GROUP ASSESSMENT REPORT

TL4122 AIR POLLUTION MONITORING

INTERNATIONAL VIRTUAL CLASS
APMEI 2021

SWEDEN WILDFIRES 2018

Written by : Werner Leonhardt Krishna 15318044

Arsyi Aqsara 15319029
Jeremy Nikson Tumanggor 15319071
Nuraziizah Jihan Rosyiidah 15319116
Najwa Ali 15320805
Nawal Fairuz Dinan 15320806

ORGANIZED BY:
FACULTY OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING,
INSTITUT TEKNOLOGI BANDUNG
FACULTY OF OCEAN ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY AND INFORMATICS,
UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA TERENGGANU
2021
 Table of Contents
1. Background 2
2. Analysis and Discussion 3
2.1 Condition of the forest fires that have occurred 3
2.2 Impacts on the environment 3
2.3 Current monitoring system 5
2.4 Technical aspects 6
2.5 Non-technical aspects 7
2.6 Advantages and disadvantages 9
3. Sweden Forest Fires Evaluation 13
3.1 Best Practices/Proposed Ideas or methods 13
3.2 Gap analysis 14
4. Conclusion 14
4.1 Conclusion 14
4.2 Recommendation 15
5. References 16

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1. Background

The Swedish wildfire occurred in the summer of 2018, due to the very hot and dry season.
It occurred throughout most of Sweden, mostly forest fires. Heat and drought have kept fires
burning in Central Sweden, leading to a number of evacuations. Sweden and the rest of the Nordic
region are said to have experienced an unprecedented heatwave over the past few days. It is
estimated that temperatures reaching 30 degrees Celsius will continue for the next week, which
will continue to trigger the expansion of fire hotspots. Fires were recorded in Sweden's
northernmost region of the Arctic Circle prompting Stockholm to seek help from neighboring
countries to control the spread of the fires.

It was reported that temperatures in the city of Uppsala, in northern Sweden, were reported to be
over 33 degrees Celsius, making it the highest heat temperature recorded since 1947. News site
The Local Sweden, reports that Sweden is at risk of forest fires due to extremely high temperatures
and drought. Apart from Sweden, neighboring Norway was also hit by forest fires at 100 points
last year. In the south of the country, fires were caused by lightning strikes. emergency company
SOS Alarm warned that dry conditions could trigger a fire.

Swedish authorities reported 44 fires burning across the country. Residents of Gavleborg, Jamtland
and Dalarna were asked to evacuate. The fires also affected the northern part of Lapland, which
includes the Arctic Circle region. The fire engulfed the area around Jokkmokk City, a popular
tourist area among tourists. To AFP news agency, a rescue worker Thomas Anderson said that a
fire of this magnitude had not occurred in the last 12 years in Jokkmokk. Sweden seeks EU help
due to capacity and manpower shortages. Under the framework of the European Union's Civil
Protection Mechanism, Italy sent two firefighting planes to help extinguish the areas worst hit by
the fires in Central Sweden. Meanwhile, Norway sent six helicopters. According to the European
Commission, although no casualties have been reported so far, Sweden remains at very high risk
of larger forest fires.

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2. Analysis and Discussion

2.1 Condition of the forest fires that have occurred

Fires extend all over the country from the middle of July until the end of the month - after
it was declared under control. The total area affected by forest fires was estimated to be
25,000 – 30,000 hectares (Juric, 2019). In addition, many harmful gases are emitted into
the air, especially PM2.5 as one of the most common and dangerous pollutants derived from
wildfires. In fact, the gas is associated with increasing levels of citizens in the Jämtland
Härjedalen region affected by respiratory diseases, such as asthma. However, many
compounds such as elemental carbon (EC), organic carbon (OC), total carbon (TC),
nitrogen oxides (NOx), PM10, PM2.5, non-methane volatile organic compounds
(NMVOC), carbon monoxide (CO), methane (CH4), and sulfur dioxide (SO2) are also
calculated (Tornevi, et al., 2021).

