15xip21 Waves 8

School Of Excellence
Directorate of Education Govt. of Delhi, 9968 0 66788, soedoe110091@gmail.com
Starting of Class 1501
Chapter–15: Waves
No. of Periods 13 Marks 05
Syllabus
Wave motion: Transverse and longitudinal

waves, speed of travelling wave,
Displacement relation for a progressive wave,

principle of superposition of waves,
Reflection of waves, standing waves in

strings and organ pipes, fundamental mode
and harmonics,
Beats, Doppler Effect
Experiments
8. To study the relation between frequency

and length of a given wire under constant
tension using sonometer.
Physics By: Dr.Hemendra Kumar, M.Sc.,M.Ed.,C.I.C.,Ph.D.(Physics), Lecturer Physics

Doubts: What’s app at 9968 0 66788, P a g e | 1
9. To study the relation between the length of

a given wire and tension for constant
frequency using sonometer.
10. To find the speed of sound in air at room

temperature using a resonance tube by two
resonance positions.
WAVE MOTION
A kind of disturbance which travels through a

medium due to repeated vibrations of the
particles of the medium about their mean
positions, both information and energy
propagate (in the form of signals) from one
point to another but there is no motion of
matter as a whole through a medium.
Energy is transferred to the particles of next

layer which also begin to oscillate and so on.
In this way energy is transferred from one

point to another.
Characteristics of wave motion
1. The disturbance travels through the
medium due to repeated periodic

oscillations.
2. Energy is transferred from one place to
another without any actual transfer of the

particles of the medium.
3. There is a regular phase difference
between one particle and the next.
4. wave velocity remains constant in a given
medium while the particle velocity

changes continuously
5. Propagation of a mechanical wave, the
medium must possess the properties of

inertia, elasticity.
Types of waves
Mechanical waves The waves which require

a material medium for their propagation are
called mechanical waves. Such waves are
also called elastic waves because their
propagation depends on the elastic
properties of the medium. These waves are
governed by Newton's laws
Water waves, sound waves, seismic waves
Electromagnetic waves The waves which

travel in the form of oscillating electric and
magnetic fields are called electromagnetic
waves. Such waves do not require any
material medium for their propagation and
are also called non-mechanical waves. Light
from the sun and distant stars reaches us
through inter-stellar space,
Visible and ultraviolet light, radio waves,

microwaves, X-rays, etc.
Matter waves The waves associated with

microscopic particles, such as electrons,
protons, neutrons, atoms, molecules, etc.,
when they are in motion, are called matter
waves or de-Broglie waves.
TRANSVERSE AND LONGITUDINAL

WAVES

Transverse waves These are the waves in

which the individual particles of the medium
oscillate perpendicular to the direction of
wave propagation.
Each part of the string vibrates up and down

while the wave travels along the string. So
the waves in the string are transverse in
nature.
Longitudinal waves These are the waves in

which the individual particles of the medium
oscillate along the direction of wave
propagation.
Sound waves produced in air are longitudinal

waves.

Essential properties of a medium for the

propagation of mechanical waves
Both transverse and longitudinal waves
(i)Elasticity The medium must possess

elasticity so that the particles can return to
their mean positions after being disturbed.
(ii)Inertia The medium must possess inertia
or mass so that its particles can store kinetic
energy.
(iii)Minimum friction The frictional force
amongst the particles of the medium should
be negligibly small.
SOME DEFINITIONS IN CONNECTION WITH

WAVE MOTION
(i)Amplitude It is the maximum displacement

suffered by the particles of the medium about
their mean positions.
(ii)Time period The time period of a wave is
the time in which a particle of medium
completes one vibration to and fro about its
mean position.

(iii)Frequency The frequency of a wave is the

number of waves produced per unit time.
(iv)Angular frequency The rate of change of
phase with time is called angular frequency
of the wave.
(v)Wavelength It is the distance covered by a

wave during the time in which a particle of
the medium completes
In a transverse wave, the distance between

two successive crests or troughs is equal to
the wavelength λ.
(vi)Wave number The number of waves
present in a unit distance of the medium.
(vii)Angular wave number or propagation
constant The quantity 2π/λ
(viii) Wave velocity or phase velocity The
distance covered by a wave per unit time in
its direction of propagation.
Relation between wave velocity,
frequency and wavelength
Distance
Wave velocity = Time
λ
Or v= T
or v = ʋλ [∵ ʋ = 1/T]
Example 1. Audible frequencies have a range
20 Hz to20,000Hz. Express this range in
terms of (i) period T(ii)wavelength λ in air and
(iii) angular frequency. Given velocity of
sound in air is 330 ms-1.
Solution. Here frequency v1 =20 Hz, v2
=20,000 Hz, v =330 ms-1
1 1
(i) T1 = v = 20 = 5 × 10−2 s,
1
1 1
T2 = = = 5 × 10−5S
v2 20,000
Thus the audible range in terms of period is
from5 × 10−2 s to 5 × 10−5 s.
330
(ii) λ1 = v = 20
= 16.5m
1
v 330
λ2 = = = 0.0165m
v2 20,000
Thus the audible range in terms of
wavelength is from 16.5 m to 0.0165 m.
(iii)ω1 =2π v1 =2π × 20 = 40π rad s-1
ω2 = 2π v2 = 2 π × 20,000 = 40,000π rad s-1

Thus the audible range in terms of angular

frequency is from 40π rad s-1 to 40,000 π rad
s-1.
Speed of transverse wave in a solid

The speed of transverse wave through a solid
is determined by two factors:
(i) Elasticity of shape or modulus of rigidity η
of the solid,
(ii) Mass per unit volume or density ρ
determines its inertia.
Now,
η ML−1 T−2
Dimensions of ratio p
= ML−3
= L2 T−2
Dimensions of speed = LT−1

So we can express v in terms of η and ρ as
η
v=C
p

The dimensionless constant C is found to be

unity. Thus the speed of transverse wave in a
solid is given by
η
= .
ρ
Example 2 A steel wires 0.72 m long has a

mass of 5.0× 10-3 kg. If the wire is under a
tension of 60 N, what is the speed of
transverse waves on the wire? [NCERT]
Solution. Here T=60N,
Mass = 5.0×10-3kg, Length = 0.72 m
Mass per unit length,
5.0 × 10−3 kg
m= 0.72 m
= 6.9 × 10-3kg m-1
The speed of the transverse wave on the wire,
T 60N
= = −3 −1
= 93ms−1 .
m 6.9 × 10 kgm
Example 3 Calculate the velocity of

transverse waves in a copper wire 1mm2 in
cross-section, under the tension produced by
1 kg wt. The density of copper = 8.93 kg m-33.
Solution. Here

