (liquid or gas) pressure is the compressive stress within the fluid (at every point
of the fluid). Two kinds of fluid pressure are noticed:

• Open condition (called also open channel flow) such as atmosphere, open tank. The
fluid is considered non-moving (static) and the pressure fluid can be approximated as a
hydrostatic pressure.

• Closed condition (called also closed conduit) such as liquid line and gas line. At this
case, the fluid can be either non-moving (static) or moving (dynamic).

2. Temperature

2.1. Concept

The temperature [1] is a physical quantity that describes the quantity of thermal energy
stored in a fluid. The heat is the flow of the thermal energy. The common symbol of the
temperature is T. The international system of units uses the unit Kelvin denoted by K as
absolute scale (Kelvin scale) for the temperature. Other scales can be used as centigrade scale,

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Higher Institute of Technological Studies_Gafsa-Tunisi Calculation and Sizing in boilermaking
Department of Mechanical Engineering Reminder

Fahrenheit scale and Rankine scale which the units are denoted by °C and ° F respectively.
The following formula permits to convert the Celsius, Fahrenheit and Rankine to Kelvin.

K = °C + 273,15

K = (° F + 459.67 )×
5
9
5
K = × R°
9

Figure 1.1. depicts the relationships between Kelvin, Celsius and Fahrenheit based on the
usual states of matter related to the water,

Figure 1.1. Relationships between Kelvin, Celsius and Fahrenheit based on the usual states of
matter related to the water.

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Higher Institute of Technological Studies_Gafsa-Tunisi Calculation and Sizing in boilermaking
Department of Mechanical Engineering Reminder

In boilermaking, the temperature of the fluid is usually measured using a thermometer or a

thermocouple.

3. Standard units of mechanical characteristics

In boilermaking, the most common mechanical properties [5] are those associated to
metals (steels, copper, aluminum,iron,…etc.) and fluids (liquids and gases). Table 1.1
summarizes these mechanical properties as well as their significance, commons symbol and
standard unit.

Table 1.2. Standard units for the most common mechanical characteristics used in
boilermaking.
Mechanical Common
Significance Standard unit
characteristic symbol
Young’s Ratio of linear stress to linear strain in
E MPa
modulus tensile deformation
The tensile stress level from which a
Yield strength material strain becomes plastic instead of σy MPa
elastic
The maximum tensile stress level that a
Tensile
material can withstand before starting to σu MPa
strength
break
The tensile stress level that a material
Rupture σf
sustains at the moment of breaking MPa
strength
(rupture)
Ratio of transverse strain to longitudinal
Poisson’s ratio ν -
strain
Shear modulus Ratio of shear stress to shear strain G MPa
The maximum shear stress level that a
Shear strength τ MPa
material can withstand
The maximum compressive stress level
Compressive
that a material can withstand before σc MPa
strength
compressive breaking
Flexural
modulus Ratio of stress to strain in flexural
Eflex MPa
(Bending deformation
modulus)
The maximum bending stress level that a
Flexural σ flex
material can withstand before flexural MPa
strength
breaking
The ability of a material to absorb energy KCU
Resilience J.cm-2
during elastic deformation KCV
The ability of a material to absorb shock
Toughness energy and plastically deform without UT J.m-3
rupture
Fracture The ability of a material containing a
Kc MPa.m0.5
toughness crack to withstand rupture

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Higher Institute of Technological Studies_Gafsa-Tunisi Calculation and Sizing in boilermaking
Department of Mechanical Engineering Reminder

The ability of a material to resist against HRA, HRB, HRC

Hardness surface penetration (indentation) and H HB
scratching HV
The maximum stress level under which a
Fatigue limit material can support an infinite number Sf MPa (ksi)
of loading cycles without breaking
Surface The deviation (in the normal direction) of Ra µm
roughness a real surface from its ideal form Rt
The resistance of a fluid against a gradual
Viscosity deformation induced by tensile or shear µ Pa.s (PI)
stresses
Ratio of pressure to volumetric K
Bulk modulus GPa
compression B

4. Work materials

4.1. General

Standards (ASTM, CSA, ISO, NF, EN, CODAP, CODETI,…) permit to choose the
appropriate material for sheets, plates, structural shapes, piping, flanges, forging, bolting and
welding electrodes. Standards state, also, all the important precautions that should be taken
into consideration about work materials. In what follows, a particular interest is given to the
French Standards NF, CODAP, CODETI (in order to meet the requirements of the
technological content proposed by the General Directorate of Technological Studies-Tunisia).

