Sensing and Bio-Sensing Research 35 (2022) 100468

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Sensing and Bio-Sensing Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/sbsr

Mercedes Benz logo based plasmon resonance PCF sensor

Shaymaa Riyadh Tahhan *, Rana M. Taha
Department of Laser and Optoelectronic Engineering, College of Engineering, Al–Nahrain University, Baghdad, Iraq

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: A novel surface plasmon resonance (SPR) based Mercedes Benz Logo Photonic crystal fiber (PCF) has been used
SPR sensor to construct and investigate the finite element approach (FEM) for sensing different analytes. A gold (Au) layer
FEM method has been added to generate the SPR effect. Besides reducing the adhesive problem of the gold layer, an additional
Refractive index sensor
layer of TiO2 is also deposited. The investigation is performed based on the optical parameters such as
Sensitivity
Confinement loss
confinement loss, amplitude sensitivity, resolution, and the parameters that will affect the sensitivity response.
Resolution profile Here, fewer air holes with maximum sensitivity response are obtained 700 nm/RIU for the analyte 1.41. The
maximum amplitude sensitivity response is also obtained as 2561 RIU− 1 for the analyte 1.41. Besides, the
maximum FWHM value is 46.9, with a resolution value of 1.428 × 10− 5 RIU. These highest values are gained by
analyzing the effects of different parameters using the analyte refractive index (RI) from 1.33 to 1.41. The
investigated result shows that the sensor is highly sensitive for detecting analytes. According to its high-
resolution value, FOM value, high wavelength, and amplitude sensitivity with low confinement loss, it can be
said that this modified sensor will be implemented in the field of biosensing.

1. Introduction
Among many sensing techniques, the surface Plasmon resonance
(SPR) sensor is the most promising technique in the detection of a ting
refractive index (RI) change in which SPR is extremely sensitive to the
permittivity of the surrounding environment [1,2]. The earliest SPR
sensors were based on prism structures [3]. Generally, these sensors are
achieved by guiding p-polarized light through a glass prism and
reflecting it from a deposited thin metal film on the prism facet [4].
Nevertheless, these structures have several drawbacks, including costly
integration and bulky configuration, limiting their applications [5].
Instead of that, an optical fiber-based SPR sensor is improved the inte­
gration degree [6]. In these types, the core sensing region is exposed
through physical or chemical etching of fiber jacket to enhance the
coupling between the surface plasmon polariton (SPP) modes and the
core mode [7].
Recently, photonic crystal fiber (PCF) SPR has attracted considerable
attention due to its high sensitivity, measurement of multi- parameters,
and miniaturization, making it more rival in SPR sensing applications
[8,9] like chemical sensing [10,11], gas sensing [12], biosensing [13,14]
and food and cosmetics sensing [15] etc. In this type, the existence of air
holes reduces the effective refractive index (neff) of the core mode, thus
achieving the phase matching between the SPP modes and the core
mode [16]. Hassani A. & Skorobogatiy M. evolved the first PCF-based
SPR sensor [17]. Over the past decade, several studies have appeared
on the progress of PCF-based SPR sensors. Most of these are presented by
gold (Au) as a plasmonic metal due to its chemical stability and
biocompatibility [18]. However, these sensors have low sensitivity. A
feasible strategy is reported to enhance the coupling efficiency between
the SPR mode and the core guided mode by optimizing the coated metal
film [19]. Another limitation that may arise during the fabrication of
PCF-based SPR sensors is the poor adhesion of Au to the setting material.
To overcome that, a thin TiO2 adhesion layer was reported [20].
In this work, the proposed PCF model is tested for resonance con­
ditions at a specific thickness of TiO2 and Au first. Next, the suitable
thickness for both Au and TiO2 is based on confinement loss, amplitude
sensitivity, and wavelength sensitivity. Finally, the sensor performance
is examined based on the optimized parameters for the best chosen layer
thickness values.
This paper contributes the following:
1. The model geometry of the PCF is built with just three air holes,
and an especially nice design based on the Mercedes Benz logo is pro­
posed to create this design.
2. This work extends to the comparison of SPR based PCF for three
regions of SPP modes.
3. The proposed SPR -PCF sensor is tested for a range of refractive

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: Shaymaa.riyadh@gmail.com (S.R. Tahhan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbsr.2021.100468
Received 8 October 2021; Received in revised form 8 December 2021; Accepted 14 December 2021
Available online 16 December 2021
2214-1804/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
S.R. Tahhan and R.M. Taha Sensing and Bio-Sensing Research 35 (2022) 100468

Fig. 2a illustrates the transverse mode distribution at the center of

the proposed PCF for an incident wavelength of 510 nm, while Fig. 2b
shows the surface plasmon modes at the same wavelength (resonance
wavelength) on the Au film. Red arrows indicate the direction of the
field orientation.