A = 1mm2 = 10−6 m2 , ρ = 8.93 × 103 kg m−3 , T = 1 kg

wt = 9.8N
Mass per unit length of wire,
m = A × 1 × ρ = 10−6 × 8.93 × 103
= 8.93 × 10−3 kg m−1
T 9.8
∴ = m
= 8.93×10−3
= 33.12ms−1 .
SPEED OF A LONGITUDINAL WAVE
Speed of a longitudinal wave through a fluid
is determined by two factors:
(i)The volume elasticity or bulk modulus κ of
the fluid.
(ii)The density of the fluid which determines
its inertia.
κ
∴Dimensions of the ratio p
ML−1 T−2
= −3
= L2 T−2
[ML ]
Dimensions of speed = LT−1
So the speed can be expressed in tenns of κ
and ρ as

κ
=C
ρ
Speed of a longitudinal wave in a solid
Y
=
ρ
SPEED OF SOUND: NEWTON'S FORMULA AND

LAPLACE CORRECTION
κiso
=
ρ
For an isothermal change,

PV = constant (Boyle's law)
Differentiating both sides, we get
P dV + VdP = 0
Or PdV = -V dP
VdP dP
or P = ‐ dV
=
dV V
Volume stress
= = κiso
Volume strain
Hence the Newton's formula for the speed of
sound in a gas is
P
=
ρ
∴Speed of sound in air at STP,
1.013 × 105
= ≃ 280ms−1 .
1.293
Laplace's correction.
Temperature rises in the regions of
compressions and falls in the regions of
rarefactions.
(ii) A gas is a poor conductor of heat.
(iii) The compressions and rarefactions are
formed so rapidly that the heat generated in
the regions of compressions does not get
time to pass into the regions of rarefactions
so as to equalise the temperature.
κadia
=
ρ
For an adiabatic change, PVγ = constant

Differentiating both sides, we get
P(γVγ-1)dV + Vγ dP = 0
Or γ PdV + VdP = 0
dP
γP = − = κadia
dV/V
where γ = Cp / Cv, is the ratio of two specific

γP
=
ρ
This modification of Newton's formula is

known as Laplace correction.
For air γ = 7/ 5, so speed of sound in air at
STP will be
P 7
= γ = × 280 = 331.3ms−1
ρ 5
FACTORS AFFECTING SPEED OF SOUND IN A

GAS
(i) Effect of pressure. The speed of sound in a
gas is given by the Laplace formula,
γP
=
ρ
At constant temperature,
PV= constant
Pm m m
or ρ
= constant ∵ ρ =
V
or V =
ρ
Since m is a constant, so P
P
ρ
= constant
i.e., when pressure changes, density also

changes in the same ratio so that the factor
P / ρ remains unchanged. Hence pressure has

no effect on the speed of sound in a gas.
(ii) Effect of density. Suppose two gases have
the same pressure P and same value of γ
(both are either monoatomic, diatomic or
triatomic).
γP γP
1 = ρ1
and 2 = 92
1 92
∴ =
2 91
(iii)Effect of temperature For one mole of a

gas, PV = RT. If M is the molecular mass of
the gas and p its density, then
M M
ρ=
V
or V = ρ
PM P RT
∴ = RT or =
ρ ρ M
γRT
∴ =
M
Clearly, ∝ T
(iv) Effect of wind As the sound is carried by
air, so its velocity is affected by the wind
velocity.
(v)Effect of frequency The speed of sound in
air is independent of its frequency.

(vi)Effect of amplitude To a large extent, the

speed of sound is independent of the
amplitude
Example 4. Estimate the speed of sound in

air at standard temperature and pressure by
using (i) Newton's formula and (ii) Laplace
formula. The mass of 1 mole of air = 29.0 ×
10-3 kg. For air, γ =1.4. [NCERT]
Solution. Density of air,
Mass of 1 mole of air
ρ=
Volume of 1 mole of air
29.0 × 10−3 kg
=
22.4 litre
29.0 × 10−3 kg −3
= = 1.29kgm
22.4 × 10−3 m3
Standard pressure, P = 1.01 × 105 Pa.
(i) According to Newton's formula, speed of
sound in air at S.T.P. is
P 1.01 × 105
= = = 280ms−1 .
ρ 1.29
(ii) According to Laplace formula, speed of

sound in air at S.T.P. is

γP 1.4 × 1.01 × 105

= = = 331.5ms−1 .
ρ 1.29
Example 5. At normal temperature and

pressure, 4 g of helium occupies a volume of
22.4 litre. Determine the speed of sound in
helium. For helium, γ = 1.67 and 1
atmospheric pressure = 105 Nm-2.
Solution. Density of helium,
4g 4×10−3 kg 4
ρ = 22.4 litre = 22.4×10−3 m3 = 22.4 kgm−3
γP 1.67 × 105 × 22.4

= = = 967ms−1 .
ρ 4
Example 6. Speed of sound in air is 332

ms−1 at S.T.P. What will be its value in
hydrogen at S.T. P, if density of hydrogen at
S.T.P. is 1/16ththat of air?
γP
Solution. Speed sound, v =
ρ
Taking γ and P same for air and hydrogen, we

can write
vH ρa ρa
= = =4
va ρH 1 16 ρa
∴vH = 4va = 4 × 332 = 1328ms−1 .

Example 7. Find the temperature at which

1
the velocity of sound in air will be 1 2
times
the velocity at 11°C.
3
Solution. Given vt = v11
2
273+t 3 273+11
or v0 273
= v0
2 273
273+t 9 284
On squaring, 273
= ×
4 273
On solving, t = 366°C.
PHASE AND PHASE DIFFERENCE
Various forms of progressive wave function.