2.2 Impacts on the environment

Wildfires are part of nature however it can cause a lot of damage to living beings, its habitat
and other fatality. Many systems are affected by wildfire smoke, predominantly through
the respiratory system. Cardiovascular effects and ocular problems can also occur as well
as acute burns. We know that climate change may increase the risk of increasing wildfire
frequency, therefore there is an urgent need to further understand the health effects and
public awareness of wildfires. Since it is obvious that the air quality is alarmingly affected,
when wood gets burnt, its smoke has a very high level of toxins and particulate matter that
could harm the respiratory system of a living being. Respiratory morbidity predominates,
but cardiovascular, ophthalmic and psychiatric problems can also result. Furthermore,
severe burns resulting from direct contact with the fire require care in special units and
carry a risk of multiorgan complications (Finlay, S. E., et al ., 2021) . There are some
certain areas and populations that are very vulnerable to fire, thus it could affect them
worse.

The effects of wildfire smokes can range from respiratory tract and eye irritation to severe
other health problems such as, heart failure, bronchitis, reduced lung function et cetera.

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Women, elderly and children are specifically vulnerable to smoke exposure. Emissions
from wildfires are known to cause increased visits to hospitals and clinics by those exposed
to smoke (US EPA, O., 2017).

Not just humans that are affected by the fire, fauna and flora as well. Many animals died
due to the fire, either during the fire occurring or after the fire is out due to losing their
homes, their habitats and causing short-term increases in wildlife foods that contribute to
increases in populations of some animals. Likewise, the plants other than the trees that
were being caught by the fire, many other different and rare plants are burnt which both
wildlife and plants can lead to an extinction due to how much fire had spread across the
land, in which in this case it was a total of 250 km2 of land in Sweden that was scorched
by the fire.

Wildfires also adversely affected the water quality in the region, both during the fire and
for years afterwards. The aftermath of a wildfire, rainstorms flush vast quantities of ash,
sediment, nutrients and contaminants into streams, rivers, and downstream reservoirs.
Therefore, the absence of vegetation in the watershed could create conditions conducive to
erosion and even flooding, and naturally occurring and anthropogenic substances can
impact drinking water quality, discolor recreational waters, and may potentially contribute
to harmful algal blooms. On account of the unpredictable nature of wildfires, there are
some challenges that are being faced by the drinking-water utilities to develop strategies
and plans to overcome and manage floods as well as treating polluted water (US EPA,
ORD., 2019).

Soil is also highly impacted by the wildfires from the severe erosion because as a fire burns
it destroys plant material and the litter layer. It instantaneously destroys the living and
decaying vegetation and suddenly releases all of its nutrients, such as nitrogen, sulfur,
phosphorus, and carbon. It also burns away all of the vegetation and the dead organic matter
on the surface of the soil (Minas, S., 2019). However, it also increases the soil fertility, a
researcher had found that the soil biodiversity recovers quickly after fire but soil fungi take
longer to recover than bacteria. Nutrient levels and soil organic matter both increase after

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fire. Spanish research showed a significant increase in soil pH, carbon and nutrients
immediately after a prescribed grass fire (NSW Government, 2012).

2.3 Current monitoring system

Forest fires in Sweden are not common and rarely widespread. However, the impact can
be fatal. According to Leandersson and Lillienberg (2011), Sweden's current preparations
for future fire risks are not enough to tackle larger wildfires. Therefore, a monitoring
system as well as an assessing system, which could provide a potential fire size, is needed
for a rescue agency. The information can help to decide how much and what kind of effort
is needed to control the fires (MSB, 2017).

Currently, monitoring activities related to air pollution and also forest fires have been
carried out by the Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency (MSB) and the Swedish
Meteorological and Hydrological Institute (SMHI). MSB provides the information system
regarding fire danger in vegetation, recorded lightning & forecast of thunderstorms,
forecast of rain, temperature, humidity, wind speed and wind direction, also analysis data
and maps in grid data 11x11 km (Sandahl, 2018). For the level of risk itself stated in Fire
Weather Index (FWI) - as a numeric rating of fire intensity. On the other hand, air quality
measurements were taken by SMHI along with it’s models. They are important tools for
calculating the dispersion of air pollutants in the atmosphere (SMHI, 2011).