3. Numerical analysis

For an accurate simulation of material dispersion of silica (SiO2)

(bulk substance for the PCF), Sellmeier’s equation is utilized to char­
acterize the linear RI of silica [18].
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
0.692λ2 0.408λ2 0.897λ2
n= 1+ 2 + 2 + 2 , (1)
λ − 0.0047 λ − 0.014 λ − 97.934
The wavelength (λ) in Eq. (1) is applicable in the wavelength range of
0.37 to 2.2 μm [18].
Fig. 1. (A) Two-dimensional cross-section of the proposed SPR-PCF, (B) Three- In this design, as a plasmonic material, an Au film is chosen with
dimensional representation of the proposed SPR-PCF. TiO2 as adhesion between Au and SiO2. For material dispersion of Au, a
Drude–Lorentz model is employed [21],
index from 1.33–1.41, then analyzed by calculating the amplitude and
wavelength sensitivity, responsivity, FOM, and FWHM. ω2D Δε .Ω2L
ε m = ε∞ − +( ) , (2)
4. A unique fabrication suggestion is also intended. ω(ω + jγD ) ω2 − Ω2L − jΓL ω
The rest of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 includes the
The variable values of eq. (2) is listed in Table. 1.
geometry design of the proposed SPR PCF. Section 3 elaborates the
The (RI) of TiO2 can be obtained from the equation [18].
mathematical modeling required to analyse and test the optical sensor
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
performance, followed by results and discussions in Section 4. Finally, 2.441 × 107
nt = 5.193 + 2 (3)
this paper is concluded in Section 5. λ − 0.803 × 107
For a precise analysis of sensing properties of our proposed sensor’s,
2. Geometry
a complete PML border approach is used for final vector elements,
estimated confinement loss, wavelength sensitivity and amplitude
The design parameters are adjusted based on improved waveguide
sensitivity through the following equations.
performance from attaining total internal reflection TIR, improving
Confinement loss (Lc) examine the extent of light concetration at the
confinement in the suggested geometry, and lowering material absorp­
core. Which depends on the optical density of the core region. With high
tion loss. Fig. 1 shows the 3D view of the suggested sensor. Modeling and
confinement loss, light tends to scatter across the cladding, thereby
numerical testing are performed using COMSOL Multiphysics software
defeating the expected response of a PC-PCF. Confinement loss is
based on finite-element methods. The Electromagnetic (EM) Waves,
computed as follows [23,24]:
Frequency Domain (EWFD) solver are applied to attain increased
element quality. 2π ( )
Lc = 8.686 × × Im neff , (dB/cm), (4)
The suggested SPR based PCF shape is based on a three-point star in λ
the center surrounded with three air holes (d) in the cladding area to Where λ is the applied wavelength, and Im(neff) is the imaginary part
look like the Mercedes Benz logo or (Y) shaped. This design allows the of the effective refractive index of the fundamental mode.
EM field to travel into the plasmonic metal to produce essential Plasmon. To test and compare the features of the optical sensor, it is essential
In this instance, instead of employing a huge number of air holes, we
merely used three air holes positioned to minimize the confinement
losses and consider the productivity and reliability of manufacturing. Table 1
The proposed PCF radius is 3.5475 μm. The radius of each air hole is Variables of Durde Lorentz model for gold layer as shown in eq. (2), [22].
3.3 μm with a geometry modification and arrangement to get a star
Variable Denotation Value Units
shape solid core. For the designed sensor, Fused silica is adopted as a
permittivity 5.9673
rear substrate in which it has a wide range of transmission, good thermal ε∞
Δε weighting vector 1.09
shock resistivity, and minimal fluorescence [3]. A thin Au film of 2.4 μm ω the angular frequency
length with different thicknesses is affixed on the clad utilizing the TiO2 ωD plasma frequency ωD /2π = 2113.6 THz
layer on the star corner. The analyte is detected on the outside surface of γD damping frequency γD /2π =15.92 THz.
the proposed PCF. A perfect matched layer (PML) of 1.4 μm thickness is ΩL frequency of the Lorentz oscillator ΩL /2π = 650.07 THz
the spectral width of the Lorentz oscillator ΓL /2π = 104.86 THz
employed as the synthetic border.
ΓL

(a) (b)
Fig. 2. Electric Field Mode distribution of (a) core mode (b) surface plasmon mode (resonance wavelength).