(i) y = A sin ( t – kx) where y = displacement
2 A = amplitude
(ii) y = A sin ( t – x)
  = angular frequency
t x n = frequency
(iii) y = A sin 2    
T   k = propagation constant
T = time period
 = wave length
v = wave velocity
t = instantaneous time
2
(iv) y = A sin (vt – x)

 x
(v) y = A sin   t  
 v
Phase of a wave. The phase of a harmonic

wave is a quantity that gives complete
information of the wave at any time and at
any position. It is equal to the argument of
the sine or cosine function representing the
wave.
y (x, t)= A sin(ωt -kx + ϕ0)...
phase of the wave at position x and time t is
given by
ϕ =ωt - kx + ϕ0
phase of a wave is periodic both in time and
space. At a given point (x = constant), the
phase changes with time t and at a given
instant (t = constant), it changes with
distance x.
SPEED OF A TRAVELLING WAVE
Wave velocity or phase velocity. The
distance covered by a wave in the direction
of its propagation per unit time is called the
wave velocity. It represents the velocity with
which a disturbance is transferred from one
particle to the next without the actual motion

of the particles.
shows two plots of the harmonic wave

y = A sin (ωt - kx) at two different instants of
time t and t + ∆t. During the small time
interval ∆t, the entire wave pattern moves
through distance ∆x in the positive X-
direction.
PARTICLE VELOCITY AND

ACCELERATION
Particle velocity V is different from the wave
velocity v. It is the velocity with which the
particles of the medium vibrate about their
mean positions.
y (x, t) = A sin (ωt - kx)...(1)
Differentiating (1) w.r.t. time t, and taking x
constant, we get the particle velocity
dy
V = dt = ωA cos (ωt - kx)...(2)
Or
V = ωA sin [(ωt -kx)+ π/2]...(3)
While the wave velocity (v =ʋλ) remains
constant, the particle velocity changes
simple harmonically with time.
If we differentiate equation (1) w.r.t. position
x, t constant we get
dy
= -kA cos (ωt - kx)...(4)
dx
From equations (2) and (4), we get

V ωA cos (ωt − kx)
=
dy/dx −kA cos (ωt − kx)
ω 2πv dy
=− =− =− v or V =− v
k 2π/λ dx
∴Particle velocity at a point = - Wave velocity

× slope of displacement curve at that point.
(b) Particle acceleration. If we differentiate
equation (2) with respect to time t, we get
the particle acceleration
dV
a= =− ω2 A sin (ωt − kx) =− ω2 y
dt
or a = ω2 A sin ωt − kx + π
It may be noted that

(i) The maximum value of particle

acceleration or the acceleration amplitude is
2π 2
2
a0 = ω A = A
T
The particle acceleration is ahead of the
particle displacement in phase by π radian.
Example 8. A displacement wave is
represented by
y =0.25 × 10-3 sin(500 t -0.025 x)
Where y, t and x are in cm, sec and metres
respectively. Deduce (i) amplitude (ii) period
(iii) angular frequency, and (iv) wavelength.
Also deduce the amplitude of particle
velocity and particle acceleration.
Solution. Given
y = 0.25 × 10-3 sin (500t -0.025x)
Comparing it with standard equation:
t x
y = A sin2π
T
−
λ
, we get
(i) Amplitude,
A = 0.25 × 10−3 cm.
2π 2π π
(ii) T
= 500 or T = 500 = 250 = 0.01257s.
(iii) Angular frequency,

2π 2π
ω= = × 250 = 500 rad s−1 .
T π
2π 2π
(iv) λ
= 0.025 or λ = 0.025 = 251.2m.
(v)Velocity amplitude
= ω A = 500 × 0.25 × 10-3 = 0.125 cm s-1.
(vi)Acceleration amplitude
= ω2A = (500)2 × 0.25 × 10-3 = 62.5 cm s-2.
Example 9. For the plane wave
y =2.5 × 10-0.02x cos (800t -0.82x + π/2),
write down
(i) the general expression for phase ϕ
(ii) the phase at x =0, t = 0
(iii) the phase difference between the points
separated by 20 cm along x-axis.
(iv) the change in phase at a given place 0.6
milli second and
(v) the amplitude at x =100 m.
Take units of y, t, x as 10-5 cm, s and m
respectively.
π
Solution. (i) Phase, ϕ= 800t - 0.82x + 2.
(ii) At x = 0, t =0, ϕ = π/2rad.
(iii) Here ∆x =20 cm =0.20 m. Therefore

∆ϕ = - 0.82 ∆x = - 0.82 × 0.20 = - 0.164 rad.

(iv)Here ∆t =0.6 ms =0.6 × 10-3s Therefore,
∆ϕ = 800 ∆t= 800 × 0.6 × 10-3 = 0.48 rad.
(v)At x =100 m, the amplitude is
A =2.5 × 10-0.02x
=2.5 × 10-0.02×100 × 10-5cm
= 0.025 ×10-5 cm.
[∵unit of A is 10-5 cm as that of y]
PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES
When a number of waves travel through a

medium simultaneously, the resultant
displacement of any particle of the medium
at any given time is equal to the algebraic
sum of the displacements due to the
individual waves.
y = y1 + y2 + y3+ ….. + yn
= f1 (vt -x)+ f2 (vt -x) + ….. + fn (vt - x)
=∑ni=1 fi vt − x
Superposition holds not only for the
mechanical waves but also for
electromagnetic waves. In case of
mechanical waves, the superposition

principle does not hold if the amplitude of
disturbance is so large that the ordinary
linear laws of mechanical action no longer.
Superposition of two identical pulses

travelling towards each other
Superposition of two pulses of equal and

opposite shapes moving towards each other.

Interference of waves
When two waves of the same frequency
moving with the same speed in the same
direction in a medium superpose on each
other.
Reflection of a wave from a rigid

boundary

Incident wave is represented by

yi (x, t)= A sin (ωt - kx)
For reflection at a rigid boundary, the
reflected wave can be represented as
yr (x, t) = - A sin (ωt + kx)
[Signs of both y and x change]
when a travelling wave is reflected from a
rigid boundary, it is reflected back with a
phase reversal or phase difference of π
radians.
wave coming in a medium where its velocity
is larger meets a medium where its velocity
is smaller, it is reflected back with a reversal
of phase or a phase change of π radians.
the incident and reflected pulses meet in

opposite phases at the end point and so
cancel each other. Hence a node is formed at
the boundary i.e., the net displacement is
zero.
Reflection of a wave from an open

boundary

when a travelling wave is reflected from a

free or open boundary, it suffers no phase
change.
Incident wave is represented by
yi (x, t)= A sin (ωt - kx)
Reflection at an open boundary, the reflected
wave can be represented as
yr (x, t) = A sin (ωt + kx)
[Only sign of x changes]
Wave initially comes from a medium where
its velocity is smaller; the reflected wave
does not suffer any phase change
The incident and reflected pulses meet in
same phase at the end point and reinforce (or
get added to) each other. Hence an antinode
is formed at the boundary i.e., the
displacement is maximum and is twice the
amplitude of the either pulse.

wave velocity and wavelength of the

refracted wave are different from those of
the incident wave but their frequencies are
v v
equal. Hence v = i = r λi λr
STATIONARY WAVES
When two identical waves of same amplitude
and frequency travelling in opposite
directions with the same speed along the
same path superpose each other, the
resultant wave does not travel in the either
direction.
Particles of the medium remain permanently

at rest i.e., they have zero displacement.
Their positions are called nodes. Some other
particles always suffer maximum
displacement. Their positions are called
antinodes. The positions of nodes and
antinodes do not change with time. That is
why; such waves are called stationary or
standing waves.
There is no transfer of energy along the
medium in either direction.

