The Context of Sexual Risks

Among Filipino Adolescents:

A Review of Literature
MARIA THERESA D. UJANO-BATANGAN

Abstract

ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIORS surrounding sexuality and gender carry

• profound meanings in every society and affect the quality of life of both
males and females. Cross cultural studies show that all men and women
undergo the process of sexual socialization in which culturally defined
concepts of sexuality are shaped across the life course. The opportunities
for sexual encounters, the appropriateness of sexual behaviors, the meanings
ofsexual acts, the structures of sexual relationships are rooted in a society s
sexual norms. Studies in these areas, therefore, are critical in the promotion of
reproductive health.
"
Studies show that Filipino adolescents are actively involved in the process of
formulating and reformulating their concepts of sexuality. It is imperative
therefore, that attention be given in terms of clarifying concepts and
determining meanings that underlie their beliefs, practices and knowledge,

• critical in promoting adolescent health.

The objectives of the paper are to present a summary of studies on the results
of researches and intervention programs on adolescent sexuality in the
Philippines and to discuss the implications of the studies on future directions
in research and interventions in the promotion of adolescent health.

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PHILIPPINE POPULATION REVIEW VOL 2 NO 1 / JAN-DEC 2003

"Hindi ko alam kung bata pa ako 0 matanda na, marami

akong tanong kung ano ang mga nangyayari sa akin, pero wala
akong mapagtanungan; saka kasi baka isipin nila na alam mo na,
gusto ko nang gawin yun, pero sa totoo lang curious lang ako.
Kung minsan, napapagkwentuhan naming magkakaibigan, pero
nakakahiya kasi ... Marami kasing bawal ...Alam mo yun ... "I
FGD participant, Female, 15 y.o,

The above quotation was culled from interviews conducted among adolescents and
it typifies the responses usually provided by young individuals when asked regarding
their sexuality. It defines and describes the context of the development of adolescent
sexuality in various cultures around the world. These attitudes and behaviors
surrounding sexuality and gender carry profound meanings in every society and
affect the quality of life of both males and females. Cross cultural studies show
that men and women undergo the process ofsexual socialization in which culturally
defined concepts of sexuality are shaped across the life course. The opportunities
for sexual encounters, the appropriateness of sexual behaviors, the meanings of
sexual acts, the structures of sexual relationships are rooted in the society's sexual
culture. Results ofstudies in these area are critical in the development, implementation
and evaluation of reproductive health programs. •
The research aims to provide an empirical basis for understanding the sexual risks
adolescents face in the process of confronting their sexuality. The implications of
the findings on future directions in research and interventions in the promotion of
adolescent reproductive health are also drawn from the research findings included.

The framework utilized in the process of isolating the different contexts of sexuality
ofadolescents is the ecological framework ofBronfrenbrenner (1979). It highlights
that development occurs within the context of the following systems where the
developing individual is a part of: 1) micro system; 2) mesosystem; 3) exosystem;
and 4) macro system. In the process of interacting with the different systems -
roles, activities, and interactions develop. All these influence the development of
•
"I don't know if J am still young or am old enough. J have many questions regarding what s going on
with me. But J have no one to ask. They might think that since J know already. J want to do it but the
truth is, am just curious. My friends and / talk about it sometimes, but then, it s embarrassing. There
are so many restrictions ".

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• The Context of Sexual Risks Among Filipino Adolescents: A Review of Literature/BATANGAN

the self, self- concept, self-esteem, and body imag.e. Part of the development of the
self includes the development of one's sexual identity, which is a product of the
different systems that provide the context for learning about sexuality. Aspects of
these systems contribute to the nature of opportunities, beliefs, behaviors and risks
the individual must face in the process of development. These systems and context
are further influenced by the chronological, social and historical time of the
developing person.

Furthermore, in the process of identifying the elements of sexuality and sexual

• risks, the framework developed by Dixon- Mueller (1993, as cited in Tan and
Ujano-Batangan, 1997) serves as an important guide to the process of isolating
factors which needed to be considered in understanding the aforementioned concepts.
The various elements of sexuality critical to the understanding and promotion of
reproductive health are: sexual partnerships, sexual acts, sexual meanings, sexual
drives and enjoyment. These are reflected in a society's gender system and are
further related to the elements of reproductive health.