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S.R. Tahhan and R.M. Taha Sensing and Bio-Sensing Research 35 (2022) 100468

Confinement Loss (dB/cm)

× 10-2 Sλ = Δλpeak (na ) Δna (nm/RIU) (5)
Refractive Index (n eff ) 1.65 0.25

1.60 SPP mode

Re(n X ) Sa = − (ΔLc /Δna )/Lcinitial (nm/RIU) (6)
Re(n spp) 0.20
CLX Where Δλpeak is the resonance wavelength change while Δna is the RI
1.55
0.15 variation. ΔLc denotes the confinement loss changes and Lcinitial repre­
sents the initial confinement loss. Also, the sensor length, Resolution,
1.50
0.10 and Figure of Merit (FOM) are considered as a significant character­
Core mode
ization for an optical sensor where its length represents the inverse of the
1.45
peak confinement losses at the resonance wavelength, and it can be
0.05
interpolated as follows [7],
1.40
1
450 500 550 600 Sensor Length = (nm/RIU) (7)
Wavelength (nm) Lc (λ, na )
The sensor resolution acts as the detectability of the refractive index
Fig. 3. Effective index and confinement losses versus wavelength, Loss of
fundamental core mode, Au = 20 nm, TiO2 = 5. fraction where lesser gives the best sensor behaviour. The sensor reso­
lution can be defined by the following formula [25]:
to assign the wavelength and amplitude sensitivity. The wavelength Δna Δλmin
Sensor Resolution = , (RIU) (8)
interrogation sensitivity and the amplitude sensitivity of the sensor can Δλpeak (na )
be calculated by eqs. (5) and (6), respectively [7]:
Where, in our case, the difference between two nearby refractive

TiO2 thikness change at RI 1.33 Au thikness change at RI 1.33

0.01 0.01
t = 0 nm
t = 5 nm
t = 10 nm
t = 15 nm
t = 20 nm
0.001 0.001
CL (dB/cm)
CL (dB/cm)

1E-4 t = 10 nm
1E-4 t = 20 nm
t = 30 nm
t = 40 nm

1E-5
1E-5 450 500 550 600 650 700
450 500 550 600 650 700
Wavelength (nm)
Wavelength (nm)

(a) (b)

100

0
Amplitude Sensitivity (dB/RIU)
Amplitude Sensitivity (dB/RIU)

-2000
-100

-200 -4000
t (Au) = 20 nm
t (TiO2) = 5 nm t (Au) = 30 nm
-300 t (TiO2) = 10 nm t (Au) = 40 nm
t (TiO2) = 15 nm -6000
t (TiO2) = 20 nm

-400
-8000
450 500 550 600 450 500 550 600 650 700
Wavelength (nm) Wavelength (nm)

(c) (d)
Fig. 4. (a-b) TiO2, Au thickness layer change effect on the confinement loss, (c-d) Impact of changing TiO2, Au on the amplitude sensitivity.

3
S.R. Tahhan and R.M. Taha Sensing and Bio-Sensing Research 35 (2022) 100468

0.1 510

0.0050
TiO2 thikness = 0 nm
0.0045

Max Wavelength (nm)

0.01
500 0.0040

CL (dB/cm)
0.0035

CL (dB/cm)
0.001
0.0030
Equation y = a + b*x
RI=1.33 490 Plot Max Wavelengt
CL RI=1.34 Weight No Weighting 0.0025
Intercept -177 ± 135.007
CL RI=1.35
1E-4 Slope 500 ± 100
CL RI=1.36 Residual Sum of Squa 30 0.0020
CL RI=1.37 Pearson's r 0.94491
R-Square (COD) 0.89286
Adj. R-Square 0.85714
0.0015
480
1E-5 1.33 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.37
450 500 550 600 650 700 0.0010
Refrective Index (RIU) 1.33 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.37
Wavelength (nm) Refrective Index (RIU)