4.2. Steel plates

In boilermaking, the sheet metals [7] are principally used as simple cladding to ensure a
space enclosure while the plates are principally used as floor or thick cladding as well as
armored cladding. The sheet metals are used in flat form or principally shaped into V-form
and curved-form using bending and cold rolling process respectively. The plates [7] are
usually used in flat form or shaped into curved-form using hot rolling process.

4.2.1. Non alloy steel (general purpose steel)

This type of steels is used for simple pressure vessels. The NF A 35-501 April 1983
standards is applied for sheet and plates (maximum thickness 150 mm), round (maximum
diameter 350 mm), beams and other merchant bars (maximum thickness 100 mm). This
standard does not apply to the products explicitly defined by other standards such as NF A36-

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Higher Institute of Technological Studies_Gafsa-Tunisi Calculation and Sizing in boilermaking
Department of Mechanical Engineering Reminder

205 and 207 for boilers and pressure vessels and NF A 36-301 and 401 for sheet metals for
stamping.

The following table summarizes the appropriate steel grades, quality and maximum
thickness in function of the product type.

The following table presents the chemical composition of the different steel grades
according to the NF A35-501 standards:

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Higher Institute of Technological Studies_Gafsa-Tunisi Calculation and Sizing in boilermaking
Department of Mechanical Engineering Reminder

The following table presents the mechanical properties of the steel in function of the
quality and the plate thickness:

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Higher Institute of Technological Studies_Gafsa-Tunisi Calculation and Sizing in boilermaking
Department of Mechanical Engineering Reminder

4.2.2. Non alloy steel (for boilers and pressure vessels)

This type of steels is used specially for highly stressed pressure vessels under an operating
temperature varying from -40°C to 450°C. For this purpose, the NF A 36-205 April 1979
proposed 4 steel grade (A37, A42, A48 and A52) with 3 qualities for each steel grade (AP:
pressure vessel subjected to ambient temperature, FP: pressure vessel subjected to
temperature lower than the ambient temperature, and CP: pressure vessel subjected to
temperature higher than the ambient temperature).

The following table presents the common mechanical properties of such materials:

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Higher Institute of Technological Studies_Gafsa-Tunisi Calculation and Sizing in boilermaking
Department of Mechanical Engineering Reminder

The following table presents the yield strength at high temperature of such materials:

4.3. Stainless steel (general purpose )

The NF A 35-573 October 1981 standards apply to hot-wrought stainless steels for general
purpose delivered as cold–rolled sheets (thickness form 0.4 mm to 5 mm), hot-rolled plates
(thickness from lower than 10 mm for ferritic and martensitic steels and 50 mm for austenitic
steel), hot and cold-rolled wide strips, hot-rolled straps. It is to note that this standard does not
apply to special steel grades used for particular proposes.

The following table summarizes the mechanical properties of the appropriate ferritic and
martensitic stainless steels according to the NF A 35-573:

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Higher Institute of Technological Studies_Gafsa-Tunisi Calculation and Sizing in boilermaking
Department of Mechanical Engineering Reminder

The following table summarizes the chemical compositions of the appropriate ferritic and
martensitic stainless steels according to the NF A 35-573:

The following table summarizes the chemical compositions of the appropriate austenitic
stainless steels according to the NF A 35-573:

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Higher Institute of Technological Studies_Gafsa-Tunisi Calculation and Sizing in boilermaking
Department of Mechanical Engineering Reminder

The following table summarizes the principal mechanical properties of steel plates for
different operating temperature based on the NF EN 10-207 and NF A 36-205 standards:

4.4. Steel tubes/pipes

The tube/pipe [8] is a hollow cylinder formed principally by extrusion or also by rotary
piercing. In boilermaking, the pipe is intended to transport fluids (liquids and gases). It is to
note here, that maximum internal pressure that can be withstood by a pipe is given by the
Barlow’s equation:

2 ×σ y × t
Pmax =
φ o × sf

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Higher Institute of Technological Studies_Gafsa-Tunisi Calculation and Sizing in boilermaking
Department of Mechanical Engineering Reminder

P : Maximum internal pressure withstood by a pipe

σ y : Minimum yield strength of the pipe' s material
with t : Thickness of the pipe
φo : Outer diameter of the pipe
sf : Safety factor (genrally from 1.5 to 10)

Tubes/pipes can be classified into 2 major classes:

• Steel tubes for general purpose piping: The choice is based on NF A 49-111, NF A 49-
115, NF A 49-141, NF A 49-142, NF A 49-145, NF A 49-146. These standards are not
taken into consideration in the CODAP standards.