In this study, the discussion on the context ofsexual risks among Filipino adolescents
focuses on the individual and social dimensions which are reflected by the different
social relationships, and consequent interactions, activities and roles in the varied

• ecosystems the developing individual belongs to. These make him or her more
vulnerable or susceptible to the negative consequences ofhis/her reproductive and
sexual behaviors/decisions.

1. ADOLESCENCE AND THE LIFE CYCLE: AN OVERVIEW

Adolescence is a time of extensive changes occurring in the various facets of

human development. Physiological and biochemical changes transpire and are
modified by environmental influences and social context. Recent events, in some
ways, have contributed to the demands placed on adolescents as they go
through this phase in the life-cycle. Among the demands brought about by
technological and societal advancements that have occurred these past centuries
included the following (Hamburg, 1990, as cited in Newman and Newman, 1997):
• • The lengthening period of adolescence. The social changes in the past
centuries have contributed to the postponement of the end of adolescence -
and ofdependence- until much later.For the majority of individuals, a protracted
adolescence introduces a high degree of uncertainty in their lives.

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PHILIPPINE POPULATION REVIEW VOL 2 NO 1 / JAN-DEC 2003
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• The disjunction between biological and social development. Biological
maturity comes earlier than cognitive maturity, making it difficult for young
adolescents to make important decisions in their lives.
• Confusion in young minds about adult roles, and difficulty in foreseeing
the years ahead. In early adolescence now, there is an existing ambiguity
ofwhat constitutes preparation for adulthood. The version of adult life that
they see and those presented by media creates a shadow image of adult
experience, a mix of reality and fantasy.
• The erosion of family and social support networks. In contemporary
societies, many trends point out to the erosion of social networks available to •
adolescents; such as, extensive geographic mobility and migration; scattering
of the extended family; and rise of single-parent families.
• The easy access ofadolescents to potentially life-threatening mechanisms,
substances and activities. Adolescents today, are heavily exposed to alcohol
and drugs, smoking, vehicles, weapons, and a variety of opportunities to
engage in health- damaging behaviors.

Situating the phase of adolescence in the life cycle of individuals, the whole
developmental continuum will be as follows (Cole and Hall, 1970):

Infancy
Early Childhood
Birth to 2 years
2 to 5 years
•
Middle Childhood 6 to 10 years (girls); 6 to 11 (boys)
Preadolescence or Late
Childhood 11 to 12 years (girls); 12 to 13 years (boys)
Early Adolescence 13 to 14 years (girls); 14 to 15 years (boys)
Middle Adolescence 15 to 17 years (girls);16 to 18 years (boys)
Late Adolescence 18 to 20 years (girls); 19 to 20 years (boys)
Early Adulthood 21 to 34 years
Middle Adulthood 35 to 49 years
Late Adulthood
Early Senescence
50 to 64 years
65 to 74 years
•
Senescence 75 years and above

These stages are characterized not only by physical changes but also social and
emotional ones.

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For the purpose ofthis study,the working definitionofadolescence would be consistent

with the WHO perspective - that is, the period of 10-19 years of age. However,
since there are overlaps in the data sources on the ages ofadolescence, the research
took into consideration the need to stretch its concern to cover the youth, 15- 24
years old; and young people 10 - 24 years (DOH, 2002).

All theories agree that human beings change over time, and that there are
biological, psychological and social antecedents and consequences of individual

• development. These theories, however, differ on the emphasis that they attribute
to these pertinent factors. Depending on how theories view human nature:
development and behavior, Dacey and Kenney (1994) noted the following main
causative factors

• Biological causes. The genes are the major factor in our development
from one discrete stage of life to the next; thus change tends to be
rather abrupt.
• Psychological causes. Changes In the personality and/or intellect are
behind our development through life. Change, therefore, depends on the
way these internal states mature .
• Social causes. Development depends greatly on what is happening in

• our environment. Because so many things happen in the course of our

lives, change tends to be a gradual, ever present process.
• Some combination of two or three factors.