Forest fire risks are quantified using the Canadian Fire Weather Index. This is a weather-
based system that models soil moisture at three different depths, also based on the upper
soil moisture content and wind speed so that it creates an estimate for the initial spread rate
of fire. The calculation is determined by four meteorological variables, namely local noon
temperature (T2M), relative humidity (RH), surface wind speed, and 24 h cumulative
precipitation (Krikken, et al., 2021). Meanwhile, dispersion models are used to measure
concentrations of air pollutants on a different scale, starting from local to continental. Yet,
in analyzing the interacting effects of all scales, concepts of the combined models were
applied – MATCH and SIMAIR. Both of them are working differently : the Multi-scale

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Atmospheric Transport and Chemistry (MATCH) model is three-dimensional and used to
calculate the transformation, transport and deposition of air pollution. . While SIMAIR is
a web-based model tool for the calculation of Air Quality in areas with road traffic and/or
residential wood combustion (SMHI, 2010 ; SMHI, 2011 ; SMHI, 2012).

2.4 Technical aspects

Tube Well (TW)

Tube well is a deep well that produces water from the underground aquifer using a
submersible pump or pump engine. TW can increase water level in drains or nearby ponds
to provide a source of water supply during a fire extinguishing operation. TW also wetting
or flooding a dry and burned peatland area for rewetting purposes. Rewetting of peatlands
has the highest priority for addressing peatland degradation and biodiversity loss and for
mitigating CO2 emissions from peat oxidation and peatland fires (Parish et al., 2008). A
consequence of forest fire event especially on the peat swamp forest ecosystem can be
significantly causing globally carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions to the atmosphere hence to
a major contributor to global warming (UNDP Malaysia, 2006, Warren et al.,2016) stated
that warming of the Earth’s climate systems and lowering of natural water table levels were
believed to be responsible for the increasing frequency of peatland fires. The rewetting of
drained peatland involves the partial or entire reversal of former anthropogenic drainage
by elevating the average annual water table. The aim is to achieve permanent water
saturation of the entire peat body by raising the water table too close to or above the peat
surface and by reducing the amplitude of water level fluctuations. If feasible, deep and
permanent flooding should be avoided, because deep water cannot be colonized easily by
emergent vegetation. Temporary pools and flooding can, on the other hand, also stabilize
water levels (large storage capacity), such as in tropical peat swamps (Dommain et al.,
2010). Rewetting is achieved by reducing water losses from the site by decreasing surface
drainage, surface runoff, subsurface seepage, groundwater extraction, and
evapotranspiration, and by, where relevant, increasing the water supply from the
catchment. There is no universal strategy to rewet drained peatlands, as conditions differ
widely.

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Forest Fuel treatment

Forest fuel treatments are used for ecological restoration and reducing fire hazard. Due to
past management decisions and long-term fire exclusion, forests are more dense and are
susceptible to severe wildfires. Fuel treatments aim to reduce the intensity and size of
wildfires, increase species diversity, and restore forests to their historical condition. Fuel
treatment is a process of reducing fuel levels to mitigate the impact of future fires and is
typically performed before the beginning of a fire season. Fuel treatments carried out over
large surfaces can reduce both the size and severity of wildfires and their effects on
communities and the environment; they can facilitate suppression by providing safe access
and egress for firefighters, as well as possible counter-firing opportunities (Martinson and
Omi, 2003). Furthermore, fuel treatments represent valuable options for landscape
management that balance societal preferences with the unavoidable recurrence of wildfires
(Martinson and Omi, 2003); they also significantly reduce the likelihood of crowning, abate
fire severity and moderate environmental damages (Graham and Caffrey, 2003, Graham et
al., 2004) and redistribute fire-risk on the landscape (Cochrane et al., 2012).