Max Wavelength
Linear Fitting
0.01 530

0.0040
520
TiO2 thikness = 5 nm

Max Wavelength (nm)

0.001 0.0035
CL (dB/cm)

CL (dB/cm)
510 0.0030

Equation y = a + b*x
Plot Max Wavelengt 0.0025
1E-4 Weight No Weighting
CL RI=1.33 500 Intercept -568 ± 155.89
CL RI=1.34 Slope 800 ± 115.470
CL RI=1.35 Residual Sum of Squar 40 0.0020
Pearson's r 0.97014
CL RI=1.36 R-Square (COD) 0.94118
CL RI=1.37 Adj. R-Square 0.92157
490 0.0015
1E-5 1.33 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.37
450 500 550 600 650 700 Refrective Index (RIU) 1.33 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.37
Wavelength (nm) Refrective Index (RIU)

Max Wavelength
Linear Fitting
550
0.1
0.012
TiO2 thikness = 10 nm
540
Max Wavelength (nm)

0.01
CL (dB/cm)

0.009

CL (dB/cm)
530
0.001
Equation y = a + b*x
CL RI=1.33 Plot Max Waveleng
CL RI=1.34 Weight No Weighting
CL RI=1.35 520 Intercept -820 ± 0 0.006
1E-4 Slope 1000 ± 0
CL RI=1.36 Residual Sum of Squar 0
CL RI=1.37 Pearson's r 1
R-Square (COD) 1
Adj. R-Square 1
510
1E-5 1.33 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.37
500 550 600 650 700 0.003
Refrective Index (RIU) 1.33 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.37
Wavelength (nm) Refrective Index (RIU)

Max Wavelength
Linear Fitting
0.1
TiO2 thikness = 15 nm 570 0.021

560 0.018
Max Wavelength (nm)

0.01
CL (dB/cm)

550 0.015
CL (dB/cm)

0.001
540 0.012
Equation y = a + b*x
CL RI=1.33 Plot Max Wavelength
CL RI=1.34 Weight No Weighting
Intercept -1211 ± 135.0
1E-4 CL RI=1.35 0.009
CL RI=1.36 530 Slope 1300 ± 100
Residual Sum of Squa 30
CL RI=1.37 Pearson's r 0.99124
R-Square (COD) 0.98256
Adj. R-Square 0.97674
0.006
520
1E-5 1.33 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.37
500 550 600 650 700 Refrective Index (RIU) 1.33 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.37
Wavelength (nm) Refrective Index (RIU)

TiO2 thikness = 20 nm
0.1 600

0.030
590

0.01
Max Wavelength (nm)

0.025
580
CL (dB/cm)

CL (dB/cm)

570 0.020
0.001

CL RI=1.33 560 Equation y = a + b*x

Max Wavelength
0.015
CL RI=1.34 Plot
Weight No Weighting
CL RI=1.35 Intercept -1459 ± 206.22722
1E-4
CL RI=1.36 550 Slope
Residual Sum of Squares
1500 ± 152.75252
70
CL RI=1.37 Pearson's r 0.9848 0.010
R-Square (COD) 0.96983
Adj. R-Square 0.95977
540
1.33 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.37
1E-5 0.005
500 550 600 650 700 Refrective Index (RIU) 1.33 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.37

Wavelength (nm) Refrective Index (RIU)

a b c
Fig. 5. Impact of TiO2 layer thickness on loss for the fixed thickness of Au film of 20 nm.

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S.R. Tahhan and R.M. Taha Sensing and Bio-Sensing Research 35 (2022) 100468

Max Wavelength
Linear Fitting
0.001 470
Equation y = a + b*x
Plot Max Waveleng
0.00060
Au thikness = 10 nm Weight No Weighting
Intercept 192 ± 155.893
Slope 200 ± 115.470
Residual Sum of Squ 40
0.00055

Max Wavelength (nm)

Pearson's r 0.70711
RI=1.33
465 R-Square (COD) 0.5
RI=1.34

CL (dB/cm)
Adj. R-Square 0.33333
CL (dB/cm)

RI=1.35
0.00050
RI=1.36
RI=1.37
1E-4
0.00045
460

0.00040

0.00035
455
1.33 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.37 1.33 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.37
1E-5
450 500 550 600 Refrective Index (RIU) Refrective Index (RIU)
Wavelength (nm)