Abel and Jingles in (Cole and Hall, 1970) summarized the various problems
encountered by adolescents at this phase of their development. These could be
classified under six main headings: 1) adjustment to school work; 2) social-
psychological relations; 3) personal- psychological attitudes; 4) finances; 5) health;
and 6) home and family.

Muss (1990) forwarded that rather than the monolithic group frequently depicted
in the mass media and even in professional literature, adolescents are highly complex

• and multidimensional. Subgroups have different values and show varying behaviors
and characteristics. Few generalizations hold true for all adolescents. It is therefore
important to take into consideration the factors that could spell the difference in
adolescent functioning.

First, there are age differences. Many characteristics change significantly as

young individuals move from early to middle to late adolescence.

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PHILIPPINE POPULATION REVIEW VOL 2 NO 1 I JAN-DEC 2003

Second, there is socio-economic diversity. Adolescents from different segments

of society have differing attitudinal, behavioral, and social characteristics. Research
in adolescents show pervasive differences in educational aspirations, attitudes
towards the future, locus of control, sexual attitudes and·behavior and even sex role
differentiation.

Third, there are sex differences. Puberty occurs one and one-half to two years
earlier in girls than in boys, a fact that accounts for profound developmental
differences, especially in early adolescence. In addition to clearly defined biological
differences, research show numerous areas of variations due to the socialization
process each sex undergoes at a particular time and in a particular culture.
•
Fourth, there is the factor of culture. Adolescents from different cultural groups
have varying customs, lifestyles, values as well as opportunities. This, somehow,
shape their development and goals of development.

The identified factors above do not contribute singly to the differences observed
among adolescents. They act in unison and interact to define the unique way groups
ofadolescents develop. They further work together to provide the colors and shades
of the multidimensionality of adolescent life.

The characteristics of multidimensionality is also observed in the emergence of

adolescent subcultures and peer groups. Any population of adolescents display the
•
variation in the social structure ofthese types ofgroups. The adolescent subculture
is highly differentiated and exhibit considerable consensus about status, activities,
and interests of these crowds, there is also considerable differentiation from one
group to another.

Clearly adolescence heightens the friction between the ideal and real. This is due
to the following reasons (Larson and Asmussen, 1991): 1) Adolescents have
expanded the domain of "what matters" - investments in this wider world of
concerns potentially increases their vulnerability to worry, disappointment and hurt;
2) Early adolescence is a time when young people develop an ability for abstraction
and for seeing beneath the surface of things that may lead to sensitivity and a
deeper set of concerns. In the present inquiry, the domains of life commonly
identified as the context that create negative emotions are as follows:
•
• Self, those that relate to looks, abilities, and physical states
• School, said to be the most common context of negative evaluation and
reactions from authorities and peers

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• Activity, that entails evaluation ofcapacities and abilities, is more significant

to boys than girls
• Family
• Friends, cited more often by girls than by boys
• Media, and the models they present, accounts for few negative emotions

Differences in the nature of problems exist among adolescent males and females.
Investigations carried out through the years report that girls have more problems
• related to self-concept and self-esteem than boys. Commonly found is that girls are
troubled by interpersonal relationships while boys are more concerned about finance,
education and vocational issues (Harper and Marshall, 1991). However with the
changing role of women, more recent studies reveal that females and males had
the same amount ofproblems, but that "boys were more concerned with authority,
restrictions and rules ... and girls were more self-critical and self-aware."

2. CONTEXT OF SEXUAL RISKS

2.1. Adolescent Relationships

Peer Relationships

While it is clear that friendships are vital throughout life, there seems to be something
special about the role of the peer group during adolescence. Peer groups provide
adolescents with a source of social activities and support and an easy entry into
opposite sex friendships. The biological, psychological, cognitive changes during
adolescence affect the development of a teenager's peer relationship. Puberty, for
instance, increases interest in the opposite sex and contributes to withdrawal from
adult activities and increased time with peers. The peer group serves the following
functions: 1) control aggressive and sexual impulses; 2) encourage independence;
3) improve social skills; 4) develop reasoning abilities; and 5) form attitudes toward
sexuality and sexual behavior. It also strengthens moral judgment and values and
improve self-esteem. Furthermore, it aids in the development of self-concept and

• allows an adolescent to try out a new identity as well. As the adolescent continues
to assert her/his independence and autonomy, s/he begins to move from the family
to the peer group.