2.5 Non-technical aspects

Wildfire prevention education programs

Wildfire prevention education programs can be particularly beneficial. This was confirmed
through a study conducted by the Southern Research Station and the National Institute of
Standards and Technology that demonstrated that wildfire prevention education pays for
itself many times over in the state of Florida. Wildfire prevention education aims to teach
the public about the dangers of accidentally igniting fires, with the expectation that these
activities will lead to fewer wildfires (Our Products — Urban Forestry South, 2011). Public
understanding and support for fire prevention is important to create a strong social norm
that balances the use of fire. The use of fires may sometimes be the only option open to
smallholders for small scale agriculture purposes. Improperly planned agricultural
operations contribute to wildfires statistics if people ignore wildfire prevention tips, don’t

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take safety measures, and don’t consider the weather specifics. The main contributors are
slash-and-burn practices, debris burning on the agricultural lands and households close to
forests, and the use of flammable liquids (Wildfire Prevention: How To Prevent & Control
Forest Fires, 2021). Slash and burn is method of cultivation in which forests are burned
and cleared for planting (Slash-and-Burn Agriculture | Definition & Impacts, n.d.).
Research shows that the burning of peat is an unsustainable practice as it results in
increased peat loss and subsidence. Therefore, farmers need to be educated and trained on
the best peatland agriculture methods to discourage harmful practice.

Techniques for Public Awareness Raising

Urgent efforts are needed to raise the awareness of various components of the community,
in particular the local people who live around the forest and buffer zone, as well as other
stakeholders. This can be accomplished through a number of techniques and media, such
as making warning signs that have many types of shapes and materials according to the
place of the signage. Next, making banners which bear exhortations to prevent fire, and
warnings or prohibitions related to fire incidence. The banners should be put up along
public streets, with the provision that they do not disturb road users, and in certain locations
in villages near the forest such as the village hall and market. In addition, the production
of brochures, folders, leaflets and magazines that use simple language. They should be
brief and attractively designed with pictures and photographs, and give practical
information on the importance of protecting the forest ecosystem, on the threats to it, what
will happen if it is damaged, and what can be done to prevent such damage, etc.
Furthermore, production of posters, fire calendars and story books. Posters are a way of
promoting awareness through the use of pictures and concise wording. For the making of
posters are simple but clear pictures, attractive and alive, with words which are easily
understandable, attractive colour composition with colours that do not fade easily. Short
messages and reminders about the danger of fire, plus pictures of environmental damage,
can be inserted into an attractively designed calendar . Moreover, the calendar can also
contain messages about land and forest fire control activities for each month. Lastly,
environmental story books are a medium for introducing children to the importance of

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forest conservation, through the use of cartoon characters and amusing, attractive pictures
which stimulate them to read the books (Adinugroho W.C. et al., 2005).

2.6 Advantages and disadvantages

The Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency (MSB) and The Swedish Meteorological and
Hydrological Institute (SMHI) have made their best efforts in conducting monitoring
activities related to air pollution and forest fires. They have also chosen good practices,
monitoring systems, and indices in preventing and monitoring the risk of forest fires.
However, the steps chosen by them have some advantages and disadvantages.

2.6.1 Canadian Fire Weather Index

Wildfire risk indices can be used in order to be better prepared for wildfires. In
Sweden, the Canadian Fire Weather Index (FWI) is currently used to predict fire
behaviour based on meteorological data such as wind velocity, temperature and
rainfall. The Fire Weather Index (FWI) is a component of the Canadian Forest Fire
Weather Index System (CFFWIS) which in turn is a sub-system of the national
system used in Canada: the Canadian Forest Fire Danger Rating System (CFFDRS)
(de Groot, 1987). The FWI has been revised several times since its original version
(van Wagner, 1987). The FWI relies on the assumption that the three main factors
determining forest fire risk are wind speed, fuel availability and its moisture content
(Matthews, 2009). The FWI is based on fire weather observations and fuel moisture
codes. According to Global Fire Monitoring Center (GFMC) and Eriksson et al.,
(2020) there are several advantages and disadvantages from using Canadian Fire
Weather Index:

Advantages:
+The index requires basic weather data which can be easily accessed.
+It is a widely established and used index. (Currently used in Sweden).

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It is the core component of the UK’s fire danger rating system MOFSI (Met Office
Fire Severity Index) as described in de Jong et al. (2016). EFFIS (European Forest
Fire Information System ) even used FWI values as a base for its forecasting
module.