Stationary wave cannot be formed from two

independent waves travelling in a medium in
opposite directions. In actual practice a
stationary wave is produced when a
progressive wave and its reflected wave are
superposed.
Types of stationary waves:
(i)Transverse stationary waves
Transverse stationary waves are formed in a
sonometer and Melde's experiment.
(ii)Longitudinal stationary waves
longitudinal stationary waves are formed in a
resonance apparatus, organ pipes and
Kundt's tube.
GRAPHICAL TREATMENT OF STATIONARY

WAVES

CHARACTERISTICS OF STATIONARY WAVES

The disturbance does not advance forward.
The conditions of crests and troughs merely
appear and disappear in fixed positions
All particles of the medium, except those at
nodes, execute simple harmonic motions
with the same time period about their mean
positions.

During the formation of a stationary wave,

the medium is broken into loops or segments
between equally spaced points called nodes
which remain permanently at rest and
midway between them are points called
antinodes where the displacement amplitude
is maximum.
(iv) The distance between two successive
nodes or antinodes is λ/2.
(v) The amplitudes of the particles are
different at different points. The amplitude
varies gradually from zero at the nodes to the
maximum at the antinodes.
(vi) The maximum velocity is different at
different points. Its value is zero at the nodes
and progressively increases towards the
antinode. All the particles attain their
maximum velocities simultaneously when
they pass through their mean positions.
(vii)All the particles in a particular segment
between two nodes vibrate in the same
phase but the particles in two neighbouring
segments vibrate in opposite phases,

Progressive waves Stationary waves
The disturbance The disturbance

travels forward with a remains confined to
definite velocity. the region where it is
produced.
Each particle of the Except nodes, all

medium executes particles of the
SHM about its mean medium execute SHM
position with the same with varying
amplitude. amplitude.
There is a continuous All the particles

change of phase from between two
one particle to the successive nodes
next. vibrate in the same
phase, but the phase
reverses for particles
between next pair of
nodes.
No particle of theThe particles of the

medium is medium at nodes are

permanently at rest. permanently at rest.
There is no instant Twice during each

when all the particles cycle, all particles
are at the mean pass through their
positions together. mean positions
simultaneously.
There is flow of Energy of one region

energy across every remains confined in
plane along the that region.
direction of
propagation of the
wave.
The energy averaged Twice during each

over a wavelength is cycle, the energy
half kinetic and half becomes alternately
potential. wholly potential and
wholly kinetic.
All the particles have All the particles attain

same maximum their individual
velocity which they maximum velocities at
attain while passing the same time as they
their mean position pass through their
one after the other. mean positions. This
velocity varies from

zero at nodes to
maximum at
antinodes.
Example 10. Stationary waves are set up by

the superposition of two waves given by
y1 =0.05 sin (5πt-x) and y2 =0.05 sin (5π t + x)
where x and y are in metres and t in seconds.
Find the displacement of a particle situated
at a distance x = 1 m.
Solution. According to principle of
superposition, the resultant displacement is
given by
y = y1 + y2
= 0.05 sin (5π t - x) + 0.05 sin (5π t + x)
CD CD
sin C  sin D  2 sin cos
2 2
5πt − x + 5πt + x 5πt + x − 5πt+ x
= 0.05 × 2 sin 2
cos 2
= 0.1 cos x sin 5π t

∴Amplitude, A =0.1 cos x
At x =1 m,
180° 180°
A = 0.1 cos 1 =0.1 cos π
=0.1 cos 3.14
= 0.1 cos 57.3° = 0.1 × 0.5402 = 0.054 m.
ANALYTICAL TREATMENT OF STATIONARY

WAVES
y1 = A sin (ωt - kx)
The wave travelling along negative X-
direction can be represented as
y2 = A sin (ωt + kx)
According to the principle of superposition,
the resultant wave is given by
y = y1 + y2
= A sin (ωt - kx) + A sin (ωt + kx)
= 2 A sin ωt cos kx
CD CD
sin C  sin D  2 sin cos
2 2
Or y = (2 A cos kx) sin ωt

Represents a stationary wave. It cannot
represent a progressive wave because the
argument of any of its trigonometric
functions does not contain the combination
(ωt ± kx). The stationary wave has the same
angular frequency ω but has amplitude
A' = 2 A cos kx

Nodes. The amplitude will be zero at points,

where cos kx = 0
1
or kx = n + 2
π,
where n = 0,1,2,3,…..
2πx 1 2π
or λ
= n+
2
π ∵= k = λ
λ
or x = 2n + 1 4
λ 3λ 5λ'
x = , , …. .
4 4 4
These positions of zero amplitude are called
nodes. Clearly, the separation between two
consecutive nodes is λ/2.
Antinodes. Amplitude will have a maximum
value of 2 A at points, where
cos kx = ± 1
or kx = nπ, where n =0,1,2,3,…..
2π λ
or λ
x = nπ or x = n 2
λ 3λ
or x = 0, 2, λ, 2
, …..
These positions of maximum amplitude are
called antinodes. Clearly, the antinodes are
separated by λ/2 and are located half way
between pairs of nodes.