As the Filipino adolescent adjusts to new social expectations, peer group

influence increases. Her/his peers become her/his real world, giving rise to vital

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needs. Her/his needs can be summarized as follows (Tumangday, 1992, as cited
in Tan and Ujano-Batangan, 1997):

• Status. An adolescent greatly values acceptability from peers; this enables

her/him to try out the company of others. When accepted, s/he can then
solicit support for her/his effort without sanctions from adults. In the
process, adolescent needs to conform in terms of appearance, clothes,
music etc.
• Independence. Adolescence is characterized by a strong desire for
independence. Being independent increases her/his chances for greater
social acceptance. If independence is not recognized, clashes with parents
•
and other authority figurescan result. Her/his independencemanifests through
her/his desire to have her/his own room, choose her/his own clothes, select
her/his own friends, etc.
• Achievement. Leadership roles, good grades, etc. affords one a sense of
self- fulfillment. Achievement increases the adolescent's self-esteem and
thus results in fewer instances of feeling inadequate.
• Satisfying philosophy of life. The teenage years is a time of questioning.
Teenagers endeavor to come up with perspectives that would lead to a
satisfying outlook in life. At this time, they would appreciate having friends
and adults share their views in a non-threatening atmosphere.
•
Among Filipinos, and adolescents for that matter, friendships entail being one with
their friends and peer group (pakikipagkapwa). Relationships develop through
two levels of interaction - the outsider category (ibang tao) and the insider
category (hindi ibang tao) (Enriquez, 1982). The behaviors and expectations from
each level of interaction are:

• Outsider (Ibang Tao): Level of amenities /civility (pakikitungo); level of

"mixing" (pakikisalamuha); joining/participating (pakikilahok); level of
conforming (pakikibagay); level of fusion (pakikisama)
• Insider (Hindi Ibang Tao): Level of mutual trust and rapport
(pakikipagpalagayang loob); level of getting involved (pakikisangkot);
level offusion, oneness and full trust (pakikiisa).
•

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The Context of Sexual Risks Among Filipino Adolescents: A Review of Literature/BATANGAN

In any relationship, one aspires to reach the level of the insider to be one with the
group. As an insider, the individual's selfnow merges with the identity ofthe group
and becomes entwined with it. The adolescent Filipino therefore, develops his/her
concept of self within the framework of the significant group he/she belongs to in
the family, in school and in the community.

The studies of Conaco, et al. (2003) and Tan, et al. (2002) noted the importance of

'. the barkada in the Filipino adolescents lives; primarily due to the support (i.e. social
and emotional) that they are able to draw from their friends. The peer group is
where they tum to when "they have problems and are unable to tum to parents for
help."

The most serious problem elicited in relation to sexual risks among young individuals
is an imposed silence within families that prevents discussion ofsexual issues. This
means that adolescents and young adults have to obtain information from their
friends and media (Tan, et aI., 1997). Information as well as misinformation are
equally shared in the group; this is true even in the area ofsexuality and reproductive
health. Furthermore, the peer group exerts and expects conformity ofthe adolescent.

Romantic Relationships

• Preadolescent friendships with members of one's own sex and later on, heterosexual
interests take place gradually and easily; sometimes it is sudden and bewildering
(Cole and Hall, 1970). Whether gradual or sudden, boy and girl relationships are
essential to normal adjustment.

In the Philippines, Tan (1996) defined relationships in terms of two important

dimensions: spatial and temporal. The spatial covers the notions of space and place
where individuals find partners. It was noted in the study that adolescents meet
future partners in social events and gatherings, such as parties and school activities.
The peer group plays a significant role in making introductions. Though parties are
preferred venues for meeting the "right" kind of people, other places were also
mentioned: shopping malls, parks, town centers, and schools. Some places are also

• differentiated depending on one's gender (e.g., there are bars that cater to
homosexuals). There are also settings for commercial sex like bars and night spots,
which are frequented by male adolescents. All these variations show the importance
of looking at the concept of space in the process of socialization.