+The different sub-components can be used to interpret different potential fire

characteristics.
FWI System consists of six components that account for the effects of fuel moisture
and weather conditions on fire behavior. The Fine Fuel Moisture Code ( FFMC )
indicates the relative ease of ignition and flammability of fine fuel. The Duff
Moisture Code ( DMC ) indicates fuel consumption in moderate duff layers and
medium-size woody material. The Drought Code ( DC ) is a useful indicator of
seasonal drought effects on forest fuels, and amount of smoldering in deep duff
layers and large logs. The Initial Spread Index ( ISI ) combines the effects of wind
and the Fine Fuel Moisture Code on the rate of spread without the influence of
variable quantities of fuel. BUI (Build up Index) is a factor of evaluation of the
vegetables that can build up a fire ("heavy" fuels on the soil) and is estimated from
two of the sub-indices: DMC and DC. The Fire Weather Index ( FWI ) is a
numerical rating of fire intensity that combines the Initial Spread Index and the
Buildup Index.

Disadvantages:
− There is a large amount of equations (30) and steps to
calculate the FWI.
− Startup time required / calibration as FMC, DMC and DC are
required for the previous day.
− The FWI does not take into account fuel types and
topography.

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2.6.2 Multi-scale Atmospheric Transport and Chemistry (MATCH)

MATCH is used for Air Quality assessment in Sweden and the Baltic Sea region
using a set-up combining the MATCH model calculations and monitoring data
from Sweden and the neighbouring countries (SMHI, 2021). MATCH describes
tropospheric ozone formation through photochemical reactions, atmospheric
transformation and deposition of nitrogen and sulfur species and aerosol
composition and dynamics. By using the MATCH chemistry transport model, daily
population weighted concentrations of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) can be
calculated (Tornevi et al., 2021). The MATCH model also can be used to create the
simulation in order to quantify the degree of air pollution caused by wildfires (
(Tornevi et al., 2021). There are several advantages and disadvantages from using
MATCH:

Advantages:
+Long-term trend analyses.
+More measurements can be included in data assimilation.

Disadvantages:
- Limited to specific areas/regions of observation.
- It can’t be accessed freely.
- Complex system.

2.6.3. SIMAIR System

SIMAIR is SMHI’s national model system for air quality calculations. It is used
to monitor airborne pollution in urban air, and is a web-based tool that includes all
input data needed to calculate air quality or air pollution levels (SMHI, 2016).
SIMAIR is an internet tool that can be used by all Swedish municipalities to assess
PM10, NO2, CO and benzene levels and how they compare to the EU directive (L.
Gidhagen et al., 2009). The characteristics of the SIMAIR system are to use the
best available emission and dispersion models on different scales, but at the same

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time present a very simplified functionality. During 2016, SMHI developed the web
tool and it enables SIMAIR to discover which sources have the greatest impact on
air quality. It is also possible to allocate contributions to air pollution from urban
sources into different sources, such as road traffic, small-scale wood burning, and
industry. There are several advantages and disadvantages from using SIMAIR:

Advantages:
+ The platform is user-friendly and easy to access.
A SIMAIR customer can log into the system through an Internet browser,
without any download and is able to launch a 1-year simulation by zooming
in over a city map and clicking on the road of link of interest (L. Gidhagen
et al., 2009).

+ There is an annual update so the database can be improved.

+ Hourly data presentation and fast calculation.
The system is based on the handling of true hourly time series, both for
meteorology as well as the individually calculated long range, urban and
local contributions. This is principally to allow the best possible
determination of extreme values, but hourly time series also allow a simpler
evaluation against measured time series concentrations. Local authorities
can calculate total pollution levels for local street sites and, within ten
seconds, receive a report which compares the simulated concentrations at
that location with EU standards (L. Gidhagen et al., 2009).

Disadvantages:
- Not an ‘objective’ modelling system.
The SIMAIR system is based on a combination of pre-calculated concentrations
From models and of different scales and outputs. There is a need for an objective
modeling tool that can complement the measurement itself (L. Gidhagen et al.,
2009).