0.1 Max Wavelength

Linear Fitting
Au thikness = 20 nm 530
Equation y = a + b*x 0.006
Plot Max Wavelengt
Weight No Weighting
0.01 Intercept -568 ± 155.893
Slope 800 ± 115.470
Residual Sum of Squar 40 0.005
Max Wavelength (nm)
CL (dB/cm)

Pearson's r 0.97014

CL (dB/cm)
520
R-Square (COD) 0.94118
Adj. R-Square 0.92157
0.001
0.004
CL RI=1.33
CL RI=1.34
CL RI=1.35 510
1E-4
CL RI=1.36
0.003
CL RI=1.37

1E-5 1.33 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.37

450 500 550 600 650 700 500
1.33 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.37 Refrective Index (RIU)
Wavelength (nm) Refrective Index (RIU)

Max Wavelength
Linear Fitting
620 0.030
0.1 Equation y = a + b*x
Plot Max Wavelengt
Weight No Weighting
Au thikness = 30 nm Intercept -1449 ± 126.28
0.025
600 Slope 1500 ± 93.5414
Max Wavelength (nm)

Residual Sum of Squ 140

0.01 Pearson's r 0.9848
R-Square (COD) 0.96983
CL (dB/cm)

Adj. R-Square 0.96606

0.020
CL (dB/cm)

580

0.001
0.015

RI=1.33 560
RI=1.34
1E-4 RI=1.35
0.010
RI=1.36
RI=1.37
540
1.33 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.37 1.33 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.37
1E-5 Refrective Index (RIU) Refrective Index (RIU)
500 550 600 650 700
Wavelength (nm)

Max Wavelength
Linear Fitting
Linear Fit of Sheet
Equation y = a + b*x
0.1 680 Plot Max Wavelength
Weight No Weighting 0.08
Intercept -2338 ± 155.893
Au thikness = 40 nm Slope
Residual Sum of Squar
2200 ± 115.4700
40
Max Wavelength (nm)

660 Pearson's r 0.99589

0.01 R-Square (COD) 0.9918
Adj. R-Square 0.98907
0.06
CL (dB/cm)
CL (dB/cm)

640

0.001
0.04
Equation y = -2338 + 2200*x
Plot Max Wavelength
620 Weight No Weighting
-2338 ± 155.89313
Intercept
RI=1.33 Slope 2200 ± 115.47005
Residual Sum of Squares 40
RI=1.34 Pearson's r 0.99589
0.9918
1E-4 RI=1.35 R-Square (COD)
Adj. R-Square 0.98907
RI=1.36 600
0.02
RI=1.37

1.33 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.37

1E-5 1.33 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.37
Refrective Index (RIU)
500 550 600 650 700
Refrective Index (RIU)
Wavelength (nm)

a b c
Fig. 6. Impact of Au film on the loss while keeping TiO2 thickness fixed.

5
S.R. Tahhan and R.M. Taha Sensing and Bio-Sensing Research 35 (2022) 100468

1
1.50

1.48 0.1

Confinement Losses (dB/cm)

0.01

Confinement Losses (dB/cm)

Effective Index (RIU) 1.46
0.01
1.33
1.44 1.34
0.001
1.35
0.001 1.36
1.42
1.37
1.38
1.40 1E-4 1.39
neff (na= 1.38) 1E-4
1.40
CL (dB/cm) 1.41
1.38 SPP1
SPP2
1E-5
SPP3
1.36 1E-5 450 500 550 600 650 700 750
450 500 550 600 650
a b Wavelength (nm)
Wavelength (nm)

0.4 660
Equation y = a + b*x
CL Plot Peak Wavelength
W eight No Weighting
Intercept -2651.22222 ± 427.1902
630 Slope 2366.66667 ± 311.7623
Residual Sum of Square 4082.22222
0.3

Peak Wavelength (nm)

Pearson's r 0.94429
R-Square (COD) 0.89169
Adj. R-Square 0.87621
600
CL (dB/cm)

0.2
570

0.1 540

Peak Wavelength
510 Linear Fitting
0.0
c 1.33 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.37 1.38 1.39 1.40 1.41 d 1.34 1.36 1.38 1.40

Analyte Refractive Index (RIU)

Analyte Refractive Index (RIU)