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PHILIPPINE POPULATION REVIEW VOL 2 NO 1 / JAN-DEC 2003
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The temporal aspect pertains to the continuum of the relationship. It is the males
who are expected to initiate relationships.

One of the major changes and challenges m an adolescent's life is the shift
from same-sex friendships to heterosexual relationships. This commences
through dating and becomes more involved in the courtship stage. At the early
part of adolescence, dating occurs as a sign of social support and security; this
is consistent with their need to feel accepted and has very little sexual
significance. At first, dates transpire between individuals belonging to the same
class or organization, slowly branching out of the initial peer group. As the
adolescent grows older, dating may involve some sexual experiences - usually
.'
stop short of actual intercourse. This usually occurs between individuals who
have been going steady for some time.

The purposes of dating among young individuals are (Tan et al., 2002; Zarco, et.
al.,1995):

• Recreation, where individuals are provided with opportunities to just enjoy

going out to places and doing things together.
• Emotional support and companionship without the responsibility of marriage.
• Socialization for personal and social growth; adolescents learn to know and
understand how to get along with people and the social skills necessary for
interacting with people.
•
• Sexual experimentation, satisfaction and exploitation. Most researches
show that while females date to get to know the other person, males do so
for physical intimacy.
• Mate sorting and selection, by going out on dates with different individuals,
one's tendency to idealize relationships and people is lessened, ushering in a
more realistic view ofindividuals and relationships.
• Achieving intimacy - this is the primary task of adolescence, their ability to
maintain an intimate relationship with another person. It was observed that
females find it easier to be intimate verbally than males.

Another significant finding on dating among adolescents is on the differences

between males and females with regard to reasons for dating and partner selection
•
(Tan, 1996). Males significantly noted more frequently sexual activity as a primary
reason for dating and are more concerned with the appearance and sexual activities
of the partners, whereas females noted intimacy as a primary objective and placed
greater importance on personality and behavior traits.

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In the process ofdating, new behavioral patterns are formed involving the choice of
the partner (Zarco et. aI., 1995). Dating is a form of recreation and socialization; it
is also labeled as a means of status achievement and courtship. Courtship is the
next stage wherein a commitment is established.

The construct oflove is one of the most neglected area on interpersonal relationship
research. This is primarily because it is considered to be too personal and subjective
and too intangible for scientific study. However, it is necessary to look into this
phenomenon to understand the dynamics of human affairs, particularly romantic
• and sexual relationships.

Among Filipino adolescents, most males fall in love between 11 to 15 years ofage,
while most females do so between 11 to 17 years (CYCC,n.d. as cited in Tan and
Ujano-Batangan, 1997). At the age of 21 years, it is estimated that 80% of the
young population have already fallen in love. Relationships are seen as being
extremely important for emotional support, according to adolescent research
participants (Tan, 1996). Young individuals identify appropriate places where they
can meet other people, including would-be partners. Relationships are believed to
evolve over time; one is believed to go through a relationship when one is prepared
and the prospect of marriage is an important factor in measuring preparedness.

• From the initiation of"M.U." (mutual understanding), relationships are perceived to

naturally develop between two individuals. The process builds around notions of
trust (pagtitiwala), responsibility (pananagutan) and respect (respeto). Sexual
activities like necking, petting, and penetrative sex are closely tied with the level of
understanding achieved in the relationship.

Results of interviews and FGDs among adolescents (Tan, 1996) pointed to the fact
that most males consider having relationships as sources of "experience," "fun"
and "pleasure." Females on the other hand, consider "going steady" in order to
assess their future partners in marriage. It is interesting to note that when males
were asked as to what particular traits they would want their partner to possess,
almost all the respondents regardless of economic status, considered physical
attractiveness, being demure, being sweet and being educated as essential. The

• female respondents prefer their boyfriends to be responsible, loving, sincere and

honest. Those in the lower income group assessed the importance of having a
partner who is financially stable. While Filipino adolescent males initially focus on
the external attributes of their partners, females tend to look for indicators of
emotional maturity from their partners.