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3. Sweden Forest Fires Evaluation

3.1 Best Practices/Proposed Ideas or methods

Current best practices in handling the prevention of fire control have been implemented by
most countries. Beginning with field survey and mapping to identify the areas at risk and
its potential hazard, delineate and define them, and improve the infrastructure such as
barriers or firebreaks that may limit fire spread. These barriers include natural and artificial,
such as rivers and roads respectively. Field survey and mapping must include hazard and
risk assessment such as, but are not limited to fuel/vegetation, slope, weather patterns,
negative impact on human life, its natural resources, etc. (NFPA, 2013) Signposts are also
needed to mark water supplies, rendezvous points, and guide fire crews through unfamiliar
territories. Standard operating procedures and regulations must be implemented and
education should be given to ensure that people in areas at risk of forest fire do not
contribute to increasing the risk of forest fire which usually comes from recreational
activities such as setting up campfire, or as simple as irresponsibly throwing cigarette butts
on the surface of the forest.

When dealing with fire suppression, the first thing that should be done is detection. Many
countries have organizations of trained professionals to detect and fight fires while many
others also rely on volunteers or a combination of both. Tower lookouts, equipped with
binoculars, maps, direction scale, as well as means of communication are also needed to
put into place to pinpoint and triangulate the location of smoke and notify fire control base.
As of now, aerial surveillance by means of aircraft and satellite are proven to be the most
efficient and accurate to detect fire by providing rapid collection of information in detecting
fire, the location, and its appraisal.

After detecting the fire, fire suppression needs to be done with limiting the fuel,
temperature, as well as the oxygen. Usually this is done by physically removing the
combustible material and through application of dirt, water, or chemical substances. Water
is proven to be the most obvious and efficient fire extinguisher, but in reality, the
application would be limited due to short supply and inadequate application methods. The

13
 use of wetting agents, retardants, and foaming agents are being carried out to change the
physical characteristics of water to increase its penetrating and spreading abilities, reducing
the flammability of wood, and increasing the mixture volume to cool, moisten, and insulate
the fuel. (Chaney, 2010)

3.2 Gap analysis

In terms of infrastructure in preventing, monitoring, as well as evaluating the risk of forest

fire, Sweden has adequate, if not, some of the best infrastructure despite having shortage
of capacity and manpower. This is due to the presence of the EU in providing services and
coordinating neighboring countries to help. The gap which allowed the Sweden Forest Fire
to occur in 2018 was the lack of anticipation of the Swedish government and institution
during the dry season which can be very hot due to the climate change that is currently
taking place rapidly. It is of the utmost importance that countries all over the world deal
with forest fires by looking at the whole system to prevent, adapt, and mitigate the risk and
impact, from educating people, further enhancing the infrastructure, implementing tight
regulations, as well as consider other factors that are usually overlooked such as climate
change.

4. Conclusion

4.1 Conclusion

The forest fires in Sweden are the result of summer and drought. This summer was caused
by a heat wave that hit the area so that the air temperature in the area increased drastically.
It is reported that the temperature in the area reached 30 degrees Celcius and the total area
affected by forest fires was estimated to be 25,000 – 30,000 hectares. In addition, many
harmful gases are emitted into the air, especially PM2.5 as one of the most common and
dangerous pollutants derived from wildfires. Wildfires can cause a lot of damage to living
beings, its habitat and other fatalities. The effects of wildfire smokes can range from
respiratory tract and eye irritation to severe other health problems. Not just humans that

14
are affected by the fire, fauna and flora as well. Wildfires also adversely affected the water
and soil quality in the region.
Currently, monitoring activities related to air pollution and also forest fires have been
carried out by the Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency (MSB) and the Swedish
Meteorological and Hydrological Institute (SMHI). MSB provides the information system
regarding fire danger in vegetation, recorded lightning & forecast of thunderstorms,
forecast of rain, temperature, humidity, wind speed and wind direction, also analysis data
and maps in grid data 11x11 km. Forest fire risks are quantified using the Canadian Fire
Weather Index.
The technical aspects of mitigating fire fighting that occurred in Sweden is to use Tube
Well and Forest Fire treatment. Tube well is a deep well that produces water from the
underground aquifer using a submersible pump or pump engine. Forest fuel treatments are
used for ecological restoration and reducing fire hazard.
In terms of infrastructure in preventing, monitoring, as well as evaluating the risk of forest
fire, Sweden has adequate, if not, some of the best infrastructure despite having shortage
of capacity and manpower.