STATIONARY WAVES IN A STRING FIXED AT

BOTH ENDS
Analytical treatment of stationary waves in a

stretched string

and y2 = - A sin (ωt + kx)
The negative sign before A is due to phase
reversal of the reflected wave at the fixed
end. By the principle of superposition
y = y1 + y2
=- A [sin (ωt + kx) - sin (ωt - kx)]
CD CD
sin C  sin D  2 cos sin
2 2
= - 2 A cos ωt sin kx
or y = -2 A sin kx cos ωt...(1)
If stationary waves are formed, then the ends
x = 0 and x = L must be nodes because they
are kept fixed. So, we have the boundary
conditions
y = 0 at x = 0 for all t
and y = 0 at x = L for all t
The first boundary condition (y = 0, x=0) is
satisfied automatically by equation (1).
The second boundary condition (y =0, x = L)
will be satisfied if
y = - 2 sin kL cos ωt = 0
This will be true for all values of t only if
sin kL=0 or kL= nπ, where n =1,2,3,...
2πL
or λ
= nπ
For each value of n, there is a corresponding
value of λ, so we can write
2πL 2L
λn
= nπ or λn = n
The speed of transverse wave on a string of

linear mass density m is given by
T
v=
m
So the frequency of vibration of the string is
v n T 2L
vn = λ = 2L m
(λn = n
)
n
1 T
For n = 1, v1 = 2L m
= v (say)
This is the lowest frequency with which the

string can vibrate and is called fundamental
frequency or first harmonic.
2 T
For n = 2, v2 = m
= 2v
2L
(First overtone or second harmonic)

3 T
For n = 3, v3 = 2L m
= 3v
(Second overtone or third harmonic)

4 T
For n = 4, v4 = 2L m
= 4v
(Third overtone or fourth harmonic)

First mode of vibration. If the string is

plucked in the middle and released, it
vibrates in one segment with nodes at its
ends and an antinode in the middle.
Here length of string,
λ1
L=
2
or λ1 = 2L
∴Frequency of vibration,
v 1 T
v1 = λ = 2L m
= v (say)
1
Second mode of vibration. If the string is

pressed in the middle and plucked at one-
fourth length, then the string vibrates in two
segments.
Here
λ2
L = 2.
2
or λ2 = L
v 1 T
v2 = = = 2v
λ2 L m

This frequency is called first overtone or

second harmonic.
Third mode of vibration. If string is pressed at
one-third of its length from one end and
plucked at one-sixth length, it will vibrate in
three segments. Then
λ3 2L
L=3 2
or λ3 = 3
v 3 T
v3 = = = 3v
λ3 2L m
This frequency is called second overtone or
third harmonic. In general, if the string
vibrates in γ segments, then
p T
vp = 2L = m
= pv.
Law of length, Law of tension, Law of mass

1 T
v= 2L m
Example 11. The length of a sonometer wire

is 0.75 m and density 9 × 103kg m-3. It can
bear a stress of 8.1 × 108 N/m2 without
exceeding the elastic limit. What is the
fundamental frequency that can be produced
in the wire?
Solution. Here L = 0.75 m, ρ =9 × 103 kg m-3,

Stress =8.1 × 109 Nm-2
Let a be the area of cross-section of the wire,
then fundamental frequency,
1 T 1 Stress×a 1 Stress
V=
2L m
=
2L a×1×ρ
= 2L ρ
1 8.1×108
= = 200 Hz.
2×0.75 9×103
Example 12. The length of a wire between

the two ends of a sonometer is 105 cm where
should the two bridges be placed so that the
fundamental frequencies of the three
segments are in the ratio of 1:3:15?
Solution. Total length of the wire,
L= 105 cm
v1 : v2 : v3 = 1: 3: 15
Let L1 , L2 and L3 be the lengths of the three
parts.
1
As v ∝ L
1 1 1
∴ L1 : L2 : L3 = 1 : 3 : 15 = 15: 5: 1
Sum of the ratios = 15 + 5 + 1 = 21
15
∴L1 = 21 × 105 = 75 cm;
5
L2 = × 105 = 25 cm;
21
1
L3 = × 105 = 5 cm
21
Hence the bridges should be placed at 75 cm

and (75 + 25 =)100 cm from one end.
Example 13. The fundamental frequency of a
sonometer wire increases by 5 Hz if its
tension is increased by 21%. How will the
frequency be affected if its length is
increased by 10%?
Solution. Fundamental frequency,
1 T
v = 2L m
…(1)
On increasing the tension by 21%, the new

tension becomes 1.21 T. Therefore,
1 1.21T
v+5= v=
2L m
…(2)
Dividing (2) by (1), we get

v+5
= 1.21 = 1.1 or v = 50 Hz
v
On increasing the length by 10%, the new

frequency becomes
1 T v 50
v' = m
= = = 45.45 Hz.
2×1.1L 1.1 1.1

STATIONARY WAVES IN ORGAN PIPES OR

AIR COLUMNS
(i)First mode of vibration In the simplest

mode of vibration, there is one node in the
middle and two antinodes at the ends of the
pipe.
Here length of the pipe,
λ1 λ1
L = 2. =
4 2
∴λ1 = 2L
Frequency of vibration,
v 1 γp
v1 = λ = = v (say)
1 2L ρ

This frequency is called fundamental

frequency or first harmonic.
(ii) Second mode of vibration Here antinodes
at the open ends are separated by two nodes
and one antinode.
λ2
L = 4. = λ2
4
v 1 γP
Frequency, 2 =
λ2
=
L ρ
= 2v

second harmonic.
(iii) Third mode of vibration Here the
antinodes at the open ends are separated by
three nodes and two antinodes.
λ3 2L
L = 6. 4
or λ3 = 3
v 3 γP
∴Frequency, v3 = λ = 2L ρ
= 3v
3
This frequency is called second overtone or

third harmonic.
Hence various frequencies of an open organ
pipe are in the ratio 1:2:3: 4: ….. These are
called harmonics.
Analytical treatment of stationary waves
The wave reflected from right open end may

be represented as
y2 = A sin (ωt + kx)
There is no phase reversal on reflection from
the open end because it is a free or loose
boundary. So the sign of A in the reflected
wave is same as that in the incident wave.
y = y1 + y2
= A [sin (ωt - kx) + sin (ωt + kx)]
sin( A  B)  sin( A  B)  2 sin A cos B
= 2 A sin ωt cos kx
= (2 A cos kx)sin ωt
For all values of t, the resultant displacement
is maximum (+ve or -ve) or antinodes are
formed at the open ends i.e., at x = 0 and x =
L. This condition is satisfied if
cos kL = ± 1 or kL= nπ,
where n =1,2,3, …..
2π 2π
or λ
L= nπ or λn = n
The frequency of vibration is given by
v nv n γP
vn = = =
λn 2L 2L ρ

1 γP
For n = 1, v1 = = v (say)
2L ρ
This is the smallest frequency of the

stationary waves produced in the open pipe.
It is called fundamental frequency or first
harmonic.
2v
For n =2, v2 =2 L=2v
(First overtone or second harmonic)
3v
For n =3, v3 = 2L
=3v
(Second overtone or third harmonic)
Qualitative discussion of the different modes
of vibration of a closed organ pipe.
First mode of vibration. In this simplest mode

of vibration, there is only one node at the
closed end and one antinode at the open end.