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PHILIPPINE POPULATION REVIEW VOL 2 NO 1 / JAN-DEC 2003
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The nature of introduction and the length of time being together somehow reflects
the course of the relationship. The type of sexual activity and behavior they will
engage in are also defined by these variables. Data shows that marriage legitimizes
sex; it could also be a prerequisite of sex or a result of it.

According to Laylo and Montelibano (1999), young Filipinos remain conservative in

their views of unorthodox sexual relations; majority refuses premarital relations
and reject extramarital relations. Beliefs on the value of female virginity and
"preserving" this until one has "tied the knot" are still common.

Tan et al. (2002) summarized the themes that permeate the cultural context of
Filipino adolescents and young adults in the area ofsexuality.These are: 1)naturalizing
•
sex; 2) sex as both sacred and profane; 3) value ofmutuality in romantic relationships;
4) notions of romantic love; 5) value of taking hold, taking trust and taking
responsibility in relationships; 6) hiya (shame) as an inhibiting social factor in the
expression of one's sexuality; the barkada (peer group) as sexual socializing agent;
7) concepts ofright place and right time in governing romantic relationships; and 8)
risks as panganib (threat) and problema (problem).

Familial Relationships

The family plays a critical role in the development ofa Filipino adolescent's gender,
gender roles and gender perspective. The article of Liwag et al. (1998) focuses on
•
the literature of Filipino child-rearing practices. It affirms that the family plays a
major influence in the gender socialization ofFilipino children from childhood to late
adolescence. This process is facilitated by beliefs, games, chores and practices,
which form a large part of child-rearing. The study reflects that in the Philippines,
sons and daughters are treated differently within the family, which mirrors society's
own prescription of what is appropriately masculine or feminine; giving rise to
different consequences, advantages and disadvantages.

One ofthe major changes in the adolescent's life in the area offarnilial relationships
is the adolescent's branching out outside the home, which dramatically influences
the dynamics of the family. The nature of these changes could not be solely due
to the changes in the adolescent alone but should be understood within the context
of the changes occurring with the people around them - especially parents going
•
through midlife.

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The adolescents in the family have expectations oftheir parents as they go through
the ups and downs of the adolescent stage of their lives. They expect their folks
to provide the following (Conaco et al., 2003; Ujano-Batangan, 2002).

• Parental interest and help

• Listening, understanding and talking
• Love and acceptance
• Trust

• • Behavioral and emotional separation, individuation and autonomy

• Parental example

Though the identity of adolescents is formed by detaching themselves from their

families, emotional attachment to the family remains important. Studies have shown
that healthy attachment to parents is related to higher self-esteem and to few or
non-problematic behaviors (Dacey and Kenny, 1994). In fact, the support, approval
and encouragement of parents are still very important to teeners who continue to
need some measure of adult supervision and concern.

In the area of parent- adolescent intimacy, it was observed that intimate relationships
between parent and child can mediate the effects of crisis and promote positive
mental health in subsequent development (Conaco et aI, 2003; Ujano-Batangan,
2002). Compared to fathers, mothers are perceived to be more intimate to both
female and male adolescents. This is consistent with the view that fathers are not
as involved in terms of interpersonal relationship as mothers. Male respondents in
the studies attempted to be close to their fathers. Finally, fathers are found to have
greater impact on adolescent functioning since fathers generally do not share
intimate attachments to their children; it becomes salient then, when they do.

The males are generally reluctant to discuss their problems with their parents because
they are "embarrassed" to do so. Another hindrance to disclosure is the unavailability
of the parents due to work and family related concerns. In the area of sexuality,
though the parents are considered to be the ideal sources of information (Conaco et

• al., 2003; Tan et al., 2002), adolescents find it hard to discuss their queries with
them. They oftentimes tum to their friends for the much needed answers. Most
parents also only offer proscriptions on sexuality and do not discuss individual
decisions and options among their adolescent children. There is, according to Conaco
et al. (2003) "a general feeling of regret and frustration of not being able to get
straight answers to their questions on sex, relationships and marriage."