4.2 Recommendation

The forest fires bring many negative impacts on the environment, economic and health.
Forest fires destroy wildlife habitats and cause loss of biodiversity. Forest fire also make
the emissions of gases and pollutants also lead to global warming and ozone layer
depletion. Forest fires also cause a great amount of economic loss through the loss of
natural resources such as valuable timber. Therefore, forest fires should be confronted and
mitigated.
Recommendations to prevent forest fires are to make technology to detect temperature and
humidity of the air and place it at several points in the forest where fires often occur. Then
the technology works by sending a signal when there is an abnormal increase in
temperature. Recommendations for forest fire suppression are create an artificial lake and
the lake is created near the forest. This lake serves as a water source for seaplanes (CL-515
Canadair) so that aircraft can quickly retrieve water and extinguish fires at forest fire sites.

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 In addition, it is of the utmost importance that countries all over the world deal with forest
fires by looking at the whole system to prevent, adapt, and mitigate the risk and impact,
from educating people, further enhancing the infrastructure, implementing tight
regulations, as well as consider other factors that are usually overlooked such as climate
change.

5. References

Adinugroho W.C., I Nyoman N. Suryadiputra, Bambang H. Saharjo, and Labueni Siboro.

2005. Manual for the Control of Fire in Peatlands and Peatland Forest. Climate Change,
Forests and Peatlands in Indonesia Project. Wetlands International – Indonesia Programme
and Wildlife Habitat Canada. Bogor.

Chaney, William R. , Edlin, Herbert Leeson and Pope, Phillip E.. "Forestry". Encyclopedia
Britannica, 10 Jan. 2020, https://www.britannica.com/science/forestry. Accessed 18
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CNN Indonesia. (2018, July 20). Kebakaran Hutan Hingga Arktik, Swedia Minta Bantuan
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Cochrane M.A., Moran C. J., Wimberly M. C., Baer A. D., Finney M. A., Beckendorf K.
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treat-ments. International Journal of Wildland Fire 21: 357–367

Dommain, R., Couwenberg, J. & Joosten, H. 2010. Hydrological self-regulation of domed

peat swamps in South- East Asia and consequences for conservation and restoration. Mires
and Peat, 6(05): 1–17.

Finlay, S. E., Moffat, A., Gazzard, R., Baker, D., & Murray, V. (2012). Health Impacts of
Wildfires. PLoS Currents. https://doi.org/10.1371/4f959951cce2c

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Folmer Krikken, Flavio Lehner, Karsten Haustein, Igor Drobyshev, and Geert Jan van
Oldenborgh. 2021. "Attribution of the role of climate change in the forest fires in Sweden
2018." Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. 21 (7): 2169–2179. doi:10.5194/nhess-21-2169-2021.

Graham R.T., McCaffrey S. M. 2003 - Influence of forest struc-ture on wildfire behavior

and the severity of its effects. Miscellaneous Publication. Washington, DC: USDA Forest
Service, 12 p.

Graham R.T., McCaffrey S.M., Jain T.B. (Eds.) 2004 - Science ba-sis for changing forest
structure to modify wildfire behav-ior and severity. General Technical Report RMRS-
GTR-120. Fort Collins, Colorado: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky
Mountain Research Station, 43 p.

Juric, Marija. 2019. "Lantmäteriet’s Role in the Fight Against Forest Fires During the
Summer of 2018." FIG Working Week 2019 Geospatial information for a smarter life and
environmental resilience.
https://www.fig.net/resources/proceedings/fig_proceedings/fig2019/papers/ts05g/TS05G
_juric_9932.pdf.

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vid eventuellt förändrat klimat, Lunds tekniska högskola and Lunds universitet,

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Liputan6.com. (2018, July 20). Kebakaran Hutan di Lingkar Arktik, Swedia Minta Bantuan
Dunia Internasional. Liputan6.com.
https://www.liputan6.com/global/read/3594363/kebakaran-hutan-di-lingkar-arktik-
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