If L is the length of the organ pipe, then
λ1
L=
4
or λ1 = 4L
Frequency,
v 1 γP
v1 = = = v (say)
λ1 4L ρ
This frequency is called first harmonic or

fundamental frequency.
(ii) Second mode of vibration. In this mode of
vibration, there is one node and one antinode
between a node at the dosed end and an
antinode at the open end.
3λ2 4L
∴L = 4
or λ2 = 3
Frequency,
v 3 γP
v2 = = = 3v
λ2 4L ρ

third harmonic.
(iii) Third mode of vibration. In this mode of
vibration, there are two nodes and two
antinodes between a node at the closed end
and an antinode at the open end.

5λ3 4L
∴L = 4
or λ3 = 5
Frequency,
v 5 γP
v3 = = = 5v
λ3 4L ρ
Analytical treatment of stationary waves in a

closed organ pipe
y1= A sin (ωt + kx)
The wave reflected from the closed end may
be represented as
y2 = - A sin (ωt - kx)
The negative sign before A is due to reversal
of phase at the closed end.
y = y1 + y2
= A [sin (ωt + kx) - sin (ωt - kx)]
= 2 A cos ωt sin kx
sin( A  B)  sin( A  B)  2 cos A sin B
= (2 A sin kx) cos ωt.
Clearly, y =0 at x =0 i.e., a node is formed at
the closed end.
The resultant displacement at x = L will be
maximum (+ve or -ve) because the open end

is a free or loose boundary. This condition is

satisfied if
sin kL = ± 1
π
or kL=(2n -1)2 where n =1,2,3,…..
2π π 4L
or λ
L =(2n-1)2 or λn =2n−1
The corresponding frequency of vibration is
given by
v 2n − 1 v 2n − 1 γP
vn = = =
λn 4L 4L ρ
For n= 1,
v 1 γP
v1 = = = v (say)
4L 4L ρ
This is the smallest frequency of the

stationary waves produced in the closed pipe.
It is called fundamental frequency or first
harmonic.
3v
For n=2, v2 = 4L = 3v
(First overtone or third harmonic)
5v
For n = 3, v3 = 4L = 5v
(Second overtone or fifth harmonic)
Example 14. A pipe 30.0 cm long is open at
both ends. Winch harmonic mode of the pipe
is resonantly excited by a 1.1 kHz source?

Will resonance with the same source be
observed if one end of the pipe is closed?
Take the speed of sound in air as 330 ms-
1
.[NCERT]
Solution. Length of the pipe,
L= 30 cm =0.30 m
Speed of sound, v =330 ms-1
Fundamental frequency of the open pipe,
v 330
v1 = 2L = 2×0.30 = 550 Hz
Second harmonic,
v2 =2v1 =2 × 550=1100 Hz
Third harmonic,
v3 = 3v1 =3 × 550 = 1650 Hz
Fourth harmonic,
v4 = 4v1 = 4 × 550 =2200 Hz, and so on.
Clearly, a source of frequency 1.1 kHz (or
1100 Hz) will resonantly excite the second
harmonic of the open pipe.
If one end of the pipe is closed, its
fundamental frequency becomes
v 330
v'1 = = = 275 Hz
4L 4×0.30

As only odd harmonics are present in a

closed pipe, so
Third harmonic,
v'3 = 3v'1 = 3 × 275 = 825 Hz
Fifth harmonic,
v'5 =5v'1 = 5 × 275 = 1375 Hz, and so on.
As no frequency of the closed pipe matches
with the source frequency of 1.1 kHz, so no
resonance will be observed with the source,
the moment one end of the pipe is closed.
Example 15. Determine the possible
harmonics in the longitudinal vibration of a
rod clamped in the middle.
Solution. Consider a rod of length L clamped
in the middle. As shown in Fig.(a), it has one
node in the middle and two antinodes at its
free ends in the fundamental mode.
λ1
∴L = 2. 4
or λ1 = 2L
Fundamental frequency or first harmonic,
v v
v1 = = = v (say)
λ1 2L

In the second mode, there is an additional

node and antinode on the two sides of the
clamp, as shown in Fig.(b).
λ2 2L
∴L = 6.
4
or λ2 = 3
v 3v
and v2 = λ = 2L = 3v
2
This is called third harmonic or first overtone.

Similarly, for third mode,
5v
v3 = 2L
=5v
This is called fifth harmonic or second
overtone.
Hence v1:v2:v3: … = 1:3: 5:, …
BEATS
When two sound waves of slightly different
frequencies travelling along the same path in

the same direction in a medium superpose

upon each other, the intensity of the
resultant sound at any point in the medium
rises and falls.
Essential condition
beats to be audible, the difference in the
frequency of the two sound waves should not
exceed 10. If the difference is more than 10,
we shall hear more than 10 beats per second.
But due to persistence of hearing, our ear is
not able to distinguish between two sounds
as separate if the time interval between them
is less than (1/10)th of a second.
At time t2, the two waves are in exactly

opposite phases. This happens when one
wave gains half a vibration over the other.
Now they produce minimum sound intensity.

Formation of beats analytically

y1 = A sin ω1 t = A sin 2 π v1 t
y2 = A sin ω2 t = A sin 2 π v2 t
y = y1 + y2= A Sin2πv1 t + A sin2πv2 t
v1 − v2 v1 + v2
= 2A cos 2π t . sin 2π t
2 2
If we write
v1 −v2 v1 + v2
vmod =
2
and vav = 2
Then
y = 2 A cos (2 π vmod t) sin (2 π vav t)
Or y = R sin (2π vavt)
where K = 2 A cos (2π vmodt) is the amplitude
of the resultant wave.
Amplitude R of the resultant wave will be
maximum, when
cos2πvmodt = ±1
or 2πvmod t = nπ
or π(v1 -v2) t = nπ
n 1 2
or t=
v1 ‐ v2
= 0, v ,v , …..
1 −v2 1 ‐ v2
∴ Time interval between two successive

maxima

1
= v1 – v2
Similarly, the amplitude R will be minimum,

when
cos2πvmod t=0
or 2πvmod t = (2n + 1)π/2
or π(v1- v2)t = (2n + 1) π/2
2n+1 1 3 5
or t = 2 v = , , ,…
1 ‐v2 v1 ‐ v2 2 v1 ‐ v2 2 v1 ‐ v2
∴ The time interval between successive