680
500 Peak Wavelength
Sensor Length 3.0
660
0
640 2.5
Amplitude Sensitivity (RIU-1)

-500
Peak Wavelength (nm)

620

Sensor Length (m)

100
2.0
-1000 600
0

-100 1.5
-1500 580
-200

1.34 -300
1.35 560 1.0
-2000 -400
1.36
1.37 -500 540
500 550 600 650
-2500 1.38 0.5
1.39
520
1.40
-3000 1.41 0.0
500

e 450 500 550 600 650 700

f 1.32 1.34 1.36 1.38 1.40 1.42
Wavelength (nm)
Analyte Refractive Index (RIU)

250
FWHM
Resolution 48
FOM
-4
1.0x10
45

42 200
8.0x10-5
39
Resolution (RIU)

FOM (dB/RIU)
FWHM (nm)

36
150
6.0x10-5 33

30

4.0x10-5 27 100

24

21
2.0x10-5
50
18
1.33 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.37 1.38 1.39 1.40 1.41 1.42
g Analyte Refractive Index (RIU) h 1.33 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.37 1.38 1.39 1.40 1.41
Analyte Refractive Index (RIU)

Fig. 7. Optimum design parameter of Au =20 and TiO2 = 15 nm and the sensor performance.

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S.R. Tahhan and R.M. Taha Sensing and Bio-Sensing Research 35 (2022) 100468

indices is 0.01 with a minimum wavelength resolution of 0.1 nm
[3,18,26].
The overall sensor performance can be determined by the FOM,
which follows the following expression [25]:
/ ( ) A lower wavelength of 500 and 800 nm/RIU is shown for 5 and 10
FOM = Sλ FWHM, RIU− 1 (9)
Where Sλ is the wavelength sensitivity as indicated in eq. (5), while
FWHM is the full width at half the maximum of the resonance peak
where the broadening at half maximum of the SPR curve.
4. Results and discussions
Both the basic core-guided modes of orthogonal polarization may
create surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs) in the same manner due to the
symmetry in geometric. Accordingly, the coupling resonance features
between the basic polarized core-guided mode and SPP mode are
investigated in this research.
In Fig. 3, the mode distribution and the relation between the core-
guided mode and the spp. modes of the designed PCF-SPR sensor for
the Au, TiO2 with a thickness of 20 nm and 5 nm, respectively, while the
analyte RI is 1.33.
For both modes (core and spp), the effective index is inversely pro­
portional concerning the incident wavelength. The resonance condition
is satisfied at 500 nm; the lines intersect at the phase matching point,
which the SPR induces. At this point, the highest confinement loss is
obtained due to high resonance coupling. Although, at the core region,
strong field confinement is shown more over the Au and TiO2 strips.
When two modes are met in the matching phase between the core y-
polarization modes with the SPP mode, and the transmitted light’s
spectrum emerges as the resonance peak and subsequently degrades
eventually exponentially [25].
To optimize the suitable thickness of the Au film on the sensor per­
formance as the SPR is vulnerable to it [8], the influence of different Au
and TiO2 thicknesses is studied. Fig. 4a and 4b show the loss spectra of
the y-polarized core mode at na = 1.33 for various thicknesses of TiO2
layer 0 nm, 5 nm, 10 nm, 15 nm, and 20 nm with Au film of 10 nm, 20
nm, 30 nm, and 40 nm.
Upon increasing the thickness of the TiO2 layer, the peak wavelength
shifts toward a longer wavelength while the peak loss shows upward
trends. In contrast to the behaviour of Au film thickness increasing, the
corresponding peak wavelength of peak loss shifts toward longer
wavelengths.
Figs. 4c and 4d show a higher amplitude sensitivity for thicker TiO2
with thinner Au films. Although it is higher for thicker TiO2 it has a very
close value. The confinement loss is the other more effective factor.