• Steel tubes intended to transport fluid under particular operating conditions: The
choice is based on NF A 49-211, NF A 49-213, NF A 49-242, NF A 49-230,..ect.

The following table summarizes the mechanical properties of the non alloy steel tubes
based on the NF A 49-212 standards:

The following table summarizes the mechanical properties of the Mo and Cr.Mo non alloy
steel tubes based on the NF A 49-213 standards:

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Higher Institute of Technological Studies_Gafsa-Tunisi Calculation and Sizing in boilermaking
Department of Mechanical Engineering Reminder

The following table summarizes the mechanical properties of the Cr.Mo alloy steel tubes
based on the NF A 49-213 standards:

The following table summarizes the mechanical properties of the non alloy steel tubes
operating under high temperature based on the NF A 49-215 standards:

16 Rached Nciri, Technologist, D. Eng.

Higher Institute of Technological Studies_Gafsa-Tunisi Calculation and Sizing in boilermaking
Department of Mechanical Engineering Reminder

The following table summarizes the mechanical properties of the ferritic alloy steel tubes
operating under high temperature based on the NF A 49-215 standards:

The following table summarizes the mechanical properties of the non alloy steel tubes
based on the NF A 49-243 standards:

17 Rached Nciri, Technologist, D. Eng.

Higher Institute of Technological Studies_Gafsa-Tunisi Calculation and Sizing in boilermaking
Department of Mechanical Engineering Reminder

The following table summarizes the mechanical properties of steel tubes based on the NF
A 49-281 standards:

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Higher Institute of Technological Studies_Gafsa-Tunisi Calculation and Sizing in boilermaking
Department of Mechanical Engineering Reminder

The following table summarizes the principal mechanical properties of steel tubes for
different operating temperature based on the NF A 49-242 standards:

4.5. Steel flanges and forgings

The choice of steel grades for flanges and forgings (for boilers and pressure vessels) are
based on 5 NF standards. The standard NF A 36-601 proposes the steel grades A37, A42, A48
and A52 with 3 qualities for each steel grade: AP, FP and CP. The standard NF A36-602
proposes 7 steel grades: 15 D 3, 18 MD 4-05, 15 MVD 4-05, 15 CD 2-05, 15 CD 4-05, 10 CD
9-10 and Z 10 CD 5-05. Also, the NF A 36-605, NF A 36-603 and NF E 29-204 are used to
choose steel grades for flanges and forgings.

The following table summarizes the principal mechanical properties of steel flanges and
forgings for different operating temperature based on the NF A 36-601 and NF A 36-602
standards:

5. References

[1] Randall Knight, Physics for Scientists and Engineers: A Strategic Approach with Modern
Physics, Perason, 4th edition, 2016, ISBN-13: 978-0134092508, ISBN-10: 0134092503.

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Higher Institute of Technological Studies_Gafsa-Tunisi Calculation and Sizing in boilermaking
Department of Mechanical Engineering Reminder

[2] International Bureau of Weights and Measures, Barry N. Taylor, The International System
of Units (SI), U.S. Department of Commerce, Technology Administration, National Institute
of Standards and Technology, 3rd edition, 2002, ISBN-13: 9780756721794, ISBN-10:
0756721792.

[3] Robert W. Fox, Alan T. McDonald, Philip J. Pritchard, Introduction to Fluid Mechanics,
Wiley, 7th edition, 2009, ISBN-13: 9780470234501, ISBN-10: 0470234504.

[4] Ron Cherchuk, Fluid Mechanics - Bernoulli's Equations Made Easy!, Lulu Press, 2016,
ISBN-13: 9781365160738, ISBN-10: 1365160734.

[5] Wole Soboyejo, Mechanical Properties of Engineered Materials, CRC Press, 1st edition,
2019, ISBN-13: 9780367446932.

[6] Colin J. Smithells, Metals Reference Book, Butterworth-Heinemann, 5th edition, 1976,
ISBN-13: 9781483192529.

[7] Hodge Boiler Works, Boilers and All Kinds of Plate and Sheet Metal Work, Hodge Boiler
Works, 1926.

[8] Mohinder L. Nayyar, Piping Handbook, McGraw-Hill handbooks, 7th edition, 2000,
ISBN-13: 9780070471061, ISBN-10: 0070471061.

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