1
minima =v
1 – v2
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF BEATS

Determination of an unknown frequency
Suppose v1 is the known frequency of tuning
fork A and v2 is the unknown frequency of
tuning fork B. When the two tuning forks are
sounded together, suppose they produce b
beats per second
v2 = v1 + b or v1-b
Loading method
Attach a little wax to the prong of the tuning
fork B

If the frequency of B is greater than that of A

i.e., (v1+ b), then the attaching of a little wax
lowers its frequency and reduces the
difference in frequencies of A and B.
ʋ2=ʋ1(+-)m
+ if m decreases
For tuning musical instruments

For producing colorful effects in music
For detection of marsh gas in mines.
Use in electronics
Example 16. Two tuning forks A and B
produce 4 beats/second. On loading B with
wax, 6 beats/second were heard. If the
quantity of wax is reduced, the number of
beats per second again becomes 4. Find the
frequency of B if the frequency of A is 256 Hz.
Solution. Frequency of tuning fork A = 256 Hz
Beat frequency = 4 s-1
∴Possible frequencies of B
= 256 ±4 =260 or 252 Hz.
As some wax continues to remain attached
finally with the tuning fork B and

beats/second =4, so the final frequency must

be less than the initial frequency.
∴Initial frequency of B = 260 Hz.
Example 17. A tuning fork of frequency 200
Hz is in unison with a sonometer wire. How
many beats per second will be heard if the
tension of the wire were increased by 2%?
Solution. Here v1 =200 Hz
As the tension in the wire is increased by 2%,
therefore if T1 =100 units, then T2 =102 units
v2 T2 102 2 1 2
Now v1
=
T1
=
100
= 1+
100
1 2
≃ 1+ × = 1.01
2 100
∴v2 = 1.01 v1 =1.01 × 200=202 Hz
Beat frequency
= v2–v1 = 202 - 200 = 2 Hz.
DOPPLER EFFECT
Whenever there is a relative motion between
the source of sound, the observer and the
medium; the frequency of sound as received
by the observer is different from the
frequency of sound emitted by the source.
The apparent change in the frequency of
sound when the source, the observer and the

medium are in relative motion.
It holds not only for sound waves but also for
electromagnetic waves such as microwaves,
radio waves and visible light. However,
Doppler Effect is noticeable only when the
relative velocity between the source and the
observer is an appreciable fraction of the
wave velocity.
λ' = (v + vm − vs)/ν
ʋ’=(v+vm –vo)/ λ'
v + vm – v0
ʋ’=
v + vm – vs
×ʋ
Apparent frequency when the source moves

towards the stationary observer. Consider a
source S moving with speed vs towards an
observer O who is at rest.
Doppler Effect in sound is asymmetric

Thus the observed frequency is not same

when the observer is stationary and the
source moves towards it or when the source
is stationary and the observer moves towards
it with the same speed. For this reason, the
Doppler Effect in sound is said to asymmetric.
However, the Doppler Effect in light is
symmetric. This is because sound or
mechanical waves, in general, have a
velocity' relative to the medium through
which they travel whereas light or
electromagnetic waves travel quite
independent of it.
Example 18. A railway engine and a car are
moving on parallel tracks in opposite
directions with speed of 144 kmh-1and 72
kmh-1, respectively. The engine is
continuously sounding a whistle of frequency
500 Hz. The velocity of sound is 340 ms-1.
Calculate the frequency of sound heard in the
car when
(i) the car and the engine are approaching
each other,
(ii) the two are moving away from each other.
Solution. Here vs =144 km h-1
144 × 1000
= = 40ms−1
3600
72×1000
and v0 = 72 km h−1 = 3600
= 20ms−1
v = 500 Hz, v =340 ms-1
(i) When the car and the engine approach
each other,
vs = + 40 ms-1, v0 = -20 ms-1
'
v − v0 340 + 20
v = ×v= × 500
v − vs 340 − 40
360
= × 500 = 600 Hz.
300
(ii) When the car and the engine are moving

away from each other,
vs = - 40 ms-1, v0 = + 20 ms-1
v − v0 340 − 20
v' = ×v= × 500
v − vS 340 + 40
320
= 380 × 500 = 421 Hz.
Example 19. Find the velocity of source of
sound, when the frequency appears to be (i)
double (ii) half the original frequency to a

stationary observer. Velocity of sound = 330

ms-1.
Solution. (i) Here v' = 2v, v0 =0, a =330 ms-1
' v−v0 v−0
As =
v‐vs
× v∴2v =
v−vs
×v
orv-vs = v/2
vs = v/2 =330/2 = 165 ms-1
Positive value of vg shows that the source is
moving towards the observer.
(ii) Here v' =v/2,v0 =0,vs=330ms-1
v‐v0 v v−0
As v' = × v∴ = ×v
v‐vs 2 v−vs
orv - vg = 2 v
orvs= - v = - 330 ms-1
Negative value of vs shows that the source is
moving away from the observer.
Example 20. A rocket is moving at a speed of
200 ms-1towards a stationary target. While
moving, it emits a sound wave of frequency
1000 Hz. Some of the sound reaching the
target gets reflected back to the rocket as an
echo. Calculate (a) the frequency of the
sound wave as detected by a detector
attached to the target and (b) the frequency

of the echo as detected by a detector

attached to the rocket. [NCERT]
Solution. (a) Here the observer is at rest and
the source is moving with a speed of 200 ms-1.
As the speed of the source is comparable to
that of the sound wave, so the observed
frequency is
vO −1 200 −1
v’ = v 1 −
v
=1000 1 − 330
1000 × 330
= = 2538.5 Hz.
130
(b) Now the target is the source (as it is the

source of echo) and the rocket's detector is
the observer who intercepts the echo of
frequency v'. Hence the frequency of the
echo as detected by a detector attached to
the rocket is
''
v + v0 330 + 200
v = ×v= × 2538.5
v − vs 330 − 0
≃ 4077 Hz.
Music
The sound which has a pleasing sensation to
the ears is called music.
Noise

The sound which has non-pleasing or jarring

effect on the ears is called noise. It is
produced at irregular intervals and there is
sudden change in loudness.
(i) Loudness. Loudness is the amount of

energy crossing unit area around a point in
one second. Loudness depends on:
(a)Intensity which depends on amplitude and
is proportional to the square of the amplitude.
(b)The surface area of the sounding body.
(c)Density of the medium.
(d)The presence of other resonant objects
around the sounding body.
(e)The distance of the source from the
listener.
(i)The motion of air.
Pitch
Pitch is a sensation which helps a listener to
distinguish between a high and a grave note.
Pitch depends on frequency.
Frequency in the
Symbol Indian Name
base 256 Hz

C Sa 256
D Re 288
E Ga 320
F Ma 341.3
G Pa 384
A Dha 426.7
B Ni 480
C1 Sa 512
Reverberation The persistence of audible
sound after the source has ceased to emit
sound is called reverberation.
Methods for controlling reverberation time.
The reverberation time can be controlled by
following methods:
(i) Covering walls and doors with absorbent
materials like asbestos, perforated card
board, etc.
(ii) Providing open windows in the space.
(iii) Providing heavy curtains with folds and
folding or opening some of the curtains.