While for the Au films, the amplitude sensitivity has a unique value at
20 nm thickness.
To further study the effect of TiO2 thickness on sensing performance,
the wavelength sensitivities of the sensor at different analyte refractive
index (na) with layer thickness at 5 nm, 10 nm, 15 nm, and 20 nm are
presented and illustrated in Fig. 5. Increasing the analyte refractive
index from 1.33–1.37 shows a consistent increase in the peak
confinement loss toward longer wavelengths, as predicted in Fig. 5a. The
reason behind this phenomenon is only the electric field at the longer
wavelength can pass and couple with SPP modes on the Au films when
the distance between it and the core is increased.
nm thickness, respectively. In comparison, it offers a contrary for 15 and
20 nm thickness of 1300 and 1500 nm/RIU, as illustrated in Fig. 5b. The
confinement loss of the 20 nm thickness is superior, wherefore, 15 nm
TiO2 layer thickness is chosen as the best value for the rest of the opti­
mization (Fig. 5c).
To optimize the suitable thickness of the Au films, a 10, 20, 30 and
40 nm are examined with different values of na from 1.33 to 1.37 with a
step of 0.01.
The sensor generally shows a higher sensitivity with thicker Au film,
especially at a larger na range.
At 10 nm the peak wavelength of the peak loss is almost fixed. The
peak loss trends toward longer wavelengths for the other thicknesses, as
presented in Fig. 6a. The wavelength sensitivity at 30 and 40 nm
thickness is higher than 20 nm (Fig. 6b), but the confinement loss is also
high. The confinement loss at 20 nm thickness is 0.006 dB/cm while
0.03 and 0.086 dB/cm for 30 and 40 nm, respectively, as illustrated in
Fig. 6c.
For optimization of the sensor behaviour in a specified gradual
range, linear regression is fundamental. For the designed sensor, the
linear relationship of the resonance wavelength is illustrated in Fig. 6b.
Here, the resonance wavelength performs as a dependent variable, while
the analyte RI performs as an independent variable. The linear equation
is y = 800× − 568, where the determination coefficient (R2) is 0.97014.
5. Optimized parameters and sensor performance
For Au with 20 nm film thickness, the highest amplitude sensitivity is
− 6000 dB/RIU for, as depicted in Fig. 4d. while the best confined,
uniform distribution and upward increase toward longer wavelength at
15 nm thickness of the TiO2 is shown in Fig. 5. Upon these results,
another study is implemented on the proposed geometry with 15 and 20
nm thickness of TiO2 and Au, respectively. The dispersion relations
between the y-polarization basic mode and the SPP mode are seen in
Fig. 7a. According to the coupled-mode theory, incoming light may be
divided into vertical and horizontal components, and only the y-polar­
ization mode can couple with the SPP mode.
Three resonance peaks are formed at the three resonance wave­
lengths 500 nm, 530 nm, and 590 nm: SPP1 (left), SPP2 (middle), and
SPP3 (right). The graph’s confinement loss is proportional to the
imaginary component of the effective RI for the y-polarization funda­
mental mode. The confinement losses versus wavelength are calculated
for different analytes for the RI range of 1.33–1.41 for a longer sensing
band window from 450 to 700 nm, as demonstrated in Fig. 7b. The RI
variation is 0.001 RIU between two adjacent analytes. The peak loss
versus the analyte refractive change is depicted in Fig. 7c.
Increasing the analyte refractive index implies rising the peak
confinement losses. The resonance peaks progressively grow as the RI