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Parental support is necessary to make the stage of adolescence less frightening for
their children. Parents should provide a guide and anchorage for adolescent life,
especially in the area of sexuality. Parental approval and disapproval carry a lot of
weight.

In the area of decision-making, family factors were observed to be important in the

development of competence (Ujano-Batangan, 2002). Although adolescents seek
their friends' advice in short-term and less important decisions, they still look for
their parent's advice in long-term, and important decisions. Decision-making among
adolescents is crucial because of the nature of issues that adolescents must deal
with. To become good decision makers, parents must encourage adolescents to
•
decide for themselves. The study concluded that when parents are highly involved
in family decision-making, adolescents are also highly involved. From data obtained
from intact and single-parent families, it was found that adolescents from one parent
families had greater participation in decision-making and higher self- esteem than
those from intact families. This may be due to the fact that teens from single-
parent households see their involvement in decision-making more important and
rewarding. Results also show that female adolescents, rather than male adolescents
may be given more responsibility in one-parent families.

Adolescent seems to veer away from family activities, but he/she always returns
to the family's nest for nourishment and sustenance - emotionally and
psychologically. One significant relationship that provides the adolescent with
anchorage is his/her relations with his/her siblings. Older siblings provide the
adolescent with role models, surrogate parents, caretakers, teachers, playmates
and confidantes, while younger ones provide companionship, and friendship, and
meet one another's need for affection and meaningful relationships. In the area
of sexuality, older siblings provide perspectives to younger ones in the process of
meeting the challenges ofone's relationships (Conaco et al., 2003; Tan et al., 2002)

2.2. Sexual Abuse and Assault

In understanding the context of female adolescents and young adults involved in

sex work, Abaya (1997) accounted for why they engage in commercial sex work:
curiosity, envy of a sex worker friend earning money, search for a job that pays well, •
sick father unable to provide for the family, broken marriage, and abandonment by a
boyfriend. All female sex workers (FSW) are aware and have grown accustomed
to society's discrimination; but what embarrass them the most is when they are
considered to be mukliang pera ("materialistics"). Few of them are actually aware

14

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The Context of Sexual Risks Among Filipino Adolescents: A Review of Literature/BATANGAN

ofthe nature and'consequences of sexually transmitted diseases. Their fears include

raids, abusive customers, and getting sick that would ultimately result to economic
difficulties.

Fernando's (2000) study focused on examining and exploring the inner world ofthe
prostituted girl- child. Using an indepth, multiple case approach, eight girls aged 14-
17 years went through clinical interviews and projective techniques. The main
finding is that among these adolescents, an emotional/conceptual split had occurred,

• wherein the individual's self-concept, sense of womanhood and sexuality involved

two widely disparate, and yet equally present self-images. On one hand, there is
the image of having been "damaged, stained, abused irreparable and degraded by
experiences ofprostitution and abuse," which "deserved no honor, love or happiness".
The other image of one that "held hope for a new, better or fantasized me" that had
dignity, is respected and loved, and has real choices in life and a real chance for joy.

Fernandez et a1., (1997) looked into the notion and experience of sexual harassment
among college students in Visayas and Mindanao. Sexual harassment was defined
as unwanted sexual advances, requests for sexual favors and other verbal and
nonverbal conduct of sexual nature. The study showed that 55.3% of the respondents
have been subjected to sexual harassment on campus, the forms of harassment

• they have experienced include: leering, peeping, whistling, unwanted physical contact,
suggestive remarks, offensive flirtations and display ofpomographic pictures. Some
have also experienced unwanted sexual advances, pressure for sexual activity,
continued suggestions for social activity outside the school, exhibitionism, and
outright sexual assault, molestation and rape. These also happened with men as
victims of female harassers; though most of the victims were females. Several
situations were presented in the study with male professors as harassers.