(iv)Decorating the walls with pictures and

maps.
(v)By increasing the number of audience.
(vi) By the floors which help in absorbing
sound.
Example 21. A wave transmits momentum.
Can it transfer angular momentum?
Solution. A wave transmits momentum. It
cannot transmit angular momentum. The
transference of angular momentum means
the action of a torque which causes rotatory
motion.
Example 22. Which of the following is not a
wave characteristic.
Reflection, refraction, interference,
diffraction, polarisation, rectilinear
propagation ?
Solution. Rectilinear propagation is not a
wave characteristic.
Example 23. How is energy transmitted in
wave motion?
Solution. The neighbouring oscillating parts
of the medium are coupled together through
elastic forces. During wave motion, a part of
the medium is set into oscillation. This part

hands over its motion to the next part of the
medium and so on. This results in
transmission of energy.
Example 24. How is it possible to detect the
approaching of a distant train by placing the
ear very close to the railway line?
Solution. Sound waves travel much faster in
solids than that in air. Moreover, due to high
elasticity of solids, sound waves do not die
out in solids as soon as in air. This makes
possible to detect the sound of a distant
approaching train by placing the ear very
close to the railway line.
Example 25. Sound travels faster on a rainy
day than on a dry day. Why?
Solution. The amount of water vapours
present in the atmosphere is much higher on
a rainy day than on a dry day. As the water
vapours are lighter than dry air, hence
density of wet air becomes less than that of
dry air. Now, because the speed of sound is
inversely proportional to the square root of
the density, hence sound travels faster on a
rainy day than on a dry day.
Example 26. Why are there so many holes in

a flute?
Solution. The flute is basically an open organ
pipe. The location of the open end can be
changed by keeping the one hole open and
closing the other holes. Thus the frequency
of the note produced by the flute can be
changed.
Example 27. Thick and long curtains are
preferred in a big hall. Why?
Solution. A big hall has large reverberation
time due to which different syllables are not
heard distinctly. By making use of thick and
long curtains, which have large absorption
coefficient, reverberation time can be
suitably decreased.


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School Of Excellence

Directorate of Education Govt. of Delhi, 9968 0 66788, soedoe110091@gmail.com

Starting of Class 1501

No. of Periods 13 Marks 05

Wave motion: Transverse and longitudinal

Displacement relation for a progressive wave,

Reflection of waves, standing waves in

Beats, Doppler Effect

8. To study the relation between frequency

Physics By: Dr.Hemendra Kumar, M.Sc.,M.Ed.,C.I.C.,Ph.D.(Physics), Lecturer Physics

9. To study the relation between the length of

10. To find the speed of sound in air at room

A kind of disturbance which travels through a

Energy is transferred to the particles of next

In this way energy is transferred from one

medium due to repeated periodic

another without any actual transfer of the

medium while the particle velocity

medium must possess the properties of

Mechanical waves The waves which require

Water waves, sound waves, seismic waves

Electromagnetic waves The waves which

Visible and ultraviolet light, radio waves,

Matter waves The waves associated with

TRANSVERSE AND LONGITUDINAL

Physics By: Dr.Hemendra Kumar, M.Sc.,M.Ed.,C.I.C.,Ph.D.(Physics), Lecturer Physics

Transverse waves These are the waves in

Each part of the string vibrates up and down

Longitudinal waves These are the waves in

Sound waves produced in air are longitudinal

Physics By: Dr.Hemendra Kumar, M.Sc.,M.Ed.,C.I.C.,Ph.D.(Physics), Lecturer Physics

Essential properties of a medium for the

(i)Elasticity The medium must possess

SOME DEFINITIONS IN CONNECTION WITH

(i)Amplitude It is the maximum displacement

Physics By: Dr.Hemendra Kumar, M.Sc.,M.Ed.,C.I.C.,Ph.D.(Physics), Lecturer Physics

(iii)Frequency The frequency of a wave is the

(v)Wavelength It is the distance covered by a

In a transverse wave, the distance between

Physics By: Dr.Hemendra Kumar, M.Sc.,M.Ed.,C.I.C.,Ph.D.(Physics), Lecturer Physics

Thus the audible range in terms of angular

Speed of transverse wave in a solid

Dimensions of speed = LT−1

Physics By: Dr.Hemendra Kumar, M.Sc.,M.Ed.,C.I.C.,Ph.D.(Physics), Lecturer Physics

The dimensionless constant C is found to be

Example 2 A steel wires 0.72 m long has a

Example 3 Calculate the velocity of

Physics By: Dr.Hemendra Kumar, M.Sc.,M.Ed.,C.I.C.,Ph.D.(Physics), Lecturer Physics

A = 1mm2 = 10−6 m2 , ρ = 8.93 × 103 kg m−3 , T = 1 kg

Physics By: Dr.Hemendra Kumar, M.Sc.,M.Ed.,C.I.C.,Ph.D.(Physics), Lecturer Physics

Speed of a longitudinal wave in a solid

SPEED OF SOUND: NEWTON'S FORMULA AND

For an isothermal change,

∴Speed of sound in air at STP,

For an adiabatic change, PVγ = constant

where γ = Cp / Cv, is the ratio of two specific

This modification of Newton's formula is

FACTORS AFFECTING SPEED OF SOUND IN A

i.e., when pressure changes, density also

P / ρ remains unchanged. Hence pressure has

(iii)Effect of temperature For one mole of a

Physics By: Dr.Hemendra Kumar, M.Sc.,M.Ed.,C.I.C.,Ph.D.(Physics), Lecturer Physics

(vi)Effect of amplitude To a large extent, the

Example 4. Estimate the speed of sound in