Table 2
Outcomes evaluation for the proposed sensor.
na Peak loss (dB/cm) Sensor Length WS AS FWHM FOM Resolution (dB.RIU)
(m) (nm/RIU) (RIU− 1) (dB/RIU)

1.33 0.00428 2.33667 – – 19.2 – –

1.34 0.00614 1.62967 1000 − 202.60509 17.6 56.81818 1E-4
1.35 0.00803 1.24485 1000 − 267.56892 19 52.63158 1E-4
1.36 0.01047 0.95493 2000 − 413.91274 22.1 90.49774 5E-5
1.37 0.02069 0.48337 1000 − 455.17389 17.1 58.47953 1E-4
1.38 0.03511 0.28481 2000 − 718.22843 17.4 114.94253 5E-5
1.39 0.07509 0.13318 3000 − 1619.67112 17.2 174.4186 3.333E-5
1.40 0.17267 0.05791 4000 − 2821.46048 20 200 2.5E-5
1.41 0.36798 0.02718 7000 − 2560.92993 46.9 149.25373 1.428E-5

7
S.R. Tahhan and R.M. Taha
Table 3
Comparison of the proposed sensor and resect published article.
Ref. Min Peak loss (dB/cm) Num. of Air Holes Max WS
(nm/RIU)
[27] 20 5 4600
[28] 15 14 1,11,000
[18] 0.79 4 34,000
Proposed 0.00428 3 7000
Fig. 8. Schematic of the fiber extrusion setup with a commercial filament
extruder, a filament pulling system, and Inset shows images of the fabricated 3D
printed nozzles, (a) Motor (b) polymer flow through the feeding chamber (FC)
and the welding chamber (WC), (c) Heating chamber, (d) 3D printed specially
designed nozzle, (e) fabricated PCF.
rises, which may be explained by the fact that the higher the RI of the
external environment, the lower the capacity to bind light gets, and the
coupling efficiency between SPP mode and y-polarization mode in­
creases, resulting in the greater amplitude.
Fig. 7d demonstrates the peak wavelength as a function of the ana­
lyte index with a curve fitting. The wavelength sensitivity is determined
as 2366.67 nm/RIU using the slope of the fitted curve. The adjusted R2 is
selected as the determined coefficient, and the coefficients correspond­
ing to min peak and max peak is 0.9.
The amplitude sensitivity is calculated and depicted in Fig. 7e,
whereas it shows very high values at a maximum of 2821.5 RIU− 1 at 1.4.
The propagation sensor length is also premeditated based on eq. (7). It is
an essential consideration in the fabrication process where it is inversely
proportional to the confinement losses. Higher losses increase the
fabrication complexity. Fig. 7f shows the relation of the sensor length
with different analyte RI, for example, the confinement loss is 0.03511
dB/cm for analyte RI of 1.39. therefore the sensor length is 28.48 cm
which considers a good sign.
The sensor has an averaged resolution of 5 × 10− 5 RIU at 1.38 an­
alyte, as depicted in Fig. 7 g. FOM determines the overall performance of
the sensor. According to eq. (9), for high FOM the FWHM should be low,
whereas the sensitivity should be high. The maximum FOM value of 200
is achieved for analyte RI of 1.4 as depicted in Fig. 7 h. The outcomes of
the proposed sensor has been evaluated in Table 2 for analyte 1.33 to
1.41. In Table 3, the comparisions of the proposed sensor with respect to
recent published articles have been exhibited. It is nicely visualized that
the proposed sensor shows better performance compare to other sensors.
6. Proposed fabrication method
Due to their simplicity and flexibility, suspended Core Fibers are
fabricated via mechanical drilling and air filling methods [29]. Under
the simple design, Suspended core holey fiber is produced through the
drilling technique, which has a clear advantage over the more labour-
intensive stack-and-draw technique utilized for HF fabrication. This
work describes the fabrication and properties of silica SC-HFs and the
8
Sensing and Bio-Sensing Research 35 (2022) 100468
Max AS RI Range FOM (RIU− 1) Resolution (RIU)
(RIU− 1)
– 1.33–1.35 – 2× 10− 5
2050 1.33–1.43 – 9 × 10− 7
6
1170 1.32–1.41 310 2.94 × 10−
2821.46048 1.33–1.41 5× 10− 5
transactions for achieving low loss [30]. A commercial table-top low-
cost filament extruder is used to produce complex microstructure optical
fibers in a single step, directly from optical material pellets to the final
fiber, is demonstrated [31]. Fig. 8 shows the suggested fabrication
process.
7. Conclusion
To summarize, an SPR based Mercedes Benz Logo PCF sensor is
investigated for the different polarization modes such as core, spp. and
coupling modes. The design parameters are optimized using the COM­
SOL Multiphysics software under the FEM method. The fabrication
process of the proposed sensor is highly tolerable and it will not affect
more to the sensing outcomes. For this reason, the proposed sensor has
no fabrication complexity. The obtained outcomes show that the
wavelength and amplitude sensitivity response is increasing with the
increase of analyte refractive index from 1.33 to 1.41. Furthermore, the
operating wavelength is chosen here from 450 nm to 700 nm. The
maximum wavelength sensitivity, amplitude sensitivity, FWHM, FOM
and the resolution values are noted as 7000 nm/RIU, 2561 RIU− 1, 46.9,
150 dB/RIU, 5 × 10− 5 RIU respectively. These maximum responses are
gained with the low confinement loss value of 0.37 dB/cm. From the
investigated results, it can be visualized that the sensor is more effective
for sensing as well as practical use. Moreover, this proposed sensor will
be highly applicable in biological and biochemical areas for its high
sensitivity response with low loss value.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
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