2.3. Sources oflnformation

Through the use of questionnaires and psychological tests, it was revealed that
adolescent students who have problems with their relationships and sexuality are
more inclined to seek assistance from close friends (CYCC,n.d as cited in Tan and
• Batangan, 1997). Fathers and religious persons are the least popular sources of
guidance and help. In general, young individuals' knowledge and attitudes are
reflections of their peer group's perceptions. Magazines and movies also play
significant roles as sources of information while very little information come from
parents and teachers (Tan 1997; Tan et al., 2002)

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These findings were also reflected in the findings ofConaco et al. (2003) . In addition,
it was gathered from these studies that friends, older siblings and parents are
preferred sources of information Teachers and counselors are the least sought
because of their perceived "judgmental" stance (Tan, 1997). Sex differences were
noted regarding the choice of confidante: males prefer to talk to friends, while
females prefer to talk to their mothers about sexuality. The respondents further
specified that oftentimes, consultations with parents occur only when they are
confronted with beliefs and views that their parents would approve of.

The aforementioned studies further emphasized that the family plays a minimal
role in providing information on relationships and sexuality. This role is often
•
restricted to gender roles and prohibitions or proscriptions when crises erupt.
Other sources of information, besides the peer group (barkada) are books and
films. Anigan (n.d.) further observed that males are more aggressive in securing
information especially about sexuality than females. Local talk shows as well as
foreign ones are also popular among the young. Among females, the most common
source of information, aside from books and films are close friends and relatives
who have undergone the things they are experiencing.

3. FUTURE DIRECTIONS IN RESEARCH AND INTERVENTIONS

Given the aforementioned results of research literature, it may be forwarded that

•
adolescence brings rapid changes not only in the physical make up ofthe individual,
but also in the socio-emotional realm. With it comes the countless questions
adolescents have about the changes in their bodies, feelings, sexuality and
relationships. Almost all adolescents grOW!lP perceiving that sex and discussions on
sex as bastos or profane, as something one learns about in the context ofmarriage.
However, studies on adolescent sexuality have proven that Filipino adolescents are
actively involved in the process offormulating and reformulating their own concepts
of sexuality. In the process, they become more susceptible and more vulnerable to
the different sexual risks they have to face: early pregnancy, abortion, STDs, etc. It
is imperative, therefore, that attention be given in clarifying concepts and determining
meanings that underlie sexual practices, beliefs and knowledge, critical to the
promotion ofreproductive health.
•
Though sex and class differences are evident in the adolescents' conceptualization
of the sexual self, there is no way one could deny that they are sexual beings. It is

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therefore necessary to address their need to know more about their sexuality and
to gain more control over their sexual and reproductive health.

The studies show that social relationships, assault and sources ofinformation, provide
the context of sexuality and related sexual risks. It is important, therefore, that the
conceptualizations of sexuality and risks be studied with due consideration of the
complexities of the relationships among concepts and practices of sexuality and
deduce from these the dynamics of understanding the phenomenon.

r
In the area ofresearch, it could be deduced that succeeding studies look into deepening
the understanding of the dynamics of sexuality, sexual risks and risk-taking behavior.
To understand young individuals, it is important to conduct contextual researches.
Differences in community structure, economic status, gender orientation, gender
roles, age, cultural roots, and expectations also come into play in defining meanings
related to sexuality and context of sexual risks. It is also important to draw from
succeeding studies the relationships between the context of sexual risks and risk-
taking behavior. Further studies on homosexuality and sexual abuse should also be
conducted, to provide a more holistic view of sexuality and related risks.

In the area of intervention, it is important to consider the developmental changes the

adolescent goes through in the process of negotiating with the social world. The
value given to the peers and the desire for the parent to address sexual issues will
aid in defining interventions in this direction. Though adolescents have extensive
knowledge about their sexuality, their knowledge is inadequate. Meeting the gaps in
knowledge should therefore be a priority.

Young individuals are aggressive in securing information on sexuality. It is therefore

imperative that they gain access to education and counseling services on sexuality
and sexual and reproductive health. Due to the constant need to search for information,
sexuality education is definitely necessary.

Institutionalizing parent education and community based interventions will facilitate

the process of reaching out more effectively to adolescents. Young individuals
need access to services and sympathetic service providers; the latter should be

• trained, therefore, to deal with the questions and needs of adolescents.

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